NP 136 OCEAN PAS S AGES FOR THE WORL D THIRD EDI TI ON 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Previous editions: First published 1895 First edition 1923 Second edition 1950 Oh God be good t o me, Th y sea is so wi de and my shi p is so small l.
NP 136 OCEAN PAS S AGES FOR THE WORL D THIRD EDI TI ON 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Previous editions: First published 1895 First edition 1923 Second edition 1950 Oh God be good t o me, Th y sea is so wi de and my shi p is so small l.
NP 136 OCEAN PAS S AGES FOR THE WORL D THIRD EDI TI ON 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Previous editions: First published 1895 First edition 1923 Second edition 1950 Oh God be good t o me, Th y sea is so wi de and my shi p is so small l.
NP 136 OCEAN PAS S AGES FOR THE WORL D THIRD EDI TI ON 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Previous editions: First published 1895 First edition 1923 Second edition 1950 Oh God be good t o me, Th y sea is so wi de and my shi p is so small l.
FOR THE WORL D THIRD EDI TI ON 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Crown Copyright 1973 To be obtained from the Agents for the Sale of Admiralty Charts Previous editions: First published 1895 First edition 1923 Second edition 1950 Oh God be good t o me, Th y sea is so wi de and my shi p is so smal l . Breton fisherman's prayer Preface Th e Th i r d Edi t i on of Ocean Passages for the Worm has been pr epar ed by Commander H. L. Jenki ns, O. B. E. , D. S. C. , Royal Navy, and cont ai ns t he l at est i nf or mat i on recei ved i n t he Hydr ogr aphi c De pa r t me nt to t he dat e gi ven bel ow. I t super sedes t he Second Edi t i on (1950) and Suppl ement No. 2 (1960), whi ch are cancel l ed. I nf or mat i on on cur r ent s and ice has been s uppl i ed by t he Met eor ol ogi cal Office, Bracknel l . Th e fol l owi ng sources of i nf or mat i on, ot her t han Hydr ogr aphi c De pa r t me nt Publ i cat i ons and Mi ni s t r y of Def ence paper s, have been consul t ed. British: Mar i ne Obs er ver ' s Handbook, 9t h Edi t i on. U. S. A. : Uni t ed St at es Naval Oceanogr aphi c Office Pi l ot Chart s. Repor t s r ecei ved f r om t he Mas t er s of a numbe r of seagoi ng shi ps have been added to t he ext ensi ve i nf or ma- t i on on whi ch pr evi ous edi t i ons were based, and have been embodi ed i n t he pr esent edi t i on. G. P. D. HALL, Rear Admi r al , Hydr ogr apher of t he Navy. Hydr ogr aphi c Depar t ment , Mi ni s t r y of Defence, Taunt on, Somer set , TA1 2 DN 9t h November , 1973. iii Pr ef ace . . . . . . . . . . . Cont e nt s . . . . . . . . Li s t of char t s and di agr ams . . . . Expl a na t or y not es . . . . . . Par t I - - Powe r vessel s. Cha pt e r s 1 t o 8 Par t I I - - Sa i l i ng r out es. Cha pt e r s 9 t o 11 Ge ne r a l I nde x . . . . . . Contents . . Page iii v vi vii 1 135 . 231 List of Charts and CHARTS 5301 Wor l d cl i mat i c c ha r t - - J a nua r y . . . . . . 5302 Wor l d cl i mat i c c ha r t - - J ul y . . . . . . . . 5307 Wor l d ma i n ocean r out es for power vessel s . . 5308 Wor l d sai l i ng shi ps r out es . . . . . . . . 5309 Tr acks fol l owed by sai l i ng and auxi l i ary power ed vessel s 5310 Wor l d sur f ace cur r ent s . . . . . . . . D6083 Loa d line rul es, zones, areas, and seasonal per i ods Di agrams .
xn pocket ~n pocket ~n pocket ~n pocket ~n pocket i n pocket t n pocket 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 DI AGRAMS Logar i t hmi c speed, t i me, and di st ance scale Spher i cal t r i angl e . . . . . . Gr eat Ci rcl e t rack . . . . . . Shape of t he Ear t h . . . . . . Rhumb Li ne t rack . . . . . . Mer i di onal par t s . . . . Pr es s ur e and wi nd bel t s . . . . For mat i on of f r ont s i n N he mi s phe r e Pl ans and sect i on of de pr e s s i on. . Pl ans and sect i on of occl usi on . . Satellite pi ct ur e of Typhoon "El s i e" Pr eci pi t at i on areas s hown by r adar Radar pr es ent at i on of Hur r i cane " Cami l l e" Typi cal pat hs of t ropi cal s t or ms . . Sea t emper at ur es and Dew poi nt r eadi ngs pl ot t ed agai nst t i me Reduct i on i n speed due t o hi gh s e a s - - N At l ant i c ocean . . Reduct i on i n speed due t o hi gh s e a s - - N Pacific ocean . . St andar d al t er - cour se posi t i ons and appr oach r out es for t r ansat l ant i c voyages Rout es i n Gul f of Mexi co and Car i bbean Sea . . . . . . Rout es i n Medi t er r anean Sea and Bl ack Sea . . . . . . . . Pr i nci pal r out es be t ~e e n Moga mbi que Channel and Ar abi an Sea . . Ar abi an Sea- - Ef f ect of mons oons on east - west r out ei ng . . . . I ndi an Oc e a n- - Gui de to seasonal l ow- power r out es . . . . . . Sout h- we s t Pacific Oc e a n- - r out e s . . . . . . . . . . Rout es bet ween nor t he r n Aust r al i a, Si ngapor e, and J apan . . . . vi Page . i n pocket . . 3 . . 5 . . 6 . . 7 . . 8 . 9 " ] bet ween . pp 10 & 11 , . . 14 . . 14 . . 14 . 15 . . 18 . 1 9 - 2 2 . 23- 26 . f aci ng p. 42 . f aci ng p. 58 . f aci ng p. 62 , bet ween
pp 74 & 75 . . f aci ng p. 104 . bet ween pp 110 & 111 Explanatory Notes Ocean Passages for the Worm contains information, based on the latest material available in the Hydro- graphic Depart ment , relating to the planning and conduct of ocean voyages. The ocean areas with which this book is concerned lie, mainly, outside the areas covered in detail by Admiralty Sailing Directions but, since many passages pass through some coastal areas, and since there is much oceanic information in Admiralty Sailing Directions, the latter should always be closely consulted. Ocean Passages for the Worm is kept up to date by periodical supplements. In addition a small number of Notices to Mariners are published specially to correct Sailing Directions for important information which cannot await the next supplement. A list of such notices in force is published at the end of each mont h in the weekly edition of Admi ral t y Notices to Mariners. Those still in force at the end of the year are reprinted in the Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners. Th i s v o l u me s h o u l d not be us e d wi t ho ut r e f e r e nc e t o t he l at est s u p p l e me n t and t hos e No t i c e s t o Ma r i ne r s p u b l i s h e d s pe c i a l l y t o correct Sai l i ng Di r e c t i ons . Reference to hydrographic and other publications. The Mariner's Handbook gives general information affecting navigation and is complementary to this volume. Admiralty List of Lights should be consulted for details of lights, light-vessels, lighthouse-buoys and fog- signals. Admiralty List of Radio Signals should be consulted for information relating to coast and port radio stations, radio details of pilotage services, radiobeacons, and direction finding stations, meteorological services, and radio navigational aids. Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners contains, in addition to the temporary and preliminary notices, and notices affecting Sailing Directions only in force, a number of notices giving information of a permanent nature covering radio messages and navigational warnings, distress and rescue at sea, exercise areas, and areas dangerous due to mines. The International Code of Signals should be consulted for details of distress and life-saving signals, international ice-breaker signals as well as international flag signals. Remarks on subject matter. Names are taken from the most authoritative source and are, where changes have taken place, the latest officially adopted. Since the charts used for passage planning may not be newly published or on the largest scale, recourse may be necessary, when identifying named objects, to Admiralty Sailing Directions which, with their supplements, record name changes. Tidal information relating to the daily vertical movements of the water is not given; for this Admiralty Tide Tables should be consulted. Changes in water level of an abnormal nature are mentioned. Units and terminology used in this volume are : Latitude and Longitude given in brackets are approximate. Bearings and directions are referred to the true compass and when given in degrees are reckoned clockwise from 000 (North) to 359 . The bearings of all objects, alignments and light sectors are given as seen from seaward. Courses always refer to the course made good. Winds are described by the direction from which they blow. Tidal streams and currents are described by the direction towards which they flow. Distances are expressed in sea miles of 1852 metres. Depths are given below chart datum, except where otherwise stated. Elevations are given above the' level of Mean Hi gh Water Springs or Mean Higher Hi gh Water, whichever is quoted in the Admiralty Ti de Tables. Heights of objects as distinct from their elevation, refer to the heights of the structures above the ground. A statement, ' a hi l l . . , metres high", is occasionally used when there could be no confusion, and in this case the reference is as for an elevation. vii Metric units a r e u s e d f o r al l me a s u r e me n t s o f d e p t h s , h e i g h t s a n d s h o r t d i s t a n c e s . Time i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o u r - f i g u r e n o t a t i o n b e g i n n i n g a t mi d n i g h t , a n d i s g i v e n i n l o c a l t i me u n l e s s o t h e r - wi s e s t a t e d . De t a i l s o f l o c a l t i me k e p t wi l l b e f o u n d i n Admiralty List of Radio Signals. T h e f o l l o wi n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s a r e u s e d : N - - No r t h S N' l y - - n o r t h e r l y S ' l y N- b o u n d - - n o r t h b o u n d S - b o u n d N- g o i n g - - n o r t h g o i n g S - g o i n g E - - E a s t W E ' l y - - e a s t e r l y W' l y E - b o u n d - - e a s t b o u n d W- b o u n d E - g o i n g - - e a s t g o i n g W- g o i n g Au x Y - - Au x i l i a r y Ya c h t . mb C - - De g r e e s Ce l s i u s . M/ F D/ F - - Di r e c t i o n F i n d i n g . MV f m - - F a t h o ma o r f a t h o ms . MY f t - - F o o t o r f e e t No . MHWS - - Me a n Hi g h Wa t e r S p r i n g s . R MS ML WS - - Me a n L o w Wa t e r S p r i n g s . R N MHHW - - Me a n Hi g h e r Hi g h Wa t e r . R / T ML L W - - Me a n L o we r L o w Wa t e r . S S HMS - - He r Ma j e s t y ' s S h i p . UHF k Hz - - Ki l o h e r t z . VHF m - - Me t r e o r me t r e s . W/ T - - S o u t h - - s o u t h e r l y - - s o u t h b o u n d - - s o u t h g o i n g - - We s t - - we s t e r l y - - we s t b o u n d - - we s t g o i n g - - Mi l l i b a r o r mi l l i b a r s . - - Me d i u m f r e q u e n c y . - - Mo t o r Ve s s e l . - - Mo t o r Ya c h t . - - Or d i n a l n u mb e r . - - Ro y a l Ma i l S h i p . - - R o y a l Na v y . - - R a d i o t e l e p h o n e o r r a d i o t e l e p h o n y . - - S t e a m s h i p . - - Ul t r a h i g h f r e q u e n c y . - - Ve r y h i g h f r e q u e n c y . - - Wi r e l e s s t e l e g r a p h y . vi i i P A R T I POWER VESSEL ROUTES C ONT E NT S C h a p t e r I--Planning a passage . C h a p t e r 2 - - N o r t h Atlantic O c e a n C h a p t e r 3 - - S o u t h Atlantic O c e a n C h a p t e r 4---Gulf o f M e x i c o a n d Caribbean S e a C h a p t e r 5--Mediterranean S e a a n d Black S e a C h a p t e r 6 - - R e d Sea, Indian O c e a n , a n d Persian G u l f .~ C h a p t e r 7--Pacific O c e a n , C h i n a a n d J a p a n Seas, a n d Eastern Archipelago C h a p t e r 8--Miscellaneous information for p o w e r vessels 1 34- 4-9 56 60 64. 89 128 L A WS A N D R E GUL A T I ON S A P P E R T A I N I N G TO N A V I GA T I ON While, in the interests of the safety of shipping, the Hydrographic Depart ment makes every endeavour to include in its publications details of the laws and regulations of all countries appertaining to navigation, i t must be clearly understood: (a) t hat no liability whatever can be accepted f or f ai l ure to publish details of any particular law or regulation, and (b) t hat publication of the details of a law or regulation is solely f or the safety and convenience of shipping and implies no recognition of the val i di t y of the law or regulation. CHAP T E R 1 P L A N N I N G A PAS S AGE C ONT E NT S OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORL D 1. 01 Oc e a n Pa s s a ge s f or t h e Wo r l d . 1. 02 Ro u t e i n g c h a r t s 1. 03 Lo a d Li n e Rul e s 1. 04 Ro u t e s . 1. 05 Di r e c t i o n s GENERAL P L ANNI NG 1.11 Be s t t r a c k 1. 12 T e r mi n a l por t s 1. 13 Di s t a n c e s 1. 14 Ch a r t s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s 1. 15 Gr e a t ci r cl e s ai l i ng 1. 16 F o r mu l a e f or gr e a t ci r cl e s ai l i ng 1. 17 R h u mb l i ne s ai l i ng . GE NE RAL MARI TI ME METEOROLOGY 1. 21 At mo s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e 1. 22 Wi n d 1. 23 Ef f ect of d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n d a n d sea . 1. 24 Ef f ect s of v a r i a t i o n s i n s u n ' s d e c l i n a t i o n GENERAL CLI MATE 1. 31 Eq u a t o r i a l T r o u g h ( Do l d r u ms ) 1. 32 T r a d e Wi n d s . 1. 33 Va r i a b l e s 1. 34 We s t e r l i e s 1. 35 Pol a r Re gi ons 1. 36 Se a s ona l wi n d s a n d mo n s o o n s 1. 37 De p r e s s i o n s 1. 38 Tr o p i c a l s t o r ms 1. 39 Av o i d i n g t r opi c a l s t o r ms 1. 40 An t i c y c l o n e s F OG 1.51 Ca us e s . 1. 52 Sea or Ad v e c t i o n f og 1. 53 F r o n t a l f og 1. 54 Ar c t i c sea s mo k e 1. 55 Ra d i a t i o n f o g . 1. 56 Fo r e c a s t i n g sea f og . EFFECTS OF WI ND, SEA, AND S WELL 1.61 We a t h e r r o u t e i n g 1. 62 Ac t i o n of wi n d . 1. 63 Be a u f o r t wi n d scal e 1. 64 Sea a n d s we l l . page 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 18 18 27 28 2 POWER VESSEL ROUTES OCEAN CURRE NT S 1.71 Ge n e r a l r e ma r k s 1. 72 Wa r m a n d col d c u r r e n t s 1. 73 S t r e n g t h of c u r r e n t s 1. 74 Ge n e r a l s ur f ace c i r c ul a t i on 1. 75 Di r e c t ef f ect of wi n d i n p r o d u c i n g c u r r e n t s . 1. 76 Gr a d i e n t c u r r e n t s 1. 77 Ef f ect of wi n d b l o wi n g o v e r a c oa s t l i ne 1. 78 S u mma r y 28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 I CE 1. 81 F o r ma t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n 32 ELECTRONI C AI DS AND POSI TI ON FI XI NG S YS TEMS 1.91 Na v i g a t i o n a l ai ds 32 1. 92 Po s i t i o n f i xi ng s ys t e ms 32 NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 1. 101 Po l l u t i o n 33 1. 102 F i s h i n g ves s el s 33 1o103 C o r a l wa t e r s . 33 OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORL D 30 1. 01. Oc e a n Pas s age s f or t he Wo r l d i s ~vr i t t en f or us e i n p l a n n i n g de e p- s e a voyages . I t c ont a i ns not e s on t he ~veat her a n d o t h e r f act or s af f ect i ng pas s ages , di r e c t i ons f or a n u mb e r of r e c o mme n d e d r out es , a n d di s t a nc e f i gur es d e s i g n e d t o he l p t he p l a n n e r t o cal cul at e hi s voyage t i me o n t he s e r out e s . I t be a r s mu c h t he s a me r e l a t i on t o t he Ad mi r a l t y c h a r t s of t h e oceans as t he Sai l i ng Di r e c t i o n s b e a r t o t he coas t al c ha r t s . T h i s b o o k mu s t b e u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h t he Ad mi r a l t y c h a r t s a n d Sai l i ng Di r e c t i o n s ; c h a p t e r 1 c ont a i ns i n f o r ma t i o n ~5 a ppl i c a bl e t o al l sea ar eas ; t he l a t e r c h a p t e r s t r e a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l oceans , c h a p t e r s 2 - 8 f or p o we r ves s el s a n d c h a p t e r s 9- 11 f or s ai l i ng vessel s. 40 45 50 55 1. 02. R o u t e i n g c h a r t s , wh i c h ar e vi t al t o pas s age p l a n n i n g , c ove r t he oc e a n ar eas of t he wo r l d a n d s how, mo n t h b y mo n t h , me t e or ol ogi c a l a n d i ce c ondi t i ons , oc e a n c u r r e n t s , l oad l i ne zones , ar eas i n wh i c h i t i s a n of f ence t o di s c ha r ge p e r s i s t e n t oi l s, a n d s ome r e c o mme n d e d t r acks a n d di s t a nc e s . Ro u t e i n g c h a r t s ar e al l d r a wn o n a scal e of 1: 13, 880, 000 at t he a p p r o x i ma t e mi d - l a t i t u d e , a n d ar e n u mb e r e d 5124( 1) t o 5124( 12) f or No r t h At l a n t i c Oc e a n 5125( 1) t o 5125( 12) f or S o u t h At l a n t i c Oc e a n, 5126( 1) t o 5126( 12) f or I n d i a n Oc e a n, 5127( 1) t o 5127( 12) f or No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a n, a n d 5128( 1) t o 5128( 12) f or S o u t h Paci f i c Oc e a n. 1. 03. Lo a d Li n e Rul e s ar e p u b l i s h e d i n 1968 No. 1053 The .~/Ierchant Shipping Load Line Rules 1968. T h e y a p p l y t o al l s hi ps e xc e pt s hi ps of war , s hi ps sol el y e n g a g e d i n f i s hi ng, a n d pl e a s ur e yacht s . See c h a r t D6083 a n d Ro u t e i n g Cha r t s . 1. 04. Ro u t e s . T h e r out e s f or p o we r ves s el s r e c o mme n d e d h e r e i n ar e i n t e n d e d ma i n l y f or ves s el s ~vith s e a - goi ng s pe e ds of u p t o 15 k n o t s a n d mo d e r a t e d r a u g h t , b u t t h e y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d b y al l s hi ps , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h l a t i t ude s xvher e t h e r e i s r i s k of e n c o u n t e r i n g i ce a n d h e a v y we a t he r . T h e s peci al r e q u i r e me n t s of s hi ps d r a wi n g mo r e t h a n 1 2 m ar e n o t c ove r e d. On l y a s e l e c t i on f r o m t h e i mme n s e va r i e t y of pos s i bl e voyages i s i n c l u d e d ; wh e n p l a n n i n g voyages n o t d e s c r i b e d i n t he book, r e f e r e nc e s h o u l d be ma d e t o a dj a c e nt r out es . 1. 05. Di r e c t i o n s f or e a c h r o u t e e mb o d y al l avai l abl e e xpe r i e nc e f r o m sea and, a l t h o u g h c o n d i t i o n s ar e n e v e r c ons i s t e nt , i t i s h o p e d t h a t t h e advi ce g i v e n r e p r e s e n t s a good aver age. 60 GENERAL P L ANNI NG 1. 11. Th e be s t t rack. T h e a r t of pas s age p l a n n i n g ha s b e e n p r a c t i s e d f r o m t i me i mme mo r i a l T h e s e l e c t i on of t h e b e s t t r a c k f or a n i n d i v i d u a l voyage d e ma n d s s ki l l ed e va l ua t i on of al l t he f act or s c o n t r o l l i n g t he voyage a n d mo d i f i c a t i o n of t he s h o r t e s t r out e a c c or di ngl y. I n t h e pas t , mo s t pas s age p l a n n i n g ha s b e e n d o n e wi t h t h e ai d of s t at i s t i cs o n we a t h e r , c u r r e n t s , a n d c l i ma t e 65 wh i c h , t o g e t h e r wi t h t he e xpe r i e nc e of pr e vi ous voyages , ha ve e n a b l e d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of s u g g e s t e d r o u t e s f or a xvide v a r i e t y of pas s ages . Th e s e s t a t i s t i c - ba s e d or " c l i ma t i c " r out es , us ua l l y d e p e n d i n g o n f act or s wh i c h c a n v a r y s eas onal l y, s er ve t he ma r i n e r ' s p u r p o s e u p t o a poi nt , b u t t h e y do n o t t ake i nt o a c c o u n t s h o r t - t e r m v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s t at i s t i cal p a t t e r n , wh i c h c a n be d e t e c t e d a n d e v e n f or e c a s t b y mo d e r n me t h o d s , a n d c a n t h e r e f o r e be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e p l a n or t r a n s mi t t e d t o t h e ves s el at s ea ~vi t h gr e a t be ne f i t t o t h e i mme d i a t e c o n d u c t of t h e 70 voyage. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE Ea c h c ha pt e r of r out es f or powe r vessel s cont ai ns a r evi ew, bas ed on all avai l abl e st at i st i cs a nd exper i ence, of t he us ual cl i mat i c a nd ot he r condi t i ons af f ect i ng t he ar ea concer ned. Ha v i n g ma de a fi rst s t udy of t he pr oj e c t e d passage wi t h t he ai d of t he r out es r e c o mme n d e d as a r esul t , t he r e qui r e d r out e s houl d be adj us t ed t o me e t s uch f act or s as ur gency, ri sk of damage, and f uel c ons umpt i on. I n addi t i on, t he gr owi ng avai l abi l i t y of s hor e - ba s e d r out e i ng advi ce, t oge t he r wi t h f or ecast s of weat her , cur r ent s , swel l , a nd i ce mo v e me n t s s houl d be t aken i nt o account , see 1.61. A gr eat deal of i nf or ma t i on is t hus avai l abl e t o t he s hi pma s t e r i n mos t par t s of t he wor l d, f or appl i cat i on i n ai d of t he s ucces s f ul pr os e c ut i on of t he voyage. 1. 12. Te r mi n a l port s. Rout e s gi ve n i n t hi s book ar e i nde xe d u n d e r t he por t of depar t ur e. I f t he act ual passage t o be unde r t a ke n is n o t cover ed, gui da nc e can be obt a i ne d f r om adj acent r out es. 1.13. Di s t a n c e s f or t he r out es ar e be t we e n t he i nde xe d ar r i val a nd de pa r t ur e posi t i ons, t o t he near es t 10 mi l es f or passages of mo r e t ha n 1000 mi l e s a nd t o t he near es t 5 mi l es bel ow t hat fi gure. T h e ar r i val and de pa r t ur e pos i t i ons ar e us ual l y pi l ot gr ounds or anchor ages, as gi ve n i n Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons , a nd t he dur a t i on of t he voyage be t we e n pi l ot s ma y be c o mp u t e d wi t h t he ai d of t he l oga r i t hmi c scale ( Di a gr a m 1) T h e cons t i t uent s of mo s t of t he di s t ances have be e n c o mp u t e d on t he " i nt e r na t i ona l s p h e r o i d " f i gur e of t he Ear t h, whi c h has a c ompr e s s i on of Tg~---0 and a naut i cal mi l e of 1852 met r es . Fo r di s t ances not gi ve n i n t hi s book, see Admiralty Distance Tables, whi c h uses t he s ame dat a. 1.14. Ch a r t s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h e a ppr opr i a t e char t s, Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons , Admiralty List of Lights a nd Admiralty List of Radio Signals s houl d be obt ai ned by r ef er ence t o t he Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and other Hydrographic Publications. Fo r char t s e mb o d i e d i n t hi s book, see page vi . 10 15 20 1. 15. Great c i r c l e s a i l i n g . Br oadl y speaki ng, gr eat ci r cl e sai l i ng hol ds t he advant age i n di s t ance over t he r h u mb l i ne t o t he gr eat es t ext ent i n hi gh l at i t udes a nd on E - W cour ses. Al t h o u g h t he Ea r t h is n o t per f ect l y 25 spher i cal , a nd t he " i nt e r na t i ona l s p h e r o i d " (1.13) has been us ed i n t he c omput a t i on of t he di st ances i n t hi s book, di f f er ences i n di s t ances a nd t racks t aken out f or t he t r ue s pher e a nd t he i nt er nat i onal s phe r oi d ar e negl i gi bl e f or passage pur pos es . Gr e a t ci r cl e sect i ons of t he r out e ma y t her ef or e be safel y cal cul at ed by s pher i cal t r i gono- me t r y, or t he Tables of Computed Altitude and Azimuth ma y be us ed f or t he pur pos e wi t h i n t he l i mi t s i mpos e d b y t hei r p r i ma r y f unct i on. Al so, t he gr eat ci r cl e t r ack ma y be pl ot t e d wi t h t he hel p of t he Gr e a t Ci r cl e Di a g r a m 30 ( char t 5029) or t he g n o mo n i c char t s, b u t t her e is no gr a phi c me t h o d of obt a i ni ng t he di st ance. Wh e n cal cul at i ng t he gr eat ci r cl e t r ack f or passage pur pos es t he t wo ma i n r e qui r e me nt s ar e t he whol e di st ance, f or l ogi st i c pl anni ng, a nd t he l at i t ude i n whi c h a seri es of chos en me r i di a ns ar e cr ossed, f or pl ot t i ng t he t rack, wh i c h wi l l be s t eer ed b y r h u mb l i ne be t we e n t hos e mer i di ans . Th i s i nvol ves , fi rst l y, t he s ol ut i on of t he pol ar t r i angl e c ont a i ne d b y t he t e r mi na l me r i di a ns a nd t he t rack. T h e di s t ance ma y be wor ke d by t he " h a v e r s i n e " 35 f or mul a, f or wh i c h t he dat a ar e t he l at i t udes of t he t e r mi na l pos i t i ons and t hei r di f f er ence of l ongi t ude. Cal cul a- t i on of t he i nt e r me di a t e pos i t i ons de pe nds u p o n t he i r l ongi t ude E or W of t he ve r t e x of t he t rack, t o f i nd wh i c h i t is neces s ar y t o know wh e t h e r i t l i es be t we e n t he t e r mi na l pos i t i ons or on an ext ens i on E or W of t he t rack. I f t he a z i mu t h of e i t he r e nd is mor e t ha n 90 , t he ve r t e x of t he t r ack wi l l l i e on t he ext ens i on f r om t hat pos i t i on. I n cases whe r e t her e is no doubt whe t he r t he a z i mut h is mor e or less t han 90 , i t ma y be wor ke d by t he " s i n e " 40 f or mul a, b u t i n ot he r cases t he "- l og ha ve r s i ne " f or mul a s houl d be used. 1.16. Fo r mu l a e f or great c i r c l e s ai l i ng. / 45 50 / Spher i cal t r i angl e Di a g r a m 2. P = t he Pol e F = pos i t i on " f r o m" T = pos i t i on " t o " p = gr eat ci r cl e t r ack f = 90 Lat . T * t = 90 Lat . F* 55 60 65 * T h e si gn is de t e r mi ne d b y t he na me of t he pol e and t he na me of t he l at i t ude of t he pl ace. Sa me n a me s s ubt r a c t ; oppos i t e names , add. 70 4 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 10 15 20 25 30 .35 40 45 50 55 60 65 I n Di agr am 2, t he formul ae are expr essed as fol l ows: Haver si ne f or mul a . . . havp = hav(t ~f ) + s i nf s i n t hav/ - - P. s i n/ - - P s i nf s i n/ P si n t Si ne formul a . . . s i n/ F = or s i n/ T s i np s i np -Log haversi ne formul a (in l ogari t hmi c form) . . . log ha y/ - F = log cosec t + log cosecp + log hay [ f + (t ~ p)] + log hay I f - (t ~p)] Working for distance by haversine formula. The fol l owi ng exampl e, of a t heoret i cal great circle passage f r om Yokohama to Est r echo de Magal l anes (not feasible navigationally) serves to illustrate t he met hod of worki ng. Yokohama (Posi t i on F) 34 49' N, 140 00' E. co-Lat . (t) 55 11' Est r echo de Magal l anes (Posi t i on T) 52 25' S, 75 12' ~V. co-Lat . ( f ) 142 25' d. Long. ( / P) 144 48' d. co- Lat . ( f ~ t) 87 14" l oghav, d. Long. ( / P) 9' 958 36 log si n co-Lat . ( f ) 9' 785 27 log si n co-Lat . (t) 9"914 33 sum 9"657 96 ant i -l og of sum "454 96 hav. d. co-Lat . ( f ~ t) -475 87 hay di st ance (p) "930 83 di st ance (p) 149 30' = 8970 mi l es Note: t he same di st ance, worked on t he i nt ernat i onal spheroi d, is 8973 miles. Wor ki ng for di st ance by el ect roni c calculator, a mor e conveni ent f or mul a is: cos (p) = cos ( f ) cos ( t ) + c os / _P si n ( f ) si n (t), care bei ng t aken over t he signs of f unct i ons of angles or angul ar di st ance, namel y when t he angle is less t han 90 sine and cosine are bot h+, and for angles of mor e t han 90 sine is + and cosi ne i s - . Working for azi~nuth by sine formula. I n t he same exampl e: log si n d. Long. ( / P) log si n co-Lat . ( f ) Sum log si n di st ance (p) subt r act for log si n azi mut h Azi mut h angle Course ~omYokoha ma 144 48' 9"760 75 142 25' 9' 785 27 9' 546 02 149 30' 9' 705 47 9"840 55 at F 43 51' f r om Est. de Magal l anes 9"760 75 (t) 55 11' 9"914 33 043 51' or 136 09' 9.675 08 9-705 47 9.969 61 at T 68 49' 068 49 or 111 11' By i nspect i on, t he initial course coul d be 043 51' or 136 09' . A final course of 068 49' can be r ul ed out. I n many cases of t hi s sort, t he quadr ant of t he azi mut h can be resol ved by pl ot t i ng on chart 5029 (Great Circle Diagram) or on a gnomoni c chart , but t he worki ng by -log haversi ne fornml a is shown bel ow. Wi t h reference to Di agr am 2, / --F is t he initial course, and t he worki ng is t herefore: t = 55 11' log cosec 0"085 67 p = 149 30' log cosec 0"294 53 t - p = 94 19' f = 142 25' f +( t ~p) =236 44 ' -log hav 4"94445 f - (t ~p) = 48 06' k-log hav 4"610 16 log hav / - F 9"934 81 / F = 136 09' 70 An al t ernat i ve met hod, when }-l og haversi ne t abl es are not available, is by t he f or mul a Hav/ - - F = ( ha vf - hay (t ~ p)) cosec t cosecp. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 5 f = 142 25' ( t ~ p ) = 94 19' Na t . h a v 0"896 23 Na t . ha y 0"537 63 Na t . ha y 0"358 60 l og h a y 9"554 60 t = 55 11' l og cos ec 0"085 67 p - 149 30' l og cos ec 0"294 53 l og h a v / F 9- 934 80 / - F = 136 09' T h e s a me cour s e, wo r k e d o n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sp h e r o i d , i s 136 13' . T h e i ni t i a l c our s e i s t h e r e f o r e 136 09' a n d t h e N v e r t e x of t he gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c k l i es o n t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e gr e a t ci r cl e W of Yo k o h a ma . [Vorkingfor intermediate positions on the great circle track. I t was s t a t e d i n ar t i cl e 1. 15 t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n of i n t e r me d i a t e pos i t i ons o n t h e t r a c k d e p e n d s u p o n t h e i r l o n g i t u d e E or W of t h e ve r t e x. At t h e ve r t e x, t h e t r a c k l i es at r i g h t angl es t o t h e me r i d i a n , so t h e p r o b l e m cal l s f or t h e s ol ut i on of t h e r e q u i r e d n u mb e r of r i g h t - a n g l e d s phe r i c a l t r i a ngl e s . .P t f T Gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c k Di a g r a m 3. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 I n Di a g r a m 3, t h e t r i a ngl e is r i g h t - a n g l e d at V. T h e f o r mu l a e u s e d f or f i n d i n g t h e pos i t i on of t he ve r t e x of t he t r a c k ar e d e r i v e d f r o m Na p i e r ' s Rul e, a n d ar e as f ol l ows. F o r t he l a t i t ude : cos ( La t . of ver t ex) = cos ( La t . F) s i n ( i ni t i al cour s e) . F o r t he l o n g i t u d e : t a n (d. Lo n g . v e r t e x f r o m F) = cos ec ( La t . F) cot ( i ni t i al cour s e) . Wo r k i n g f or l a t i t u d e : l og cos La t . F ( 34 49' ) l og s i n i ni t i a l c our s e ( 136 09' ) 9"914 33 9-840 59 l og cos ( La t . of ve r t e x) La t i t u d e of v e r t e x 55 20' N 9- 754 92 Wo r k i n g f or l o n g i t u d e : l og cos ec La t . F ( 34 49' ) l og cot i ni t i a l c our s e ( 136 09' ) 0. 243 40 0"017 44 l og t a n d. Lo n g . v e r t e x f r o m F 0"260 84 d. Lo n g i t u d e of v e r t e x f r o m F 61 15' W ( by i n s p e c t i o n of i ni t i a l cour s e) Lo n g i t u d e of F 148 00' E Lo n g i t u d e of v e r t e x 78 4 5 ' E 50 55 60 70 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Plotting the track. T o pl ot t h e i n t e r me d i a t e pos i t i ons o n t h e gr e a t ci r cl e t r ack, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o f i nd t h e l a t i t ude i n wh i c h t h e t r a c k cr os s es a s er i es of me r i d i a n s at g i v e n i nt e r va l s of l o n g i t u d e ( say 10 ) f r o m t h e ve r t e x. T h e f o r mu l a u s e d i s cot ( r e q u i r e d La t . ) = cot ( La t . of ve r t e x) sec (d. Lo n g . f r o m ve r t e x) Po s i t i o n F 1. d. Lo n g . f r o m v e r t e x 61 15' 71 15' 81 15' 91 15' 2. Lo n g i t u d e 140 00' E 150 00" E 160 00' E 170 00' E 3. l og cot ( La t . of ve r t e x) 9' 839 54 9"839 54 9"839 54 4. l og sec (d. Lo n g . f r o m ve r t e x) 0"492 90 0. 817 80 1' 661 20 5. l og c ot ( r e q u i r e d La t . ) 0"332 44 0- 657 34 1"500 74 6. La t i t u d e 34 49' N 24 57' N 12 24' N 1 48' S 10 15 20 T h e t r a c k c a n t h e n be p l o t t e d t h r o u g h t h e pos i t i ons g i v e n b y l i ne s 6 a n d 2. T h e s a me f o r mu l a e c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r mi n e t h e l ongi t ude s i n wh i c h t he t r a c k c ut s a ser i es of gi ve n l a t i t ude s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d s of t h e f o r mu l a e u s e d f or t he s e a n d o t h e r p r o b l e ms c o n n e c t e d wi t h gr e a t ci r cl e s ai l i ng ar e g i v e n i n Admiralty Manual of Navigation. 1. 17. R h u mb L i n e s a i l i n g . A r h u mb l i ne, or l oxodr ome , i s a l i ne o n t h e e a r t h ' s s ur f a c e wh i c h c ut s al l me r i d i a n s 25 a t a c o n s t a n t angl e. I t t h e r e f o r e pl ot s o n a Me r c a t o r c h a r t as a s t r a i g h t l i ne. R h u mb l i ne d i s t a n c e s t a k e n f r o m a Me r c a t o r c h a r t ar e o n l y a c c e pt a bl e i f me a s u r e d o n t h e l a t i t ude , or di s t a nc e , scal e of t h e c h a r t wi t h i n t h e b a n d of l a t i t ude c o v e r i n g t h e di s t a nc e i n que s t i on, a n d wh e n t h e di f f e r e nc e of l a t i t ude i s n o t gr eat . Wi t h s ma l l - s c a l e c h a r t s a n d a l ar ge di f f e r e nc e of l a t i t ude , c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r or s ma y oc c ur u n l e s s gr e a t car e i s t a k e n i n u s i n g t h e l a t i t ude scal e, pa r t i c ul a r l y i n h i g h l a t i t ude s . 30 Di s t a n c e s of u p t o 600 mi l e s ma y b e c a l c ul a t e d wi t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r b y t he us e of p l a n e s a i l i ng f or mul a e , i n wh i c h d e p a r t u r e t a n c our s e = di f f e r e nc e of l a t i t ude 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 d e p a r t u r e = di f f e r e nc e of l o n g i t u d e x cos i ne me a n l a t i t ude di f f e r e nc e of l a t i t ude di s t a nc e = cos i ne c our s e Z / M , "~ n' --~o ~KK 2 : " ~ . ~ ~ p ' Sh a p e of t he E a r t h Di a g r a m 4. P AP ' A' i s t h e el l i pt i cal s e c t i on of t h e Ea r t h . KM i s t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e me r i d i a n at M. L MZ i s t h e ve r t i c a l at M. / MOA i s t h e ge oc e nt r i c l a t i t ude of M. / ML A i s t h e ge ogr a phi c a l l a t i t ude of M. / OML i s t h e r e d u c t i o n f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a l t o ge oc e nt r i c l a t i t ude . PLANNI NG A PASSAGE P j J r . / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T \ , / \ \ / \, i ~ t . ; / ~ _ \ / "} X / \ ' , , / / [ , ~'~ i" w F ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . G g / '" ~ Q ' t . . . . . . R / ' , / X X X ,,,x , ~ N .... - ~ > . ~ ~ / ~ p' R h u mb Li n e t r a c k Di a g r a m5 . F T i s t h e r h u mb l i n e cour s e. XY i s t h e me a n l a t i t ude of F T . UV i s t h e mi d d l e l a t i t ude of F T . T h e Tr a v e r s e t a bl e ma y b e u s e d f or o b t a i n i n g d e p a r t u r e , di f f e r e nc e of l a t i t ude , a n d c our s e f or di s t a nc e s u p t o 600 mi l es , b a s e d o n t h e p l a n e r i g h t - a n g l e d t r i a ngl e , i f t h e a r i t h me t i c a l me a n of t h e t e r mi n a l l a t i t ude s i s u s e d wh e n o b t a i n i n g t h e d e p a r t u r e . T h i s me t h o d i s n o t s t r i c t l y accur at e, b u t mo r e so t h a n t h e p r o b a b l e a c c ur a c y of n a v i g a t i o n . F o r p r o b l e ms d e ma n d i n g accur acy, i t i s i mp o r t a n t t h a t a l l owa nc e s h o u l d b e ma d e f or t h e s h a p e of t he e a r t h. T h i s e nt a i l s f i r st l y a n a d j u s t me n t t o t h e t e r mi n a l l a t i t ude s t o r e d u c e t h e m f r o m c h a r t e d or " g e o g r a p h i c a l " val ues t o " g e o c e n t r i c " , see Di a g r a m 4, a n d t h e n a n a d j u s t me n t t o t he r e s u l t i n g " me a n " l a t i t ude t o c o n v e r t i t t o " mi d d l e " l a t i t ude . T h e f i r st c o r r e c t i o n al l ows f or t h e c o mp r e s s i o n of t h e axi s ; i t i s t a b u l a t e d i n va r i ous books of Na u t i c a l t a bl e s a n d ha s a gr e a t e s t va l ue of - 1 1 " 44", at l a t i t ude 45 , f or a c o mp r e s s i o n of ~5~=a-~3 T h e s e c o n d c or r e c t i on c onve r t s t h e me a n l a t i t ude a ppl i c a bl e t o a p l a n e s ur f ace t o t h a t a ppl i c a bl e t o t h e s phe r e , a n d i s n e e d e d be c a us e t he c o n v e r g e n c y of t h e me r i d i a n s var i es a p p r o x i ma t e l y as t h e s i ne of t h e l a t i t u d e ; i t i s al so t a b u l a t e d a n d t he c o r r e c t e d r e s ul t i s p r o p e r l y cal l ed " mi d d l e " l a t i t ude , see Di a g r a m 5. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Example. T o f i nd t h e mi d d l e l a t i t ude f or t e r mi n a l l a t i t ude s of 38 17' 00" a n d 57 29' 00" : T e r mi n a l l a t i t ude 38 17' 00" 57 29' 00" Re d u c t i o n - - 11 24 - - 10 39 Re d u c e d l a t i t ude 38 05 16 57 18 21 57 18 21 38 05 16 S u m 95 23 37 di f f e r e nc e 19 13 05 Me a n r e d u c e d l a t i t ude Co r r e c t i o n t o me a n l a t i t ude 47 41 48 + 51 00 48 32' 48" Mi d d l e l a t i t ude 45 50 55 F o r di s t a nc e s i n excess of 600 mi l e s r h u mb l i ne p r o b l e ms s h o u l d b e wo r k e d u s i n g me r c a t o r s ai l i ng f o r mu l a e 60 a n d me r i d i o n a l par t s . T h e me r i d i o n a l p a r t s of a ny l a t i t ude ar e t he n u mb e r of l o n g i t u d e u n i t s of 1' e a c h i n t h e l e n g t h of t he me r i d i a n b e t we e n t h e par al l el of t h a t l a t i t ude a n d t h e e qua t or . T h e y ar e t a b u l a t e d i n books of n a u t i c a l t abl es . S o me t a bl e s ar e f or t he s p h e r e wi t h a c o r r e c t i o n t a bl e f or t h e s p h e r o i d ; o t h e r s t a b u l a t e t h e me r i d i o n a l p a r t s f or t he s phe r oi d, us ua l l y f or a c o mp r e s s i o n of ~-a~x~B ( Cl a r ke ' s f i gur e of t h e e a r t h, 1880). T h e l a t i t ude o n t he s p h e r e 65 f or a gi ve n n u mb e r of me r i d i o n a l pa r t s wi l l be s l i ght l y l ess t h a n t h e l a t i t ude f or t he s a me n u mb e r of me r i d i o n a l pa r t s on t h e s phe r oi d, b y t h e a mo u n t g i v e n above. I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sp h e r o i d , o n wh i c h t he di s t a nc e s gi ve n i n Ocean Passages for the World a n d Admiralty Distance Tables ar e wor ke d, ha s a c o mp r e s s i o n of ~; v. ~ b u t , f or pas s age p u r p o s e s , t h e di f f er ences r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e us e of o t h e r c o mmo n l y u s e d c o mp r e s s i o n f i gur es ar e i ns i gni f i c a nt . 70 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 POWER VESSEL ROUTES M d Lat i D. M. P. d Long T __ ~ ~ / / / / / / / //~%~?~@~ / / / F Mer i di onal Part s Di agr am 6. I n Di agr am 6, FT is a r humb line. FM r epr esent s t he di fference of l at i t ude and t he di fference of meri di onal part s bet ween F and T, and MT r epr esent s t he di fference of l ongi t ude. Si nce t he uni t s of l ongi t ude and mer i - di onal part s are t he same, t he course may be f ound f r om t he formul a d. Long. t an (course) D. M. P. and t he di st ance, si nce t he uni t s of l at i t ude and di st ance are t he same, may be f ound f r om t he formul a di st ance = d. Lat . sec (course). Example. To fi nd t he r humb l i ne course and di st ance bet ween (F) 8 10' N, 109 30' E and (T) 34 22' N, 138 52' E. Geographi cal Lat . F 8 10:0 N Lat . T 34 22.'0 N Reduct i on for spher oi d* - - 3.3 - 10.9 Geocent r i c Lat . F 8 06.7 N T 34 11.1 N 34 11.1 N di fference (d. lat.) 26 04:4 = 1564"4 mi l es * I f Mer i di onal Par t t abl es are for t he Sphere. Geocent r i c Lat . F 8 06.'7 N met . part s 488' 34 Long. F 109 30' E Geocent r i c Lat . T 34 11:1 N mer. part s 2184' 88 Long. T 138 52' E d. Lat . 26 04:4 D. M. P. 1696"54 d. Long. 29 22' E (1564"4 miles) (1762' ) Note: The mer i di onal part s are t aken f r om Inman's Nautical Tables whi ch t abul at es for t he t rue sphere. t an (course) d. Long. _ 1762 log 1762 D. M. P. 1696"54 log 1696.54 course 046 05' di st ance = d. Lat . sec (course) = 1564.4 sec 46 05' = 2255' 4 mi l es 3"246 01 3"229 55 log t an (course) 0' 016 46 log 1564"4 3"194 35 log sec 46 05" 0' 158 88 log di st ance 3' 353 23 70 By cal cul at i on on t he I nt er nat i onal Spher oi d, course is 046 05' , and di st ance is 2258.5 miles. The backgr ounds of t he formul ae used in pr obl ems connect ed wi t h r humb line sailing are gi ven i n Admiralty Manual of Navigation. P L A N N I N G A P A S S A GE GENERAL MARI TI ME METEOROLOGY 1.21. At mo s p h e r i c Pr e s s ur e . The at mospher e, by reason of its wei ght , exert s a pr essur e on t he surface of t he eart h. Thi s pr essur e is nor mal l y measur ed in millibars, t he mean value at sea level bei ng ar ound 1013 mb. Thi s pr essur e is in cert ai n places s emi - per manent l y above t he mean, whi l e in ot her places it is s emi - per ma- nent l y bel ow t he mean. Thes e pl aces are r ef er r ed to as regi ons of hi gh and low pressure respect i vel y. Ther e are also t empor ar y areas of hi gh or l ow pressure. 1.22. Wi nd. Because of t he rot at i on of t he eart h, air whi ch is dr awn t owards a cent re of l ow pr essur e is defl ect ed to t he r i ght i n t he N hemi s pher e and to t he left in t he S hemi spher e. The resul t is an ant i -cl ockwi se ci rcul at i on 10 of wi nd ar ound an area of l ow pr essur e in t he N hemi spher e and a clockwise ci rcul at i on in t he S hemi spher e. Ci rcul at i ons ar ound areas of l ow pressure are t er med cyclonic. Conversel y, t he wi nd ci rcul at es in a clockwise di rect i on ar ound an area of hi gh pr essur e in t he N hemi spher e and in an ant i -cl ockwi se di rect i on in t he S hemi spher e, such ci rcul at i ons bei ng t er med ant i cycl oni c. The st r engt h of t he wi nd at any gi ven t i me depends upon t he pr essur e gradi ent , i.e. on t he spaci ng of t he 15 i sobars. Isobars are l i nes whi ch j oi n t oget her places whi ch at t he same t i me have equal bar omet r i c pr essur e ( r educed to sea level) and are anal ogous to t he cont our l i nes of a map ; t he closer t hey are t oget her t he great er t he pr essur e gr adi ent and t he st r onger t he resul t i ng wi nd. Surface fri ct i on has t wo effects on t he wi nd. Fi rst l y it causes a r educt i on in t he st r engt h of t he wi nd at t he surface and secondl y it causes t he wi nd to be defl ect ed some 10 to 20 across t he isobars, i nwar ds t owar ds t he 20 cent re of l ow pr essur e or out war ds away f r om t he cent re of hi gh pressure. Buys Bal l ot ' s Law sums t hi s up as fol l ows: I f you face t he wi nd t he cent re of l ow pr essur e will be f r om 90 to 135 on your ri ght hand in t he N hemi spher e, and on your left hand in t he S hemi spher e. Di agr am 7 shows t he di st ri but i on of pr essur e and t he wi nds whi ch woul d resul t over a feat urel ess earth. N Pol ar East erl i es HIGH Wes t er l i es Vari abl es N. E. Trades ~Eqimtorial Trough ( Dol dr ums ) S. E. Trades Vari abl es Roari ng W e s t e r h e s ( F o r t i e s ) Pol ar East erl i es j L o . / .//~.HIGH ~ ~ ~ L O W ~ ~ "" H I G N " ~kOW S Pr essur e and Wi nd Belts Di agr am 7- 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 1.23. Ef f ect o f di s t r i but i o n o f l a nd a nd sea. The effect of large l and masses is to modi f y consi derabl y t he areas of pressure and t he wi nd, as shown in t he di agram. The bel t s of hi gh pressure ar ound 30 N and 30 S are spl i t i nt o separat e cells of hi gh pr essur e (anticyclones) si t uat ed over t he E par t of each of t he oceans. The bel t of low pr essur e ar ound 60 N is si mi l arl y modi fi ed i nt o separat e areas of l ow pr essur e si t uat ed near Icel and and t he Al eut i an Isl ands. I n t he S hemi spher e t her e is little or no l and in t he area covered by t hi s l ow pr essur e 60 bel t and consequent l y it ext ends al most ~vithout i nt er r upt i on ar ound t he eart h. See Wor l d Cl i mat i c Char t s 5301, 5302. Super i mposed upon t hese modi fi cat i ons t her e is a t endency for pr essur e to become relatively hi gh over l and masses in wi nt er and relatively l ow i n summer . Such seasonal changes in pr essur e di st r i but i on can pr oduce large scale modi fi cat i ons to wi nds over nei ghbour i ng oceani c regi ons, a not abl e exampl e bei ng t he Mons oon 65 ci rcul at i on over t he I ndi an Ocean. 1.24. Ef f ect s o f var i at i ons i n s un' s de c l i na t i o n. The annual movement of t he sun i n decl i nat i on causes t he bel t s of pressure and t hei r associ at ed wi nds to move t owards each pol e dur i ng its summer . Thi s oscillation amount s to some 4 of l at i t ude and it lags some 6 to 8 weeks behi nd t he sun. 70 10 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S GENERAL CLI MATE T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of wi n d i s gi ve n i n Wo r l d Cl i ma t i c Ch a r t s 5301, 5302. I n a d d i t i o n t he s e s h o w t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of pr e s s ur e , sea s ur f a c e t e mp e r a t u r e , gal es, fog, c u r r e n t s a n d i ce. T h e not e s wh i c h f ol l ow s h o u l d be r e a d c a r e f ul l y wh e n s t u d y i n g t h e s e c ha r t s . 10 15 20 25 1. 31. Th e Equat or i al Tr o ug h ( Do l d r u ms ) is a n ar ea of l ow pr e s s ur e s i t ua t e d b e t we e n t he T r a d e Wi n d s of t h e t wo h e mi s p h e r e s . Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t ur e s of t h i s ar ea ar e l i ght a n d va r i a bl e ~vi nds a l t e r n a t i n g wi t h s qual l s , h e a v y r a i n a n d t h u n d e r s t o r ms . T h e T r o u g h va r i e s gr e a t l y i n wi d t h b o t h dai l y a n d s eas onal l y. T h e t y p e of we a t h e r e x p e r i e n c e d al so var i es c ons i de r a bl y. At t i me s a s hi p ma y cr os s t h e T r o u g h a n d e xpe r i e nc e f i ne we a t he r , whi l e o n a n o t h e r c r os s i ng s qual l s a n d t h u n d e r s t o r ms ma y b e e n c o u n t e r e d . We a t h e r i n t he T r o u g h is ge ne r a l l y ~vorst wh e n t h e Tr a d e s ar e s t r onge s t . T h i s i s a h i g h l y s i mpl i f i e d a c c o u n t of a n ar ea wh e r e t he we a t h e r i s c o mp l i - c a t e d a n d n o t c o mp l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d . F o r a mo r e de t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t he Eq u a t o r i a l T r o u g h r e f e r e nc e mu s t be ma d e t o me t e or ol ogi c a l t e xt books . 1. 32. Th e Tr ade Wi n d s bl ow o n e i t h e r s i de of t h e Eq u a t o r i a l Tr o u g h , NE ' l y i n t h e N h e mi s p h e r e a n d SE' l y i n t h e S h e mi s p h e r e . T h e Tr a d e s b l o w wi t h gr e a t pe r s i s t e nc e a n d e a c h e mb r a c e s a z one of s ome 1200 mi l e s of l a t i t ude . T r a d e Wi n d s , ho~vever, do n o t bl ow i n al l t h e oceans . T h e S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n wi n d s (see bel ow) b l o w i n s t e a d i n t he Ea s t At l a nt i c , No r t h I n d i a n Oc e a n a n d t h e W p a r t of t h e No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a n. See Cl i ma t i c Ch a r t f or J ul y. T h e aver age s t r e n g t h of t h e Tr a d e s i s a b o u t For c e 4, t h o u g h va r i a t i ons oc c ur b e t we e n di f f e r e nt oc e a ns a n d at di f f e r e nt s eas ons . T h e we a t h e r i n T r a d e Wi n d z one s i s ge ne r a l l y f ai r ~vi t h s ma l l d e t a c h e d c u mu l u s cl ouds . On t h e E s i des of t h e oc e a ns c l oud a mo u n t s a n d r a i nf a l l ar e s mal l , ~vhile o n t h e W s i des c l oud a mo u n t s ar e l a r ge r a n d r a i nf a l l i s f r e q u e n t , b e i n g at t h e i r ma x i mu m i n s u mme r . Cl o u d a mo u n t s a n d t he f r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y of r a i n al l i nc r e a s e t o wa r d s t h e Eq u a t o r i a l T r o u g h . Po o r vi s i bi l i t y of t e n oc c ur s at t h e E e n d of t he T r a d e Wi n d zones , due p a r t l y t o mi s t or f og f o r mi n g ove r t he c ol d c u r r e n t s a n d p a r t l y t o s a n d a n d d u s t b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t t o sea b y pr e va i l i ng of f s hor e wi nds . At t he W e n d of t he z one s vi s i bi l i t y is good, e x c e p t wh e n r e d u c e d i n r a i n. Fo g i s r ar e. I n c e r t a i n s e a s ons a n d i n c e r t a i n l ocal i t i es t h e ge ne r a l l y f ai r we a t h e r of t he Tr a d e s i s l i abl e t o b e i n t e r r u p t e d b y t r opi c a l s t or ms . T h e s e ar e d e s c r i b e d i n det ai l i n ar t i cl e 1. 38. 30 1. 33. Va r i a b l e s . Ov e r t h e ar eas c ove r e d b y t he oc e a ni c a nt i c yc l one s , b e t we e n t he T r a d e Wi n d s a n d t he We s t e r - l i es f a r t h e r t o wa r d t h e pol es, t h e r e exi s t z one s of l i ght a n d va r i a bl e wi n d s wh i c h ar e k n o wn as T h e Va r i a bl e s , a n d t h e N ar ea i s s o me t i me s k n o wn as t he Ho r s e La t i t u d e s (30 N- 4 0 N) . T h e we a t h e r i n t he s e z one s is ge ne r a l l y f ai r wi t h s ma l l a mo u n t s of c l oud a n d r a i n. 35 1. 34. We s t e r l i e s . On t he pol a r s i des of t he oc e a ni c a nt i c yc l one s l i e z one s wh e r e t he wi n d di r e c t i on b e c o me s p r e d o mi n a n t l y W' l y . Un l i k e t he Tr a d e s , t he s e wi nds , k n o wn as T h e We s t e r l i e s , ar e f ar f r o m p e r ma n e n t . T h e c o n t i n u a l pas s age of de pr e s s i ons f r o m W t o E acr os s t he s e z one s caus es t he wi n d t o v a r y gr e a t l y i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n a n d s t r e n g t h . Ga l e s ar e f r e q u e n t , es peci al l y i n wi nt e r . T h e xveat her c h a n g e s r a pi dl y a n d f i ne we a t h e r i s s e l d o m p r o l o n g e d . Ga l e s ar e so f r e q u e n t i n t he S h e mi s p h e r e t h a t t h e z one , S of 40 S, ha s b e e n n a me d t h e Ro a r i n g dO For t i e s . I n t h e N h e mi s p h e r e f og i s c o mmo n i n t h e W pa r t s of t h e oc e a ns i n t hi s z one i n s u mme r . Ar e a s wh e r e f og i s l i kel y a n d t hos e wh e r e i ce r na y be e n c o u n t e r e d ar e s h o wn o n t h e Cl i ma t i c Ch a r t s . 45 1.35. T h e P o l a r R e g i o n s wh i c h l i e o n t h e pol a r s i de of t he We s t e r l i e s ar e ma i n l y u n n a v i g a b l e o n a c c o u n t of i ce. T h e p r e v a i l i n g ~vi nd i s ge ne r a l l y f r o m a n E' l y d i r e c t i o n a n d gal es ar e c o mmo n i n wi nt e r , t h o u g h l ess so t h a n i n t h e z one s of t he We s t e r l i e s . T h e we a t h e r i s us ua l l y c l o u d y a n d f og i s f r e q u e n t i n s u mme r . 1. 36. S e a s o n a l wi n d s and mo n s o o n s . Ov e r c e r t a i n p a r t s of t h e oc e a ns t h e ge ne r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of pr e s s ur e a n d ~vi nd i n t he z one s d e s c r i b e d a bove is gr e a t l y modi f i e d b y t h e s eas onal h e a t i n g a n d cool i ng of a dj a c e nt l ar ge 50 l a n d mas s es . T h e a n n u a l r a n g e of sea t e mp e r a t u r e i n t h e o p e n oc e a n i s c o mp a r a t i v e l y s mal l , wh e r e a s l ar ge l a n d ma s s e s b e c o me h o t i n s u mme r a n d col d i n wi nt e r . T h i s a l t e r na t e h e a t i n g a n d c ool i ng of t he l a n d r es ul t s i n t he f o r ma t i o n of ar eas of lo~v a n d h i g h pr e s s ur e r es pect i vel y. T h i s r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of pr e s s ur e r e s ul t s i n a s eas onal r e ve r s a l of t h e p r e v a i l i n g wi n d ove r t h e a dj a c e nt oceans . T h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t oc e a ni c ar eas s u b j e c t t o t he s e s eas onal ~vi nds ar e t h e I n d i a n Oc e a n, We s t Paci f i c Oc e a n a n d t hos e a dj a c e nt t o t he coas t of We s t Af r i ca. 55 T h e s e a s ons of t h e p r i n c i p a l mo n s o o n s a n d t h e i r a ve r a ge s t r e n g t h s ar e s h mv n i n Ta b l e A o n pa ge 12. 1. 37. De p r e s s i o n s . A de pr e s s i on, al so k n o wn f or s y n o p t i c p u r p o s e s as a l ow, a ppe a r s o n a s y n o p t i c c h a r t as a s er i es of i s oba r s r o u g h l y c i r c ul a r or oval i n s hape, s u r r o u n d i n g a n ar ea of l ow pr e s s ur e . De p r e s s i o n s ar e f r e q u e n t 60 at sea i n mi d d l e l a t i t ude s a n d ar e r e s p o n s i b l e f or mo s t s t r o n g wi n d s a n d u n s e t t l e d we a t he r , t h o u g h n o t al l d e p r e s s i o n s ar e a c c o mp a n i e d b y s t r o n g wi n d s . De p r e s s i o n s v a r y mu c h i n si ze a n d d e p t h . On e ma y b e o n l y 100 mi l e s i n d i a me t e r a n d a n o t h e r ove r 2000; one ma y ha ve a c e n t r a l pr e s s ur e of 960 mi l l i b a r s a n d a n o t h e r 1000 mi l l i ba r s . Not e . T h e b r a c k e t e d e q u i v a l e n t s wh i c h f ol l ow r e f e r t o t h e S h e mi s p h e r e . 65 I n t h e N (S) h e mi s p h e r e t h e ~vi nds b l o w a r o u n d a n ar ea of l ow pr e s s ur e i n a n a nt i - c l oc kwi s e ( cl ockwi se) di r e c t i on. T h e r e i s a s l i ght i n c l i n a t i o n acr oss t h e i s oba r s t o wa r d s t h e louver pr e s s ur e . T h e s t r e n g t h of t h e wi n d i s cl osel y r e l a t e d t o t h e g r a d i e n t acr os s t h e i s obar s , t he cl os er t h e i s oba r s t h e s t r o n g e r t h e wi n d . De p r e s s i o n s ma y mo v e i n a ny d i r e c t i o n t h o u g h ma n y mo v e i n a n E di r e c t i on, at s pe e ds v a r y i n g f r o m n e a r l y s t a t i o n a r y t o 40 knot s . Occas i onal l y, d u r i n g t he mo s t act i ve s t age of i t s exi s t ence, a l ow ma y mo v e as f as t as 70 60 knot s . Lo ws n o r ma l l y l as t a r o u n d 4 t o 6 days a n d s l ow d o wn wh e n f i l l i ng. ( I ) A COLD POLAR AIR ~WARM TROPICAL AIR C C AC = SURFACE BOUNDARY OR FRONT ( 9 A . B / f SMALL WAVE C DEVELOPING AT B (3) CIRCULATION AROUND B AB ---- COLD FRONT BC ---- WARM FRONT Di ~r~m 8 Formation of Fronts in the N. Hemisphere. NORTHERN HEMISPHERE COLD ~// ~ X ' . ~ ~ (WARM SECTOR) (a) Plan of a Depression. / c o o m WARM FRONT SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE X ~ " ~ ( , WARM SECTOR) - - ~ , ; , , ~ COLD AIR COLD FRONT PRECI PITATION (b) Plan of a Depression. X
~.c~ ~ . ~ ~~ .-~ ~o~o \ ~ ~ ~, ~, ~ A~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ COLD WARM SECTOR FRONT ~ S ~ ~ , . . ~ , , ' , ~ : ~ ' , : . , ' ~ , ,! ~ ~ ~l ~ ~ ~ , , ~ ~ ,, ~ WARM y FRONT < 500 MILES > Diagram g (c) Section through Depression at XY. NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE ( a) Plan o f an Oc c l u s i o n . Y W A R M FRONT COLD FRONT ~ OCCLUSION ~ PRECIPITATION X ~ ( b ) Plan o f an Oc c l u s i o n . Y X COL DER ' ~ ~ , , ' ~ = ~ ~ COLD ~1 ~ ~ I ~ ~ 2 : ~ i ' , , - ~,~ ~ , ~ ~ , , , , : , , . , : , ',~, ~ ? . ~ ~,~'~ ~ ~ ~ , , ,~,~ , ~','~ OCCLUSION Y Diagram ~ I0 (c) Section through Occlusion at XY. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 11 Fr ont s , wh i c h a c c ompa ny depr es s i ons , ar e f or me d, i n br i ef , as f ol l ows. I f t wo ai r masses f r om di f f er ent r egi ons, s uch as t he pol ar a nd t r opi cal r egi ons, ar e br ought t oget her , t he sur f ace b o u n d a r y whe r e t he y me e t is known as a f r ont . Fu r t h e r t her e is a t e nde nc y f or waves t o f or m on t hi s f r ont a nd s ome of t hes e waves de ve l op i nt o depr essi ons. Th i s is s hown i n Di a g r a m 8, whe r e by st age 3 i t can be seen t hat t he depr es s i on has a c i r c u- l at i on. T h e par t of t he f r ont ma r ke d AB is cal l ed a col d f r ont as al ong i t col d ai r is r epl aci ng wa r m ai r. T h e par t 5 ma r ke d BC is t he wa r m f r ont si nce al ong t hi s f r ont wa r m ai r is r e pl a c i ng col d ai r. Oc e a ni c depr es s i ons us ual l y have one or mor e f r ont s e xt e ndi ng f r om t hei r cent r es, each f r ont r e pr e s e nt i ng a bel t of ba d weat her , a c c ompa ni e d b y a ve e r ( backi ng) of wi nd, wh i c h mar ks t he change f r om t he we a t he r char ac- t er i s t i c of one ai r mass t o t hat of t he ot her . Du r i n g t he fi rst t wo or t hr ee days of i t s exi st ence a depr es s i on has a wa r m and a col d f r ont , t he ar ea be t we e n t he t wo be i ng known as t he wa r m sect or becaus e t he ai r has c ome f r o m 10 a wa r me r l ocal i t y t ha n t hat whi c h is out s i de t he sect or . Th i s is s hown i n Di a g r a m 9, (a) a nd (b). Wa r m ai r is l i ght er t han col d ai r a nd i t ri ses over t he col d ai r ahead of t he wa r m f r ont as s hown i n Di a g r a m 9 (c). Th i s causes c onde ns a t i on of t he wat er va pour i n t he wa r m air, f or mi ng at fi rst cl oud a nd l at er dr i zzl e or c ont i nuous s t eady r ai n. T h e cl oud s pr eads out ahead of t he wa r m f r ont and t he hi ghe s t cl oud, ci r r us, is of t en about 500 mi l es ahead of it. At t he r ear b o u n d a r y of t he wa r m sect or , known as t he col d f r ont , t he col d ai r is pus hi ng u n d e r t he 15 wa r m ai r f or c i ng t he l at t er t o as cend r api dl y. Th i s pr oces s is s ome t i me s vi ol ent e nough t o pr oduc e squal l s. T h e r a pi d as cent of t he wa r m ai r causes t he moi s t ur e t o c onde ns e i n t he f or m of c u mu l o n i mb u s cl ouds ( s hower cl ouds) , f r om wh i c h he a vy s hower s ma y fall. T h e col d f r ont move s f ast er t ha n t he wa r m f r ont a nd gr adual l y over t akes it, caus i ng t he wa r m ai r t o be l i f t ed up f r om t he sur f ace. Wh e n t hi s ha ppe ns t he depr es s i on is sai d t o be occl uded and t he f r ont s have me r g e d i nt o 20 a si ngl e f r ont , k n o wn as an occl usi on. Di a g r a m 10 shows t hi s. Onc e occl uded, depr es s i ons us ual l y b e c o me l ess act i ve, s l ow down a nd s t ar t t o fill. Depr es s i ons nor ma l l y t r avel i n a di r ect i on a ppr oxi ma t e l y par al l el wi t h t he i sobar s a nd t he di r ect i on of t he wi nd i n t he wa r m sect or . T h e f ol l owi ng is a br i e f gener al des cr i pt i on of depr es s i ons a nd t he associ at ed we a t he r i n t e mpe r a t e or mi ddl e l at i t udes of t he t wo he mi s phe r e s . I t mus t be emphas i s ed, however , t hat i ndi vi dua l depr es s i ons i n di f f er ent 25 l ocal i t i es di f f er c ons i de r a bl y f r om one a not he r accor di ng t o t he t e mpe r a t ur e a nd h u mi d i t y of t he ai r cur r ent s of whi c h t he y ar e c ompos e d a nd t he na t ur e of t he sur f ace over whi c h t he y ar e t r avel l i ng. T h e a ppr oa c h of a depr es s i on is i ndi cat ed by a f al l i ng bar omet er . I n t he N (S) he mi s phe r e , i f a depr es s i on is a ppr oa c hi ng f r om t he W and pas s i ng t o t he N (S) of t he shi p, cl ouds appear on t he W hor i zon, t he wi n d shi f t s t o a S W ( NW) or S ( N) di r e c t i on a nd f r eshens, t he cl oud l ayer gr adual l y l ower s and f i nal l y dr i zzl e, r ai n or s now 30 begi ns. I f t he de pr e s s i on is not occl uded, af t er a pe r i od of c ont i nuous r ai n or s now t her e is a ve e r ( backi ng) of t he wi n d at t he wa r m f r ont . I n t he wa r m sect or , t he t e mpe r a t ur e ri ses, t he r ai n or s now eases or st ops, vi s i bi l i t y is us ual l y mo d e r a t e a nd t he sky over cas t wi t h l ow cl oud. T h e passage of t he col d f r ont is ma r k e d by t he a ppr oa c h f r om t he W of a t hi ck ba nk of c l oud ( whi ch howe ve r c a nnot us ual l y be seen becaus e of t he c us t oma r y l ow over cas t sky i n t he wa r m sect or ) , a f ur t he r ve e r ( backi ng) of wi nd t o W or NW ( SW) s ome t i me s wi t h a s udde n 35 squal l , r i s i ng pr es s ur e, fal l of t e mpe r a t ur e , s qual l y s hower s of r ai n, hai l or snow, a nd i mp r o v e d vi s i bi l i t y e xc e pt dur i ng shower s. T h e squal l y, s howe r y we a t he r wi t h a f ur t he r ve e r ( backi ng) of wi nd a nd a dr op i n t e mpe r a t ur e ma y r e c ur whi l e t he depr es s i on r ecedes owi ng t o t he passage of a not he r col d f r ont or occl usi on. I f t he depr es s i on is occl uded, t he occl us i on is pr e c e de d by t he cl oud of t he wa r m f r ont ; t her e ma y be a pe r i od of c ont i nuous r ai n ma i nl y i n f r ont of and at t he l i ne of t he occl usi on, or a s hor t er pe r i od of heavy r ai n ma i nl y be hi nd t he occl usi on, 40 accor di ng as t he ai r i n f r ont of t he occl us i on is col der or wa r me r t han t he ai r be hi nd it. T h e r e ma y be a s udde n ve e r ( backi ng) of wi n d at t he occl usi on. Of t e n a not he r depr es s i on f ol l ows 12 t o 24 hour s l at er, i n wh i c h e ve nt t he ba r ome t e r begi ns t o fal l agai n a nd t he wi n d backs t owar ds S W ( NW) , or even S ( N) . I f a depr es s i on t r avel l i ng E or NE ( SE) is pas s i ng S ( N) of t he shi p, t he wi nds i n f r ont of i t ar e E a nd t he y 45 back (veer) t hr ough NE ( SE) t o N (S) or NW ( SW) ; changes of di r ect i on ar e not l i kel y t o be so s udde n as on t he S ( N) si de of t he depr es s i on. I n t he r ai n ar ea t her e is of t en a l ong pe r i od of c ont i nuous r ai n and unpl e a s a nt we a t he r wi t h l ow cl oud. I n wi nt e r i n t he col der r egi ons t he we a t he r is col d a nd r aw and pr eci pi t at i on is of t en i n t he f or m of snow. Wi n d s ma y be t e mpor a r i l y l i ght a nd var i abl e near t he cent r e of a depr es s i on but r api d changes t o s t r ong or 50 gal e f or ce wi nds ar e l i kel y as pr es s ur e begi ns t o ri se and t he l ow move s away. Some t i me s i n t he ci r cul at i on of a l ar ge depr essi on, us ual l y on t he equat or i al si de and of t en on t he col d f r ont , a s econdar y depr es s i on devel ops , t r avel l i ng i n t he s ame di r e c t i on as t he pr i ma r y but us ual l y mor e r api dl y. T h e s econdar y of t en de e pe ns whi l e t he or i gi nal depr es s i on fills. Be t we e n t he pr i ma r y and t he s econdar y depr essi ons, t he wi nds ar e n o t as a r ul e s t r ong b u t on t he f a r t he r si de of t he s econdar y, us ual l y t he S ( N) si de, wi nds ar e 55 l i kel y t o be s t r ong a nd t he y ma y r each gal e f or ce. Th u s t he d e v e l o p me n t of a s econdar y ma y cause gal es f a r t he r f r om t he pr i ma r y t ha n was t h o u g h t l i kel y, whi l e t her e ma y be onl y l i ght wi nds whe r e gal es wer e expect ed. 1. 38. T r o p i c a l s t o r ms ar e s t or ms whi c h bl ow r o u n d an area of l ow pr es s ur e i n a di r ect i on wh i c h is ant i - cl ock- wi se i n t he N he mi s phe r e a nd cl ockwi se i n t he S he mi s phe r e . T h e wi nd does not r evol ve a r ound t he cent r e of 60 t he l ow pr es s ur e i n c onc e nt r i c ci r cl es b u t has a spi r al mo v e me n t i nwar ds, t owar ds t he cent r e. A t r opi cal s t or m is n o t so ext ens i ve as t he depr es s i ons of hi ghe r l at i t udes but , wi t hi n 75 mi l es or so of t he cent r e, t he wi n d is of t en f ar mor e vi ol ent , a nd t he hi gh and conf us ed seas ne a r t he cent r e ma y cause cons i der abl e damage even t o l ar ge and wel l f ound shi ps. T h e da nge r is st i l l gr eat er wh e n shi ps ar e caught i n r es t r i ct ed wat er s wi t hout a de qua t e r o o m t o ma noe uvr e . Du e t o t or r ent i al r ai n a nd s heet s of al mos t c ont i nuous s pr ay vi s i bi l i t y 65 near t he s t or m cent r e ( but out s i de t he eye) is al mos t ni l . Wi t h i n 5 t o 10 mi l es of t he cent r e t he wi nd is l i ght or mode r a t e a nd var i abl e, t he sky is cl ear or par t i al l y so, and t her e is a heavy, s ome t i me s mount a i nous , conf us ed s wel l ; t hi s ar ea is known as t he eye of t he s t or m. T h e l ocal i t i es, seasons, aver age f r e que nc i e s a nd l ocal na me s of t hes e s t or ms ar e s hown i n Ta b l e A. T h e y ar e mos t f r e q u e n t dur i ng t he l at e s u mme r and ear l y a u t u mn a nd ar e c ompa r a t i ve l y r ar e i n t he S h e mi s p h e r e f r om 70 12 P OWE R VE SSE L ROUT E S
I I O Z
Z O O o j
Z m~ P L A N N I N G A P A S S A GE 13 mi d-May to November and in the N hemisphere from mi d-November to mi d-June. It should be remembered however that no mont h is entirely safe and that storms can occur at any time. The locating of tropical storms has greatly improved in recent years with the aid of weather satellites, a typical satellite picture being shown in Diagram 11. Once identified by satellite, tropical circulations are carefully tracked and in some areas, e.g. the seas around the West Indies and the Philippines, weather reconnaissance 5 aircraft fly into these circulations to measure characteristics such as wind speed and pressure. Warnings of the position, intensity and expected movement of each circulation are then broadcast at regular intervals (see Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals), the following terms being then generally used to describe tropical circulations. Tropical Depression: Winds of Force 7 and less. 10 Tropical Storm : Winds of Force 8 and 9. Severe Tropical St orm: Winds of Force 10 and 11. Cyclone, Typhoon, Hurricane, etc. : Winds of Force 12 and over. Tropical storms generally originate between the latitudes of 7 and 15 , though some form nearer the equator. 15 Those which affect the W part of the Pacific, South Indian and Nort h Atlantic Oceans are usually first reported in the W parts of these oceans, though there are exceptions, such as in the Nort h Atlantic during August and September when an occasional storm begins near Cape Verde Islands. In the N hemisphere they move off in a direction bet~veen 275 and 350 , though most often within 30 of due W. When near the latitude of 25 they usually recurve away from the equator and, by the time they have reached a latitude of 30 , the track (or path as it is more usually called) is NE. In the S hemisphere they move off in a WSW to SSW direction (usually the 20 former), recurve between latitudes of about 15 to 20 , and thereafter follow a SE path. Many storms, however, do not recurve but continue in a WNW (WSW) direction until they reach a large land mass where they fill quickly. The speed of the storms is usually about 10 knots in their early stages, increasing a little with latitude but seldom achieving 15 knots before recurring. A speed of 20 to 25 knots is usual after recurving though speeds 25 of over 40 knots have been known. Storms occasionally move erratically, at times making a complete loop, but when this happens their speed is usually less than 10 knots. Winds of force 7 are likely up to 200 miles from the centre of the storm and winds of gale force 8 up to 100 miles from the centre, at latitudes of less than 20; but by a latitude of 35 these distances may be doubled though wind force near the centre may be diminished. Hurricane force winds are likely within 75 miles of the 30 storm centre in the tropics and gusts exceeding 175 knots have been reported. As already stated, warning of the position, intensity and expected movement of a storm is given by radio at frequent intervals. Sometimes, however, there is insufficient evidence for an accurate warning, or even a general warning to be given and then ships must be guided by their own observations. The first of the following observa- tions is by far the most reliable indication of the proximity of a storm, within 20 or so of the equator. It should 35 be borne in mind, however, that very little warning of the approach of an intense storm of small diameter may be expected. Precursory signs of tropical storms. If a corrected barometer reading is 3 millibars or more below the mean for the time of the year, as shown 40 in the climatic atlas or appropriate volume of Admiralty Sailing Directions, suspicion should be aroused and action taken to meet any development. The barometer reading must be corrected not only for height, latitude, temperature and index error (if mercurial) but also for diurnal variation, as given in the climatic atlas or appropriate volume of Admiralty Sailing Directions. If the corrected reading is 5 millibars or more below normal it is time to consider avoiding action for there can be little doubt that a tropical storm 45 is in the vicinity. Because of the importance of pressure readings it is wise to read the barometer hourly in areas affected by tropical storms. An appreciable change in the direction or strength of the wind. A long, low swell is sometimes evident, proceeding from the approximate bearing of the centre of the storm. Thi s indication may be apparent before the barometer begins to fall. 50 Extensive cirrus cloud followed, as the storm approaches, by altostratus and then broken cumulus or scud. Radar may give warning of a storm within about 100 miles. Diagram 12 gives an idea of how the areas of precipitation around a tropical storm may appear on radar in the N hemisphere. At times the eye of the storm can be clearly seen. It is surrounded by a large area of moderate or heavy rain and outside this area 55 the belts of rain are arranged in bands as shown. Diagram 13 shows hurricane Camille in August 1969 approaching New Orleans from S. Winds of 120 to 130 knots were estimated in the circulation of this hurricane. By the time the exact position of the storm is given by radar, the ship is likely to be already experiencing high seas, and strong to gale force winds. It should be in time, however, to enable the ship to avoid the eye 60 and its vicinity, where the worst conditions exist. Not e: Under regulations drawn up by the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, it is the duty of every ship suspecting the presence or formation of a tropical storm immediately to inform other vessels and shore authorities by all means at her disposal. Weather reports should be made by radio at frequent intervals giving as much informatioon as possible, especially corrected barometer readings (but not corrected for diurnal 65 variation). If the barometer readings are uncorrected this fact should also be stated in the signal. To decide the best course of action if a storm is suspected in the vicinity, the following knowledge is necessary: (a) The bearing of the centre of the storm. (b) The path of the storm. 70 14 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Sat el l i t e pi c t ur e of Ty p h o o n ' El s i e ' of f T' a i - wa n , Se p t e mb e r 1969 Di a g r a m 11. TRACK OF CENTRE ..... ~ . .......... ~ ! ! ~ . , ~ : ~ . . E ~ Eye o f S t o r m ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~:~!,~ ' ~ ~ ,:~, ~ ~ ~i:~:~~":~':~!i~.:~.~i~ ~ ~ ~ ...... ~ ~ ~ Pr e c i pi t a t i on areas s hown b y r adar Di a g r a m 12. Ra da r Pr e s e nt a t i on of Hu r r i c a n e ' Ca mi l l e ' Di a g r a m 13. P L A N N I N G A P A S S A GE 15 I f a n o b s e r v e r f aces t h e wi n d , t h e c e n t r e of t h e s t o r m wi l l b e f r o m 100 t o 125 o n hi s r i g h t h a n d s i de i n t h e N h e mi s p h e r e wh e n t h e s t o r m i s a b o u t 200 mi l e s away, i . e. wh e n t h e b a r o me t e r ha s f al l en a b o u t 5 mi l l i b a r s a n d t h e wi n d ha s i n c r e a s e d t o a b o u t f or ce 6. As a r ul e, t h e n e a r e r h e i s t o t h e c e n t r e t h e mo r e n e a r l y doe s t h e a ngl e a p p r o a c h 90 . T h e p a t h of t h e s t o r m ma y b e a p p r o x i ma t e l y d e t e r mi n e d b y t a k i n g t wo s u c h b e a r i n g s s e p a r a t e d b y a n i nt e r va l of 2 t o 3 h o u r s , a l l owa nc e b e i n g ma d e f or t h e mo v e me n t of t h e s hi p d u r i n g t h e i nt e r va l . I t c a n 5 ge ne r a l l y be a s s u me d t h a t t h e s t o r m i s n o t t r a ve l l i ng t o wa r d s t h e e q u a t o r a nd, i f i n a l owe r l a t i t ude t h a n 20 , i t s p a t h i s mo s t unl i ke l y t o h a v e a n E c o mp o n e n t . On t h e r a r e oc c a s i ons wh e n t h e s t o r m i s f ol l owi ng a n u n u s u a l p a t h i t i s l i kel y t o b e mo v i n g sl owl y. Di a g r a m 14 s hows t ypi c a l p a t h s of t r opi c a l s t o r ms a n d i l l us t r a t e s t h e t e r ms " d a n g e r o u s " a n d " n a v i g a b l e " s e mi c i r c l e . T h e f o r me r l i es o n t h e s i de of t h e p a t h t o wa r d s t h e us ua l d i r e c t i o n of r e c u r v a t u r e , i . e. t h e r i g h t 10 h a n d s e mi c i r c l e i n t h e N a n d t h e l ef t h a n d s e mi c i r c l e i n t h e S h e mi s p h e r e . T h e a d v a n c e q u a d r a n t of t h e d a n g e r o u s s e mi c i r c l e ( s h o wn s h a d e d ) i s k n o wn as t he d a n g e r o u s q u a d r a n t as t h i s q u a d r a n t l i es a h e a d of t h e c e nt r e . T h e n a v i g a b l e s e mi c i r c l e i s t h a t wh i c h l i es o n t he o t h e r s i de of t he p a t h . A s hi p s i t u a t e d wi t h i n t h i s s e mi c i r c l e wi l l t e n d t o b e b l o wn a wa y f r o m t h e s t o r m c e n t r e a n d r e c u r v a t u r e of t h e s t o r m wi l l i nc r e a s e h e r di s t a nc e f r o m t h e c e nt r e . 15 :5 C~t t 2 0 O N . / x
x ~ . - . . . . / / ~ - _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E V A S I O N . ~ P o s s i b l ~ " ~" t ".b. TRACK - - - . _ . . - e Wath ~ / r / . ~ ~ ~ ] ~ ~ . . . . . . . . 222c:-'-'~}._XL2~ ....... ,~ \ , ~ - A ~ . . . . gYE,I 1 , ~ ~ , 3 , , ~ ; , ; ~ I v~g ~ " L nN ' x ~ ~ ~ " ; ' ~ ; ; e , ~ T . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . ~ ~. ~ " " - - . ~EVASI ON T~ACK 20N. 20 25 I 0 N . 30 35 OO 0 o 40 I OS. . 2 0 S . W E V A S I O N ,-~" T R A C K s " t t /
i I , ~ - ~ --~,,~\ t / ' / \ \ , , . . . . i Navigable \ ~ ~ - ~ - ' I S e m i c i r c l e ~ ~ " ~ ~ . l ~ - ~ e ~ , o ~ ~ / I . _ t - - ~ ~ ~ ~emicircle " / ~ . . . . . . . . . . : : : : , ' - r o S s i b l e r ~ . . . . . . . . . - " ~ . . . . . ~ ~ _ - - - ~ ~ . E V A S I O N ~ . . . . . . . ~ T R A C K ~ / % S H A D E D H A L F O F D A N G E R O U S S E MI C I R C L E I S T H E D A N G E R O U S G I U A D R A N T . Ty p i c a l p a t h s of Tr o p i c a l S t o r ms Di a g r a m 14. I 0 S . 20S. 1. 39. A v o i d i n g t r o p i c a l s t o r m s . I n wh a t e v e r s i t ua t i on a s hi p ma y f i nd h e r s e l f t h e ma t t e r of vi t a l i mp o r t a n c e i s t o a voi d pa s s i ng wi t h i n 50 mi l e s or so of t h e c e n t r e of t h e s t or m. I t i s p r e f e r a b l e b u t n o t al ways pos s i bl e t o ke e p out s i de a di s t a nc e of 200 mi l es . I f a s hi p ha s at l eas t 20 k n o t s at h e r di s pos a l a n d s h a p e s a c our s e t h a t wi l l t ake h e r mo s t r a pi dl y a wa y f r o m t h e s t o r m be f or e t h e wi n d ha s i n c r e a s e d a bove t h e p o i n t at wh i c h h e r mo v e me n t 45 50 55 60 65 70 16 POWER VESSEL ROUTES be c ome s r es t r i ct ed, i t is s e l dom t hat she wi l l c ome t o any ha r m. So me t i me s a t r opi cal s t or m mo v e s so s l owl y t hat a vessel , i f ahead of it, can easi l y out pa c e i t or, i f as t er n of it, can over t ake it. I f a s t or m is s us pe c t e d i n t he vi ci ni t y, t he vessel , whi l s t obs e r vi ng he r ba r ome t e r , s houl d c ont i nue on he r cour s e unt i l t he ba r ome t e r has f al l en 5 mi l l i bar s ( cor r ect ed f or di ur na l var i at i on) be l ow nor ma l , or t he wi n d has 5 i ncr eas ed t o f or ce 6 wh e n t he ba r ome t e r has f al l en at l east 3 mi l l i bar s . T h e n she s houl d act as r e c o mme n d e d i n t he f ol l owi ng par agr aphs , unt i l t he ba r ome t e r has r i sen above t he l i mi t j us t gi ve n a nd t he wi n d has de c r e a s e d be l ow f or ce 6. Sh o u l d i t be cer t ai n, however , t hat t he vessel is b e h i n d t he s t or m, or i n t he navi gabl e s emi ci r cl e, i t wi l l e vi de nt l y be suf f i ci ent t o al t er cour s e away f r om t he cent r e. In the N hemisphere ( shi p i ni t i al l y mo v i n g sl owl y). 10 I f t he wi n d is ve e r i ng t he shi p mu s t be i n t he da nge r ous s emi ci r cl e. T h e s hi p s houl d pr oc e e d wi t h al l avai l abl e s peed wi t h t he wi nd 10 t o 45 , de pe ndi ng on speed, on t he s t ar boar d bow. As t he wi nd veer s t he shi p s houl d t u r n t o st ar boar d, t he r e by t r aci ng a cour s e r el at i ve t o t he s t or m as s hown i n Di a g r a m 14. I f t he wi n d r e ma i ns s t eady i n di r ect i on, or i f i t backs, so t hat t he s hi p s eems t o be near l y i n t he pa t h or i n t he navi gabl e s emi ci r cl e r es pect i vel y, t he shi p s houl d b r i n g t he wi nd wel l on t he s t ar boar d qua r t e r 15 a nd pr oc e e d wi t h all avai l abl e speed. As t he wi nd backs t he shi p s houl d t u r n t o por t as s hown. In the S hemisphere (shi p i ni t i al l y mo v i n g sl owl y). I f t he wi n d is backi ng t he shi p mus t be i n t he danger ous s emi ci r cl e. T h e s hi p s houl d pr oc e e d wi t h al l avai l abl e s peed wi t h t he wi nd 10 t o 45 , de pe ndi ng on speed, on t he por t bow. As t he wi nd backs t he s hi p s houl d t ur n t o por t t he r e by t r aci ng a cour s e r el at i ve t o t he s t or m as s hown. 20 I f t he wi nd r e ma i ns s t eady i n di r ect i on, or i f i t veer s, so t hat t he shi p seems t o be near l y i n t he pa t h or i n t he navi gabl e s emi ci r cl e r es pect i vel y, t he shi p s houl d br i ng t he wi n d wel l on t he por t qua r t e r a nd pr oc e e d wi t h all avai l abl e s peed. As t he wi nd veer s t he shi p s houl d t u r n t o s t ar boar d as s hown. I f t her e is i nsuf f i ci ent r o o m t o r un, wh e n i n t he navi gabl e s emi ci r cl e, a nd i t is not pr act i cabl e t o seek s hel t er , t he shi p s houl d heave t o wi t h t he wi nd on he r s t ar boar d b o w i n t he N a nd on he r por t b o w i n t he S he mi s phe r e . 25 I f in harbour wh e n a t r opi cal s t or m appr oaches , i t is pr ef er abl e t o p u t t o sea i f t hi s can be done i n t i me t o avoi d t he wor s t of t he s t or m. Ri d i n g out a t r opi cal s t or m, t he cent r e of wh i c h passes wi t hi n 50 mi l e s or so, i n a h a r b o u r or anchor age, even i f s ome s hel t er is of f er ed, is an unpl e a s a nt a nd hazar dous exper i ence, especi al l y i f t her e ar e ot he r s hi ps i n c ompa ny. Ev e n i f be r t he d al ongsi de, or i f speci al moor i ngs ar e used, a shi p c a nnot f eel ent i r el y secur e. 30 35 1. 40. An t i c y c l o n e s . Ov e r t he E si des of t he oceans t he mo v e me n t of ant i cycl ones , wh i c h ar e also known f or s ynopt i c pur pos e s as highs, is gener al l y sl ow a nd er r at i c a nd t he ant i cycl one ma y r e ma i n s t at i onar y f or s ever al days gi vi ng s et t l ed weat her . T h e pr es s ur e gr a di e nt is us ual l y sl i ght , t he wi nds ar e l i ght a nd t he we a t he r is of t en fi ne or pa r t l y cl oudy, b u t i n wi n t e r over cas t skies ar e c o mmo n , pr oduc i ng g l o o my condi t i ons . Pr e c i pi t a t i on is, however , r ar e e xc e pt on t he out ski r t s of an ant i cycl one. Ove r t he W par t s of t he oceans ant i cycl ones ar e mo r e l i kel y t o mo v e qui c kl y a nd c ons e que nt l y t he we a t he r is mo r e changeabl e. Mo v e me n t is gener al l y t owar ds t he E. 40 F OG 45 1. 51. F o g is caus ed by t he cool i ng of ai r i n c ont a c t wi t h t he sur f ace t o a t e mp e r a t u r e at wh i c h i t can no l onge r mai nt ai n, i n an i nvi s i bl e st at e, t he wa t e r va pour whi c h is pr e s e nt i n it. Conde ns a t i on of t hi s va pour i nt o mi nut e , t h o u g h vi si bl e, dr opl et s pr oduc e s fog. T h e t ype of f og de pe nds u p o n t he me a ns by wh i c h t he ai r is cool ed. Fo r det ai l s of speci f i c areas, Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r e c t i ons s houl d be cons ul t ed. 1. 52. Se a o r Ad v e c t i o n f o g is associ at ed wi t h moi s t a nd r el at i vel y wa r m ai r f l owi ng over a col d sea s ur f ace a nd is t he ma i n t ype of f og e xpe r i e nc e d at sea. I t is mos t c o mmo n i n t he l at e s pr i ng a nd ear l y s umme r , wh e n sea 50 t e mp e r a t u r e is at i t s l owes t c o mp a r e d wi t h ai r t e mpe r a t ur e . T o pr oduc e f og by t hi s me a ns t he r at e of cool i ng of t he ai r mu s t be hi gh. Th i s onl y occur s f r e que nt l y a nd on a l ar ge scal e, ei t her ne a r col d cur r ent s a nd at a season wh e n t he pr e va i l i ng wi n d t r ans por t s wa r m, moi s t ai r ove r t he m, or el s ewher e whe r e t he sea t e mp e r a t u r e is a ppr e c i a bl y l ower t ha n t hat of t he ai r wh i c h bl ows over it. Exa mpl e s of t he f or me r ar e t he f ogs wh i c h oc c ur of f Ne wf o u n d l a n d , of f Cal i f or ni a a nd be t we e n J a pa n and t he Al e ut i a n I s l ands ; t he col d cur r ent s i nvol ve d 55 be i ng t he La br a dor , Cal i f or ni a a nd Oya Shi o, r es pect i vel y. T h e l at t er t ype is r e pr e s e nt e d by t he s pr i ng a nd s u mme r fogs i n t he S W appr oaches t o t he Engl i s h Channel . 60 65 1. 53. F r o n t a l f o g ma y oc c ur ne a r an occl us i on or ahead of a wa r m f r ont a nd is due t o t he e va por a t i on of t he wa r m r ai ndr ops i nt o t he col d ai r be ne a t h t he f r ont al sur f ace, r ai s i ng t he r el at i ve h u mi d i t y t o s at ur at i on poi nt . I t occur s i n t e mpe r a t e a nd hi gh l at i t udes a nd is conf i ned t o a r el at i vel y na r r ow bel t n o t us ual l y mor e t ha n 50 mi l es i n wi dt h. 1. 54. Ar c t i c Se a S mo k e , or Fr o s t Smoke, is nor ma l l y conf i ned t o hi gh l at i t udes a nd occur s wh e n ve r y col d ai r fl ows over a mu c h wa r me r sea sur f ace, wh e n i nt ens e e va por a t i on t akes pl ace f r om t he r el at i vel y wa r m sea. T h e moi s t ur e t hus e va por a t e d is i mme d i a t e l y chi l l ed by cont act wi t h t he col d ai r a nd c onde ns e d t o f o r m fog, gi vi ng t he sea t he appear ance of s t eami ng. Th i s t ype of f og is of t en e nc ount e r e d whe r e a col d wi n d is bl owi ng of f i ce or s now on t o a r el at i vel y wa r m sea. 1. 55. R a d i a t i o n f o g f or ms over l ow- l yi ng l and on cl ear ni ght s ( condi t i ons f or ma x i mu m r adi at i on) especi al l y 70 dur i ng wi nt e r mont hs . Ra di a t i on f og is t hi ckes t dur i ng t he l at t er par t of t he n i g h t a nd ear l y par t of t he day. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 17 Occasionally it drifts out to sea but is found no farther than 10 to 15 miles offshore as the sea surface temperature is relatively high which causes the water droplets to evaporate. 1.56. For ecast i ng sea fog. Warnings of the likely formation of sea fog may be obtained by frequent observa- tions of air and sea surface temperature ; if the sea surface temperature falls below the dewpoint, see Tabl e B, 5 fog is almost certain to form. The following procedure is recommended whenever the temperature of the air is higher than, or almost equal to that of the sea, especially at night when approaching fog cannot be seen until shortly before entering it. Sea and air (both dry and wet bulb) temperatures should be observed at least every 10 minutes and the sea surface temperature and dewpoint temperature plotted against time. See Diagram 15. If the curves converge fog may be expected when they coincide. The example shows that by 2200 there is a 10 probability of running into fog about 2300, assuming that the sea surface temperature continues to fall at the same rate. In areas where a rapid fall of sea surface temperature may be encountered, which can be seen from the appro- priate chartlet in Admiralty Sailing Directions, a reliable warning of fog will be given when the dewpoint is within 5C of the sea surface temperature. To avoid fog a course should be set for warmer waters. 15 TABLE B: Dew- poi nt (c) D r y B u l b _ _ C _ _ _ 4 0 3 9 3 8 3 7 3 6 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 2 31 3 0 -~- 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 5 24- 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 3~ ~8 1 7 ~6 1S 1 4 13 1 2 l l 1 0 ~ - 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 - - I - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - 5 - - 8 - - 9 - - 1 0 - - H - - ~ 2 - - 1 3 - - ~ 4 - - 1 ~ - - 1 6 - - 1 7 D e p r e s s i o n o f We t B u l b 0 0 . 5 1 . 0 1 . 5 2 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 0 3 . 5 4 . 0 4 . 5 5 . 0 5 . 5 6 . 0 6 . 5 7 . 0 7 . 5 8 . 0 8 . 5 9 . 0 4 0 3 9 3 9 3 8 3 8 3 7 3 6 3 6 3 5 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 31 31 3 0 2 9 2 9 3 9 3 8 3 8 3 7 3 7 3 6 3 5 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 0 2 9 2 9 2 8 2 7 3 8 3 7 3 7 3 6 3 6 3 5 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 31 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 3 7 3 6 3 6 3 5 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 31 31 3 0 2 9 2 9 2 8 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 5 3 6 3 5 3 5 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 31 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 3 5 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 31 31 3 0 2 9 2 9 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 4 2 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 31 3 1 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 0 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 0 2 9 2 9 2 8 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 9 31 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 2 0 1 9 1 8 3 0 2 9 2 9 2 8 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 21 2 0 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 7 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 2 0 1 9 18 1 7 1 6 15 2 8 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 21 2 0 1 9 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 21 2 0 1 9 18 1 7 16 1 6 15 1 4 13 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 1 9 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 11 2 5 2 4 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 21 2 0 1 9 1 8 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 5 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 2 0 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 I 1 1 0 8 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 9 19 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 5 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 9 18 1 7 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 5 2 1 2 0 2 0 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 6 5 4 2 0 1 9 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 7 6 5 4 2 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 3 2 0 18 1 7 1 6 1 6 1 5 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 3 2 0 - - 1 1 7 1 6 15 15 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 4 3 2 0 - - 2 - - 3 1 6 15 1 4 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 0 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 15 1 4 13 1 2 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 1 4 13 1 2 11 1 0 1 0 9 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 1 13 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 1 - - 1 4 1 2 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 7 11 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 3 - - 5 - - 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 7 - - 2 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 3 - - 5 - - 7 - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 2 1 - - 2 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 - - 1 - - 3 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 3 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 2 - - 1 6 - - 2 0 - - 2 7 - - 4 5 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 2 - - 3 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 2 - - 1 5 - - 1 9 - - 2 5 [ - - 2 5 - - 3 6 6 5 4 3 1 0 - - 1 - - 3 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 4 - - 1 8 1 - - 1 9 - - 2 4 - - 3 4 5 4 3 1 0 - - 1 - - 3 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 1 - - 1 4 t - - 1 4 - - 1 8 - - 2 3 - - 3 2 4 3 2 0 - - 1 - - 3 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 0 [ - - 1 1 - - 1 5 - - 1 8 - - 2 2 - - 3 0 3 2 0 - - 1 - - 2 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 [ - - 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 4 - - 1 7 - - 2 2 - - 2 8 - - 4 5 2 1 - - 1 - - 2 - - 4 - - 5 [ - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 1 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 2 1 - - 2 7 - - 3 9 1 0 - - 2 - - 3 [ - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 2 0 - - 2 5 - - 3 4 0 - - 2 [ 3 4 6 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 2 - - 1 5 - - 1 9 - - 2 4 - - 3 1 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 9 - - 1 2 - - 1 4 - - 1 8 - - 2 2 - - 2 9 - - 4 4 - - 1 - - 2 - - 4 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 4 - - 1 7 - - 2 1 - - 2 6 - - 3 7 - - 2 - - 4 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 1 9 - - 2 4 - - 3 2 - - 3 - - 5 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 2 - - 1 5 - - 1 8 - - 2 3 - - 2 9 - - 4 4 - - 4 - - 6 - - 8 - - 1 0 - - 1 2 - - 1 4 - - 1 7 - - 2 1 - - 2 6 - - 3 6 - - 5 - - 7 - - 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 1 9 - - 2 4 - - 3 1 - - ~ ~ - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 5 - - 1 8 - - 2 2 - - 2 8 - - 3 9 ~ I ~ - - 1 2 1 4 - - 1 7 - - 2 0 - - 2 5 - - 3 2 - - 8 - - 1 1 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 1 9 - - 2 3 - - 2 8 - - 4 0 - - 9 - - 1 2 - - 1 4 - - 1 7 - - 2 1 - - 2 5 - - 3 3 - - 1 0 - - 1 3 - - 1 6 - - 1 9 - - 2 3 - - 2 8 - - 3 9 - - 1 1 - - 1 5 - - 1 7 - - 2 1 - - 2 5 - - 3 2 - - 1 2 - - 1 6 - - 1 9 - - 2 3 - - 2 8 - - 3 8 - - 1 3 - - 1 7 - - 2 0 - - 2 5 - - 3 1 - - 4 7 - - 1 4 - - 1 8 - - 2 2 - - 2 7 - - 3 5 - - 1 5 - - 2 0 - - 2 4 - - 2 9 - - 4 0 - - 1 6 - - 2 1 - - 2 5 - - 3 2 - - 1 7 - - 2 2 - - 2 7 - - 3 5 D r y B u l b o C 4 0 3 9 3 8 3 7 3 6 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 2 31 3O 2 9 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 2 0 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 15 1 4 1 2 13 11 1 0 --;- 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 I n t e r p o l a t i o n m u s t n o t b e m a d e b e t w e e n f i g u r e s a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e h e a v y l i n e o r i g i n a t i n g a t 0 b e c a u s e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o v e t h e l i n e , e v a p o r a - t i o n t a k e s p l a c e f r o m a w a t e r s u r f a c e , a n d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w t h e l i n e i t t a k e s p l a c e f r o m a n i c g s u r f a c e . F o r d r y b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w 0 C i t w i l l b e n o t i c e d t h a t , w h e n t h e d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e w e t b u l b i s z e r o , i . e . , w h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w e t b u l b i s e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e d r y b u l b , t h e d e w - p o i n t i s s t i l l b e l o w t h e d r y b u l b , a n d t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y i s J e s s t h a n 1 0 0 p e r c e n t . T h e s e a p p a r e n t a n o m a l i e s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e m e t h o d o f c o m p u t i n g d e w - p o i n t s a n d r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t i e s n o w a d o p t e d b y t h e Me t e o r o l o g i c a l Of f i c e , i n w h i c h t h e s t a n d a r d s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e f o r t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w 0 C i s t a k e n a s t h a t o v e r w a t e r , a n d n o t a s t h a t o v e r i c e . 18 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S 5 10 15 20 25 I 0 o , ~ s U.I 2 I00 2200 2300 LOCAL TIME Sea Te mp e r a t u r e s and De w Po i n t r eadi ngs pl ot t e d agai nst T i me Di a g r a m 15. EFFECTS OF WI ND, SEA, A N D S WELL 1. 61. We a t h e r r o u t e i n g . T h e r out es gi ven i n t hi s book, a nd a ny wh i c h ar e de r i ve d f r o m t he r out e i ng char t s or 30 ot he r s t at i s t i c- bas ed medi a, ar e " c l i ma t i c " and t ake a c c ount of t he mor e us ual condi t i ons of weat her , sea, a nd swel l . A ma r k e d i mp r o v e me n t of t he r out e by " we a t h e r r o u t e i n g " ma y be possi bl e i f t e mp o r a r y adver s e c ondi - t i ons can ei t her be f or ecast bef or e sai l i ng or a voi de d at s hor t not i ce, t he ef f ect of t hes e bei ng mos t ma r ke d, e xc e pt f or t r opi cal s t or ms , on E - W voyages out s i de t he t r opi cs. Res ear ch c onduc t e d by t he Un i t e d St at es Na v a l Oc e a nogr a phi c Offi ce on a " Vi c t o r y " t ype shi p of l e ngt h 134 m, be a m 19 m, and dr af t 8"4 m, wi t h a t op r at ed .35 s peed of 17.5 knot s, has yi e l de d e n o u g h i nf or ma t i on t o s how t hat , f or aver age me r c h a n t shi ps, a r e duc t i on i n s peed of f r om 20 t o 60 pe r c e nt is pr oba bl e wh e n e v e r head or be a m seas r each st at e 6 or f ol l owi ng seas r each st at e 7. Vessel s on ma n y c onve nt i ona l r out es ma y have t o r e duc e s peed t o an e xt e nt wh i c h de pe nds on t he i r s eakeepi ng qual i t i es, t he r out e, t he season, a nd t he cour se. Di a gr a ms 16 and 17 of t he No r t h At l a nt i c a nd No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a ns s how i sol i nes of pr obabl e s peed r e duc t i on due t o s uch seas on va r i ous headi ngs i n t he 40 di f f er ent s eas ons ; t hi s i nf or ma t i on can be us ed ei t her wh e n pl a nni ng a passage or dur i ng a voyage. Ap a r t f r om a dj us t me nt f or sea a nd swel l condi t i ons as above, t her e ar e t wo me t hods of we a t he r r out e i ng by whi c h t he cl i mat i c r out e ma y be adj us t ed bef or e a nd dur i ng t he voyage t o offset del ay a nd da ma ge due t o s hor t - t e r m we a t he r var i at i ons or s uch var i abl es as t he mo v e me n t of ice. Bot h d e p e n d f or t hei r ef f i ci ency on t he accur acy of f or ecast s, knowl e dge of s hi p char act er i st i cs, a nd t he s peed wi t h wh i c h t he neces s ar y a dj us t me nt s can be 45 made. T h e fi rst me t h o d e mpl oys t he ser vi ces of a cent r al r out e i ng or gani s at i on ashor e, st affed by met eor ol ogi s t s and e xpe r i e nc e d s eamen, whi c h sails t he shi p on t he best r out e c o mp u t e d f r om t he expect ed weat her , shi p st at i st i cs a nd voyage r e qui r e me nt s , s ubs e que nt l y not i f yi ng t he shi p, as n e w we a t he r t r e nds appear or ar e ant i ci pat ed, of advi s abl e di ver si ons. Su c h ser vi ces ar e of f er ed b y : - Oc e a n Rout e s Lo n d o n , Sa n Fr anci s co, and To k y o (all 50 oceans) ; Me t e or ol ogi c a l Offi ce, Br acknel l , U. K. ( At l ant i c and Paci fi c) ; Be ndi x I nc. , Ne w Yor k ( At l ant i c a nd Paci fi c) ; Al we x I nc. , Wa s hi ngt on, D. C. ( At l ant i c and Paci fi c) ; We a t h e r Ro u t e i n g I nc. , Ne w Yor k ( At l ant i c a nd Paci fi c) ; K. N. M. I . , de Bi l t , Ne t h e r l a n d s ( At l ant i c) ; De us c he s Swe t t e r a mt , Ha mb u r g At l ant i c, W- b o u n d onl y) . I n t he s econd me t hod, t he shi p is s el f - r out ed, di ver s i ons bei ng ma de on passage accor di ng t o t he j u d g me n t of t he ma s t e r and i n t he l i ght of we a t he r f or ecast s and f acsi mi l e we a t he r a nd i ce maps, i f t he shi p is f i t t ed t o r ecei ve 55 t h e m. 1.62. T h e a c t i o n o f t h e wi n d i n bl owi ng f or a t i me acr oss an expans e of ocean is t o pr oduc e an ar ea of sea af f ect ed by waves of ne a r l y cons t ant he i ght a nd per i od. Suc h waves pr ogr es s i n gr oups at hal f t he s peed at whi c h i ndi vi dua l waves appear t o mo v e across t he sur f ace, t he l at t er s t ar t i ng at t he r ear of a nd mo v i n g f or war ds t hr ough 60 t he gr oup. T h e f act t hat he i ght a nd pe r i od ar e onl y near l y cons t ant me a ns t hat at t i me s t her e is mu t u a l i nt e r - f e r e nc e be t we e n wave syst ems, and areas of c ompa r a t i ve l y s moot h or r oughe r wa t e r r esul t . Suc h s ys t ems of waves c ont i nue t o pr ogr es s across t he ocean, wi t h s ome at t enuat i on, t hus af f ect i ng di f f er ent ar eas wi t h waves t hat wer e p r o d u c e d by wi nd act i on el sewher e. I n gener al , waves of t hi s sor t do not mo v e at t he s ame s peed as t he we a t he r s ys t ems pr oduc i ng t hei r ge ne r a t i ng wi nds a nd t her e is no r el at i on be t we e n t he wi nd at a poi nt out s i de 65 t he ge ne r a t i ng ar ea a nd t hese waves, whi c h ar e known as s we l l . Th o s e waves, whi c h ar e be i ng p r o d u c e d by t he wi n d bl owi ng at t he t i me and pl ace of obs er vat i on ar e des cr i bed as s ea, a nd ma y us ual l y be di s t i ngui s hed f r om swel l by t he f act t hat t hei r crest s ar e s hor t and l i e at r i ght angl es t o t he wi nd di r ect i on, whe r e a s t hos e of swel l ma y l i e i n a ny di r ect i on r el at i ve t o t he wi nd. T h e s i mi l ar i t y be t we e n sea and swel l has of t en l ed t o conf us i on i n r epor t i ng, par t i cul ar l y whe n bot h ha ppe n t o be s i mi l ar l y di r ect ed, onl y be i ng di s t i ngui s habl e by di f f er i ng 70 per i ods . PLANNI NG A PASSAG~E * *o *o "~ ,~ . *o *o ~ ~ ~ - o o ~ ~ _ . i ~ : ~ k ~ ~ b ~ ~ N ' ~ b " ~ x ~ 5 ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ x. ~ ~ ~ X x :: ~ . ~ ~ . ' , ~ ; ; , - ~ ~ - . ~ N ~ 1 I / ~ ~ ~ ~ i 1 ~ ~ 1 9 i ( ' - - , } ~ \ - ~- , ~, ~ ~ \ ~ , \ . ~ - ~ \ ~- "~ ,~ ~ l ! ~ I [ ..... > ~ ! ~ : / ~ ~ , , ~'7~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~" O 20 POWER VESSEL ROUTES r ~ ' ~ ~ ! f ~i \ ~ ~i . .~., ..:~ ~ ~ ~'~:'' , ~ ",o. ~ ~ .~ ~ ~k J _ 0 O PLANNI NG A PASSAGE ~ [ o ~ . , N 21 2 0 o Z 22 P OWE R VE SSE L ROUT E S , . ~ i , ~ O O PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 23 2 o ~ Q o 24 o ~ o o S }~_ ~ : { ~ i ~i~i~i ~ " f ~' ~ , POWER VESSEL ROUTES ~ ~ ~ ~ ' , . "~ i ! i . . . . ~?~ ~ . ~ : ~ : : i ; :!::~ i . . . . : ~ : - ~ ~, - [ ~ ~:. ~ j ~ , . . . . . . . . . . . : ~ : , ~ ~ i ~ i i ~ ~ .~ ~ o o ' ~2~ , ~ ' ~ ~ ~ i ~ , ~ ~ ~ - ' ~ 1.1 ~ ~,, :~ , ~ ~- - ~: - . j . ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~; ~ ':~ ~ b ~ ~)~ ~ : ~ : ~ , , : ~ ; : ~ ~ ~ ~ [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~,~ ~ ~'~ , ~ : ~ ~ ~?.~ ~:~;~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ : ~ , ~ ~ Q PL ANNI NG A PASSAGE 25 T~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O 26 P OWE . R V E S S E L . R OUT E S Z ~?~' . . o .-~ ,,~
_ . ~ . _ ~ ~ : : ::: ::: : : : / : ~ - , , @ " ~ ' ~ : . ~ i [ [ } ~ : [ , ~ ' ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ i l i l i ~ i i i ~ i!i~ !i ~ , ~ ! i i ~ 1.83. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE BEAUFORT WI ND SCALE (For an effective height of 10 metres above sea level) (WMO Code 100) 27 Beaufort Number 10 11 12 Descriptive Ter m Calm Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze Near gale Gale Strong gale Storm Violent storm Hurricane Mean wi nd speed equivalent in knots <1 1-3 7-10 11-16 17-21 22-27 28-33 34-40 41-47 48-55 56-63 64 and over Sea like a mirror Deep Sea Criterion Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed, but without foam crests Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced; crests have a glassy appearance and do not break Large wavelets; crests begin to break; foam of glassy appearance; perhaps scattered white horses Small waves, becoming longer; fairly frequent white horses Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long form; many white horses are formed (chance of some spray) Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests are more extensive everywhere (probably some spray) Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the direction of the wind Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into spindrift; foam is blown in well- marked streaks along the direction of the wind High waves; dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wi nd; crests of waves begin to topple, tumble and roll over; spray may affect visibility Very high waves with long overhanging crests; the resulting foam, in great patches, is blown i n dense white streaks along the direction of the wi nd; on the whole, the surface of the sea takes a white appearance; the t umbl i ng of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like; visibility affected Exceptionally high waves (small and medium-sized ships might be for a time lost to view behind the waves) ; the sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along the direction of the wi nd; everywhere the edges of the wave crests are blown into froth; visibility affected The air is filled with foam and spray; sea completely white with driving spray; visibility very seriously affected Probable mean wave height* in metres 0. 1 ( 0 . 1 ) 0 . 2 ( 0 . 3 ) 0.6 (1) 1 (1"5) 2 ( 2 . 5 ) 3 (4) 4 (5"5) 5.5 (7.5) 7 ( 1 0 ) 9 (12"5) 11.5 (16) 14 (--) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 * Thi s table is only intended as a guide to show roughly what may be expected i n the open sea, remote from land. It should never be used in the reverse way, i.e., for logging or reporting the state of the sea. I n enclosed waters, or when near land, with an off-shore wind, wave heights will be smaller and the waves steeper. Figures in brackets indicate the probable maxi mum height of waves. 65 70 10 15 28 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 1.64. Sea a nd swel l . The following table shows the wave height and the descriptive terms used for sea states. State Average wave height (metres) 0 0-0-1 0.1-0.5 0.5-1-25 1-25-2.5 2.5-4.0 4.0-6.0 6"0-9"0 9"0-14"0 >14"0 Descriptive t erm Calm (glassy) Calm (rippled) Smooth (wavelets) Slight Moderate Rough Very rough Hi gh Very high Phenomenal 20 Swell states. The terms in general use for the height of swell are : --l ow (2m), moderate (2-4 m), and heavy (4 m and above). Lengt h of swell is defined as short (less than 100 m), average (100-200 m), and long (200 m and above). OCEAN CURRENTS 25 1.71. Ge ne r a l r e ma r k s . Currents flow at all depths in the oceans, but in general the stronger currents occur in an upper layer which is shallow in comparison with the general depth of the oceans. Ocean current circulation therefore takes place in three dimensions. The navigator is only interested in the surface current circulation, which may be defined as the circulation at a depth of about half the ship' s draught. Thi s may differ slightly, especially in the case of a big ship, from that at the very surface, such as would affect a ship' s boat and all drifting 30 objects of negligible draught. A current at any depth in the ocean may have a vertical component, as well as horizontal ones; a surface current can only have horizontal components. The main cause of surface currents in the open ocean is the direct action of the wind on the sea surface, and a close correlation accordingly exists between their directions and those of the prevailing winds. Winds of high constancy blowing over extensive areas of ocean will naturally have a greater effect in producing a current than 35 will variable or localised winds. Thus the North-east and South-east Trade Winds of the two hemispheres are the main spring of the surface current circulation. In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans the two trade winds drive an immense body of water W over a width of some 50 of latitude, broken only by the narrow belt of E-going Equatorial Counter-current, which is found a few degrees north of the equator in both these oceans. A similar W' l y surge of water occurs in the South Indian Ocean by the action of the South-east Trade Wind. 40 The trade winds in both hemispheres are balanced in the higher latitudes by wide belts of variable W' l y winds. These produce corresponding belts of predominantly E' l y sets in the temperate latitudes of each hemi- sphere. Wi t h these E' l y and W' l y sets constituting the N and S limbs, there thus arise great continuous circulations of water in each of the major oceans. These cells are centred in about 30 N and S, and extend from about the 10th to at least the 50th parallel in both hemispheres. The direction of the current circulation is clockwise 45 in the N hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the S hemisphere. There are also regions of current circulation outside the main eddies, due to various causes, but associated with t hem or dependent upon them. As an example, part of the Nort h Atlantic Current branches from the main system and flows N of Scotland and N along the coast of Norway. Branching again, part flows past Spitsbergen into the Arctic Ocean and part enters the Barents Sea. 50 In the main monsoon regions, the N part of the Indian Ocean and the extreme W of the Nort h Pacific Ocean (China Seas and Eastern Archipelago), the current reverses seasonally, flowing in accordance with the monsoon blowing at the time. The South Atlantic, South Indian and South Pacific Oceans are all open to the Southern Ocean, and the Southern Ocean Current, encircling the globe in an easterly direction, completes the S part of the main circulation 55 of each of these three oceans. The general surface current circulation of the world is shown in Chart 5310 (in the pocket at the end of the book), on which the different circulations during the two monsoon seasons are indicated. Apart from these major changes of direction, there are some minor seasonal changes of position of currents, which cannot be shown on a single general chart. One of the chief of these is the Equatorial Counter-current of the Nort h Atlantic 60 Ocean, which originates much farther E from January through April, in about 20 W. For details of the circula- tion, reference should be made to current atlases. Over by far the greater part of all oceans, the individual currents experienced in a given region are variable, in many cases so variable that on different occasions currents may be observed to set in most, or all, directions. Even in the regions of more variable current there is often, however, a greater frequency of current setting 65 towards one part of the compass, so that in the long run there is a flow of water out of the area in a direction which forms part of the general circulation. Some degree of variability, including occasional currents in the opposite direction to the usual flow, is to be found within the limits of the more constant currents, such as the great Equatorial Currents, or the Gul f Stream. The constancy of the more constant currents varies to some extent in different seasons and in different parts of the current. It is usually about 75 per cent or more ; it rarely exceeds 70 85 per cent and then only in limited areas. Current variability is mainly due to the variation of wind in strength PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 29 and direction. For the degree of variation to which currents are liable, reference should be made to the charts of current roses given in standard current atlases. 1.72. Wa r m and col d cur r ent s. The common conception of currents as either warm or cold is not very satisfactory, and needs to be amplified. Currents may be classified as follows : - - 5 (i) Currents, the temperature of which corresponds to the latitude in which they flow and in which the sea surface isotherms therefore run approximately E- W; this temperature may be warm, cold or intermediate. (ii) Currents, the temperature of which does not correspond to the latitude in which they flow, and in which the sea surface isotherms trend more or less markedly N or S. They are therefore either warmer or colder than currents of class (i) flowing in the same latitudes. 10 Examples of class (i) are the warm W- going Equatorial Currents of all oceans and the cold E-going Southern Ocean Current encircling the globe. Examples of class (ii) are the warm Gul f Stream and the warm Kuro Shio, which transport the warm water of the Equatorial Currents to higher latitudes, and the cold East Greenland Current, transporting cold water from the Arctic basin to lower latitudes. Currents of class (ii), cold relatively to their latitude, may be subdivided into two kinds, depending on the 15 origin of the cold water. (a) Currents bringing the cold water of polar regions to lower latitudes, such as the East Greenland Current, the Labrador Current, the Falkland Current and Oya Shio. These currents do not form part of the main closed circulation round the high-pressure area of the appropriate ocean. (b) Currents of lower latitudes, such as the Perf~ Current, forming the E part of the main circulation. In these 20 cases the relative coldness is caused by colder water rising to the surface from moderate subsurface depths, near an extended coastline. Thi s process is known as upwelling, the reason for which is given later. The upwelling water is not as cold, relatively speaking, as are the currents described under (a) above. The warm currents, transporting warm water to higher latitudes, are found on the W sides of the main closed circulations in both hemispheres. These currents, and the colder ones on the E sides, can be tabulated as 25 follows : - - N. Atlantic Ocean S. Atlantic Ocean N. Pacific Ocean S. Pacific Ocean Warm current on W Side of ocean Gul f Stream Brazil Current Kuro Shio East Australian Coast Current S. Indian Ocean Mozambi que and Agulhas Currents Cold current and area of upwelling on E Side of ocean Canary Current Benguela Current 30 California Current 35 PerO Current 40 There is no upwelling on the E side of the South Indian Ocean, where no extended coastline occurs. It should be noted that the relative warmt h of the warm currents on the W sides of the ocean compared with other water in the same latitude, is greatest in winter and least in summer. 45 Cold currents from high latitudes have a special significance for navigators by transporting ice to low latitudes. Cold currents also contribute to the occurrence of a high frequency of fog and poor visibility in certain regions. 1.73. St r engt h of cur r ent s. The information given below is generalised from the current atlases, and refers to the currents of the open ocean, mainly between 50 5I and 50 S. It does not refer to tidal streams, nor to the 50 resultants of currents and tidal streams in coastal waters. Information as to current strength in higher latitudes is scanty. The proportion of nil and very weak currents, less than knot, varies considerably in different parts of the oceans. In the central areas of the main closed oceanic circulations, where current is apt to be most variable, the weakness of the resultant, or vector, mean flow is, in general, not caused by an unduly high proportion of very 55 weak currents, but by the variability of direction of the stronger currents. There is probably no region in any part of the open oceans where the currents experienced do not at times attain the rate of at least 1 knot. Currents of between 2 and 3 knots are found mainly in the W part of the Equatorial Currents, and in the warm currents of the W sides of the circulation in both hemispheres, with the exception of the Brazil Current. They also occur in parts of the Equatorial Counter-currents and in the monsoon areas of the Nort h Indian Ocean and 60 China Seas. These regions are as follows. In the Atlantic Ocean, the Guiana Current; the Florida Current and Gul f Stream W of 40 W; the Guinea Current (but not the Equatorial Counter-current as a whole) ; at certain seasons in the extreme W of the Medi t er- ranean Sea; in the Falkland Current and its extension, the Brazil Counter-current; and in the region of the Cape of Good Hope. Very few observations of current exceeding 2 knots have been recorded elsewhere. 65 In the Indian Ocean, the Equatorial Current in the region of Madagascar; the Equatorial Count er-current ; the Mogambique Current and its extension, the Agulhas Current; the Somali Current in both monsoons, whether flowing N or S along the coast; the South-west Monsoon Current in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal; the region immediately E or S of Ceylon throughout the year. Very few observations of current exceeding 2 knots have been recorded elsewhere except S of Socotra in the South-west Monsoon. 70 30 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S I n the Nort h Pacific Ocean, occasionally in the Nort h Equatorial Current, W of 152 E; in the Equatorial Counter-current, W of 140 E, and E of Mindanao and in the Sulawesi Sea, where the Nort h Equatorial Current is recurving S into the Count er-current ; in Kuro Shio, from Luzon to about 150 E (160 E from March to May) ; in the China Seas, in both monsoon periods; in the region of the Gul f of Panama, to 84 W, from .5 November to July; in the Nort h Equatorial Current E of 160 W at all seasons. I n the Sout h Pacific Ocean, in the South Equatorial Current, mainly on the E side of the ocean; in the East Australian Coast Current. Currents of more than 3 knots are confined to very restricted regions. They have been recorded in the equatorial regions of the oceans, and in the warm currents flowing to higher latitudes on the W sides of the oceans, with the 10 exception of the Brazil Current. The regions are as follows. I n the At l ant i c Ocean, in the Guiana Current except from February to April; in the Florida Current and Gul f Stream W of 58 W; in the Guinea Current, May to July only. I n the Indian Ocean, in the Somali Current and East African Coast Current especially in summer; in the Mozambi que and Agulhas currents throughout the year but more frequently in the Algulhas 15 Current ; in the region immediately E and S of Ceylon, from June to December. An occasional observation is reported in the Equatorial Counter-current and in the S parts of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal I n the Nort h Pacific Ocean, in Kuro Shio throughout the year; in the South Equatorial Current, 0 to 4 N, between about 90 W and 160 W; E of Mindanao from June to August. 20 I n the China Sea, off the coast of Vietnam from August to December and in February; very occasionally else- where. I n the Sout h Pacific Ocean, in the East Australian Coast Current N of 34 S from October to April. Some extreme values of currents have been observed in the Gul f Stream in February, at 5 knots; in Kuro Shio in November, at 5~ knots; in the East Australian Coast Current in April, at 4 knots; in the Agulhas 25 Current in September, at 5 knots ; in the East African Coast Current, near the coast in September, at 5 knots; in the Somali Current, in the area S of Socotra, in August at 6 knots and in September at 7 knots. The region S of Socotra between 8 N and 11 N, during the height of the South-west Monsoon, is the area of strongest- known current in the world. 30 1.74. Ge ne r al s urf ace c i r c ul at i on. The idea of oceanic circulation needs some explanation. If a small definite area of the ocean be chosen and all currents observed within that area be plotted, it will be found that they are variable, in greater or lesser degree. Surface water thus flows into and out of the area in various directions. Providing that each individual current is not exactly balanced by one of the same strength in the opposite direction, which is never the case, there will be in the long run a resultant flow of water out of the area. Thi s flow 3S is found by taking the vector mean of all the currents, i.e. a mean which takes account of the direction of each current as well as its rate. The resultant flows out of this and every similar area into which the ocean may be divided, form the general circulation. The general circulation never exists as a whole at any given time. In many regions the actual currents at one time would be in accordance with the circulation, particularly in the regions of more constant current, but the 40 circulation would frequently be interrupted, even in these. In the regions of more variable current, the deviations from the direction of the general circulation would be numerous, and possibly whole stretches of the circulation would be found missing if we could obtain an instantaneous view of the water movements of a whole ocean. The reality of the general circulation, in the long run, has been proved by numerous cases of the drifts of ships, bottles etc., over great distances. ,15 1.75. Di r e c t ef f ect o f wi n d i n p r o d u c i n g current s . When wind blows over the sea surface the frictional drag of the wind tends to cause the surface water to move with the wind. As soon as any motion is imparted, the effect of the earth' s rotation (the Coriolis force) is to deflect the movement towards the right in the N hemisphere and towards the left in the S hemisphere. Although theory suggests that this effect should produce a surface 50 flow, or "wi nd drift current " in a direction inclined at 45 to the right or left of the wind direction in the N or S hemisphere, observations show this angle to be less in practice. Various values between 20 and 45 have been reported. An effect of the movement of the surface water layer is to impart a lesser movement to the layer immediately below, in a direction to the right (left in the S hemisphere) of that of the surface layer. Thus, with increasing depth, the speed of the wind-induced current becomes progressively less but the angle between the 55 directions of wind and current progressively increases. Many investigators have endeavoured to determine the ratio between the speed of the surface current and the speed of the wind responsible. Thi s is a complex problem and many different answers have been put forward. An average empirical value for this ratio is about 1:40 (or 0"025). Some investigators claim a variation of the factor with latitude but the degree of any such variation is in dispute. In the main the variation with latitude 60 is comparatively small and, in vie~v of the other uncertainties in determining the ratio, can probably be disre- garded in most cases. The implication that a 40-knot wind should produce a current of about 1 knot needs qualification. The strength of the current depends on the period and the fetch over which the wind has been blowing. Wi t h the onset of wi nd there is initially little response in terms of water movement, which gradually builds up with time. 65 Wi t h light winds the slight current that results takes only about 6 hours to become fully developed, but with strong winds about 48 hours is needed for the current to reach its full speed. A limited fetch, however, restricts the full development of the current. It seems reasonable to expect that hurricane force winds might give rise to currents in excess of 2 knots, provided that the fetch and duration of the wind sufficed. Reliable observations, however, are rare in these 70 circumstances. PLANNI NG A PASSAGE 31 In the ease of t r opi cal st or ms, the effect of the very high wind speed is usually reduced by the limited fetch due to the curvature of the wind path, and by the limited period within which the wind blows from a particular direction. Thus, with these storms, it is the slow moving ones which are liable to cause the strongest currents. In the vicinity of a tropical storm the set of the current may be markedly different from that normally to be expected. Comparatively little is known about such currents, particularly near the centre of the storm, 5 since navigators avoid the centre whenever possible and conditions within the storm field generally are unfavour- able to the accurate observation of the current. The primary cause of the currents is the strong wind associated with the storm. The strength of the current produced by a given force of wind varies with the latitude and is greatest in low latitudes. For the latitudes of tropical storms, say 15 to 25 , a wind of force 10 would produce a current of about 1 knot. It is believed that the 1(~ strength of the currents of tropical storms is, on the average, the same as that which a wind of similar force, unconnected with a tropical storm, would produce. These currents, at the surface, set at an angle of 45 to the right of the wind direction (in the N hemisphere) and therefore flow obliquely outward from the storm field, though not radially from the centre. Unless due allowance is made for these sets, very serious errors in reckoning may therefore arise. It is reported 15 that, in one ease, a vessel experienced a SE' l y set of more than 50 miles, under conditions when the set normally to be expected was SW' ly. In another case an unexpected SSW' l y set of 60 miles was experienced in 18 hours. These are examples of currents of abnormal strength, which are oeasionally met in the vicinity of tropical storms, and which cannot be accounted for by the wind strength. The possibility of such an experience should be borne in mind, particularly near, say within 100 miles of the centre of the storm. 20 Other currents, not caused directly by the wind, may flow in connection with these storms, but are probably weak and therefore negligible in comparison with the wind current. The above remarks apply to the open ocean. When a tropical storm approaches or crosses an extended coastline, such as that of Florida, a strong gradient current parallel with the coast will be produced by the piling up of water against the coast. The sea level may rise by as much as from 2 to 4 metres on such an occasion. 25 Whet her the storm is in the open ocean or not there is a rise of sea level inwards to its centre which compensates for the reduction of atmospheric pressure. The extent of this rise is never great, being about metre, according to the intensity of the storm. It produces no current so long as the storm is not changing in intensity. If the storm meets the coast, however, the accumulation of water at its centre will enhance the rise of sea level at the coast ment i oned above and so produce a stronger gradient current along the coast. 30 1.76. Gr adi ent cur r ent s are caused by pressure gradients in the water. They occur whenever the water surface develops a slope, whet her under the action of wind, or through the juxtaposition of waters of differing temperature and/or salinity. The initial water movement is down the slope but the effect of the earth' s rotation is to deflect the movement through 90 to the right (in the N hemisphere) and to the left (in the S hemisphere) 35 of the initial direction. A gradient current may be flowing in the surface layers at the same time as a drift current is being produced by the wind. In this case the actual current observed is the resultant of the two. An interesting example of a gradient current occurs in the Bay of Bengal in February. In this mont h the current circulation is clockwise around the shores of the bay, the flow being NE' l y along the W shore; with the Nort h-east 40 Monsoon still blowing, the current is setting against the wind. The explanation of this phenomenon is that the cold wind off the land cools the water at the head of the bay. A temperature gradient thus arises between cold water in the N and warm water in the S. Because of the density difference thus created a slope, downwards towards the N, develops. The resulting N' l y flow is directed towards the right, in an E' l y direction, and so sets up the general clockwise circulation. 45 1.77. Effect of wi nd bl owi ng over a coast l i ne. Slopes of the sea surface may be produced by wind. When a wind blows parallel with a coastline or obliquely over it, a slope of the sea surface near the coast occurs. The effect of a wind blowing obliquely over the coast to seaward is to drive water away from the coast, so that the sea level slopes down to the coast. The effect of a similar wind blowing obliquely towards the land is to bank water 50 against the coast, so that the sea level slopes up to the coast. In either case a gradient current results. A wind more or less parallel with the coast is the most effective in creating these slopes, since the total water transport, in the layer in which wind influence occurs, being directed at 90 from the wind, is then directly on to the coast or directly away from it. Whet her the water runs towards or away from the coast depends on; (i) which way the wind is blowing, along the coast; (ii) which hemisphere is being considered. For example, in the region of the 55 Benguela Current (S hemisphere) the South-east Trade Wi nd blows obliquely to seaward over the coast of SW Africa, i.e. in a NW direction. The total transport of water is 90 to the left of this, i.e. in a SW direction, and therefore water is driven away from the coast. The coastal currents on the E side of the main circulation are produced in this way, by removal of water from the coastal regions under the influence of the trade winds. As has been shown, the gradient current runs 60 at right angles to the slope. As the slope is at right angles to the trend of the coastline, the gradient current must always be parallel with the coastline. Taking the Benguela Current as an example, the water tending to run down the slope towards the coast of SW Africa is deviated 90 to the left and therefore the gradient current is somewhat W of N, since this is the general trend of the coastline. The South-east Trade Wi nd is tending also to produce at the actual sea surface a drift current directed rather less than 45 to the left of NW or roughly W, and 65 the actual current experienced by a ship will be the resultant of this and the gradient, approximately NW. These coastal currents on the E sides of the oceans are associated with the chief regions of upwelling. In these regions colder water rises from moderate depths to replace the water drawn away from the coastal region by the wind. In consequence the sea surface temperature in these regions is lower than elsewhere in similar latitudes. The balance between the replacement of water by upwelling and its removal by the gradient current 70 32 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S is such that the slope of the surface remains the same, so long as the wind direction and strength remain constant. The actual slope is extremely slight and quite unmeasurable by any means at our disposal. In general, it is less than one inch in a distance of 10 miles. The Labrador Current is an example of one which is produced by the banking of water against the coast by the N to NW' l y winds prevailing during a large part of the year. Water tends to run down the slope to seaward, and being diverted 90 to the right, the current follows the coast in a S' ly direction. 1.78. Summa r y. The causes which produce currents are thus seen to be very complex, and in general more than one cause is at work in giving rise to any part of the surface current circulation. Observations of current 10 are still not so numerous that their distribution in all parts of the ocean can be accurately defined. Still less is known of the subsurface circulations, since the oceans are vast and the work of research expeditions is very limited in time and place. It is known that the greatest variations of temperature and salinity occur in middle and lower latitudes, relatively near the surface, within a layer varying in depth from about 500 to 1000 metres. Thi s layer includes the still shallower layer in which the direct influence of wind acts in impelling the water. The strongest 15 currents are therefore confined to this layer. Below it the circulation at all depths, in the open ocean, is caused by density differences, and is relatively weak. The great coastal currents on the W sides of the ocean flow also in the deeper levels and perhaps nearly reach the bottom. The main surface circulation of an ocean, though it forms a closed eddy, is not self-compensating. Examination of current charts makes it obvious that the same volume of water is not being transported in all parts of the 20 eddy. There are strong and weak parts in all such circulations. Also there is some interchange between different oceans at the surface. Thus a large part of the South Equatorial Current of the Atlantic passes into the Nort h Atlantic Ocean to join the Nort h Equatorial Current, and so contributes to the flow of the Gul f Stream. Ther e is no adequate compensation for this, if surface currents only be considered. There is therefore interchange between surface and subsurface water. The process of upwelling has been described; in other regions, notably 25 in high latitudes, water sinks from the surface to the bottom. Deep currents, including those along the bottom of the oceans, also play their part in the process of compensation. Thus water sinking in certain places in high latitudes in the Nort h Atlantic flows S along the bottom, and subsequently enters the South Atlantic. Much, though not necessarily all, of the day to day variability of surface current is due to wind variation. Seasonal variation of current is also largely due to seasonal wind changes. It is probable that the average current 30 will vary somewhat in successive periods of years. There is some evidence, for example, that the flow of the Gul f Stream was appreciably weaker in 1932-1939 than in 1910-1931. 40 45 I CE 1.81. F o r m a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . For information concerning ice, its formation, characteristics, and global distribution, see The Mari ner' s Handbook. Ice limits, and drift in particular areas, are described in the chapters dealing with the principal ocean areas. E L E C T R O N I C A I D S A N D P O S I T I O N F I X I N G S YS T E MS 1. 91. N a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s 1.91.01. Particulars of Radio Direction Finding stations, Radiobeacons, Calibration stations, Coast radar stations providing navigational assistance, Radar beacons, and Coast radio stations giving QTG services are published in Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. 1. 92. P o s i t i o n f i x i n g s y s t e m s 50 1.92.01 The following notes outline the performance and application of the electronic position fixing systems suitable for ocean navigation. See also Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s w h i c h c o n t r o l P o s i t i o n f i x i n g s y s t e m s a c c e p t n o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e con- 55 sequences of i n a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n s o b t a i n e d b y m e a n s o f s u c h s y s t e m s . 1.92.02. Consol is essentially a long range directional radiobeacon system, the position lines of which provide true bearings to the transmitting station. The major advantage of the system is the simple means by which a position line is obtained aurally using any receiver possessing long range (MF) coverage. 60 Typical ranges over the sea are 1000 miles by day and up to 1500 miles at night. The system is not usable within 25 miles of the transmitter. System coverage is available in the NE part of the Atlantic Ocean and in the Barents Sea, most of the area being covered by Admiralty charts showing Consol position lines. 65 1.92.03. Lor an (LOng RAnge Navigation), employs pairs of pulse transmitting stations which are spaced up to 600 miles apart. Two systems are currently in use, Loran A (formerly known as Standard Loran) and Loran C. The range of Loran A over sea varies from 500 miles to 800 miles by day when groundwave signals are utilised to 1400 miles by night if use is made of skywave signals. Typical fix accuracy when using groundwaves is in the 70 order of _+0"5 per cent of the range from the middle of the base line. PLANNI NG .4 PASSAGE 33 Loran A coverage is available over a major portion of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean and of the Nort h Pacific Ocean. Admiralty charts with a Loran A lattice are available for the Nort h Atlantic Ocean. Loran C, a more sophisticated system than Loran A, has a typical daytime range of up to 1000 miles, and skywave cover at night of up to 2000 miles. As with Loran A, there is system coverage for large areas of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean and the Nort h Pacific Ocean, and there is coverage in the Mediterranean Sea. 5 1.92.04. Ome ga is a hyperbolic radio navigational aid which depends upon the measurement of the phase difference between signals transmitted from a pair of stations to provide lines of position. The use of very low 10 frequencies, in the range of 10-14 kHz, enables base lines over 5000 miles in length to be used, so that only 8 land-based transmitting stations can provide continuous world-wide coverage. Diurnal and seasonal variations in propagation cause changes in the Omega pattern which must be corrected from special tables, otherwise considerable errors in position could result. Wi t h the help of these tables, the opt i mum accuracy should be 1 mile by day and 2 miles at night. 15 In 1972, one station was operating on full power and three stations were on trial with a provisional service covering the Nort h Atlantic Ocean and parts of the Nort h Pacific Ocean in operation. Appropriately latticed plotting sheets and correction tables can be obtained from the Hydrographic Mapping Centre, Defence Mappi ng Agency, Washington DC 20390, U. S. A. 1.92.05. Satellite navi gati on. Vessels fitted with a satellite navigation receiver together with the necessary electronic computer can obtain positions by using signals transmitted from artificial satellites specially orbited for the purposes of navigation. Dependi ng on the number of satellites in orbit and the area, the system offers worldwide coverage with fixes obtainable at from hour to 2 hour intervals. The system uses the doppler principle of the signals emitted by the satellites as they pass within range of the vessel' s radio horizon. A single channel system relying upon the doppler principle will give positions with approximately 2 mile accuracy, but with a two channel system, which takes refraction of the radio signals into account, accuracies of about mile can be obtained. 20 25 30 NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 1.101. International Regul ati ons concerni ng pol l ut i on of the sea by oi l are given in The Mariner's Handbook. The zones to which they apply are described in Admiralty Sailing Directions and are shown on the Routeing Charts. 35 1.102. Fi shi ng vessel s. In 1969, it was estimated that some 9000 fishing vessels of over 100 tons gross, including about 300 factory ships and carriers, were at sea at any given time. Many operate in fleets, but their operations and traffic habits are nearly as varied as the catch they seek. It has been forecast that by the year 1980 the number of fishing vessels at sea is likely to be about 15000. Owing to the complexity of the changes in fishing grounds and consequently in the movement of fishing vessels this volume does not attempt more than to give a general warning to mariners that they should be continually on the alert against meeting fishing vessels, on passage or at work, anywhere at sea. 1.103. Coral waters. Coral reefs are often steep-to, and depths of more than 200 m may be found within one cable of the edge of a reef. Soundings are therefore of little value as a warning of their proximity. The soundings, furthermore, shoal so rapidly that it is sometimes difficult to follow the echo sounder trace and the echo itself is often weak owing to the steep bottom profile. Navigation among coral reefs is therefore almost entirely dependent upon the eye, and in ocean areas where these reefs abound the greatest care is required. Whenever possible, passage through the worst parts of such areas should be made in daylight, and every precaution should be taken to keep an accurate check on the ship' s position. For additional information on navigation in coral waters, see The Mariner's Handbook. 40 45 50 CHAPTER 2 NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN CONTENTS ~'a~e 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 WI NDS AND WEATHER Equatorial Trough, or Doldrums South-west Monsoon North-east Trades . Variables (Horse Latitudes) Hurricanes Westerlies Fog and visibility The Nort h Polar regions 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 2.11 Atlantic Ocean, 00-40 N 2.12 Atlantic Ocean, 40 N-60 N 2.13 Lengt h of swell SWELL 37 37 37 2.15 Southern part of Nort h Atlantic Ocean 2.16 Nort hern part of Nort h Atlantic Ocean 2.17 Newfoundland Banks 2.18 Nort h Sea 2.19 Western approaches to English Channel 2.20 Bay of Biscay 2.21 Extreme rates CURRENTS 37 38 39 39 39 39 39 2.25 General remarks 2.26 Ice limits and drift 2.27 Ice i n specific localities . . 2.28 Ice reporting and advisory services I CE 39 39 39 40 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 NOTES AND CAUTI ONS Western approaches to English Channel ~le d' Ouessant Bay of Biscay Strait of Gibraltar Strait of Belle Isle Newfoundland coasts Penedos de S~o Pedro e S~o Paolo Local Magnetic Anomaly Ocean weather ships 40 40 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 ROUTES BETWEEN DAVI S STRAI T AND HUDS ON BAY 2.46 Directions 41 NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 35 ROUTES TO AND FROM KAP FARVEL AND DAVI S STRAI T 2.47 Kap Farvel 2.48 Nordkapp +-~ Kap Farvel 2.49 West coast of Norway and Nor t h Sea <-~ Kap Farvel 2.50 Bri t i sh Isles, Biscay, and nor t her n Spani sh ports ~-~ Kap Farvel 2.51 Li sbon and St rai t of Gi bral t ar ~ Davis St rai t 41 41 41 41 41 ROUTES TO AND FROM STRAI T OF BELLE I SLE 2.52 St rai t of Belle Isle . 2.53 St rai t of Belle Isle +-~ Nordkapp 2.54 St rai t of Belle Isle ~-~ Nor t h Sea and west coast of Norway 2.55 Strait of Belle Isle ~-~ Bri t i sh Isles and Biscay port s 41 41 41 42 ROUTES TO AND FROM ST JOHN'S, NEWFOUNDLAND 2.56 St. John' s har bour . . . . . . . 42 2.57 St. John' s ~-+ positions bet ween Cape Wr at h and Arquip~lago de Cabo Verde 42 ROUTES BETWEEN ST LAWRENCE AND NORTHERN COAST OF UNI TED STATES, AND EUROPE 2.61 2.62 2.63 2.64 2.65 2.66 2.67 2.68 2.69 2.70 Traffic densi t y Weat her rout ei ng Ice report i ng and advisory services . . . . Caut i ons Cabot St rai t Gr and Banks . Di st ances Cabot St rai t *-~ Vigo, Li sbon, and St rai t of Gi bral t ar Halifax ~-~ Vigo, Li sbon, and St rai t of Gi bral t ar . Nor t her n coast of Uni t ed States ~-~ Vigo, Li sbon, and St rai t of Gi bral t ar 42 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 ROUTES BETWEEN UNI TED STATES OR WEST I NDI ES, AND AFRI CA 2.76 Routes . 44 ROUTES BETWEEN EUROPE AND WEST I NDI ES 2.81 General not es . 44 2.82 Fl ori da St rai t -+ Bishop Rock . 44 2.83 Bishop Rock -~ Nor t h- East Provi dence Channel 44 2.84 Fl ori da St rai t ~ Bordeaux and Vigo . 44 2.85 Fl ori da St rai t -~ Li sbon or Strait of Gi bral t ar 45 2.86 West Indi es channel s and Bermuda ~-+ Europe 45 ROUTES BETWEEN ENGLI SH CHANNEL AND STRAI T OF GI BRALTAR OR I NTERMEDI ATE PORTS 2.91 General not es 45 2.92 Distances 45 ROUTES BETWEEN ENGLI SH CHANNEL AND WEST COAST OF AFRI CA 2.96 General not es 46 2.97 Distances 46 ROUTES BETWEEN NORTH AMERI CA AND CABO DE S.~O ROQUE, OR I NTERMEDI ATE POSI TI ONS 2.101 General not es 46 2.102 Di st ances 46 36 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 2.103 Nor t hem ports ~-~ Barbados 2.104 Nort hern ports ~-~ Bel6m . 2.105 Nor t hem ports ~-~ Cabo de S~o Roque 2.106 Caribbean Sea -+ Bel6m and Cabo de S~o Roque 2.107 Cabo de S~o Roque -~ Bel6m and Caribbean Sea 46 46 47 47 47 ROUTES BETWEEN NORTH- EAST COAST OF SOUTH AMERI CA AND EASTERN PART OF NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 2.111 General notes 47 ROUTES BETWEEN EASTERN PART OF NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN AND RECI FE 2.116 General notes 2.117 Routes . 47 47 2.121 Routes . ROUTES TO AND FROM ARQUIPI~LAGO DOS A~ 0 RES 48 ROUTES TO AND FROM ARQUI PI ~LAGO DE CABO VERDE 2.126 Great circle routes . 2.127 Porto Grande ~-~ West Africa 48 48 WINDS AND WEATHER 2.01. Equatori al Trough, or Dol drums . In the Nort h Atlantic Ocean, the belt of calms and light variable 35 winds which lies between the trade winds of the two hemispheres remains N of the equator throughout the year. Its mean positions for February and August respectively, when it reaches its S' ly and N' l y limits, are indicated on charts 5301 and 5302. The actual position is subject to much day-to-day variation, as is also the width of the zone, which averages about 200 to 300 miles but may at times be reduced to almost nothing by a strong burst of one or both Trade winds. 40 There is evidence to show that showers, squalls, and thunderstorms are more common within 200 to 300 miles from the African coast than in the W part of the area. Visibility in the Dol drum zone is invariably good except in rain. 2.02. South-west Mons oon. In summer, the intense heating of the land mass of N Africa lowers the 45 atmospheric pressure over that area and distorts the Equatorial Trough towards N. The South-east Trade Wi nd (3.02) is drawn across the equator and is caused to veer by the earth' s rotation, so that it arrives off the W coast of Africa between the equator and about 15 N, E of about 20 W, as a SW wind which is known as the South-west Monsoon. Thi s monsoon, which is accompanied by cloudy weather and considerable rainfall, lasts from about June to the middle of October; the rainfall is heavy on the coast between Gambia and Liberia. 50 Visibility is good at this season except in rain. Duri ng the rest of the year winds in this area are mainly N' l y between Liberia and Mauritania, but are mostly from between S and W in the Gul f of Guinea; in both cases they are generally light. Between November and February a dry, dust laden E' l y wind known as the Har mat t an occurs at times. Weather at this season is generally fine, but visibility is often only moderate due to haze, and it may become poor while the Harmat t an 55 is blowing. Towards the beginning and end of the rainy season, that is in April and May, October and November, violent thunderstorms accompanied by severe squalls, generally from an E' l y direction, occur at times near the coast. These are known locally as Tor nados, but they should not be confused with the storms of that name which occur in the interior of the Uni t ed States and of Australia, to which they bear no relation. 60 2.03. The Nor t h- east Tr ades form the equatorial side of the clockwise circulation round the oceanic anticyclone situated in about 30 N. They extend from the African coast as far W as the Caribbean Sea and the Gul f of Mexico, blowing from about NNE on the E side of the ocean and from a little N of E in the W part of the zone. They blow permanently with an average strength of force 4, though on rare occasions they may increase to force 6:; 7 or decrease to force 2. In the Gul f of Mexico (4.01) they are more variable both in direction and strength; between November and March they are sometimes interrupted in that area by strong or gale force N' l y winds known as Northers. In the NE part of the trade wind zone the weather is generally fair or fine with small amounts of detached cumulus and little or no rain. Cloud cover and showers increase towards the Dol drums and towards the W part; 70 in the latter area rain is comparatively frequent, particularly in summer. NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 37 Haze occurs frequently in the E part of the trade wind zone; it is caused by the dust or sand carried seaward by the prevailing offshore wind. Sea fog forms at times in the NE part of the zone over the cold water of the Canary Current (2.16). In the W part of the zone, visibility is good except in rain. 2.04. Va r i a b l e s ( Ho r s e La t i t ude s ) . A belt of generally light and variable winds over the oceanic area of high 5 pressure extends across the ocean in about 30 N, oscillating from about 28 N in winter to 32 N in summer. The predominant winds in this area, E of about 20 W in winter and 30 W in summer, are from between N and NE and form an extension of the North-east Trades, particularly in summer. Weather in the E part of the zone is fine with little cloud; in the W part there is more cloud, and rain is fairly common. Visibility in the E part is often reduced by haze and sometimes by fog for the reasons explained in 10 article 2.03. 2.05. Hur r i canes occur in the W part of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean. They affect in particular the Caribbean Sea, the Gul f of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda, with the adjacent ocean areas. They occur from June to October and sometimes in November, with their greatest frequency in September. More detailed information on storm frequencies will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Notes on precursory signs and avoiding action are published in The Mariner's Handbook. 15 2.06. West er l i es. The N part of the Atlantic Ocean experiences predominantly unsettled weather on the polar side of the oceanic anticyclone. Wi t h the almost continuous passage of depressions across this zone in an E' l y 20 or NE' l y direction, the wind varies greatly in both direction and strength, and there is a high frequency of strong winds. Gales are common, especially in winter. The region of highest gale frequency extends roughly from the vicinity of Newfoundl and to about 58 N, 13 W; and in this region winds reach force 7 or above on 16 to 20 days a mont h in January and February; in July, which is the quietest month, the stormiest area remains SW of Iceland but the frequency of winds of force 7 or above is only about 7 days a mont h in it. Close to the coasts of Greenland, 25 Iceland, and Norway, katabatic winds are common. 2.07. F o g a n d v i s i bi l i t y . The frequencies of fog and poor visibility are indicated on the Routeing Charts and the subject is treated at length in the relevant Admiralty Sailing Directions. In the region of the Westerlies, overcast skies, with periods of rain or snow, alternate with brief fine spells. Cloud amounts are generally large. 30 The part of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean most affected by fog lies E and S of Newfoundland. In the vicinity of the coasts of New England and Nova Scotia, and the Newfoundland Banks, fog is very prevalent in late spring and early summer, being due to the movement of warm, moist air from S or SW over the cold Labrador Current ; over a large part of this area fog is experienced on more than 10 days a month. It is also liable to occur at times in other parts of this zone--usual l y in spring and early summer and in association 35 with winds from between S and SW. Visibility is good with NW' l y winds, except in showers. 2.08. T h e No r t h Po l a r r e g i o n s . The greater part of the region lying on the polar side of the Westerlies is denied to navigation on account of ice. The prevailing wind is from some E' l y point, though, as in the case of the Westerlies, great variations in direction and strength are caused by the passage of depressions across the area. Gales are common, but less so than in the Westerlies. Weather is generally very cloudy, and precipitation, usually in the form of snow, may occur at any time. Fog, often of the arctic sea-smoke type, is prevalent in summer. Furt her information is published in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 40 S WELL 2.11. At l ant i c Oc e a n, 00-40 N. Between the equator and 30 N, frequencies of swell greater than 4 m in height rarely exceed 2 to 4 per cent. One of the most persistent swells is from NE, between Islas Canarias and the NE coast of South America. In the extreme SE, off Freetown, S and E swells prevail. Between 30 and 40 N, frequencies of swell greater than 4 m in height are: April, 10 per cent; May to August, 5 to 10 per cent; Sept ember to November, 10 per cent; December to March, 20 per cent. The predominant direction is from between W and NW. 2.12. At l ant i c Oc e a n, 40 N- 60 N. Frequencies of swell greater than 4 m in height are: April, 20 per cent; May to July, 10 per cent; August and September, 20 per cent; October to March, 30 per cent. In December and January, a maxi mum of 40 per cent is reached in an area centred on 55 N, 22 W. Throughout the year swell comes mainly from between SW and NW, with swell from W predominating. 2.13. L e n g t h o f swel l . Swell in the Atlantic Ocean is generally short (less than 90 m) or average (90-180 m) in length. However, long swells may be found from time to time, though they are less frequent than in the Pacific Ocean. 50 55 CURRENTS 2.15. S o u t h e r n par t o f No r t h At l ant i c Oc e a n. The currents in the S part of the Nort h Atlantic, between about 10 N and 40 N, circulate in a clockwise sense to form a roughly oval cell which occupies all the region between the African and Iberian coasts and the Atlantic coasts of the West Indies and Nort h America. The W- setting currents on the S flank of this cell comprise the No r t h Equa t o r l a l Cur r e nt between about 10 N and 38 POWER VESSEL _ROUTES 20 N a nd t he Nort h Sub-tropical Current be t we e n a bout 20 N a nd 30 - 32 N. Of t hese, t he f o r me r is t he s t r onge r ( aver age knot ) a nd t he mor e const ant . So me of t he No r t h Equa t or i a l Cu r r e n t c ont i nue s i nt o t he Ca r i bbe a n Sea (4.11) ; t he r e ma i nde r t ur ns NW o f f t h e We s t I ndi es as t he Antilles Current a nd t he r e a f t e r t ur ns pr ogr es s i vel y N so as t o f l ow par al l el wi t h t he N- g o i n g Fl ori da Current a nd Gu l f S t r e a m (4. 11) of f Fl or i da. 5 T o t he N of a bout 32 N, t he Gu l f St r e a m t ur ns NE and t he n pr ogr es s i vel y E so t hat t he ma i n di r e c t i on of t he c ur r e nt N of 36 N is E' l y be t we e n 65 W and 50 W. T o t he E of a bout 50 W, t he Gu l f St r e a m f ans out a nd weakens, t o b e c o me t he Nort h Atlantic Current (2. 16) wi t h ma i n di r ect i ons be t we e n E and NE. I n c ons e que nc e of t hi s NE ' I y t r e n d of t he ma i n flow, t he cur r ent s be t we e n 36 N and 40 N change f r om wel l ma r k e d eas t er - l i es i n t he W par t of t he ocean t o l i ght e r a nd mor e var i abl e cur r ent s E of 50 W, wi t h SE' l y t o S' l y di r ect i ons 10 pr e domi na t i ng. I n t he N ( 36 - 40 N) t he cur r ent s ar e var i abl e wi t h onl y a smal l pr e ponde r a nc e of S' l y set s f r om a bout 50 W as f ar as t he I be r i a n coast . Fa r t he r S, u n d e r t he i nf l uence of t he Tr a d e Wi nds , t he cur r ent s b e c o me mor e cons t ant a nd f or m a wi de bel t of ma i nl y S W' l y set s of f t he No r t h Af r i c a n coast , whi c h ul t i ma t e l y t ur ns W t o j oi n t he No r t h Equa t or i a l cur r ent . T h e cur r ent s ar e weakes t a nd l east cons t ant t owar ds t he cent r al par t of t he ci r cul at i on de s c r i be d i n t he pr e - 15 c e di ng par agr aph, ne a r an axis whi c h shi f t s s ome wha t wi t h t he seasons but r uns r oughl y f r om near Ar qui p61ago dos Aq6r es t o ne a r Be r muda . I n a l ar ge ar ea r o u n d t hi s cent r al r e gi on t he me a n r at es ar e be l ow knot at all t i mes . T h e hi ghes t aver age r at e i n t he r e gi on as a whol e occur s i n t he Fl or i da Cu r r e n t ( or S por t i on of t he Gu l f St r eam) whe r e i t r eaches a bout 3 knot s i n s u mme r i n t he axis of t he s t r e a m of f S Fl or i da. T h e r at e fal l s of f f a r t he r N t o an aver age, i n t he f ast est par t of t he Gu l f St r eam, of a bout 1 knot , N a nd E of Cape Hat t er as . 20 S of a bout 10 N t he cur r ent s ar e r at her mor e compl ex, a nd s how a de c i de d seasonal var i at i on. I n s umme r , an appr eci abl e bel t of E' l y set s k n o wn as t he Equatorial Counter-current e xt e nds f r om a bout 45 W a l mos t t o t he Af r i c a n coast . T h e W par t of t hi s bel t l i es r oughl y be t we e n 5 N a nd 10 N, whi l e ne a r t he Af r i c a n coas t t he bel t l i es be t we e n 10 N a nd t he equat or . T h e Sout h Equa t or i a l Cu r r e n t (3.11), wh i c h set s W, l i es S of t hi s be l t ; on a ppr oa c hi ng t he So u t h Ame r i c a n c ont i ne nt i t is di ve r t e d t o f or m a br oa d NW' l y s t r eam. 25 I n wi nt er , t he Equa t or i a l Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t is r e duc e d t o a s mal l bel t l yi ng be t we e n 2 N a nd 6 N, E of 20 W. Fa r t h e r W, t he No r t h Equa t or i a l Cu r r e n t and Sout h Equa t or i a l Cu r r e n t conver ge, f or mi ng a br oa d bel t of c ur r e nt s et t i ng W wi t h no i nt e r ve ni ng E' l y set s. Th i s W- s e t t i ng s t r eam is di ve r t e d al ong t he N- f a c i n g coast of So u t h Ame r i c a , as i n s umme r . Ave r a ge r at es i n t hi s c ur r e nt r each 2 knot s i n t he s t r onges t par t s, wh i c h e xt e nd r oughl y f r om 2 N, 47 W t o 5 N, 51 W. 30 Ne a r t he Af r i c a n coast , at al l t i mes, t he fl ow is p r e d o mi n a n t l y SE and E, f or mi ng t he Gu i n e a Current, wh i c h f ol l ows t he coast at an aver age r at e whi c h var i es f r om a bout 1 knot i n wi nt e r t o 1 knot s i n s u mme r . T h e gr eat es t r at e occur s ne a r t he coast i n a bout 5 W. El s e whe r e i n t hi s area, be t we e n t he e qua t or a nd 10N, t he aver age r at es ar e a bout knot t o 1 knot . 35 2. 16. Nort hern part of Nort h Atlantic Ocean. Ov e r a l ar ge por t i on of t he N par t of t he No r t h At l ant i c Ocean, t he di r e c t i on of t he pr evai l i ng fl ow is NE. I mme d i a t e l y N of Cape Ha t t e r a s t he Gu l f St r eam, wh i c h or i gi nat es i n Fl or i da St r ai t as t he Fl or i da Cur r e nt , begi ns t o l eave t he 200 m l i ne a nd gr adual l y t ur ns E i nt o t he ocean, S of Ge or ge s Bank a nd t he No v a Scot i an Banks. I t s N edge is r el at i vel y s har pl y def i ned at al l t i mes , owi ng t o t he c onve r ge nc e al ong i t of t he col d wa t e r of t he La b r a d o r Cu r r e n t ( bel ow) . 40 T o t he E of a bout 46 W, t he Gu l f St r e a m ceases t o be a wel l def i ned cur r ent , i t wi de ns a nd weakens b y f a nni ng out al ong t he E si de of t he Gr a n d Bank. T h e r es ul t i ng wi de NE ' l y f l ow is known as t he Nort h Atlantic Current, wh i c h fl ows acr oss t he ocean t owar ds t he Br i t i s h I sl es a nd t he adj acent coast s of Eur ope . T h e S par t of t he No r t h At l ant i c Cu r r e n t t ur ns gr adual l y cl ockwi se t o SE' l y a nd t he n S W' l y di r ect i ons ove r t he whol e ocean E of 40 t o 45 W. I t t hus passes i nt o t he No r t h Sub- t r opi c a l c ur r e nt t o c ompl e t e t he ma i n 45 ci r cul at i on. Th i s wi de l y e xt e nde d t r e nd of t he wat er , br a nc hi ng S f r om t he No r t h At l ant i c Cur r e nt , is cal l ed t he Azores Current, and occupi es t he bel t of l at i t ude be t we e n a bout 42 N and 32 N. T h e c ur r e nt known as t he Portugal Current, f l owi ng S of f t he W coast s of Spai n a nd Por t ugal , a nd as t he Canary Current f ar t her S, f or ms t he coast al f r i nge of t he gener al S' l y f l ow of t he Azor es cur r ent . T h e N par t of t he No r t h At l ant i c Cu r r e n t does n o t r e c ur ve S but cont i nues t o f l ow i n a ge ne r a l NE di r ect i on 50 of f t he W coast s of t he He b r i d e s a nd Shet l ands a nd t he nc e t o t he coast of Nor wa y. I t set s N al ong t hi s coast , of f wh i c h i t is k n o wn as t he Norwegi an Atlantic Current. I n about 69 N, t hi s c ur r e nt di vi des a nd t he N par t , k n o wn as t he West Spi tsbergen Current, set s N t o t he W coast of Spi t s be r ge n and t he nc e i nt o t he Ar c t i c Basi n. T h e S br a nc h is k n o wn as t he Nort h Cape Current a nd f ol l ows t he coast pas t No r d k a p p i nt o t he Bar ent s Sea, fi nal l y s et t i ng t owar ds t he N of Nova ya Ze ml ya ; a br a nc h of it, known as t he i u r ma n Coast Current, 55 cont i nues al ong t he Mu r ma n coast . T h e chi ef out f l ow of wa t e r f r om t he Ar ct i c Basi n is t h e col d, i c e - be a r i ng c ur r e nt known as t he East Greenl and Current, wh i c h set s S W al ong t he E coast of Gr e e nl a nd. Par t of t hi s c ur r e nt di ver ges SE f r om t he ma i n body N of 70 N, f or mi ng t he East Icel and Current, wh i c h passes t he NE coast of I c e l a nd a nd t h e n c e N of t he Faer oes , t he set gr adual l y t r e ndi ng E and fi nal l y NE. I t j oi ns , or r uns par al l el wi t h t he s eawar d edge of t he No r - 60 we gi a n At l ant i c Cur r e nt . A br a nc h of t he wa r m No r t h At l ant i c Cu r r e n t t ur ns N i n t he l ongi t ude of I cel and. Cl os e S W of I c e l a nd t hi s cur r ent , known as t he Irmi nger Current, di vi des. T h e ma i n br a nc h t ur ns W a nd j oi ns t he Eas t Gr e e n l a n d Cu r r e n t S of De n ma r k St r ai t . A s mal l er br a nc h makes a cl ockwi se ci r cul at i on of I cel and. T h e Eas t Gr e e n l a n d Cu r r e n t r ounds Ka p Fa r ve l and passes N al ong t he W coast of Gr e e nl a nd, whe r e i t 65 is k n o wn as t he West Greenl and Current. Th i s l oses v o l u me by f a nni ng out on i t s s eawar d si de, but par t of i t ci r cui t s t he head of Baffl n Bay and, r e i nf or c e d by wa t e r f l owi ng E t hr ough J one s a nd La nc a s t e r Sounds , set s S al ong t he coast of Baffi n I s l a nd as t he Ba f t l n L a n d Cu r r e n t . N of Hu d s o n St r ai t t hi s is j o i n e d b y a c on- s i der abl e br a nc h f r o m t he We s t Gr e e n l a n d Cur r e nt , wh i c h cr osses Da vi s St r ai t . T h e c o mb i n e d cur r ent , k n o wn as t he Labrador Current, set s pas t t he e nt r a nc e t o Hu d s o n St r ai t a nd SE al ong t he La b r a d o r coast t o t he 70 Ne wf o u n d l a n d r egi on. N OR T H A T L A N T I C OC E A N 39 2.17. Newf ot t ndl and Banks. After passing the Strait of Belle Isle and the E coast of Newfoundland, the Labrador Current covers the whole of Grand Bank except, during summer, the extreme S part. A large branch of the current follows the E edge of the bank; this is the part which carries ice farthest S to reach the transatlantic shipping routes. Another branch rounds Cape Race and sets SW. Although some of the water that has passed on to Grand Bank continues in a more S' ly direction, especially during August to October, the bulk of it sets 5 SW and continues, as a SW' l y set, to fill the region between Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Gul f Stream. The Labrador Current subsequently continues S along the coast of the Uni t ed States as a cold current as far as about 36 N from November to January, 37 N from February to April, 38 N from May to July, and 40 N from August to October. Between the S limit of the Labrador Current and the Tai l of the Bank, the warm and cold waters converge on a line which is known as the Col d Wall. 10 The E end of the Cold Wall presents the greatest hydrographic contrasts to be found in the world, the water changing from the olive or bottle green of the Arctic side to the indigo blue of the Gul f Stream, with temperature changes of 11 or more over short distances. The currents off the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland are complex; for details, reference should be made to Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 2.18. Nor t h Sea. A branch of the Nort h Atlantic Current diverges from the main flow NE of the Shetlands and flows S, fanning out E towards the S part of the Skagerrak, along the E coasts of Britain as far as the Thames estuary. It is there joined by a branch of the Nort h Atlantic Current which passes through the English Channel and the Strait of Dover, the combined currents then flowing along the Netherlands and Jutland coasts. Thi s 20 current then flows round the Skagerrak in a counter-clockwise direction and finally sets N along the W coast of Norway. The outflow from the Nort h Sea forms the Nor we gi an Coastal Current and is probably the most constant part of the circulation. In about 62 N this current rejoins the main branch of the Nort h Atlantic Current flowing towards Nordkapp. 25 2.19. West ern approaches to Engl i s h Channel . After SW or W gales, a set towards the mout h of the Channel may be expected, at a rate depending on the locality, strength, and duration of the gale. In winter, sets of up to 1 knots are sometimes recorded, mainly in directions between ENE and SE, but the tidal streams are responsible for most of the water movement within the 200 m line. See 1.75. 2.20. Bay of Bi scay. Offt he mout h of the Bay of Biscay the current is trending SE and S to form the beginning of the Portugal Current (2.16). A branch enters the bay and recurves W along the N coast of Spain, but over most of the bay the currents are highly variable with a tendency for directions between E and S to predominate. The speeds for the most part do not exceed 1 knot and very rarely reach 2 knots. Following W' l y or NW' l y gales E' l y sets occur offthe N coast of Spain, sometimes attaining a rate of 3 knots off Bilbao and 4-5 knots at the head of the bay particularly when current and tidal stream are in the same direction. 2.21. Ext r e me rates. For extreme rates not mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, see 1.73. I CE 30 35 40 2.25. General r e mar ks . The following brief account of ice in the Nort h Atlantic Ocean is by no means comprehensive. Before undertaking voyages through areas in which ice is likely to be met, The Mari ner' s Hand- 45 book and the relevant Admiralty Sailing Directions should be studied, as well as the monthly Routeing Charts, which show the ice limits. These limits are also shown approximately on Climatic Charts 5301 and 5302, but they may not always agree with the Routeing Charts which endeavour to show the extreme limits on a monthly basis as far as this is possible with the limited and variable data available. 10-day Ice charts, obtainable from the Director General, Meteorological Office (Met O 10 DWR), London 50 Road, Bracknell, Berks, should also be studied. Facsimile broadcasts of ice charts are also available, as set out in Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. A factor always to be borne in mi nd where ice conditions are concerned is their great variability. For this reason, and on account of the sparsity of observations in many areas, the charted positions of ice limits must be regarded as approximate. The dates which follow refer to average conditions. 55 2.26. I ce l i mi t s and drift. A glance at the Routeing Charts will reveal the influence of the ocean currents (2.16-2.17) in setting the pack over much of the Newfoundland Banks area from the latter part of January until May, while the E part of the ocean remains ice-free to high latitudes. Almost all the icebergs which menace the Nort h Atlantic routes originate in the glaciers of the W coast of 60 Greenland where they are calved at a rate of several thousand a year. They are carried S by the Greenland, Baffin Land, and Labrador currents, and when they finally reach the shipping routes they may be several years old. The bergs calved on the E coast of Greenland also drift S, and may be met off Kap Farvel, but they do not survive the relatively warm water of Davis Strait and are not a source of danger on the regular transatlantic routes. Icebergs may be found beyond the limits of the pack ice at all seasons, but mostly in early summer; in 65 winter many are frozen into the pack. 2.27. I ce i n speci f i c l ocal i t i es. Kap Farvel . The greatest distance at which bergs are met S of Kap Farvel usually occurs in April and May; this is generally up to about 120 miles, but in 1922 bergs extended to 150 miles S of the cape. In April, bergs may be met as far E as 66 N, 32 W. Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation 40 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S S t Lawrence Ri ver below Montreal is closed by ice between early December and mid-April. Commercial navigation ceases i n most parts of the Gul f of St Lawrence by mi d-December; in the S part, navigation is not considered safe between early December and mid-April. The St rai t of Belle Isle is generally not navigable from the beginning of December unt i l June. 5 Pack ice arrives from N off Cape Race about the end of January i n an ordinary season, extending round the coasts of the Avalon peninsula in February, unt i l April. Between July and December inclusive, Grand Bank of Newfoundland is entirely free of pack-ice, which reaches the bank in January and extends farthest S i n March and April, on the E edge of the bank. I n very rare seasons, dangerous pack may extend to the Tail of the Bank and even S of it but, on average, the floes begin to break up 10 on reaching 45 N. I n the region of Grand Bank, the worst season for icebergs is between March and July, with May as the mont h of greatest frequency. Bergs are not often found S of 40 N or E of 40 W, though occasionally they may be considerably outside these limits. They are particularly prevalent around the E flank of the bank, on which many of them ground. More detail is given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 Denmark St r ai t is normally free of ice on its E side throughout the year, but on rare occasions, as in the spring of 1968, the ice spreads across from Greenland to close the strait. The Whi t e Sea is normally closed to navigation from about mid-December to mid-May. I n Kdl ' ski l nl et , the N part remains open through the year but, from December to April ice forms along the shore and at times breaks away, to be carried out to sea. It may be a hindrance for three or four days at a time 20 in exceptionally cold winters. On the West coast of Norway, none of the mai n ports is ever closed by ice, and the closure of Oslg is very rare. In the Nort h Sea serious ice conditions in the entrances to German, Dutch, and Danish ports, lasting from one to four weeks, occur about two or three times in t en years at some time between mid-January and early March. 25 30 35 40 2.28. I ce report i ng and advi s ory s ervi ces in the NW Atlantic are maintained by the International Ice Patrol (U.S. Coast Guard Service) in an area SE of Newfoundland, and by the Canadian Department of Transport in respect of vessels approaching and leaving Canadian ports. The International Ice Patrol operates from February or March, and the Canadian service opens in December. Starting and finishing dates vary according to the season. Duri ng the ice season, vessels i n the International Ice Patrol area, see Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals, are urged to assist the Patrol by reporting sighting of ice, visibility, sea temperature, and weather. Ships approaching Canadian ports are asked to report 36 hours before arrival their position, speed, destination, whether loaded or i n ballast, ice classification and name of Canadian Agent, with subsequent reports of position with the object of mi ni mi si ng delay if assistance is needed. For details of shore based services and ships' reporting procedures, see Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. Details of the International Ice Patrol are also given by the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisa- tion in their Report on the International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, 1960; and the Canadian services are described by "Informat i on Canada" in Ice Navi gat i on in Canadian Waters. NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 2.31. West ern approaches to Engl i s h Channel . When navigating in these waters it is essential to assess the 45 surface drift caused by recently prevailing wind and weather. The set of the swell should not be regarded as a precise indication of the resulting drifts. See 2.19 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. 2.32. Mariners approaching ~le d' Ouessant (Ushant ) must guard against the danger of being set E of their reckoning, and should use the greatest caution when passing it. Unless certain of the position, $1e d' Ouessant 50 should be given a wide berth and a depth exceeding 110 m should be maintained. 2.33. Bay of Biscay. There may be a strong E' l y set off the N coast of Spain after a W' l y or NW' Iy gale, as described in article 2.20. An onshore wi nd brings cloud that develops into fog or thick mist when it reaches the elevated land at both the N and S points of the bay, 55 2.34. Strait of Gi br al t ar . A vessel approaching the Strait in thick weather from the Atlantic should take sound- ings unless her position is certain. Caution is necessary, since the currents, tidal streams, and eddies between Cabo de Silo Vicente and Isla de Tarifa are very variable. Cape Spartel is safe to approach. I n clear weather, the 60 Strait can be approached without difficulty. 2.35. Strait of Bel i e Isle. A vessel approaching from E i n low visibility may, if not certain of her position, be greatly assisted by sounding on the banks E of Newfoundland and Labrador. 2.36. Ne wf oundl and coast s. As fog is exceedingly prevalent off the S coast of Newfoundland, especially in 65 summer, vessels should guard against the set of the current and the indraught into the deep bays, particularly on their E sides. When approaching from E i n thick weather, the radio beacons on the E coast of Newfoundland and the use of soundings over Grand Bank and Ballard Bank should indicate the position with enough accuracy to enable the vessel to round Cape Race i n safety. Decca coverage is available E and S of Newfoundland, see Admi ral t y 70 Li st of Radio Signals. N OR T H A T L A N T I C OC E A N 41 Although the current between Grand Bank and Newfoundland ordinarily sets SW at a rate which may slightly exceed 1 knot, it is not unusual, particularly for a short period before a gale, for the current to be so disturbed as to set across its ordinary direction or even to be reversed on the surface. Close inshore, it is affected by the tidal streams. The currents between Cape Race and St. Pierre are irregular, with a greatest rate of 1 knot, and are influenced by the wind, and, near the shore, by the tidal streams. See Admiraty Sailing Directions. When approaching from W, Cape Pine and Cape Race should not be closed in depths of less than 55 m unless certain of the position. 2.37. When approaching Pe n e d o s de S~o Pe dr o e S~o Paol o and I l ha de Fe r n a n d o de No r o nha , caution is necessary, as the South Equatorial Current sets WNW past them at a rate of from 1 to 2 knots. 2.38. Lo c a l Ma g n e t i c Anomal y. For details of places where local magnetic anomaly has been reported, the Admiralty Sailing Directions should be consulted. On or near routes described in this chapter, anomaly has been reported in the N part of Florida Strait, in the vicinity of Bermuda, in 38 12' N, 60 28' W, and offt he coasts of Canada and Iceland. 2.39. Oc e a n we a t h e r s hi ps , which provide certain services to shipping, are stationed in the Nort h Atlantic Ocean; see Annual Summary of Admi ral t y Notices to Mariners and Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. 5 10 15 20 ROUTES BETWEEN DAVI S STRAI T AND HUDS ON BAY 2.46. For directions for Davis Strait, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay, and for ice conditions, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, and for Ice Advisory services, see Admi ral t y Li st of Radio Signals. 25 ROUTES TO AND F ROM KAP FARVEL AND DAVI S S TRAI T 2.47. Ka p Far ve l . In view of weather and ice conditions off the coast of Greenland, see Admi ral t y Sailing Directions, the routes which follow are taken from 58 30' N, 43 52' W, about 75 miles S of Kap Farvel, or from 57 35' N, 43 52' W, about 130 miles S of Kap Farvel, as appropriate. 2.48. Nor dka pp ~-+ Ka p Far ve l . Normally, pass 20 miles S of Jan Mayen and through Denmark Strait to 58 30' N, 43 52' W; distance 1830 miles. If Denmark Strait is not navigable, passage must be made S of Iceland, distance 1950 miles. The directive force of the earth' s magnetic field is weak in the vicinity of Nordkapp, and local magnetic anomaly has been reported off the coast of Iceland. 2.49. We s t c oas t o f No r wa y a nd No r t h Sea ++ Kap Far ve l . As directly as navigation will allow. For Trondhei m, pass between Iceland and the Faer6es; for Bergen, pass between the Faer6es and the Shetlands; for Lindesnes, pass between Fair Isle and the Orkneys. Distance from 58 30' N, 43 52' W: Trondhei m 1500 miles; Bergen 1470 miles; Lindesnes 1580 miles. 2.50. Br i t i sh Isles, Bi s c a y a nd no r t he r n S p a n i s h por t s ~-~ Kap Far ve l . Great circle in all cases. For Biscay ports, pass at least 10 miles SW of Chaus6e de Sein, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances from 58 30' N, 43 52' W; Cape Wrat h 1200 miles; Inishtrahull 1200 miles; Fastnet 1250 miles; Bishop Rock 1400 miles; Bordeaux 1710 miles; Vigo 1630 miles. 2.51. Li s b o n a nd St rai t o f Gi br al t ar ~-~ Da v i s strai t. From 57 35' N, 43 52" W, about 130 miles S of Kap Farvel, by great circle to Lisbon, or to Cabo de S~o Vincente for the strait of Gibraltar. Distances: Lisbon 1760 miles; Strait of Gibraltar 2020 miles. 30 35 40 45 50 55 ROUTES TO AND F ROM S TRAI T OF BELLE I SLE 2.52. Th e St rai t o f Be l l e Isl e is open to navigation from about June to November, inclusive, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Departure position is 7 miles S of Belle Isle. 2.53. St rai t o f Be l l e Isl e ~-~ Nor dkapp. Pass through 58 30' N, 43 52' W (75 miles S of Kap Farvel), thence through Denmark Strait and 20 miles S of Jan Mayen. Distance 2400 miles. If Denmark Strait is not navigable, passage must be made S of Iceland; distance 2520 miles. See caution regarding local magnetic anomaly and loss of directive force in article 2.48. 2. 54. St rai t o f Be l l e I s l e *-~ No r t h Sea a nd we s t coas t o f No r wa y . For Trondhei m, the great circle track should be followed; distance 2060 miles. For Bergen, take the great circle but pass between the FaerSes and the 60 42 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Shetlands; distance 2030 miles. For Lindesnes, take the great circle but pass between Fair Isle and the Orkneys; distance 2120 miles. 2.55. Strait of Belle Isl e +-~ British Isl es and Bi scay ports. Proceed by great circle. Distances: Cape Wrat h 1740 miles; Inishtrahull 1700 miles; Fastnet 1690 miles; Bishop Rock 1830 miles; Bordeaux 2120 miles. 10 15 ROUTES TO AND FROM ST. JOHN' S, NEWFOUNDLAND 2.56. St. John' s harbour is rarely frozen over. 2.57. St. John' s ~-~ posi t i ons bet ween Cape Wrath and Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde. Great circle tracks should be used. Distances: Cape Wrat h 1800 miles; Inishtrahu11 1730 miles; Fast-net 1680 miles; Bishop Rock 1810 miles; Bordeaux 2080 miles; Vigo 1870 miles; Lisbon 1950 miles; Strait of Gibraltar 2190 miles; Horta 1200 miles ; Porto Grande 2290 miles. 20 25 30 ROUTES BETWEEN ST. LAWRENCE AND NORTHERN COAST OF UNI TED STATES, AND EUROPE 2.61. Traffic densi ty. Owing to the density of traffic, it is recommended that E-bound and W- bound tracks should be separated in some cases. A general rule of "not hi ng to port of the track" should be observed unless a diversion is made; little or no distance is lost by keeping 10 miles N or S of the recommended track. 2.62. Weather routei ng. On the northern transatlantic routes, mariners may gain considerable advantage by closely studying the weather with the aid of rou.teing advice and facsimile weather and ice maps so that, by timely adjustment of their route, they may reduce delay and damage due to wind, sea, swell, and ice. See 1.21. 35 2.63. Ice reporti ng and advi sory servi ces are described in 2.28. 2.64. Caut i ons. Carefully conducted tests by the International Ice Patrol have shown that radar cannot provide positive assurance for iceberg detection. An iceberg is only one-sixth as good a radar reflector as a comparatively sized ship. Seawater is a better reflector than ice. Thi s means that unless a berg or growler is observed outside 40 the area of sea "ret urn" or "clutter" it will not be detected by radar. The average range of radar detection of a dangerous sized growler is 4 miles. Radar is a valuable aid, but its use cannot replace the traditional caution exercised during a passage across Grand Banks duri ng the ice season. I n recommending routes to and from ports SW of Cape Race, account must be taken of the seasonal movement 45 of ice in the Grand Banks area, see 2.27. No guarantee can be given that a particular route will be clear of ice; constant study of ice reports, and the utmost vigilance at sea, are essential. 50 2.65. Cabot Strait is usually navigable from mid-April. The Quebec-Montreal channel is open for navigation from about April to November, inclusive. 2.66. Grand Banks. The worst season for ice is from March to July, inclusive. To reduce risk to shipping, standard "not hi ng to N" alter-course positions are: CR, from 16 May to 30 November, or when the Cape Race route is clear of ice, 46 12' N, 53 05" W, E-bound, and 46 27' N, 53 05' W, W- bound; BN, 11 April to 15 May and 1 December to 14 February, 45 25' N, 50 00' W, E-bound, and 45 55' N, 50 00" 55 W, W- bound; BS, 15 February to 10 April, 42 00' N, 50 00' W, E-bound, and 43 00" N, 50 00" W, W-bound. W of the standard alter-course positions, the routes between Cabot strait or Halifax and Cape Race are as direct as navigation permits. For position BN, Halifax routes are direct; for ports W of Halifax, vessels should pass not less than 60 and 40 miles S of Sable Island, E-bound and W- bound respectively. For position BS, 60 Halifax and Boston routes pass not less than 60 and 40 miles S of Sable Island, E-bound and W- bound respective- ly; Nantucket, Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay routes are direct. In the Grand Banks area, the International Ice Patrol advises that vessels should not venture into the pack ice N of 45 30' N before the middle of April. E of the standard alter-course positions, routes are by great circle to the European landfall, except that Cape 65 Wrath traffic should pass through 57 50' N, 18 00' W. The Nordkapp route joins the Cape Wrath routes i n this position. The track between Trondhei m and Cape Race is a great circle. Between position BN and Trondhei m vessels should pass 10 miles N of the Faer6es; between position BS and Trondhei m the best route is 10 miles S of the Faer6es. All routes for Bergen make a landfall at Sumburgh Head. 70 Diagram 18 illustrates the standard alter-course positions for the mai n transatlantic routes. NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 2.67. Di st ances in miles (means of eastbound and westbound tracks). See 2.61-2.66. 43 Nordkapp Trondhei m Bergen Cape Wrath Inishtrahull Fastnet Bishop Rock Bordeaux Standard alter- course positions* CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS CR BN BS Cabot Strait 3060 2500 2450 2130 2060 - - 1990 - - - - 2130 - - 2390 - - - - Halifax 3240 3290 3470 2680 2750 2940 2630 2690 2860 2310 2370 2540 2240 2280 2430 2180 2200 2330 2310 2330 2450 2570 2580 2680 Boston 3590 3650 3770 3050 3110 3240 3000 3040 3160 2660 2720 2840 2580 2640 2730 2520 2560 2630 2650 2690 2750 2910 2940 2990 New York 3790 3830 3950 3230 3290 3420 3180 3220 3340 2870 2900 3020 2790 2810 2910 2730 2730 2800 2860 2860 2930 3120 3120 3160 Delaware Bay 3850 3890 4010 3290 3350 3470 3240 3280 3390 2920 2960 3080 2850 2870 2970 2790 2790 2870 2920 2920 2990 3180 3180 3220 Chesapeake Bay 3980 4020 4090 3420 3480 3560 3370 3410 3480 3050 3090 3160 2980 3000 3050 2910 2920 2950 3050 3050 3070 3310 3300 3300 10 15 20 25 30 35 * Mean E-bound and W-bound positions. CR: 46 20' N, 53 05' W; BN: 45 40' N, 50 00' W; BS : 42 30' N, 50 00' W. 40 2.68. Cabot Strai t *-~ Vi go, Li s bo n, and Strai t o f Gi bral t ar. To avoid Virgin Rocks (46 27' N, 50 47" W) proceed to 45 25' N, 50 00' W, E-bound, and thence by great circle for the traffic lane off Cabo de Sho Vicente. If bound for Vigo, leave the great circle in 30 00' W and proceed to destination; similarly for Lisbon, leave the great circle in 1500' W. W-bound, the routes are similar but pass through 45 55' N, 50 00' W and thence to Cabot Strait. Distances: Vigo 2210 miles; Lisbon 2260 miles; Strait of Gibraltar 2480 miles. 45 50 2.69. Hal i f ax ~-~ Vi go, Li s b o n and Strai t of Gi bral t ar. From 15 February to l 0 April, E-bound and W-bound routes pass respectively 60 and 40 miles S of Sable Island and through 42 00' N and 43 00' N on the meridian of 50 00' W, and by great circle E of these positions. Distances : Vigo 2420 miles ; Lisbon 2460 miles; Strait of 55 Gibraltar 2690 miles. From 11 April to 14 February routes are direct between Halifax and 45 25' N, 50 00' W, E-bound, and 45 o 55' N, 50 00' W; W-bound, E of these positions, they are as the Cabot Strait routes, namely by great circle for Cabo de S~o Vicente, Vigo tracks joining the great circle in 30 W and Lisbon tracks in 15 W. Distances: Vigo 2370 miles; Lisbon 2420 miles; Strait of Gibraltar 2640 miles. 60 Low-powered vessels, W-bound from the Strait of Gibraltar, should proceed by t humb line S of Arquip61ago dos A96res to 36 00' N, 45 00' W; thence to Halifax. 2. 70. No r t he r n coas t o f Un i t e d States ++ Vi go, Li s bo n, and Strai t o f Gi bral t ar. By great circle, except that from 15 February to 10 April no route may cross the meridian of 50 00' W to the N of 42 00' N, E-bound, or 43 00' N, W-bound. Thi s affects Vigo routes from U. S. ports N of 31 N, Lisbon routes from ports N of Chesapeake Bay, and Strait of Gibraltar routes from Boston; tracks should be diverted accordingly. Boston routes should pass at least 60 miles and 40 miles S of Sable Island, E-bound and W-bound respectively. 70 44 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Distances, in miles ; by great circle routes: Boston New York (Ambrose Lt) 10 Delaware Bay Chesapeake Bay Vigo 2700 2900 2960 3040 Lisbon 2750 2940 3010 3090 Strait of Gibraltar 2980 2990 3240 3310 15 Alternatively, some advantage in weather and currents may be obtained by vessels bound for New York from the Strait of Gibraltar, by passing 20 miles S of Ilha de S~o Miguel, Arquip61ago dos A96res, and thence by rhumb line to Nantucket light-vessel. Distance to Ambrose light 3210 miles. Low-powered vessels, W-bound, should, from May to September, pass S of Arquip61ago dos A96res and steer along the parallel of 36 00' N as far as the meridian of 65 00' W, thence to destination. From October to April 20 they should first make a position in 33 15' N, 20 00' W, thence steering on the parallel of 33 15" N as far as 65 00" W, thence to destination. Alternatively, low-powered vessels may reduce the possibility of encountering heavy weather in the N parts of the above great circle routes by steering, on all routes, to pass through 41 00' N, 47 00' W. The farthest N position on these tracks is on the Vigo route, in 43 15' N, 23 30' W. 25 30 ROUTES BETWEEN UNI T E D S TATES OR WES T I NDI ES, AND AFRI CA 2. 76. Al l r out e s are b y great c i r c l e . See also 2. 121. Di stance, i n mi l es : 35 40 45 Casablanca Dakar Freetown New York (Ambrose Lt.) 3140 3330 3750 Delaware Bay Chesapeake Bay 3220 3280 3360 3370 3770 3780 NE Providence Channel 3590 3400 3760 St. Vincent (5' N of) 3150 2550 2830 Tri ni dad 3210 2550 2810 50 55 60 ROUTES BETWEEN EUROP E AND WES T I NDI ES 2.81. Ge ne r a l not e s . Routes between European departure positions and the West Indies may, if plotted on the great circle, be obstructed seasonally by ice in the region of the Newfoundland Banks. Bermuda and Arqui - p61ago dos A96res lie on or near some tracks. W-bound traffic on the N routes is also liable to the adverse effect of the E' l y set of the Nor t h Atlantic Current and the predominantly W' l y weather of the N part of the Atlantic Ocean, so that low-powered ships, in particular, may gain some advantage by a diversion S of the geographically shortest route. Such vessels mi ght well consider making a mid-ocean position in 36 00' N, 35 00' W, or alter- natively, passing through 36 40' N, 24 45' W and 30 00' N, 45 30' W. 2.82. Fl o r i da St rai t - ~ Bi s h o p Rock. From 27 00' N, 79 49"W, off Jupiter Inlet, proceed through 30 00' N, 79 40' W to 35 30' N, 72 40' W; thence to join main transatlantic tracks in: 15 Feb. -10 April, 42 00' N, 50 00' W; distance 3650 miles. 11 April-14 Feb., 45 25' N, 50 00' W; distance 3620 miles. 2.83. Bi s h o p Ro c k -+ Nor t h- Eas t Pr o v i d e n c e Channel . By great circle. Between Bishop Rock and 43 00' N, 50 00' W, this route follows the main seasonal W-bound track from 15 Feb. to 10 April. Distance, 3500 miles, or, using route through 36 40' N, 24 45' W and 30 00' N, 45 30' W, see 2.81, 3920 miles. 2.84. Fl o r i da St rai t - ~ Bo r de a ux a nd Vi go. From 27 00' N, 79 49" W, off Jupiter Inlet, proceed through 70 30 00' N, 79 40' W to 35 30' N, 72 40' W; t he nc e : 1 N OR T H A T L A N T I C OC E A N 45 15 Feb. -10 April, to j oi n the mai n transatlantic tracks i n 42 00' N, 50 00' W, thence by great circle to destina- tion. Distances: Bordeaux, 3880 miles; Vigo 3610 miles. 11 April-14 Feb., by great circle to destination. Distances, Bordeaux 3870 miles, Vigo 3610 miles. 2.85. Fl o r i da St rai t - + Li s b o n or St rai t o f Gi bral t ar. From 27 00' N, 79 49' W, off Jupiter Inlet, proceed through 30 00' N, 79 40' W and thence by great circle to destination. The great circle for the Strait of Gibraltar passes through Arquip61ago dos A95res. Distances: Lisbon 3630 miles; Strait of Gibraltar 3840 miles. 2.86. We s t I ndi e s c h a n n e l s a nd Be r mu d a ~-* Eur ope . Subject to the avoidance of Bermuda and Arquip61ago dos A96res, great circle tracks may be used in both directions. Distances i n miles: 10 Bermuda NE Providence Channel I' urks Island Passage Mona Passage Sombrero Island Passage Barbados I Bishop Rock 2760 see 2.83 3460 3480 3310 3380 Bordeaux 2980 3730 3650 3650 3460 3500 Vigo 2680 3440 3330 3310 3120 3140 Lisbon 2690 3450 3310 3270 3060 3050 Strait of 15 Gibraltar 2890 3650 3490 3440 3230 3190 20 25 30 Routes i n the Gul f of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, and the approaches thereto, are continued i n Chapter 4. ROUTES B E T WE E N E NGL I S H CHANNE L AND STRAI T OF GI BRALTAR OR I NT E RME DI AT E PORTS 35 2.91. Ge ne r a l No t e s . Wi t h favourable weather and tidal streams Chenal du Four and Raz de Sein may be used to shorten the distance between the English Channel and ports i n the Bay of Biscay. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. When roundi ng ~le d' Ouessant i n uncertain weather great care should be taken, see 2.19, 2.31, and 2.32, 40 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. The incidence of fog in the vicinity is high, and it is important to remember, when in fog, that it is not always possible from the land to determine the existence of fog banks i n the offing and that the fog signals may not, therefore, be i n operation. Between Tie d' Ouessant and Cabo Finisterre, a general E' l y set may be expected. Onshore winds bri ng cloud, which may develop into low visibility near the coast. 45 The coast between Cabo Ortegal and Cabo Finisterre is a dangerous landfall except i n good weather, owing to the E' ly set of the current, the tidal streams, and the risk of poor visibility with low cloud which may obscure the lights. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. W of Spain and Portugal, although in general a good offing is advisable, it is usual for N- bound vessels to follow the Portuguese and Spanish coasts to Cabo Finisterre more closely than the S-bound traffic. The channel 50 between Ilha Berlenga and Cabo Carvoeiro is clear and deep and may be taken i n clear weather. When uncertain of the position i n the vicinity of Os FarilhSes (39 29' N, 9 33' W) and Ilha Berlenga, it is vital to gain sea room since sounding gives little indication of the vicinity of these islands. For general remarks on depths off these coasts, see Admiralty Sailing Directions.' I n the vicinity of Cabo de S~o Vicente, the currents set strongly along the coast and have a tendency towards 55 the cape. For the approach to the Strait of Gibraltar, see 2.34. For fishing grounds, and for further details amplifying these notes, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 2.92. Di st ances. The following table gives distances in miles between terminal positions in 48 28' N, 5 24' W 60 (Ouessant) and 36 56' N, 5 45' W (Strait of Gibraltar). For Bishop Rock, add 55 miles to Ouessant distances. Ouessant Vigo 65 435 650 230 Lisbon 500 275 Strait of Gibraltar 920 70 46 POWER VESSEL ROUTES ROUTES BETWEEN E NGL I S H CHANNE L AND WES T COAS T OF AFRI CA 2.96. Ge ne r a l not e s . The great circle track between Bishop Rock and 200 50' N, 18 10' W, off Cap Blanc, passes 35 miles W of Cabo Finisterre and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria. 5 For the passages across the Bay of Biscay and off the W coasts of Spain and Portugal, see 2.91. For the W coast of Africa, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Abnormal refraction occurs at times off the African coast. The chart- ing of the coast between Cape Bojador and Fleuve S6n6gal is reported to be inaccurate, and at night, as there are few lights, it should be given a wide berth. If bound for ports in the Gul f of Guinea, proceed through 4 20' N, 9 20' W, off Cape Palmas. For Cape Town, 10 leave the coastwise route in 10 40' N, 17 40' W, off Arquip61ago dos Bijag6s and continue by great circle, see 3.41, 3.42. 15 20 25 30 2.97. Di st ances. In the following table, distances are worked from positions off Ouessant, in 48 28' N, 5 24' W and off the Strait of Gibraltar, in 36 56' N, 5 45' W. For Bishop Rock, add 55 miles to Ouessant distances. Ouessant 920 960 Strait of Gibraltar 170 Casablanca 1310 680 525 Las Palmas 2140 1500 1330 835 Dakar 2640 2000 1850 1360 2380 3010 1730 2360 1580 2210 1090 1710 505 Freetown 245 I 840 450 10 40' N, 17 40' W, for Cape Town 4 20' N, 9 20' W (see 3.41) 35 40 45 ROUT E S BETWEEN NORT H AMERI CA AND CABO DE S ~ O ROQUE OR I NT E RME DI AT E POSI TI ONS 2.101. Ge ne r a l not e s . The main factor affecting voyages in that part of the ocean between the Gul f of St. Lawrence and the Bahamas is the NE' l y set of the Gul f Stream. A strong current setting N will be encountered for 200 miles in the N approach to Providence NE Channel. General directions for passages between New York and Florida Strait, and for West Indies channels, are given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 2.102. Di st ances, in miles. 50 55 NE Providence Crooked Island Turks Island Mona Sombrero Channel Passage Passage Passage Passage Cabot strait 1570 1590 1670 1800 1750 Halifax 1300 1330 1430 1590 1560 New York (Ambrose Lt.) 890 980 1140 1360 1420 Delaware Bay 805 895 1060 1290 1350 Chesapeake Bay 685 780 960 1200 1250 60 65 70 2.103. No r t h e r n port s ~-~ Bar bados . Pass E of Barbuda and the Lesser Antilles. When making a visual landfall on Barbados at night, it is advisable to make Ragged Point light, as the low-lying N end of the island is difficult to pick up. Distances from Barbados: Cabot Strait, 2050 miles; Halifax, 1910 miles; New York (Ambrose light), 1840 miles; Delaware Bay, 1700 miles ; Chesapeake Bay, 1620 miles. 2.104. No r t h e r n port s ~ Bel 6m, all routes from ports N of Cape Hatteras are by great circle to 5 00' N, 47 30' W, and thence to the pilot station off Salinopolis. Duri ng the hurricane season, from Jul y to October, ships from Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay should make direct for Bermuda to establish a landfall, thence passing through 26 00' N, 60 00' W; 11 00' N, 50 00' W; and 5 00' N, 47 30' W. Similarly, vessels from northern ports may with advantage also make a landfall at Bermuda. NORTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 47 N of Bermuda, the Gul f Stream will be felt; squally weather is frequent within its limits, and fog is prevalent along its N border. Ful l allowance must be made on the S parts of these routes for the effects of the Equatorial Current and counter-current; great care must be taken not to make a landfall W of Ponta de Atalaia (0 35' S, 47 21" W) because, in that region, fresh to strong ESE winds and rough seas may be expected, with occasional poor 5 visibility. Distances from Bel~m : Cabot Strait, 2900 miles ; Halifax, 2770 miles ; New York (Ambrose light), 2840 miles ; Delaware Bay, 2800 miles; Chesapeake Bay, 2700 miles. 2.105. No r t h e r n por t s +-~ Ca bo de Silo Roque. Proceed by great circle to 4 40" S, 34 351 W, midway between 10 Cabo de S~o Roque and Atol das Rocas. Distances: Cabot Strait, 3380 miles; Halifax, 3330 miles; New York (Ambrose Light), 3460 miles; Delaware Bay, 3440 miles; Chesapeake Bay, 3400 miles. 2.106. Ca r i bbe a n Se a -> Be l 6 m a nd Cabo de S~o Roque. From the Caribbean Sea, take departure in 15 13 28' N, 61 10' W, 5 miles N of St. Vincent, and proceed through 5 00' N, 45 00' W, or even farther N, to avoid the strength of the South Equatorial Current. From Trinidad, join this route i n 11 00' N, 56 20' W. Vessels bound for Be16m should leave the route i n about 6 20' N, 47 30' W. Alternatively, a curving track about 100 miles offshore will shorten the distance by about 100 miles, but the adverse current will be stronger. From 5 00' N, 45 00' W, proceed to 4 40' S, 34 35' W, midway between Cabo de S~o Roque and Atol das 20 Rocas, making allowance for the W' l y set. From Be16m, it is possible to take advantage of the tidal streams and an E-setting counter-current by keeping dose inshore if conditions permit. From Tri ni dad to Demerara, keep as dose to the land as is safe in order to avoid the current. From Galera Point, steer to a position 30 miles N of Demerara light-beacon, which should be made on a bearing of more t han 25 180 . As a rule the nature of the bottom when approaching Demerara River should be fine dark sand; a mud bottom indicates that the vessel is too far W. Because of the strength of the currents and the extent of the shore banks, sounding should be continuous. It is possible for a vessel set too far SW to ground before sighting land. Distances: St. Vincent to Be16m, 1330 miles; Tri ni dad (Galera Point) to Be16m, 1250 miles; St. Vincent to 30 4 40' S, 34 35' W, 1940 miles; Bel6m to 4 40' S, 34 35' W, 825 miles. 2.107. Cabo de S~o Ro q u e --~ B e l 6 m a nd Ca r i bbe a n Sea. For Bel6m and other intermediate ports, keep about 50 miles offshore i n the strength of the current. For the Caribbean Sea, proceed direct. 35 Distances from 4 40' S, 34 35' W: Be16m, 835 miles; 5 miles N of Galera Point, Trinidad, 1840 miles; 10 miles N of Tobago, 1840 miles; 5 miles N of St. Vincent, 1930 miles. ROUTES BETWEEN NORTH- EAS T COAST OF S OUT H AMERI CA AND EAS TERN PART OF NORT H ATLANTI C OCEAN 2.111. Ge ne r a l not e s . When approaching the coast between Tri ni dad and Cabo de Sao Roque, the effects of the Equatorial Current and Counter-current will be felt. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. In general, great circle tracks are recommended. The following routes and distances are from Bel6m: Bishop Rock, 3670 miles; Bordeaux, passing 10 miles NW of Cabo Villano, 3690 miles; Vigo, 3290 miles; Lisbon, 3140 miles; Strait of Gibraltar, passing between Isla de Hierro and Isla de la Palma, Islas Canarias, 3120 miles; Casablanca, route as for Strait of Gibraltar, 2970 miles ; Dakar 2000 miles; Freetown, 2110 miles; Ponta Delgada, 2580 miles; Porto Grande, 1680 miles; Las Palmas, 2530 miles. ROUTES BETWEEN EAS TERN PART OF ATLANTI C OCEAN AND RECI FE 2.116. Ge ne r a l not e s . On voyages between the British Isles and the E coast of South America, calls may be made at intermediate ports i n the E Atlantic islands with very litde increase of distance. Penedos de S~o Pedro e S~o Paolo (St. Paul rocks), Arquipdlago de Fernando de Noronha, and Atol das Rocas lie on or near most of the routes, i n the mai n W' l y set of the South Equatorial Current. The coast S of Cabo de S~o Roque should be approached with caution, and the prevalence of onshore sets should be kept in mind. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 40 45 50 55 60 2.117. Rout es. Landfall off Recife should normally be made in 8 00' S, 34 40' W, 10 miles E of Ponta de Olinda, but not S of this position from October to January, see 3.31 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. The great circle from Bishop Rock passes through Ilha de S~o Vicente; vessels using this track may pass through Canal de S~o Vicente or NW of Ilha de Santo Ant~o. The route between the Strait of Gibraltar and Recife passes between Isla de Fuerteventura (Islas Canarias) 65 and the African coast to 17 30' N, 20 00' W; thence direct to Recife. From Las Palrnas, for Recife, pass E of Arquip~lago de Cabo Verde; 45 miles W of Penedos de S~o Pedro e S~o Paolo; and about 5 miles W of Ilha de Fernando de Noronha. For destinations S of Recife, see Chapter 8. Di st anees: Recife (landfall) to Bishop Rock, 3760 miles; to Lisbon, 3220 miles; to Strait of Gibraltar, 3180 miles; to Las Palmas, 2440 miles; to Porto Grande, 1590 miles. 70 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 48 POWER VESSEL ROUTES ROUTES TO AND FROM ARQUIPt~LAGO DOS A~ 0 RES 2.121. Rout es. Subject to the ordinary requirements of navigation, Arquip61ago dos A~6res can be approached by great circle from all directions. The islands lie i n the mai n flow of the Azores Current, and S of the W' l y weather of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean. Distances, i n miles : Bishop Rock Bordeaux Vigo Lisbon Strait of Gibraltar Casablanca Las Palmas Dakar Porto Grande, Islas de Cabo Verde Bel6m Barbados Sombrero Passage Mona Passage Turks Island Passage North-East Providence Channel Bermuda Florida Strait (Jamaica Inlet) Delaware Bay New York Halifax* Cabot Strait St. John' s, Newfoundland Horta Ponta Delgada 1210 1300 940 910 1130 1075 920 1550 1330 2600 2220 2190 2370 2410 2540 1790 2740 2340 2090 1600 1460 1190 1140 1200 835 770 970 925 780 1450 1280 2670 2300 2290 2470 2530 2660 1900 2850 2500 2230 1750 1610 1340 * From 15 February to 10 April the E-bound route passes 40 miles S of Sable Island and through 42 00' N, 50 00' W, and the W- bound route passes through 43 00' N, 50 00' W and 20 miles S of Sable Island. These diversions add about 25 miles to the great circle distances. ROUTES TO AND FROM ARQUIPI~-LAGO DE CABO VERDE 2.126. Gr eat ci rcl e rout es. Subject to the ordinary requirements of navigation, great circle sailing should be used on the following routes. Bishop Rock, 2170 miles; Bel6m, 1680 miles; Trinidad, 2110 miles; St. Vincent, West Indies (for Caribbean Sea), 2100 miles; North-East Providence Channel (for Gul f of Mexico), 2940 miles; Bermuda, 2330 miles; Delaware Bay, 2920 miles; New York, 2900 miles; Halifax, 2540 miles; Cabot Strait, 2540 miles; St. John' s Newfoundland, 2290 miles. For Arquip61ago dos A~6res, see 2.121. 2.127. Port o Grande ++ Wes t Africa. For Dakar and Bathurst, pass N of Ilha de BSa Vista. For Freetown and 50 ports S, pass S of Ilha de S~o Tiago. For currents, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances: Strait of Gibraltar, 1560 miles; Casablanca, 1400 miles; Las Palmas, 880 miles; Dakar, 480 miles; Bathurst, 525 miles; Freetown, 875 miles; Monrovia, 1080 miles. For ports in the Gul f of Guinea, see 3.41, pass through 4 20' N, 9 20' W, about 90 miles W of Cape Palmas. The E islands of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde more especially feel the force of the SW' l y set of the Canary 55 Current and several wrecks have been caused by disregarding it. The currents between the islands of the group are frequently strong, irregular, and influenced by the wind. Local magnetic anomaly has been reported i n the vicinity of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde, especially off the W side of Ilha do Sal, off the E side of Ilha de BSa Vista, and near Ilha do Fogo and Ilha Brava. CHAPTER 3 SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN C ONT E NT S 3. 01 Wi n d s y s t e m 3. 02 S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s . 3. 03 Va r i a bl e s , or Ho r s e La t i t u d e s 3. 04 We s t e r l i e s , or Ro a r i n g Fo r t i e s . WI NDS AND WE AT HE R Page 50 50 50 50 3. 06 Zo n e s 3. 07 S o u t h At l a n t i c , 0 - 2 0 S . 3. 08 S o u t h At l a n t i c , 200- 40 S 3. 09 S o u t h At l a nt i c , 4 0 - 6 0 S S WE L L 50 50 50 50 3. 11 Oc e a n c i r c u l a t i o n C UR R E NT S 51 3. 16 Ge n e r a l r e ma r k s 3. 17 Pa c k- i c e 3. 18 I c e b e r g s I CE 51 51 51 3. 21 3. 22 NOT E S AND C AUT I ONS Coa s t of S o u t h Af r i c a . . P e n e d o s de S~o Pe d r o e S~o Pa ol o 52 52 R OUT E S OF F E AS T C OAS T OF S OUT H AME R I C A 3. 31 Pas s ages . 3. 32 Ri o de J a n e i r o ~-~ Reci f e or Po r t o de Sa l va dor 3. 33 Ri o de J a n e i r o ~ Ri o de La Pl a t a . . . . 3. 34 Ri o de La Pl a t a ~-~ Ca b o de Ho r n o s a n d i n t e r me d i a t e por t s 3. 35 Ro u t e s t o a n d f r o m F a l k l a n d I s l a nds , Ca u t i o n 3. 36 St a nl e y *-~ Es t r e c h o de Ma g a l l a n e s 3. 37 St a nl e y ~-~ Ea s t coas t of S o u t h Ame r i c a 3. 38 St a nl e y ~-~ Ca b o de Ho r n o s 3. 39 T a b l e of di s t a nc e s 52 52 52 53 53 53 53 53 53 3. 41 Ge n e r a l n o t e s 3. 42 T a b l e of d i s t a n c e s WE S T C OAS T OF AF R I C A 53 54 T R ANS AT L ANT I C R OUT E S No r t h e r n p a r t of S o u t h At l a n t i c Ve ma S e a mo u n t 3. 46 54 3. 47 54 50 3.48 3. 49 3. 50 3.51 3. 52 3.53 3. 54 3.55 3.56 3. 57 3. 58 POWER VESSEL ROUTES So u t h e r n pa r t of So u t h At l ant i c , Ri o de J a ne i r o -+ Ca pe T o wn or Ca pe Agul ha s Ca pe T o wn or Ca pe Agul ha s --~ Ri o de J a ne i r o Ri o de La Pl at a - + Ca pe T o wn or Cape Agul ha s Ca pe T o wn or Ca pe Agul ha s --~ Ri o de La Pl at a Es t r e c ho de Magal l anes ~ Gu l f of Gu i n e a . Es t r e c ho de Ma ga l l a ne s ~-~ Poi nt e No i r e Es t r e c ho de Ma ga l l a ne s - ~ Ca pe T o wn or Ca pe Agul ha s Ca pe T o wn or Cape Agul ha s -+ Es t r echo de Magal l anes , St anl ey, or Cabo de Ho r n o s St anl ey --~ Ca pe T o wn or Cape Agul ha s Ca bo de Ho r n o s --~ Ca pe T o wn or Cape Agul ha s 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 15 20 25 30 35 WINDS AND WEATHER 3. 01. T h e wi n d s y s t e m of t he Sout h At l ant i c r es embl es t hat of t he No r t h At l ant i c, e xc e pt t hat t he ci r cul at i on r o u n d t he oceani c ant i cycl one is ant i - cl ockwi se, a nd t her e is no wi nd c or r e s pondi ng t o t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n of We s t Af r i ca. Th e r e is no Do l d r u m zone, a nd t her e ar e no t r opi cal s t or ms . 3. 02. The South-east Trade Wi nds f or m t he equat or i al si de of t he ci r cul at i on r ound t he oceani c ant i cycl one, wh i c h is c e nt e r e d i n a bout 28 S t o 20 S. T h e y ar e t he c ount e r pa r t of t he No r t h - e a s t Tr a de s , a nd bl ow wi t h e qua l per s i s t ence and cons t ancy of di r ect i on, f r om about S S E on t he E si de of t he ocean t o al mos t E on t he W par t . T h e y e xt e nd as f ar N as t he e qua t or i n wi nt e r (Jul y) a nd t o wi t hi n t wo or t hr e e degr ees of i t i n s u mme r ( Januar y) . T h e aver age s t r engt h of t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e s is s i mi l ar t o t hat of t he No r t h - e a s t Tr a d e s e xc e pt N of i 0 S, E of a bout 10 W, wh e r e i t aver ages onl y f or ce 2- 3. We a t h e r is s i mi l ar t o t hat of t he zone of t he No r t h - e a s t Tr a de s , e xc e pt t hat f og is f r e q u e n t ove r t he col d wat er s of t he Benguel a Cu r r e n t cl ose t o t he coast of Sout h- we s t Af r i ca be t we e n a bout 20 a nd 30 S. 3. 03. The Variables (Horse Latitudes), a bel t of l i ght and gener al l y var i abl e wi nds i n t he n e i g h b o u r h o o d of t he oceani c ar eas of hi gh pr essur e, e xt e nd across t he ocean i n about 29 S, osci l l at i ng f r om a bout 26 S i n wi n t e r t o a bout 31 S i n s umme r . Condi t i ons ar e s i mi l ar t o t hos e i n t he c or r e s pondi ng zone of t he No r t h At l ant i c. E of t he p r i me me r i d i a n wi nds ar e p r e d o mi n a n t l y f r om be t we e n S a nd ESE, be i ng i n f act an ext ens i on of t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a de s . I n t he W par t of t he zone NE ' l y wi nds ar e c ommone s t , par t i cul ar l y i n s umme r . 3. 04. The Westerl i es (Roaring Forties). S of a bout 35 S, W' l y wi nds pr e domi na t e . As i n t he No r t h At l ant i c, t he al mos t c ont i nuous passage of depr es s i ons f r om W t o E causes t he wi n d t o va r y gr eat l y b o t h i n di r ect i on a nd s t r engt h, a nd wi nds f r om any di r ect i on can be e xpe r i e nc e d; t he cent r es of t he depr es s i ons gener al l y mo v e f r o m t he vi c i ni t y of Ca bo de Ho r n o s i n t he di r ect i on of So u t h Ge or gi a a nd t he n a ppr oxi ma t e l y al ong t he 50t h 40 par al l el . Gal es ar e ve r y pr e va l e nt ; S of a b o u t 40 S, e ve n a t mi ds umme r , wi nds r each f or ce 7 on f r om 7 t o 9 days pe r mont h, a nd S of about 43 o S and E of a bout 40 W t he f r e que nc y r i ses t o a bout 15 days pe r mont h. I n wi n t e r t hi s l at t er f r e que nc y is gener al S of a l i ne j oi ni ng t he Fal kl and I s l ands a nd t he Cape of Go o d Hope , whi l e mos t of t he ar ea be t we e n t hi s l i ne a nd t he 30t h par al l el has f r om 5 t o 10 days pe r mo n t h wi t h wi nds of t hi s f or ce. We a t h e r is of a s i mi l ar l y var i abl e na t ur e t o t hat e xpe r i e nc e d i n t he c or r e s pondi ng zone of t he N he mi s phe r e . 45 Fo g is n o t u n c o mmo n i n s umme r , and is gener al l y associ at ed wi t h wi nds f r om a N' l y di r ect i on. 50 55 60 SWELL 3. 06. Zo n e s . Fe we r obs er vat i ons of ocean swel l ar e avai l abl e f r om t he Sout h At l ant i c t han f r om t he No r t h At l ant i c. T h e So u t h Ada nt i c , f or pur pos es of swel l , can c onve ni e nt l y be di vi de d i nt o t hr ee zones. Fo r l e ngt h of swel l , see 2. 13. 3. 07. South Atlantic, 00- 20 S. Sl i ght t o mode r a t e swel l , r ar el y he a vy; f r om SE i n t he E par t of t he zone, and f r o m be t we e n SE and E i n t he W par t . 3. 08. South Atlantic, 20 S- 4 0 S. T h e swel l is ma i nl y moder at e, b u t s ome t i me s heavy. I n t he E par t of t he zone, i t is f r om S ; t he di r ect i on is var i abl e i n t he W par t , wi t h a hi gh pr opor t i on f r om be t we e n NE and N. Re por t s of conf us ed swel l ar e f r e que nt . 3. 09. South Atlantic, 40 S- 6 0 S. T h e swel l is ma i nl y moder at e, b u t i n t he e xt r e me S i t is of t en heavy. Th r o u g h o u t t he year, t he wor s t condi t i ons ar e l i kel y t o occur be t we e n 40 S a nd 50 S. T h e depr es s i ons , whi c h ar e of mu c h t he s ame si ze as t hose t hat pr oduc e t he No r t h At l ant i c wi nt e r s t or ms , mo v e i n cont i nual s ucces s i on 65 f r o m W t o E, us ual l y al ong t racks S of 50 S. T h e s t r onges t wi nds bl ow f r om NW wi t h a he a vy over cas t sky on a f al l i ng b a r o me t e r ; t hey ar e f ol l owed by S W wi nds as t he ba r ome t e r ri ses and t he sky cl ears. He a v y swel l is pr e s e nt f or be t we e n 30 pe r cent a nd 70 pe r c e nt of t he t i me be t we e n 50 S a nd 60 S. I n s umme r , t he f r e que nc y of hi gh seas a nd swel l decr eases t owar ds t he c i r c umpol a r t r ough whi c h gener al l y l i es i n a bout 64 S, whe r e t he me a n wi nd s peeds ar e less t han f ar t her N, al t hough r el at i vel y smal l s t r ong gal es oc c ur f r om 70 t i me t o t i me. S OUT H A T L A N T I C OC E A N 51 Most of the very high seas and swell appear to be raised by the westerlies. Freak waves, which are almost cer- tainly due to a number of component wave trains becoming momentarily in step, are a very real possibility which appears to be increased in the vicinity of shoal water and when the wave train is moving against the current. 5 CURRENTS 10 3.11. Ocean ci r cul at i on. Most of the South Atlantic Ocean is occupied by currents which form a simple anti-clockwise circulation. On the N flank the Sout h Equat or i al Cur r ent flows in a W' l y direction across the ocean N of about 6 S. S of this zone the general W' l y flow persists, but at a reduced rate, as far as about 20 S. Thi s weaker and less constant current is known as the South Sub-tropical Current. Most of the South Equatorial Current turns NW, towards the West Indies, as it approaches the Brazilian coast. 15 Thi s current attains high rates especially on the equator near 45 W, where in the winter and spring of the S hemisphere average rates of 2 knots are reached. Most of the South Sub-tropical Current, on the other hand, turns SW as it approaches the coast of Brazil, giving rise to the Brazi l Cur r ent , which is extensive and flows SW, parallel with the coast, as far as about 34 S to 37 S. A small part of the flow which impinges on the coast S of Cabo de S~o Roque turns N and later joins the South Equatorial Current after rounding the cape. The 20 latitude in which the N-goi ng and S-going coastal streams diverge varies between about 7 S in December and 11 S in June. On reaching about 25 S, the Brazil Current begins to fan out SE and E. The remaining SW' l y flow continues to about 36 S, where it turns SE and E to form the N part of the great E-flowing body of water which constitutes the S flank of the main ocean circulation. The S part of this E' l y flow is formed by the Sout her n Ocean Cur r ent , 25 which is a continuous belt of cold water flowing round the S hemisphere S of the continents. After passing Cabo de Hornos the flow turns NE to bring the Southern Ocean water as far N as about 38 S in the E part of the South Atlantic. The bulk of this water turns E and passes S of the African continent. From the Southern Ocean current a branch turns N in the neighbourhood of Cabo de Hornos to form the Fal kl and Cur r ent , which passes W of the Falkland Islands and continues N as far as the neighbourhood of the estuary of Rio de La Plata in 30 November until the end of April. For the rest of the year, this current extends farther N, reaching about 25 S in June. The main ocean circulation is completed, on the African side, by the NW-flowing Benguel a Cur r ent which derives, in part, from the continuation, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, of the Agulhas current (6.36). It is also fed by upwelling off the coast of South-west Africa and to a smaller extent by the NW' l y diversion of 35 some of the Southern Ocean Current. On the oceanic side of the Benguela Current there is a progressive fanning out towards W. In the higher latitudes the currents become variable towards W, but farther N the NW' l y flo~v turns progressively W while maintaining its average rate of about knot, and feeds into the W-setting South- Sub-tropical Current. Near the African coast, the NW to N' l y flow, following the coast, extends to the equator between February and April. It is least developed between August and October, when it only extends about 40 as far as Walvis Bay, the currents farther N being variable. I CE 3.16. For general remarks and references, see remarks for the Nort h Atlantic in article 2.25, which are also applicable to the South Atlantic except for 10-day ice charts and facsimile ice broadcasts. 45 50 3.17. Pack-i ce. The approximate mean limits of pack-ice are indicated on the Routeing and Climatic Charts. The main shipping routes of the S hemisphere are not affected by pack-ice, but in the South Atlantic its presence prevents the use of a great circle track between the Cape of Good Hope and Cabo de Hornos except during March, April, and May. The long-term average position of the pack-ice (4/8 concentration) in September to October, at its greatest 55 extension, see chart 5302, runs from about 60 S, 60 W to a position just E of South Georgia in about 54 S, 30 W. Thence, it extends E ~vhile gradually increasing in latitude to about 55 S on the meridian of Greenwi ch and about 58 S in 50 E. It is stressed that this is an average position of the edge of the pack which in severe years, can be encountered appreciably farther N. The average position of the edge of the pack in the months of least average extension (February-March) is 60 well S of the foregoing positions. In those parts where the Antarctic continent extends continuously to lower latitudes, i.e. from 10 W through 0 to 160 E, the average ice edge at this season does not extend much beyond 100 miles from the coast and in some places retreats to the coast. Off the Weddel and Ross seas the ice is more extensive, reaching its farthest N on the parallel of about 62 S between 30 W and 60 W. Again it is stressed that these are average positions. 65 3.18. I ceber gs. The antarctic icebergs, unlike those of the Nort h Atlantic, are not usually calved from glaciers, but consist of portions that have broken away from the great ice shelves which surround parts of the Antarctic continent. They are consequently flat-topped, and they may be of immense size. The extreme limit of icebergs, irrespective of season, is illustrated on charts 5301 and 5302. In the S hemisphere, 70 10 15 52 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S icebergs are liable to be encountered in lower latitudes in the South Atlantic than in the other oceans of this hemisphere. Near the coasts of Argentina and South Brazil, icebergs may be found as far N as 31 S. Abnormally, one has even been reported in about 26 S, 26 W. In the rest of the South Atlantic, bergs are largely confined to latitudes S of 35 S. The relatively simple nature of Antarctic geography, with an almost symmetrical flow of currents round a nearly circular continent, means that there is less cause here than in Arctic waters for a great concentration of bergs in a few comparatively narrow "lanes". Some concentration does occur due to the deflection and concen- tration of the E-setting circumpolar stream by the N' l y projection of Graham Land. Some of the bergs in the resulting NE flow between South America and Graham Land are carried into the Falkland current which takes them N as far as, or even beyond, the estuary of Rio de La Plata. Another branch of the NE' l y flow through Drake Passage continues NE and passes E of the Falkland Islands, carrying bergs to similar latitudes in the more central parts of the South Atlantic. Due notice should be taken of the caution in article 2.64 regarding the use of radar for detecting icebergs. NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 20 3.21. Coas t s o f So ut h Af ri ca. Between Saldanha Bay and Tabl e Bay, an eddy current sets S at a distance of from 4 to 5 miles offshore during the winter months of June, July, and August; at a short distance seaward of this eddy, the current is almost constant throughout the year in a general direction between N and NW, or parallel with the coast, at a rate of from knot to I knot, though between Tabl e Bay and Dassen Island it some- times runs at over 2 knots. 25 Thi s current sometimes has a tendency to set a vessel towards the coast, especially during or after strong onshore winds, and it should therefore be carefully guarded against. From time to time, however, reports have been received from vessels approaching from N to the effect that when abreast the coast between Saldanha Bay and Table Bay the normal N' l y set has not been evident, but that, on the contrary, a S' ly set has been experienced, sometimes towards the land and sometimes away from it. 30 3.22. Caut i on is necessary in the vicinity of Pe n e d o s de S~o Pe dr o e SAo Paol o and I l ha de Fe r n a n d o de No r o nha , as the South Equatorial Current sets WNW past t hem at a rate of from 1 to 2 knots. 35 ROUT E S OFF EAS T COAS T OF S OUT H AMERI CA 3.31. Passages between the ports on the E coast of South America are, in fact, coastwise and will not be described 40 in detail in this book. Generally speaking, all routes are as direct as prudent navigation permits, but off-lying shoals make wide divergence from the coast necessary in some places, notably in the vicinity of Arquip61ago dos Abrolhos ( 18 S) , Cabo de S~o Tom6 (22 S ) and Costa do Albard~o ( 33 12"S, 52 41" VV'). K n o w n dangers are fully described in Admiralty Sailing Directions, but it is emphasised that owing to the uneven character of the bottom in the vicinity of Arquip61ago dos Abrolhos, as shown by soundings, it is probable that shoals other 45 than those charted may lie within 200 miles of those islands. In making passages along the E coast of South America the seasonal changes in the coastal currents should be noted. Detailed information is given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Summarising this information in very general terms, it may be said that the movement of water is towards Rio de La Plata; S from Recife and N from Cabo de Homos, though the latter set is well away from the coast. Off the coast of Patagonia 50 currents are very variable, and within 20 miles of the shore tidal influences only are felt. It is important also to remember the prevalence of onshore currents at any time of the year between Cabo de S~o Roque and Cabo Frio. The important seasonal changes are, firstly, in the position, in the vicinity of Recife, in which the S-going current (3.11) starts; the latitude varies from about 7 S in December to about 11 S in June. Secondly, the 55 Brazi l I ns ho r e Co unt e r - c ur r e nt runs from May to July as a temporary N' l y extension of the Falkland Current. Throughout the region of the S-going Brazil Current there is always considerable variation, but during May, June, and July the proportion of N-goi ng sets near the coast between Cabo Frio and Rio de La Plata increases and, in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, slightly predominates over the S-going sets. Advantage may be taken of this by making N-bound passages between Rio de La Plata and Cabo Frio closer inshore during this period 60 than at other times, with due regard, as always, to the possibility of a shoreward set. 65 70 3.32. Ri o de Jane i r o , ~ Re c i f e or Por t o do Sal vador . As direct as navigation permits, passing at least 20 miles E of Arquip61ago dos Abrolhos unless using Canal dos Abrolhos, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distance, see 3.39. 3.33. Ri o de J anel r o ~-~ Ri o de La Plata. As direct as navigation permits, with due precautions against onshore currents. From May to July, while the Brazil Inshore Counter-current is setting N, S-bound vessels may with advantage keep to seaward. Distance, see 3.39. SOUTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 53 3. 34. Ri o de La Pl at a *-~ Cabo de Ho r no s and i nt e r me di a t e port s. The N-goi ng Falkland Current will affect voyages between Rio de La Plata and the Falkland Islands or Estrecho de le Maire, or, to a lesser extent, Estrecho de Magallanes. Special attention is required in approaching Estrecho de Magallanes, as the range of the tide is great, and the tidal streams at the entrance run with great strength, causing, at times, an indraught towards Banco Sarmiento and the dangers extending from Cabo Virgenes. The tidal streams in the strait are 5 a controlling factor in the choice of the time of arrival, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Courses are as direct as navigation permits, but low-powered vessels, S-bound to Estrecho de Magallanes or coastal ports, are advised to take an inshore route in order to avoid the strength of the Falkland Current which, at a distance of 50 miles offshore, has been known to set N at a rate of about 50 miles a day. S of Cabo Corrientes (38 S), only the tidal streams are felt within 20 miles of the land and, with W' l y winds, better weather is experi- 10 enced close inshore than in the offing. Low-powered vessels, N- bound between Estrecho de Magallanes and Rio de La Plata, should keep between 20 and 50 miles to seaward of the t humb line track to obtain full benefit from the Falkland Current. Over the length of this voyage, the distance is thus increased by about 40 miles. For directions for approaching Falkland Islands, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 Distances : see 3.39. 3.35. Rout es ~-~ Fa l kl a nd i s l ands . Caut i on. For most of the year the mean limit of icebergs lies well SE of the Falkland Islands, but during November and December it passes from about 100 miles SE of Cabo de Hornos, through the Falkland Islands, to about 43 S, 52 W, before turning E to pass about 500 miles S of the Cape of Good Hope. Icebergs N and W of this mean limit are, however, common at all times, and the risk of meeting t hem when on passage to or from the Falkland Islands, Estrecho de Magallanes, and Cabo de Hornos must always be borne in mind. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 3. 36. St anl e y *-~ Es t r e c ho de Magal l ane s . As direct as navigation will allow, passing either (1) S or (2) N of the Falkland Islands. Distances: (1) 420 miles, (2) 440 miles. 3.37. St anl ey +-, East coas t o f Sout h Ame r i c a . As direct as navigation will allow. Distance, see 3.39. 20 25 30 3.38. St anl ey ~-* Cabo de Hor nos . As direct as navigation will allow, either through Estrecho de le Maire or E of Isla de Los Estados. Distance by either route, 435 miles. 3.39. Tabl e o f di s t anc e s (in miles). 440' S 34 35' W 215 Recife Porto do Salvador 590 380 Rio de 1290 1080 740 Janeiro 2270 2060 1730 1030 Rio de La Plata Bahia 2650 2440 2110 1410 435 Blanca 3070 2860 2570 1860 855 525 Comodoro Rivadavia 3350 3140 2810 2130 1170 880 465 3480 3270 2940 2260 1350 1100 685 3070 2860 2530 1860 1000 790 530 Estrecho de Magallanes Cabo de Hornos Stanley 35 40 45 50 55 60 WEST COAST OF AFRI CA 3.41. Ge ne r al not e s . Voyages between ports on the W coast of Africa are mostly coastwise, and routes are as direct as prudent navigation allows. The route between the English Channel and the W coast of Africa is described in 2.96 and 2.97. For Cape Town, proceed by great circle from 10 40' N, 17 40' W, off Arquip61ago dos Bijag6s; for ports in the Gul f of Guinea, pass through 4 20' N, 9 20' W, off Cape Palmas. 65 70 10 15 20 54 3. 42 T a b l e o f d i s t a n c e s (in miles) 10 40' N, 17 40' W 625 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 1080 1400 Lagos 1600 270 Bonny 1750 425 160 Douala 1860 680 465 445 4 20' N 9 20' W 460 Takoradi 780 325 975 530 1130 685 1240 840 1380 1000 1700 1380 2780 2590 Gamba oil Termi nal Pointe- 2000 840 630 605 160 Noire 2320 1290 1070 1050 610 465 Lobito 3370 2580 2400 2380 1950 1830 1430 Cape T o w n 25 If routeing to Indian Ocean, passing through 36 45' S, 19 00' E and S of Agulhas Current, the distance to that position from 10 40' N, 17 40' W is 3510 miles. 30 35 TRANSATLANTI C ROUTES 3.46. Nor t her n par t of S o u t h At l a n t i c . Great circle routes in both directions are recommended between South American ports N of Rio de la Plata and ports on the African coast N of about 25 S, and between Recife or Porto do Salvador and Cape Town or Cape Agulhas. E-bound ships wishing to avoid the Agulhas Current should pass through 36 45' S, 19 00' E from October to April. Distances, in miles : 40 45 50 I Pointe Cape 15' S of 36 45' S Takoradi Lagos Bonny Noire Town Cape 19 00' E Agulhas Recife 2130 2450 2620 2790 3320 3410 3390 Porto do Salvador 2440 2750 2900 3020 3330 3410 3380 - - Rio de Janeiro - - Rio de La Plata 2970 3900 3270 4190 3380 4270 3380 4170 55 60 65 70 3.47. Caut i on. Vema Seamount , over which there is a depth of 11 m, lies in 31 40' S, 8 22" E, about 500 miles WNW of Cape Town. 3. 48. S o u t h e r n p a r t o f S o u t h At l a n t i c . S of about 25 S, the main E-bound tracks are by great circle, but diversion of the corresponding W-bound tracks to rhumb lines should, in general, involve the vessel in less headwind and adverse current while entailing an extra distance of not more than about 3 per cent. 3.49. Ri o de Janei r o -+ Cape Town or Cape Agul has. Great circle. Distances: Cape Town, 3280 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 3350 miles; 36 45' S, 19 00' E, to avoid the strength of the Agulhas Current, 3290 miles. 3.50. Cape Town or Cape Agul has -+ Ri o de Janei ro. Rhumb lines. Distances: Cape Town, 3320 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 3390 miles. Low-powered vessels should be routed through 29 50' S, 10 00' E; 25 50' S, long. 0; 22 50' S, 10 00' W; 21 10' S, 20 00' W; 21 10' S, 30 00' W; passing S of Ilha da Tri ni dade and Ilhas Martin Vaz in order to take advantage of better weather and more favourable currents. 3.51. Ri o de La Pl at a -* Cape T o w n o r Ca p e Ag u l h a s . Great circle. The farthest S position on the Cape Town track is 41 0' 0 S, 20 . . . . . . . . . 00 W; parts of the track he wxthln the extreme iceberg hmxt. The great ctrcle track SOUTH ATLANTI C OCEAN 55 between Rio de La Plata and a position 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas reaches its farthest S in 41 50' S, 18 o 15' W, or if intending to pass through 36 45' S, 19 00' E to avoid the strength of the Agulhas Current, see 3.46, the farthest S position is 42 30' S, 17 30' W. Distances: Cape Town, 3610 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 3650 miles; 36 45" S, 19 00' E, 3570 miles. Low-powered vessels may usually avoid ice by passing through 36 00' S, 40 00' W; thence by t humb line to 36 00' S, 25 00' W; thence by great circle to Cape Town or Cape Agulhas, passing close S of Tristan da Cunha Group. If proceeding to the Indian Ocean via 36 45' S, 19 00' E, the farthest S position will be 38 30' S, 1 00' W. 3.52. Cape T o wn or Cape Ag ul ha s --> Ri o de La Plata. Follow a rhumb line, which lies almost along the parallel of 35 S. Distance: Cape Town 3700 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas 3750 miles. Low-powered vessels should follow the rhumb line track for Rio de Janeiro (3.50) as far as 20 W, and thence steer by rhumb line to Rio de La Plata. Although this route increases the distance by about 250 miles, lighter winds and more favourable currents are experienced. 3.53. Est r echo de Magal l anes ~-~ Gul f of Gui nea. By rhumb line to 47 50' S, 60 00' W; thence by great circle to destination. Distances: Takoradi, 4810 miles; Lagos, 5060 miles ; Bonny, 5100 miles. 3.54. Est r echo de Magal l anes .-. Poi nt e Noi r e. By rhumb line to 47 50' S, 60 00' W; thence to 43 50' S, 50 00' W; thence by great circle. Distance 4890 miles. 3.55. Est r echo de Magal l anes--* Cape T o wn or Cape Agul has. By rhumb lines through 47 50' S, 60 00' W; 43 o 50' S, 50 00' W; 41 10' S, 40 00' W; 40 20' S, 33 00' W; thence by great circle, passing close S of Gough Island. Distances: Cape Town, 4150 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 4200 miles; 36 45' S, 19 00' E, to avoid the strength of the Agulhas Current, 4110 miles. Low-powered vessels should proceed by rhumb lines through 36 00' S, 40 00' W; 36 00' S, 25 00' W; thence by great circle, passing close S of Tristan da Cunha Group. 10 15 20 25 3.56. Cape T o wn or Cape Ag u l h a s - ~ Es t r e c ho de Ma g a l l a ne s , St anl ey, or Cabo de Ho r no s . Follow the t humb line track for Rio de La Plata, see 3.52, as far as 35 00' S, 40 00' W; thence take rhumb line courses 30 to destination. Low-powered vessels should follow the rhumb line track for Rio de Janeiro, see 3.50, as far as 27 00' S, 20 00' W; thence they should steer to 35 00' S, 400 00' W and to destination. Although the extra distance by this route is about 150 miles, the advantages of lighter winds and more favourable current should more than compensate for it. 35 Distances, in miles, for full power routes: Est. de Magallanes Stanley Cabo de Hornos Cape Town 4500 4160 4620 15' Sof Cape Agulhas 40 4550 4220 4670 3.57. St anl ey --> Cape T o wn or Cape Agul has. The great circle distance to Cape Town is 3370 miles but the track reaches 53 S, and it cannot therefore be recommended on account of ice and weather. The normal route is by rhumb lines through 43 00' S, 47 00' W; 41 10' S, 40 00' W; 40 20' S, 33 00' W; thence by great circle, passing S of Gough Island. Distances: Cape Town, 3800 miles ; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 3850 miles; 36 45' S, 19 00' E, to avoid the strength of the Agulhas Current, 3760 miles. Low-powered vessels should first proceed to 36 00' S, 40 00' W; thence to 36 00' S, 25 00' W; thence by great circle, passing S of Tristan da Cunha Group. 3. 58. Cabo de Hor nt m -+ Cape T o wn or Cape Agul has. After passing either through Estrecho de le Maire or E of Islas de los Estados, see 3.38, pick up the Stanley --* Cape Town route, see 3.57, off Stanley. Distances: Cape Town, 4240 miles; 15 miles S of Cape Agulhas, 4280 miles; 36 45' S, 19 00' E, to avoid the strength of the Agulhas current, 4200 miles. d5 50 55 CHAPTER 4 GULF OF MEXICO AND CARIBBEAN SEA CONTENTS Page WI NDS AND WEATHER 4.01 General description 56 4.05 General description SWELL 56 4.11 General description CURRENTS 57 4.15 Navigation NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 57 ROUTES 4.21 Entrance channels . 4.22 Bermuda -+ Habana 4.23 Habana --~ Bermuda 4.24 Bermuda ~-~ Kingston . . 4.25 Panama Canal ~-~ Gul f of Mexico . 4.26 Yucatan Channel ++ Eastern part of Caribbean Sea 4.27 For South American ports 4.28 Panama Canal ~-~ Tri ni dad and Tobago 4.29 Distances 57 57 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 50 WI NDS AND WEATHER 4.01. Over the Car i bbean Sea, NE to E winds prevail throughout the year, while over the Gu l f of Me x i c o the wind is generally lighter and more variable in direction, though frequently from between NE and SE. In coastalwaters, strong N' l y winds may reach gale force at times over the Gulf. For the whole area, wind speeds 55 are mainly light or moderate except for occasional hurricanes, see 2.05, which may affect the area from June to November. Most hurricanes track N of Cuba, and they rarely occur S of 15 N. The weather over the area is generally partly cloudy or cloudy with scattered showers. Sunny spells are frequent and, from May to December, periods of heavy rain and thunderstorms are frequent. Squalls may occur at any time, but fog seldom occurs at sea. 60 Visibility is generally good throughout the year though it may at times be drastically reduced by heavy rain. For Northers, see 2.03. 65 70 SWELL 4. 05. Swells are generally lower in the Gul f o f Me x i c o than in the Car i bbe an Sea. In the Caribbean Sea the prevailing direction is NE to E; in the Gul f of Mexico, from March to September it is E to SE, and from October to February it is NE. Highest swells occur in an area round 13 N, 77 W in the Caribbean Sea, especially in June and July, when the frequency of swell greater than 4 m is 20 per cent. These swells are invariably short or average in length. GULF OF MEXI CO AND CARI BBEAN SEA 57 CURRENTS 4.11. Th e No r t h Equat or i al Current (2.15) flows WNW through the Caribbean Sea with little change of direction until it approaches Yucatan Channel where it becomes more N' ly. It leaves an anti-clockwise eddy in the S part of the sea, S of about 12 N. There is also an E' l y counter-current close to the S coast of E and central 5 Cuba. In the Gul f of Mexico, part of the N-going flow from Yucatan Channel fans out in directions between SW and NW. Currents setting in these directions occupy most of the Gul f W of a line from Cabo Catoche to close W of the Mississippi delta. From the NW' l y flow along this line the water fans out NE and then shortly recurves to join the SE flow extending from the Mississippi delta to the W approaches to Florida Strait. Thi s SE' l y stream 10 joins the NE' l y stream which emerges from Yucatan Channel and the combined flow continues E, and through Florida Strait as the Fl or i da Current . The emerging stream, meeting the NW flowing water of the Nort h Sub-tropical Current, turns N off the E coast of Florida and forms the beginning of the Gul f St ream. Along the W coast of Florida, there is a N' l y current which, with the SE' l y flow coming from the Mississippi delta, forms an anti-clockwise eddy in the E part of the Gul f of Mexico. 15 There is very little seasonal variation in the pattern of the currents. The average current speeds in most of the Caribbean Sea are about 1 knot, increasing on the W side of Yucatan Channel to about 1 knots. The strongest currents are observed in Florida Strait in about 25 00' N, 80 00' W and for about 300 miles N from that position. Here the average speed is nearly 3 knots in summer and 2 knots in winter. 20 Over most of the Gul f of Mexico the average speeds are knot to 1 knot, but stronger (N' ly) sets of 1"3 knots are reported in summer near the Mexican coast, N of Tampieo. NOTES AND CAUTI ONS 4.15. Navi gat i on. In the Gul f of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the channels leading thereto, great care is necessary in the vicinity of the cays and banks, as some of the charts are based on old and imperfect surveys. Furthermore, the depths over the shoals may be less than those charted owing to the growth of the coral of which many of t hem are composed or to the imprecise nature of the least depths reported over them. Shoal water should be approached with caution at all times and given a wide berth when conditions for fixing are poor; many of the banks are steep-to. In places, there are but few navigational aids, and the currents are variable. ROUTES 25 30 35 4.21. Ent r anc e c ha nne l s . The Gul f of Mexico may be approached N of Cuba through Florida Strait; via Providence Channels and thence into Florida Strait; through Old Bahama Channel and Nicolas Channel; 40 or S of Cuba through the Caribbean Sea and Yucatan Channel. Since the current in Florida Strait runs N with some strength, that strait is a good choice for departure, but Providence Channels or Old Bahama Channel may hold the balance for entry. The latter is approached from the Atlantic Ocean through Crooked Island Passage, Caicos Passage, or Turks Island Passage. When navigating off the coast of Great Abaco Island, on the N side of Nort h-East Providence Channel, caution 45 is required on account of the current which may set onshore at a rate of more than 1 knots. Old Bahama Channel suffers from the disadvantage, particularly in inclement weather, that the lights are somewhat widely spaced. Turks Island Passage is not lighted in its S approach. In Florida Strait, most of the wrecks on Florida Reefs are of vessels S-bound at night; analysis of available 50 data has pointed to an almost universal under-estimate of the speed of the contrary current, with a consequent over-estimate of the speed made good. When S-bound, between Fowey Rocks and Sombrero Key, it is on the side of safety to assume that the vessel is steaming against a 3- or 4-knot current and to hold a safe course from one light until the next is sighted. N-bound, it is better to under-estimate the speed of the Florida Current. Vessels are rarely stranded on Florida Reefs when N-bound, except when crossing the stream from Habana or 55 making the reefs in reduced visibility. Vessels proceeding through Florida Strait from the Gul f of Mexico should first make a position off Dry Tortugas in 24 00' N, 83 00' W. The Car i bbe an Sea may be approached through Crooked Island Passage, Caicos Passage, or Turks Island Passage, all of which lead to Windward Passage. Crooked Island Passage is the best; it is constantly used by 60 vessels on voyages to and from the S coast of Cuba, Jamaica, and the Panama Canal. Caicos Passage is not lighted, and Turks Island Passage is not recommended to N-bound vessels at night, since its S approach is not lighted. Other entrances to the Caribbean Sea in common use are Mona Passage, which is much frequented and pre- sents no difficulty; although subject to heavy squalls, it is safer than Turks Island Passage. Sombrero Passage, 65 between the Virgin Islands and the Leeward Islands, is not lighted in its S approach. The passages between St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and on either side of Tobago, are also used. 4.22. Be r muda ~ Habana. Proceed by Nort h-East Providence Channel, Nort h-West Providence Channel, and Florida Strait. Distance 1150 miles. 70 10 58 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Low-powered vessels should either stand across to Fowey Rocks from Great Isaac, thence proceeding to Sand Kay before re-crossing the Florida Current; or they may proceed S along the W edge of Great Bahama Bank preferably in daylight. For directions, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 4.23. Habana -+ B e r m u d a . Proceed through Florida Strait, thence direct from off: the NW end of Little Bahama Bank. Distance 1150 miles. 4.24. Be r muda ~-~ Ki ngst on. Proceed through Crooked Island Passage or Caicos Passage, thence W of Great Inagua Island and through Windward Passage. The greatest caution must be exercised in the vicinity of Morant Cays, where the currents vary greatly both in strength and direction. Distance by Caicos Passage 1150 miles. 4.25. Panama Canal ~-~ Gul f of Mexi co. From a position about 3 miles N of the breakwaters at the entrance to Li mon Bay, make good a course of 352 , to pass 15 miles W of Serrana Bank South-west Cay (14 16" N, 15 80 24' W) . Thence make good 354 for a position in 15 42' N, 80 50' W, whence the vessel should make good a course of 320 , passing W of Thunder Knoll and keeping in depths of more than 200 m. From a position about 15 miles NW of Thunder Knoll, a vessel should keep in the deep water W of Grand Cayman Island, avoiding the shoals lying E of Misteriosa Bank, and then steer NW as necessary to pass through Yucatan Channel. 20 A vessel entering the Gul f of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea should keep in the deep water in Yucatan Channel, taking all precautions against the N' l y set of the current and constantly checking her position to identify the point of crossing the edge of Banco de Campeche. In crossing the bank a vessel should sound continuously, since it has not been subjected to a modern survey and new reports of shoal patches are often received, as indicated on the chart. 25 The dangers on this bank are steep-to. Discoloured ~vater over some of these dangers is a useful guide. The edge of the bank is generally marked by ripplings, and at only a short distance within it the water becomes discoloured. From a position about 23 miles N of Cabo Catoche, a vessel bound for the SW part of the Gul f of Mexico should steer a W' l y course to a position about 10 miles S of Arrecife Alacr~n, with due regard to the shoals N 30 of Punta Yalkubul (21 32" N, 88 38" W). For Puerto de Tampico, from the position 10 miles S of Arrecife AlacrAn, the route passes N of Cayo Arenas, clear of the shoals lying E of that cay and the 18 m patch, reported in 1961, 24 miles W of it. For Vera Cruz from the same position, the route passes midway between Tri~ingulo Oeste (2059 " N, 92 18" W) and Tri~ngulo Este to a position 3 miles S of TriAngulo Oeste. Care should be taken to give a wide berth to the 35 14'6 m shoal reported, in 1939, to lie 38 miles SSE of Cayo Arenas, and the 22 m shoal covered with Sargasso weed, reported in 1968 about 17 miles farther SSW. A vessel bound for Coatzacoalcos from a position about 10 miles S of Arrecife AlacrAn should steer to pass NW of Snake Rock to a position SE of Cayos Areas. The least depth passed over on this track is 24 m. If proceeding to Campeche, after passing W of Snake Rock, a SSW course may be steered so as to pass at 40 least 22 miles W of Celestun (20 52" N, 90 24' W) . When approaching Campeche from N, by keeping in depths of 9 rn, the ridge of hills E of the city will be sighted. If the land is made in greater depths the first objects sighted will be the 98 m ridge about 3 miles SW of the city, and Castillo San Miguel. For a vessel proceeding E the safest guide across Banco de Campeche is to keep in depths of over 36 m, avoiding Granville Shoal, bearing in mi nd also that after Northers there is a S-going current along the W side 45 of Peninsula de Yucatan, with a rate of knot at times. In the Mississippi approach, the currents near the mout h of the river are uncertain, fog and haze are prevalent, particularly in summer and autumn, the mud banks are low, and the wind is generally from E. If approaching on soundings from S and SW, great attention should be paid to checking the latitude, for the bank is steep-to, with depths of 65 m only 3 or 4 miles from South Pass. 50 55 60 4.26. Y u c a t a n C h a n n e l *-* E a s t e r n p a r t o f C a r i b b e a n S e a . Having given Cabo Catoche a wide berth on account of the shoals N of it, Cabo San Antonio should be made at a distance of 7 miles. Thence, course should be shaped along the S coast of Cuba, to pass about 5 miles off Cabo de la Cruz, thence E of Jamaica, passing 5 miles off Navassa Island, Pointe de Gravois, and Alta Vela. Thi s track is mostly under the lee of the land, and it uses the E' l y counter-current mentioned in article 4.11, although off the coast of Cuba, between Cabo San Antonio and Cabo de la Cruz, special caution is required because of the occurrence of onshore sets which may sometimes run strongly. Ships bound for Yucatan Channel from Alta Vela should pass N of Jamaica. 4 . 2 7 . F o r S o u t h A m e r i c a n p o r t s and other destinations E of the Caribbean Sea, the best route from Alta Vela lies between St. Lucia and St. Vincent and S of Barbados. 4.28. P a n a m a C a n a l ~-~ T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o . Off the N coasts of Colombia and Venezuela, coastwise voyages are best made by keeping inshore E-bound, and hauling off to take advantage of the Nort h Equatorial Current when W-bound. The normal route passes S of Aruba and Cura.cao, and between Los Frailes and Isla Margarita, and S of Cumberland Bank. 4.29. Di st ances bet~veen the seaward ends of the entrance channels (4.21), and between Panama Canal and 70 various ports are expressed in miles, below. GULF OF MEXI CO AND CARI BBEAN SEA 59 F l o r i d a St rai t , N end (27 00" N, 79 49" W) to Dry Tortugas (24 25" N, 83 00' W), 290; Coatzacoalcos, 1040; Tampico, 1110; Corpus Christi, 1070; Galveston, 980; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal, 725; Mobile, 725 ; Tampa, 485 ; Habana, 285. No r t h - E a s t P r o v i d e n c e C h a n n e l (25 50' N, 77 00' W) to Dry Tortugas, 370; to Coatzacoalcos, 1120; Tampico, 1190 ; Corpus Christi, 1150; Galveston, 1060 ; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal, 805 ; Mobile, 805 ; Tampa, 565; Habana, 370. C r o o k e d I s l a n d P a s s a g e from Christopher Columbus' landfall (24 05" N, 74 15' W) off San Salvador, via Old Bahama Channel to Habana, 585 ; via Windward Passage to Kingston, 480; Belize, 1060; Colon, 980. 10 Ca i c o s P a s s a g e (22 I0" N, 72 20" W) via Old Bahama Channel to Coatzacoalcos, 1400; Tampico, 1470; Corpus Christi, 1550; Galveston, 1500; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal, 1080; Mobile, 1340; Tampa, 840; Habana, 600. To Kingston passing W of Great Inagua Island, 400. Turks Island Passage (21 35' N, 71 10' W) via Old Bahama Channel to Coatzacoalcos, 1480; Tampico, 1550; Corpus Christi, 1510; Galveston, 1420; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal, 1170; Mobile, 1170; Tampa, 925; Habana, 685; Via Windward Passage to Belize, 1020; Colon, 905; Kingston, 415. Via Yucatan Channel to Coatzacoalcos, 1460; Tampico, 1550; to other ports N and E of Tampico Old Bahama Channel gives the shorter route. 15 20 Mo n a P a s s a g e (18 20" N, 68 00' W) to Kingston, 515; Curagao, 390; Colon, 880; Belize, 1170. Sombrero Passage (18 30" N, 63 50' W) to Kingston, 755 ; Curacao, 500; Colon, 1090; Belize, 1410. B e t w e e n St . L u c i a a n d St . V i n c e n t (13 28' N, 61 I0" W) to Bridgetown (Barbados), 90; Kingston, 940; Curacao 470; Colon, 1150; Belize, 1580. Via Mona Passage and Old Bahama Channel to Coatzacoalcos, 2170; Tampico, 2240; Corpus Christi, 2200; Galveston, 2100 ; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal 1850; Mobile, 1850 ; Tampa, 1610 ; Habana, 1370, Via Yucatan Channel to Coatzacoalcos, 2060; Tampico, 2160. 25 30 G a l l e o n s P a s s a g e (10 58' N, 60 48' W) to Kingston, 935 ; Willemstad, 505 ; Colon, 1190. C o l o n (Panama Canal pilot) to Coatzacoalcos, 1420; Tampico, 1500; Corpus Christi, 1560 ; Galveston, 1510 ; Mississippi, Gulf Outlet canal, 1300. 35 CHAPTER 5 MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND BLACK SEA CONTENTS Page WI NDS AND WEATHER 5.01 General remarks 5.02 Western Mediterranean,-- ~oven~ber to March 5.03 Western Mediterranean, May to September 5.04 Western Mediterranean, April and October 5.05 Eastern Mediterranean, November to March 5.06 Eastern Mediterranean, May to September 5.07 Eastern Mediterranean, April and October . 5.08 Black Sea 60 61 61 61 61 61 61 62 5.11 Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea SWELL 62 5.16 5.17 CURRENTS Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Aegean Sea Black Sea 62 62 5.21 Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea I CE 62 5.26 General notes 5.27 Eastward from Strait of Gibraltar 5.28 Routes to Strait of Gibraltar 5.29 Routes to and from Port Said ROUTES 62 62 63 63 55 5.35 Distance table for Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Aegean Sea 5.36 Distance table for Black Sea 63 63 WI NDS AND WEATHER 5.01. Ge ne r a l r e ma r k s . The weather of the Mediterranean is markedly seasonal, being characterised by hot dry summers with mainly light or moderate winds, and mild rainy winters with a rather high frequency of strong 60 winds and gales. The situation of this sea, surrounded by land, much of which is either mountainous or desert, and the indented nature of parts of the coast, leads to the occurrence of a large number of local winds, many with special names and characteristics. Information concerning these local winds will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Over the greater part of the open waters of the Mediterranean, winds from between N and W are the most 65 frequent, though the passage of depressions across the area causes great variations in both the direction and force of the wind. From about November to March these depressions are frequent and often vigorous, while from about May to September they are less common and much less intense. For convenience in describing the winds and weather of the Mediterranean, the area has been divided into the Western Mediterranean, W of the Sicilian Channel, and the Eastern Mediterranean, E of the Sicilian 70 Channel. MEDI TERRANEAN SEA AND BLACK SEA 61 It is emphasised that the statements which follow apply to the open sea away from the influence of the land, in the vicinity of which marked differences are likely to be found. 5.02. We s t e r n Me d i t e r r a n e a n , N o v e m b e r t o Ma r c h. In the more confined part of the area W of about 1 W, winds mostly blow parallel with the coast, westerlies being somewhat more common than easterlies from 5 January to March, and very considerably more frequent in November and December. Over the remainder of the area as far E as the longitude of Sardinia the most frequent wind directions are from between N and W, with a bias towards the latter direction in the S part of the area. In the N part of the Tyrrheni an Sea there is no clearly predominant wind direction, though winds from some N' l y point are more common than those from a S' ly point. In the S part of this sea and in the Sicilian Channel 10 the prevailing direction is NW' l y. In January, the stormiest mont h in most parts of the Western Mediterranean, winds reach force 7 or above on 6-9 days per mont hi n the NW and on 3-7 days per mont h elsewhere. Most of the winter gales are from between N and W, though NE' l y gales are not uncommon and gales from other directions may occasionally occur. Weather at this season is subject to rapid changes due to the passage of depressions with their associated frontal 15 belts of cloud and rain ; the rain is usually heavier but of shorter duration than in the British Isles. Visibility over the open sea is generally good except when reduced by rain, but it may at times be only moderate with winds from a S' l y quarter. 5.03. We s t e r n Me d i t e r r a n e a n , Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r . In that part of the area S of about 40 N and W of the 20 longitude of Sardinia, winds are most frequently from between E and NE or from between W and SW, the former being slightly more common. Elsewhere, from June to August the most frequent wind directions are from between N and W, but in May and September there is no clearly predominant wind direction. Winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 1-3 days per mont h in the NW part of the area; elsewhere, winds of that strength are rare at this season. 25 Weather in July and August is generally fine with little or no rainfall, especially in the S and E. Cloud amounts are larger and rain is somewhat more common in May and September, especially in the latter mont h and NE of a line joining the Gul f of Lions, Sardinia, and Sicily. Visibility is generally good, though occasional patches of sea fog may be experienced in early summer, and with winds from a S' l y quarter haze is sometimes prevalent. 30 5.04. Wes t er n Medi t er r anean, Apr i l and Oct ober . In the transitional months ofApri l and October conditions can be taken as intermediate between winter and summer, though it must be realised that considerable variations are likely from year to year. 35 5.05. Ea s t e r n Me d i t e r r a n e a n , N o v e m b e r t o Ma r c h. S of about 35 N, winds are most often from between SW and N, while N of that parallel between Sicily and Greece there is no clearly prevailing wind direction. In the greater part of the Adriatic and the N part of the Aegean, winds from between N and E are the most frequent, though these are often interrupted by winds from a S' ly quarter blowing in advance of an approaching 40 depression. In the S part of the Aegean, S' ly winds occur more frequently than in the N. However, winds blow mainly, as in the N, from bet~-een N and E. The confined nature of the Adriatic gives rise to many local effects, details of which will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 45 At the height of the season, winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 6-9 days per mont h in the Aegean Sea and the E part of the Ionian Sea, and 3-6 days per mont h elsewhere in the area. Weather at this season--as in the Western Medi t erranean--i s subject to rapid changes caused by moving depressions, and the statements made in article 5.02 for that area apply equally to the Eastern Mediterranean. Visibility is generally good except when reduced by rain, but with winds from a S' ly quarter, which are 50 experienced in advance of a depression, it is often only moderate. 5.06. Ea s t e r n Me d i t e r r a n e a n , Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r . Over the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean, other than the Aegean Sea, the prevailing winds are NW' I y throughout the period, and particularly persistent in July and August and E of the 20th meridian, where winds from directions other than bet~' een N and W are 55 uncommon. Over the Aegean Sea, the prevailing wind is N' l y; here also, the degree of persistence is particularly high in July and August, during which months the great majority of winds are from between NE and NW. From May to August winds are likely to reach force 7 only on rare occasions, except over the Aegean Sea in July and August, where winds of this strength may be expected on one or two days per month. In Sept ember 60 the frequency of these winds is 1-3 days per mont h over most of the Eastern Mediterranean. Over the greater part of the open waters of the area, weather at this season is fine with small amounts of cloud and little or no rain--especially in the S and E of the area in July and August. Over the N parts of the Aegean and Adriatic, some rain is likely throughout the period. Visibility is generally good, though occasional patches of sea fog may be experienced in early summer, most 65 often in the N part of the area; with winds from a S' ly quarter, haze is sometimes prevalent. 5.07. Ea s t e r n Me d i t e r r a n e a n , Apr i l a n d Oc t o be r . In the transitional months of April and October conditions can be taken as intermediate between winter and summer, though it must be realised that considerable variations are likely from year to year. 70 62 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 5.08. Bl ack Sea. The wind at sea is often very different from the wind near the coast. Well out to sea, NW and NE winds predominate over most of the sea ; in the SE part, however, SW to W winds are common during autunm and winter, with N xvinds frequent during the summer. Throughout the Black Sea, sudden changes in the direc- tion and force of the wind are common. Gales are not frequent, occurring mainly between August and March. 5 Land and sea breezes are much in evidence during the summer. Many depressions cross the Black Sea, especially during autumn and winter. Generally, they move in a NE' l y direction. Visibility is generally good, apart from fog. The season for coastal fog is September to May, and in some places fog can be expected on one day in three during this period. 10 Detailed information on the winds and weather of the Black Sea will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 20 S WELL 5.11. Me di t e r r a ne a n Sea and Bl a c k Sea. Heavy swells are more frequent in the Western Mediterranean than in the Eastern Mediterranean, but are rare in the Black Sea. The prevailing swell direction in the Black Sea is from some N' l y point while in the Mediterranean W' l y to NW' l y swells predominate. In the Western Mediterranean, between Corsica and Islas Baleares, the percentage frequency of swell greater than 4 m is: June to September, 1 to 2 per cent; October, 2 to 5 per cent; November to NIarch, 10 per cent; April and May, 2 to 5 per cent. These swells are invariably short or average in length. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 CURRE NT S 5.16. Medi t er r anean Sea, Adr i at i c Sea, a nd Ae g e a n Sea. In the Mediterranean basin, the rate of evaporation is about three times as great as the inflow from the rivers which discharge into it. In consequence, there is a continuous inflow of surface water, through the Strait of Gibraltar, from the Atlantic Ocean. Evaporation causes the Mediterranean water to increase its salinity; this denser water sinks and its excess emerges through the Strait of Gibraltar as a W-going sub-surface current, and a smaller quantity similarly reaches the Black Sea. The main body of water entering through the Strait of Gibraltar flows E along the N coast of Africa; this is the most constant part of the main circulation, but it gradually loses strength as it penetrates E. On reaching Malta Channel part of it turns N to circulate counter-clockwise in the Western ]Viediterranean ; the remainder continues through Malta Channel and along the African coast, turning N at the E end of the Mediterranean and then returning W along the N shores until it reaches the Ionian Sea, where it turns S to rejoin the main E' l y flow. Branches of this current enter the Aegean Sea and Adriatic Sea, giving rise to counter-clockwise circulations in those areas. 5.17. Bl a c k Sea. There is an almost continual flow of surface water from the Black Sea via the Bosporus, Marmara Denizi, and the Dardanelles. The surface circulation of the Black Sea is counter-clockwise but the currents are, in general, weak, inconstant, and affected to a great extent by variations in the outflow of the rivers and by the wind. I CE 5.21. No ice occurs in the Mediterranean Sea. For the Black Sea, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. ROUTES 5.26. Ge ne r a l not e s . The principal routes in the Mediterranean Sea are described in the following paragraphs. Directions for the main routes in the Adriatic Sea and the Aegean Sea are given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. In the Black Sea, routes are as direct as navigation permits. Distances are given for the routes as described in these publications or by the best navigational route. 5.27. Ea s t wa r d f r o m St rai t o f Gi bral t ar. Ships proceeding E should make use of the E-going current by 60 keeping well away from the Spanish coast, passing 10 miles N of isla de Albor~n and about 20 miles S of Cabo de Gata. E of this longitude, vessels bound along the African coast should pass the salient points at a distance of between 10 and 20 miles and use Galite Channel, then passing about 5 miles N of Cap Serrat, Les Fratelli, Ras Enghela, ~les Cani, Cap Bon, Isola de Pantellaria, and Gozo. E of Gozo, all routes are as direct as prudent navigation allows. 65 In the approach to Port Said, caut i on is necessary owing to the low coast and the uncertainty of the current; vessels are advised to keep a good offing and to approach the Fairway buoy from N. Vessels bound for ports in the region of Genova should keep at about 20 miles from the coast of Spain after rounding Cabo de Gata, and take departure for their destinations when abreast Cabo de San Antonio. For Cagliari or Napoli, take departure from Cabo de Gata and pass close S of Sardinia; for Palermo and Messina, 70 make for the N side of Sicily, giving Keith Reef a wide berth. MEDI TERRANEAN SEA AND BLACK SEA 63 5.28. Rout e s to t he Strai t of Gi bral t ar. Vessels bound for the Strait of Gibraltar from the Levant, or from the Aegean by the route S of Greece, should pass S of Sicily. Distances given in the table in article 5.35 are for tracks S of Sicily; for Adriatic ports and Dhi6rix Korinthou (Corinth Canal), a route for Gibraltar N of Sicily and through Stretto di Messina is slightly shorter. The E-going current which flows along the N coast of Africa should be avoided by passing well N of $1e de la Galite, thence making direct for Cabo de Gata and following the Spanish coast as closely as navigation permits. From Marseille or Barcelona, make Cabo de San Antonio direct, and, after rounding Cabo de Gata, keep close to the coast. From Italian ports, if passing N of Islas Baleares, make the Spanish coast at Cabo de Palos, or, if passing S of these islands, at Cabo de Gata. 10 5. 29. Rout e s t o and f r o m Port Sai d. For Gibraltar, see 5.27 and 5.28; for Malta, the route is direct. For Marseille, proceed either through Stretto di Messina and Bonifacio Strait or pass S of Sicily and Sardinia; the distance for the former route is quoted in article 5.35. For the Levant, the Aegean Sea, and the Adriatic Sea, the routes are as direct as navigation permits. 15 5.35. Di s t a nc e s i n mi l e s : Me d i t e r r a n e a n Sea, Adri at i c Sea, and Ae g e a n S e a . AIg~ers 445 Gibraltar 280 535 405 705 525 865 580 990 555 1290 1710 1340 945 1020 1080 1240 1620 1500 665 570 1360 1440 1500 1670 2040 1930 1090 lOOO Barcelona 1~0 .Marseille 350 205 Genova 1030 1090 1170 1310 1700 1590 760 665 460 345 Napoli 1240 1150 835 945 855 995 905 1080 990 1250 1160 1580 1530 1520 1430 745 720 640 580 Trieste 540 720 ~kra Tairaron (C. Matapan) 595 740 - - - Pirai6vs (via Corinth Canal) , _ _ 675 - - 135 - - Pirai6vs (via Aegean) 845 950 300 - - 220 Mehmetqitk Burnu (C. Helles)* - - 1220 1380 _ - ! - & - v o 695 Bei rut 1110 1300 - - - - ] 600 645 220 Port Said ~ 520 935 505 625 635 805 1120 985! Tarabulus 330 745 380 470 515 680 1040 935 195 Malta ~ ! 20 25 30 35 40 45 * For distances onward to Black Sea ports, see 5.36. 50 5. 36. Di s t a nc e s i n mi l e s : Bl ac k Sea. Istanb~A 200 255 Constan~a 80 Sulina 350 180 105 Odessa 290 205 155 165 Sevastopol 415 ] 475 435 450 285 r 455 i 400 570 i 590 l 3 s s ! ] 560 ! 370 i i 575 205 415 Zhdanov 180 430 Novorossiysk 245 " Batumi 55 60 65 The distance from Mehmetgitk Burnu (Cape Helles) to Istanbul is 145 miles. 70 CHAPTER 6 RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF CONTENTS WI NDS AND WEATHER 6.01 General remarks No r t h I n d i a n Oc e a n 6.02 Winds and weather 6.03 South-west Monsoon 6.04 North-east Monsoon 6.05 Inter-monsoon seasons Re d Sea a nd Gu l f o f Ad e n 6.06 Winds in Red Sea . 6.07 Winds in Gul f of Aden 6.08 Weather and visibility Pe r s i an Gu l f a nd Gu l f o f Oma n 6.09 General description So ut h I ndi a n Oc e a n 6.10 General remarks , 6.11 Equatorial Trough (Doldrums) 6.12 Nort h-west Monsoon 6.13 South-east Trade Wi nd 6.14 Variables 6.15 Westerlies Tr o p i c a l s t o r ms 6.16 General description SWELL 6.21 Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal . 6.22 Red Sea 6.23 Gul f of Aden . 6.24 Persian Gul f . 6.25 South Indian Ocean 6.26 Speed in relation to sea conditions CURRE NT S No r t h I ndi a n Oc e a n 6.31 General 6.32 North-east Monsoon period 6.33 Later North-east Monsoon period 6.34 South-east Monsoon period 6.35 Equatorial Counter-current So ut h I ndi a n Oc e a n 6.36 Main surface circulation . 6.37 Extreme eastern part of Indian Ocean I CE 6.41 General remarks 6.42 Pack-ice 6.43 Icebergs Page 66 66 66 67 67 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 69 70 70 70 70 71 71 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 6. 51 6. 52 6. 53 RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF RED SEA ROUTES Ge n e r a l Sue z ~ Ad e n . No t e s a n d c a ut i ons . 6. 54 Ro u t e s . PERSI AN GULF ROUTES 65 73 74 74 74 ROUTES BETWEEN EAST COAST OF AFRI CA, ARABI AN SEA, AND BAY OF BENGAL 6. 55 6. 56 6. 57 6. 58 6. 59 6. 60 6. 61 6. 62 6. 63 6. 64 6. 65 6. 66 6. 67 6. 68 6. 69 6. 70 6. 71 6. 72 6. 73 6. 74 6. 75 6. 76 6. 77 6. 78 6. 79 6. 80 6. 81 6. 82 6. 83 Mo g a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l Ca p e T o wn --~ Du r b a n a n d Mo z a mb i q u e Cha I m~l Mo g a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l --~ Du r b a n a n d Ca pe T o wn Ro u t e s t h r o u g h Mo g a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l Ro u t e s b e t we e n Mo g a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l a n d ) kden" Af r i c a n c oa s t ~-~ Pe r s i a n Gu l f Af r i c a n coas t --~ Ka r a c h i Ka r a c h i --~ Mo mb a s a Ka r a c h i --~ Mo g a mb i q u e ~hanr ~el Ad e n ~-~ Pe r s i a n Gu l f or Ka r a c h i Ca pe T o wn or Du r b a n - ~ Bo mb a y Bo mb a y --~ Du r b a n or Ca p e T o wn S o u t h coas t of Af r i c a --> Co l o mb o a n ~ Ba y of Be nga l Co l o mb o --> S o u t h coas t of Af r i c a Ba y of Be n g a l - + S o u t h c oa s t of Af r i c~ Se l a t Be ngga l a --> S o u t h c oa s t ot Af r i ca Ro u t e s i n Ba y of Be n g a l . Mo mb a s a - ~ Bo mb a y Bo mb a y --~ Mo mb a s a Mo mb a s a --> Do n d r a He a ~ Do n d r a He a d --> Mo mb a s a Ad e n --> Bo mb a y Bo mb a y --> Ad e n Ad e n --> Do n d r a He a d Do n d r a He a d --> Ad e n St r a i t of Ho r mu z ~-~ Col o~nbo or Do n d r a He a d Bo mb a y or Ka r a c h i +~ Co l o mb o or Do n d r a He a d Se l a t Be ngga l a Ma l a c c a St r a i t 74 74 74 75 75 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 78 78 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 80 6. 90 6. 91 6. 92 6. 93 6. 94 6. 95 6. 96 6. 97 6. 98 6. 99 6. 100 6. 101 6. 102 ROUTES TO AND FROM MAURI TI US P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ Ca p e T o wn P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ Du r b a n , , . P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ p o r t s i n Mo g a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l P o r t Lo u i s ~-+ Mo mb a s a . Po r t Lo u i s +-~ Ad e n P o r t Lo u i s ~ Ka r a c h i P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ Se yc he l l e s Po r t Lo u i s ,-~ Bo mb a y Po r t Lo u i s ~-~ Co l o mb o Po r t Lo u i s ~-~ Se l a t Be ngga l a P o r t Lo u i s +-~ S u n d a St r a i t P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ To r r e s St r a i t an( P o r t Da r wi n P o r t Lo u i s ~-~ F r e ma n t l e a n d Ca ~e L e e u wi n 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 81 81 81 81 81 ROUTES TO AND FROM SEYCHELLES GROUP 6. 106 Se yc he l l e s ~-~ S o u t h Af r i ca 6. 107 Se yc he l l e s ~ Mo mb a s a 6. 108 Se yc he l l e s +-~ Ad e n 6. 109 Se yc he l l e s ~-~ Bo mb a y 6. 110 Se yc he l l e s --~ Co l o mb o 6. 111 Se yc he l l e s +-~ F r e ma n t l e a~ad sot ~t h c oa s t of ~kust r~l i a 82 82 82 82 82 82 66 POWER VESSEL ROUTES APPROACH FROM WES TWARD TO AUS T RAL I AN WATERS 6. 120 F r o m S u n d a St r a i t 6. 121 F r o m S o u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n 82 82 6. 125 6. 126 6. 127 6. 128 6. 129 6. 130 6. 131 6. 132 6. 133 6. 134 6. 135 6. 136 6. 137 COASTWI SE PASSAGES OFF AUS TRALI A Ge n e r a l T o r r e s St r a i t . T i mo r Sea a n d Ar a f u r a Sea Sa h u l Ba nks . . Ca u t i o n - - l o c a l k n o wl e d g e ne c e s s a r y La n d f a l l No r t h of Ca p e Na t u r a l i s t e Ro u n d i n g Ca pe Le e u wi n . Ca pe L e e u wi n e a s t wa r d Ap p r o a c h f r o m we s t wa r d t o Bas s St r a i t F i s h i n g f l eet s . Ad e l a i d e e a s t wa r d Ro u t e s b e t we e n Me l b o u r n e a n d Ho b a r t Di s t a n c e s 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 83 83 ROUTES ON EAS TERN SI DE OF I NDI AN OCEAN 6. 140 Bay of Be nga l ~-~ No r t h coas t of Au s t r a l i a . 6. 141 We s t e r n s i de of Ba y of Be nga l ~-~ We s t coas t of Au s t r a l i a 6. 142 Ra n g o o n ~-~ we s t coas t of Aus t r a l i a 83 84 84 6. 150 6. 151 , 6. 152 6. 153 6 . 1 5 4 ,6.155 . 6. 156 ~6.157 6. 158 , 6. 159 6. 160 6. 161 6 . 1 6 2 ~6.t63 6. 164 , 6. 165 6. 166 , 6. 167 TRANS - OCEAN ROUTES Ca p e T o wn +-~ S u n d a St r a i t Du r b a n ~ S u n d a St r a i t . Mo mb a s a ~ S u n d a St r a i t Ad e n - + S u n d a St r a i t S u n d a St r a i t - + Ad e n . . Pe r s i a n Gu l f a n d e a s t e r n s i de of Ar a b i a n Sea *-~ No r t h coas t of Aus t r a l i a Pe r s i a n Gu l f a n d e a s t e r n s i de of Ar a b i a n Sea ~-~ We s t coas t of Au s t r a l i a No t e s o n pas s ages b e t we e n S o u t h Af r i c a a n d Au s t r a l i a . Ca p e T o wn - + No r t h - we s t a n d n o r t h coast s of Au s t r a l i a Du r b a n --~ No r t h - we s t a n d n o r t h coas t s of Au s t r a l i a No r t h - we s t a n d n o r t h coas t s of Aus t r a l i a ~ Du r b a n a n d Ca pe T o wn Ca p e T o wn a n d Du r b a n - + We s t a n d s o u t h coast s of Au s t r a l i a We s t a n d s o u t h coast s of Au s t r a l i a - ~ Du r b a n a n d Ca pe T o wn Mo mb a s a ~--, Au s t r a l i a n por t s Ad e n ~ No r t h coas t of Aus t r a l i a No r t h coas t of Au s t r a l i a - + Ad e n Ad e n - ~ F r e ma n t l e a n d s o u t h coas t of Au s t r a l i a . S o u t h coas t of Aus t r a l i a - + Ad e n 84 84 84 84 84 85 85 85 86 86 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 88 55 WI NDS AND WEATHER 601. T h e f ol l owi ng d e s c r i p t i o n of t he wi n d s a n d we a t h e r of t h e r e gi on of t he I n d i a n Oc e a n ampl i f i es t h e ge ne r a l s t a t e me n t g i v e n i n The ~llariner's Handbook. F o r mo r e pr e c i s e i n f o r ma t i o n a b o u t oc e a ni c wi n d s a n d we a t h e r t h e at l as of Mo n t h l y Me t e o r o l o g i c a l Ch a r t s of t he I n d i a n Oc e a n ( MO 519), p u b l i s h e d b y t he Ma r i n e Br a n c h of t h e Me t e o r o l o g i c a l Offi ce, s h o u l d b e c ons ul t e d. De t a i l e d i n f o r ma t i o n a b o u t speci f i c l ocal i t i es s h o u l d be s o u g h t 60 i n t he a p p r o p r i a t e Ad mi r a l t y Sa i l i ng Di r e c t i o n s . I n r e a d i n g t he f ol ' i owi ng d e s c r i p t i o n r e f e r e nc e s h o u l d be ma d e t o Wo r l d Cl i ma t i c Ch a r t s 5301 a n d 5302 a n d t o Ro u t e i n g Ch a r t s 5126 (1) t o 5126 (12). No r t h I ndi a n Oc e a n 6. 02. T h e wi n d s a n d we a t h e r of t h e whol e No r t h I n d i a n Oc e a n ar e d o mi n a t e d b y t h e a l t e r n a t i o n of t h e 65 Mo n s o o n s , wh i c h ar e s eas onal wi n d s c a us e d b y t h e h e a t i n g a n d cool i ng of t h e l a n d ma s s of Asi a, wh i c h gi ves r i s e t o t h e c h a n g e s of p r e s s u r e wh i c h , i n t u r n , ge ne r a t e t h e wi n d s . 70 6. 03 S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n . F r o m J u n e t o S e p t e mb e r t h e h e a t i n g of t he As i a t i c l a n d ma s s r e s ul t s i n t h e es t ab- l i s h me n t of a l ar ge ar ea of l ow p r e s s u r e c e n t r e d a p p r o x i ma t e l y ove r t h e NW p a r t of I n d i a . T h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d of t he S o u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n i s d r a wn acr os s t h e e q u a t o r , i s def l ect ed t o t h e r i g h t b y t h e ef f ect s o f RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 67 the earth' s rotation, and joins the cyclonic circulation round the area of low pressure mentioned above. The resulting SW wind, felt in the Nort h Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal from June to Septem- ber, is known as the South-west Monsoon. The general distribution of pressure and wind at this season is .shown on chart 5302, from which it will be noted that in the E part of the Arabian Sea the prevailing ~vind direction is more nearly W than SW. 5 The strength of the wind varies considerably between different parts of the ocean. It is strongest in the W part of the Arabian Sea where, over a considerable area, the wind averages force 6 at the height of the season and reaches force 7 or above on more than 10 days per month, see chart 5302; the worst area is some 250 miles E of Socotra, where in July about half the observations report winds of force 7 or above. In the extreme N part, and in the E parts of the Arabian Sea in July and August, the monsoon wind averages lO about force 4-, although it often freshens to force 5 or 6, and attains force 7 on more than 3 to 6 days per mont h N of about 10 N. In the Bay of Bengal the average strength of the monsoon wind is force 4 to 5 ; over the greater part of the Bay the wind reaches force 7 or above on 5 to 10 days per mont h in July and August. Between the equator and about 5 N, and E of 60 E, winds are generally lighter and only average about force 15 3 ; tl~iey are also considerably more variable in direction, though generally from between S and W. In Malacca Strait the ~vind is mostly light and is subject to considerable variation in direction and strength due to land and sea breezes and other local influences. In the N part of the strait the winds are most often SW' Iy, vhile in the S the most frequent direction is SE. Although the Monsoon is generally light, there are often periods of stronger winds accompanied by squalls ~vhich sometimes reach gale force. The best known of these squalls 20 are the "Sumat ras", which blow from some W' l y point and occur most frequently at night; they are described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. The weather over most of the Nort h Indian Ocean during the South-west Monsoon season is cloudy and unsettled, with considerable rainfall, especially off the W coasts of India and Burma, where it is very heavy. In the W part of the Arabian Sea, however, cloud amount and rainfall decrease towards the N and W and both 25 are generally small in the vicinity of the African and Arabian coasts. Rainfall is also small at this time in the immediate vicinity of the E coasts of Ceylon and India as far N as about 15 N. Visibility is good in most parts of the area except when reduced by rain, and in the N and W parts of the Arabian Sea where it is often only moderate and sometimes poor within about 200 miles of the coast particularly during the South-west Monsoon period, when, although the sky may be clear, the surface visibility may be 30 reduced; in this latter zone in July and August visibility is likely to be less than 5 miles on about 50 per cent of occasions because of dust haze. 6.04. N o r t h - e a s t M o n s o o n . From November to March, a NE' l y wind is experienced in the Nort h Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. Thi s wind is known as the North-east Monsoon. The general 35 distribution of pressure and ~vind at this season is shown on Climatic Chart 5301, from which it will be observed that over the E part of Arabian Sea, and towards the equator, the prevailing wind direction is more nearly N than NE. Ther e are two areas in ~vhich the Monsoon is subject to considerable interruption, or in which the ~vind is rather variable in direction. The first is in the Arabian Sea N of about 20 N, where the variations in the direction 40 and strength of the wind are caused by the passage of depressions across Iran or along the Makran coast, and the second is between the equator and about 5 N, and E of about 90 E, where winds, though mostly N' ly, are generally light and somewhat variable in direction. Over the greater part of the Nort h Indian Ocean the strength of the North-east Monsoon averages force 3 to 4 at the height of the season, though towards the equator it averages force 2 to 3, except W of about 55 E; 45 it is also only light in the Malacca Strait. Winds are likely to reach force 7 only on rare occasions. The weather in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is generally fine with small amounts of cloud and little or no rain. Cloudiness and rainfall increase towards the S and E, especially in December and January when con- siderable rain occurs in the S part of the Bay of Bengal S of a line joining the N extremities of Ceylon and Sumatra. 50 Visibility over the open ocean away from the effects of land is generally good or very good at this season, and fog is unkno~vn. In the N and E parts of the Arabian Sea, however, visibility is often reduced by dust haze, especially in the latter part of the season, while in the N part of the Bay of Bengal it may be reduced by smoke haze and land mists carried seaward by the prevailing N' l y winds. 6.05. I n t e r - m o n s o o n s e a s o n s . The months of April and May, and October, are characterised by the N and S shift across the area of the Equatorial Trough (6.11) and by the progressive replacement of the North-east Monsoon by the South-west Monsoon in April and May, and vice versa in October. The South-west Monsoon becomes established in the S earlier than in the N, and the reverse is true for the North-east Monsoon. The width of the Equatorial Trough, hosvever, varies greatly from day to day and its movements are irregular; consequently the whole area can be regarded primarily as one of light winds (apart from squalls and tropical storms) with a rather high frequency of calms, and with the oncoming monsoon becoming gradually established. Except in squalls, which are common, or in association with tropical storms, winds over the open ocean are likely to reach force 7 or above only on rare occasions, but in the V part of the Arabian Sea between 5 N and 10 N and W of 55 E, SW' Iy winds of this strength may be expected on about 2 days in May. In the Malacca Strait "Sumat ras" (6.03) occur occasionally. The weather varies considerably, fair or fine conditions alternating with cloudy, squally weather with frequent heavy showers and thunderstorms; these conditions spread N during April and May, and retreat S during October. In the N parr of the Arabian Sea, however, fine weather predominates during these inter-monsoon months. 55 60 65 70 68 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Visibility over the open ocean is good except when reduced by heavy rain. Near the shores of the N and E part s of the Arabian Sea, however, it is sometimes reduced by dust haze in April and ~iay. Re d Sea a nd Gul f of Ad e n 5 6.06. Wi n d s i n Re d Sea. The prevailing winds in the Red Sea blow parallel with the coast. The seasonal change in pressure distribution over the adjacent land masses causes a seasonal reversal of the prevailing winds in the S part of the area. From November to March, an extension of the Asiatic anticyclone is centred over the interior of Arabia, while another area of high pressure lies over the Sahara. The N part of the Red Sea is under the influence of 10 the Saharan anticyclone, resulting in the prevalence here of NNW ~vinds, while S of about 18 N, from October to April, winds are influenced mainly by the Arabian anticyclone, with the result that the prevailing wind direc- tion here is SSE. Between the NNW ~vinds of the N part of the area and the SSE winds of the S part, lies an area of light variable winds and calms. From June to September, with low pressure over the NW part of India, the NNW winds affect the S part of 15 the Red Sea as well. NNW winds thus prevail over the whole of the Red Sea from late May to late September. S of 18 N, May is characterised by the progressive retreat of the SSE' l y winds and by the corresponding advance of those from NNW, while the process is reversed in late September and early October. In the Red Sea, N of 18 N, the average strength of the wind is force 4 throughout the year. Gales are most frequently, though not invariably, from NW or N ; in the Gul f of Suez, gales are most common in December 20 and August, during which months winds may reach force 7 or above on about 2 days per month. Over the remainder of the area, February is the month of greatest frequency of strong winds with 1 to 2 days ~vith winds of this strength. Gales are exceedingly rare during the South-~vest Monsoon season. To the S of 18 N, the SSE' l y winds ~vhich prevail from October to April average force 4 to 5, rising to nearly force 6 near the Straits of B~b-al-Mandab in February; the NNW' l y winds which prevail from June to September 25 average force 3 to 4. Gales are most common near the Straits of B~b-al-Mandab in December and January, during which period winds in this area may be expected to reach force 7 or above on 3 to 4 days per month. As in the N part of the Red Sea, gales are rare during the season of the South-west Monsoon. 6.07. The wi nds i n t he Gul f of Aden form part of the monsoon circulation of Asia; the predominant winds are 30 ENE' I y from October to April, but become SE' l y in the Straits of B~b-al-Mandab. In h,lay, wind direction is variable, while from June to September SW' l y winds prevail. In the Gul f of Aden, the ENE' I y winds average force 2 to 3 from December to March, and gales are rare. From June to September within the main part of the Gulf, the strength of the South-west Monsoon averages about force 4, and winds reach force 7 or above on I to 2 days per month. The average strength of the wind and 35 the frequency of gales, however, increase rapidly towards the E end of the Gulf, and E of Ras Asir winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on I0 to 15 days in July. Tropical cyclones are very rare in the Gulf, only 3 or 4 having been experienced in the last 50 years. 6.08. We at he r a nd vi si bi l i t y. The weather over the whole of the Red Sea and the Gul f of Aden is generally 40 fine, with small amounts of cloud; when rainfall does occur it is in the form of showers and may be heavy. Total rainfall is slight. Over the open sea, fog and mist are rare except in the extreme E part of the Gul f of Aden during the South- west Monsoon season. Sand and dust haze is however, widespread from June to August, visibility at this time of year being less than 5 miles on about 1 day in 10 in the N part of the Red Sea, 1 day in 4 or 5 in the S part 45 of the Red Sea and on the African side of the Gul f of Aden, and 1 day in 2 on the Arabian side of that Gulf. In September the frequency of haze decreases greatly, while from December to February it is not usual. Sand- storms, which N of about 22 N mostly occur from February to June, and in the S part of the Red Sea and in the Gul f of Aden from May to August or September, may occasionally reduce visibility to 50 metres or less. 50 Per si an Gul f and Gul f of Oma n 6.09. The following remarks apply to open water away from the local effect of land, in the vicinity of which land and sea breezes and other local effects are likely to cause considerable modification. Detailed information about specific localities will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions. In the main part of the Persian Gulf, NW' l y winds (Shamal) are the most frequent throughout the year; they 55 become more W' l y in the S part of the Gul f or even SW' l y on the W side of the Strait of Hormuz. From December to February these north-westerlies are frequently interrupted by SE' l y winds, blowing in advance of E-movi ng depressions; thus, during winter, an alternation between SE' l y and NW' l y winds is the characteristic feature. From March to May the SE' l y winds associated with depressions decrease rapidly in frequency, with a corres- ponding increase in the number of north-westerlies which, from June to September, are very persistent and 60 form part of the cyclonic wind circulation round the summer low situated over the NW part of India. In October and November the north-westerlies become less steady as a gradual return to winter conditions brings an increasing frequency of SE' l y winds. The average strength of the wind is force 2 to 3 rising to 3 to 4 in the N part of the Gul f during the winter. The variations from the mean are, however, great, and both calms and fresh to strong winds are rather common. 65 Winds may reach force 7 or above most often from December to March, during which period winds of this strength are likely to be experienced on about 3 days per mont h; they also occur occasionally in summer, when they are due to a deepening of the summer low over the NW part of India, but they are rare in April, May and October. The winter gales may be from any direction, but those occurring in summer are limited to directions between N and W. Squalls, during which winds may reach gale force, are a characteristic feature of the weather 70 of the Persian Gul f and may occur at any time. RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 69 In the Gul f of Oman from December to February, winds are mainly from some N' l y point with NW as the most frequent direction. South-easterlies occur ahead of advancing depressions, but are less frequent here than in the Persian Gulf. From March to May winds are very variable, with north-westerlies decreasing and south-westerlies increasing in frequency until, by May, the latter winds predominate. From June to August the prevailing wind is SE' Iy, being an offshoot of the South-west Monsoon of the Arabian Sea. From September to 5 November the frequency of SE' l y winds decreases and that of northerlies increases, but wind direction is, in general, very variable. The frequency of calms is higher in the Gul f of Oman than in the Persian Gulf; winds reach force 7 on about 1 to 2 days per mont h from December to March, but rarely attain force 8. As in the Persian Gulf, squalls are common. On rare occasions the Gul f may be affected by a tropical storm originating in the Arabian 10 Sea. In both the Persian Gul f and the Gul f of Oman rain and large amounts of cloud are practically confined to the period November to April, and are associated with E-movi ng depressions, in the intervals between which fine weather with small amounts of cloud prevails. In summer, the Persian Gul f is practically cloudless, but in the Gul f of Oman the influence of the monsoon causes an increase in cloudiness in July and August. 15 Visibility is for the most part good or very good from November to February; after this, dust haze causes a progressive deterioration until in June and July visibility is less than 5 miles on 10 to 12 days per mont h over the open sea, and still more often near the coast. Dust haze decreases considerably after July. Duststorms or sand- storms occur in all seasons, but are most frequent during June and July and least so during the winter; during their occurrence they often reduce visibility to less than 500 metres. 20 Sout h I ndi an Oc e an 6.10. The winds and weather of the South Indian Ocean are governed by the advance of the Nort h Indian Ocean monsoon into the S hemisphere from November to February and its retreat from June to Sept ember; the result is the establishment, in this zone, of alternating seasonal winds. S of this zone the normal wind and 25 pressure distribution, as outlined in The Mariner's Handbook, prevails. 6.11. Equat or i al Tr ough ( Dol dr ums) . Thi s region is known variously as the Equatorial Trough, the Dol drum belt, the Intertropical Convergent Zone (I. T. C. Z. ), the Intertropical Front (I. T. F. ), the Equatorial Front, or the Shearline. It is, in the Indian Ocean, S of the equator from about November to April, and reaches its most 30 S' ly position in February. The winds and weather are similar to those encountered in the Equatorial Trough in other oceans, and consist of fair weather, calms, and light variable winds alternating with squalls, heavy showers, and thunderstorms. Both the width of the belt and its position vary considerably from day to day; the former averages about 200 miles but it may at times be much more, while at others it may be reduced to almost nothing by a strong burst of the South-east Trade Wind. Visibility in this zone is good except in heavy rain. 35 6.12. No r t h- we s t Mo n s o o n . Duri ng the period from November to March, when the Equatorial Trough is situated in the S hemisphere, the North-east Monsoon of the Nort h Indian Ocean is drawn across the equator, deflected to the left by the effect of the earth' s rotation, and is felt in the N part of the South Indian Ocean as a NW' l y wind, known as the North-west Monsoon. See Climatic Chart 5301. 40 Winds are in general light, and vary considerably in direction, but in the W part of the zone the prevailing direction is more nearly N than NW, and becomes NE close to the African coast and N of about 10 S. In the Moqambique Channel a N' l y wind prevails as far as 15 S to 17 S ; it is here known as the No r t he r n Mo ns o o n. In the E part of the ocean just S of Java, and in the Ti mor and Arafura Seas, the prevailing wind direction is between W and NW. 45 Except in squalls, which are common, or in association with tropical storms (6.16) winds over the greater part of the zone are likely to reach force 7 or above only on rare occasions. The weather is generally rather cloudy and unsettled, and rain, mostly in the form of heavy showers, is frequent. Visibility is good except in rain. 50 6.13. The Sout h-east Tr ade Wi nd blows on the equatorial side of the anti-clockwise circulation round the oceanic high-pressure area situated in about 30 S. In this ocean, however, the oceanic anticyclone seldom consists of a single cell; more frequently it contains a more or less regular succession of E-movi ng anticyclones, from the N sides of which blow the Trade Winds, which blow permanently and with little variation in direction throughout the year. 55 In summer, the South-east Trades extend from about 30S to the Equatorial Trough, the general direction of the wind being from between E and SE over most of the area, but becoming S' ly off the W coast of Australia, and mainly SW' l y off its NW coast --t hough in the latter area the direction is much more variable than in the Trade Winds proper. In the S part of the Moqambique Channel an extension of the Trades gives prevailing S to SE winds. Climatic Chart 5301 shows the area covered by the Trades at this season. 60 In winter, the South-east Trades extend from about 27 S to the equator, though N of about 5 S and E of 70 E they are weak, and, though generally from some S' ly point, they vary considerably in direction. Elsewhere over the greater part of the open ocean winds are almost exclusively from between SSE and ESE, but in the E part of the area and in the Ti mor Sea the predominant direction is somewhat more E' ly. In the Ti mor and Arafura Seas the South East Trade Wind is sometimes referred to as the Sout h- eas t Mo n s o o n in contradistinction to 65 the North-west Monsoon (6.12), which prevails there in summer. In the Mozambi que Channel an extension of the South-east Trades gives prevailing S to SE winds over the whole length of the channel from about April to September. These winds are known as the So ut he r n Mo n s o o n in contradistinction to the Nort hern Monsoon (6.12), which prevails in the N part of the channel in summer. Climatic Chart 5302 shows the area covered by the South-east Trade Wi nd at this season. 70 10 70 POWER VESSEL ROUTES T h e aver age s t r e ngt h of t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e Wi n d is f or ce 3 t o 4 i n s ur nme r a nd f or ce 4 t o 5 i n ~vi nt er; i t r eaches a me a n of f or ce 5 be t we e n about 10 S a nd 20 S a nd 65 E a nd 100 E wh e n at i t s s t r onges t dur i ng t he wi nt er . I n s umme r , wi nds ar e l i kel y t o r each f or ce 7 or above on 1 t o 3 days pe r mo n t h over t he gr eat er par t of t he zone, r i si ng t o 3 t o 6 days pe r mo n t h over t he cent r al par t of t he area. I n wi nt er , wi nds of t hi s s t r e ngt h ar e l i kel y t o be e nc ount e r e d on 1 t o 3 days pe r mo n t h i n t he E and W par t s of t he zone, whi l e over a c ons i de r a bl e ar ea be t we e n about 65 E a nd 90 E t hei r f r e que nc y ri ses t o 6 t o 9 days pe r mo n t h as s hown on Cl i ma t i c Ch a r t 5302. I n t he T i mo r a nd Ar a f ur a Seas wi nds ar e unl i kel y t o r each f or ce 7 on mor e t han 1 or 2 days pe r mo n t h . T h e we a t he r ove r t he open ocean is mos t l y f ai r or fi ne wi t h skies about hal f cover ed, but bel t s of c l oudy s howe r y we a t he r occur at i nt er val s. T o t he NW a nd N of t he Aus t r al i an cont i nent , be t we e n t he NW par t of Aus t r al i a and Java, a nd i n t he T i mo r Sea and, t o a l esser ext ent , i n t he Ar a f ur a Sea, cl oud a mount s and r ai nf al l ar e s mal l f r om Apr i l t o Se pt e mbe r , whi l e t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e Wi n d pr evai l s i n t hese r egi ons. Ext ens i ve dus t haze pr evai l s her e, especi al l y i n t he T i mo r Sea and t owar ds t he e nd of t he season. El s e whe r e i n t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e zone vi s i bi l i t y is good e xc e pt i n r ai n. 15 6. 14. Va r i a b l e s . T o t he S of t he S l i mi t of t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e Wi nd, t her e is a zone of l i ght var i abl e wi nds i n t he ar ea of t he oceani c hi gh pr es s ur e r egi on. I n wi nt e r t he cent r e of t he hi gh- pr e s s ur e r egi on is l ocat ed i n a bout 30 S, whi l e i n s u mme r i t move s t o about 35 S ove r t he gr, eat er par t of t he ocean, di ppi ng s ome wha t f a r t he r S near t he S W par t of Aust r al i a. T h e we a t he r also var i es cons i der abl y i n t hi s zone, al t er nat i ng be t we e n f ai r or fi ne condi t i ons near t he cent r es 20 of t he E- mo v i n g ant i cycl ones and cl oudy s howe r y we a t he r i n t he i nt e r ve ni ng t r oughs of l ow pr essur e. Vi s i bi l i t y is gener al l y good except i n r ai n. 6. 15. We s t e r l i e s ( Ro a r i n g Fo r t i e s ) . T o t he S of t he hi gh pr es s ur e r egi on me n t i o n e d i n ar t i cl es 6.13 a nd 6. 14, W' l y wi nds pr e domi na t e . As i n t he Wes t er l i es of ot he r oceans, t he al mos t c ont i nuous passage of depr es s i ons 25 f r om W t o E causes t he wi n d t o vary. gr eat l y bot h i n di r ect i on a nd s t r e ngt h; t he cent r es of mos t of t hes e de pr e s - si ons pass S of 50 S. Gal es ar e ve r y pr e va l e nt i n t he zone of t he Wes t er l i es especi al l y i n wi nt er , dur i ng wh i c h season wi nds r each f or ce 7 or above on 12- 16 days pe r mo n t h S of about t he 36t h par al l el ; dur i ng s umme r , wi nds of t hi s f or ce ar e l i kel y t o be e nc ount e r e d on 6 t o 12 days pe r mo n t h S of a bout 40 S. Cl i ma t i c Cha r t s 5301 a nd 5302 s how t he r egi ons i n whi c h gal es ar e mos t c o mmo n . 30 As i n t he Wes t er l i es of ot he r oceans, t he we a t he r is ve r y var i abl e, per i ods of over cas t skies a nd r ai n or s now associ at ed wi t h t he f r ont s of E- mo v i n g depr es s i ons al t er nat i ng wi t h f ai r er condi t i ons. Fi ne we a t he r is, however , s e l dom pr ol onged, a nd cl oud a mount s ar e gener al l y l ar ge t hr oughout t he year . Vi s i bi l i t y var i es c ons i de r a bl y; wi t h wi nds f r om a S' l y poi nt i t is gener al l y good, whi l e N' l y wi nds ar e of t en associ at ed wi t h mo d e r a t e or poor vi si bi l i t y. S of t he 40t h par al l el vi s i bi l i t y of less t ha n 2 mi l es ma y be e xpe c t e d 35 on pe r ha ps 5 days pe r mont h, whi l e f og is not u n c o mmo n dur i ng t he s u mme r ; i t is us ual l y associ at ed wi t h wi nds f r om a N' l y poi nt . Tropi cal s t o r ms 6. 16. Tropi cal s t o r ms occur i n t he Ar a bi a n Sea, t he Bay of Bengal , a nd i n par t s of t he So u t h I ndi a n Ocean. 40 T h e y ar e des cr i bed, and advi ce on avoi di ng t h e m is gi ven i n The Mariner's Handbook. I nf or ma t i on r e ga r di ng s t or m f r e que nc i e s a nd t r acks wi l l be f ound i n t he a ppr opr i a t e Admi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons , on t he Rout e i ng Char t s 5126 (1) t o 5126 (12), and i n t he at l as of Mo n t h l y Me t e or ol ogi c a l Char t s of t he I ndi a n Oc e a n ( MO 519). Tr o p i c a l s t or ms ar e k n o wn as " Cy c l o n e s " i n t he ar ea c ove r e d by t hi s chapt er . Al t er nat i vel y, i n We s t e r n Aus t r al i a t he y ar e kno~vn as " Wi l l y - Wi l l i e s " . 45 I n t he Ar a bi a n Sea, cycl ones occur i n Ma y, J une, Oct ober , a nd No v e mb e r , t he pe r i ods of gr eat est f r e que nc y be i ng f r om ear l y Ma y t o mi d - J u n e , and f r om mi d - Oc t o b e r t o mi d - No v e mb e r . Al t h o u g h t he y have be e n r e c or de d t hey ar e e xt r e me l y r ar e i n Jul y, Se pt e mbe r , a nd De c e mb e r . Th e y ar e u n k n o wn f r om J a nua r y t o Ma r c h and i n Augus t . I n t he Bay of Bengal mos t cycl ones occur f r om Ma y t o No v e mb e r , wi t h No v e mb e r as t he mo n t h of gr eat es t 50 f r e que nc y. Th e y oc c ur ve r y occasi onal l y i n Ma r c h, Apr i l , and De c e mb e r , a nd ar e u n k n o wn al mos t i n J a nua r y a nd ent i r el y so i n Fe br ua r y. I n t he So u t h I ndi a n Ocean, cycl ones occur f r om De c e mb e r t o Apr i l , t he mo n t h of gr eat es t f r e que nc y be i ng J a nua r y; t he y also oc c ur occasi onal l y i n No v e mb e r and Ma y. I n t he T i mo r Sea a nd t he Ar a f ur a Sea, and of f t he W coast of Aus t r al i a t he Wi l l y- Wi l l y season and t he mo n t h of 55 gr eat es t f r e que nc y ar e t he s ame as f or t he cycl ones of t he Sout h I ndi a n Ocean, except t hat Wi l l y- Wi l l i e s ar e n o t known i n Ma y. Fo r t he effect of t r opi cal s t or ms upon t he cur r ent s , see 1. 75. 60 S W E L L 6. 21. I n t he Ar a b i a n Sea and the Bay of Bengal , t he swel l is gove r ne d by t he di r ect i on and s t r engt h of t he mons oon wi nds . I n t he Ar a bi a n Sea a SW' I y swel l be c ome s es t abl i s hed dur i ng Ma y a nd per si st s unt i l Se pt e mbe r . 65 A NE' I y swel l be c ome s es t abl i s hed dur i ng No v e mb e r a nd per si st s unt i l Ma r c h. Th e r e is no p r e d o mi n a n t di r ect i on i n Apr i l or Oc t obe r a nd t he swel l is nor ma l l y l ow or mode r a t e i n t he c ha nge ove r mo n t h s a nd ma i nl y mode r a t e once t he mo n s o o n is est abl i shed, t h o u g h f r om J u n e t o Se p t e mb e r a he a vy swel l ma y be e nc ount e r e d. I n t he Bay of Bengal a SW' I y swel l be c ome s es t abl i s hed dur i ng Ma r c h a nd per si st s unt i l Oct ober . A NE ' l y swel l be c ome s es t abl i s hed dur i ng No v e mb e r and per si st s unt i l Fe br ua r y. Swel l is nor ma l l y l ow or mo d e r a t e 70 e xc e pt f or t he pe r i od f r om Ma y t o Augus t wh e n i t is mode r a t e or heavy. I n Mal acca Strait t her e is no RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 71 p r e d o mi n a n t d i r e c t i o n of swel l . T h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r swel l i s n o r ma l l y l ow a n d o n l y o n r a r e oc c a s i ons does i t b e c o me mo d e r a t e . Swel l i n t h e Ar a b i a n Se a a n d t h e Ba y of Be n g a l i s n o r ma l l y s h o r t or a ve r a ge i n l e n g t h . Ho we v e r , o n a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t of oc c a s i ons swel l s of o v e r 200 me t r e s ma y b e e n c o u n t e r e d ; s u c h swel l s ar e a l mo s t i n v a r i a b l y l ow i n h e i g h t . 6. 22. I n t h e R e d Se a, t h e p r e d o mi n a n t swel l di r e c t i ons ar e N t o NW a n d S t o SE. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r t h e s wel l i s e v e r y wh e r e N t o NW b u t i n Oc t o b e r a S t o S E' l y swel l b e c o me s e s t a b l i s h e d S of 18 N. T h i s swel l pe r s i s t s u n t i l Ma r c h b u t i s r e p l a c e d i n Ap r i l b y t h e N t o NW s wel l of t h e N p a r t of t h e Re d Sea as i t e x t e n d s S. Swe l l i n t h e Re d Se a i s l ow or mo d e r a t e , b u t r a r e l y he a vy. T h e l e n g t h of swel l i s ge ne r a l l y s hor t , t h o u g h a s ma l l n u mb e r of a ve r a ge swel l s do occur . 6. 23. I n t h e Gu l f o f Ad e n , a S W' l y s wel l o c c u r s f r o m J u n e t o S e p t e mb e r a n d a n E t o NE ' l y swel l f r o m No v e mb e r t o Ma r c h . T h e s e swel l s ar e l ow or mo d e r a t e . T h e r e i s n o p r e d o mi n a n t d i r e c t i o n i n Apr i l , Ma y, or Oc t obe r , wh e n t h e swel l i s ma i n l y l ow. Swel l l e n g t h s ar e s i mi l a r t o t hos e e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e Re d Sea. 6. 24. I n t h e P e r s i a n Gu l f , swel l i s p r e d o mi n a n t l y NW' l y , t h o u g h f l ' om De c e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y , a SE' l y swel l ma y occur . T h e swel l i s n o r ma l l y l ow or mo d e r a t e , b u t i s occas i onal l y h e a v y i n t h e S p a r t of t h e Gu l f i n Au g u s t a n d S e p t e mb e r . I n t h e Gu l f of Oma n , s wel l i s NW' l y f r o m De c e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y a n d S E' l y f r o m J u n e t o Au g u s t . At o t h e r t i me s t h e r e i s n o p r e d o mi n a n t di r e c t i on. T h e swel l i s n o r ma l l y l ow or mo d e r a t e a n d onl y r a r e l y heavy. Mo s t s wel l s i n t h e Pe r s i a n Gu l f a n d t h e Gu l f of Oma n ar e s hor t , a n d ha ve pe r i ods b e t we e n 3 a n d 6 s e c onds . 6. 25. I n t h e S o u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n , swel l i s a r e g u l a r f e a t ur e . T h e swel l g e n e r a t e d b y t h e de pr e s s i ons S of 50 S of t e n t r a ve l s t o al l p a r t s of t h e N a n d S I n d i a n Oc e a n ; mo r e t h a n one swel l i s f r e q u e n t l y pr e s e nt , a n d c o n f u s e d swel l i s of t e n r e p o r t e d . As s h o wn b y t h e f ol l owi ng t abl e, i t i s n o r ma l l y mo d e r a t e t o he a vy. I n l e ngt h, i t cover s t h e c ompl e t e r a n g e f r o m s h o r t t o l o n g ; ma n y swel l s ar e of a ve r a ge l e n g t h b u t l e n g t h s of ove r 300 me t r e s ar e n o t u n c o mmo n . Fr e a k waves ma y occur , see 3. 09. 10 15 20 25 30 25 E - 7 0 E 70 E- 1 1 0 E Zo n e Di r e c t i o n He i g h t Di r e c t i o n He i g h t 0 - 2 0 S S t o SE Ma i n l y mo d e r a t e 20 S- 3 5 S 35 S - 5 0 S P r e d o mi n a n t l y SE SE t h r o u g h S t o S W So me NW b u t ma i n l y W t o S W Lo w or mo d e r a t e , at t i me s h e a v y b e t we e n 10 S a n d 2 0 S. Mo d e r a t e or h e a v y Mo d e r a t e or h e a v y Ma i n l y S W t o S So me NW b u t ma i n l y W t o S W Mo d e r a t e or he a vy Mo d e r a t e or heavy, wi t h wa ve s gr e a t e r t h a n 6 m qui t e c o mmo n 35 40 45 6. 26. S p e e d r e d u c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o s e a c o n d i t i o n s . Du r i n g t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n a n d S o u t h e r n s u mme r p e r i o d , f r o m a b o u t No v e mb e r t o Ma r c h , sea c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Oc e a n do n o t cal l f or p a r t i c u l a r c o mme n t e x c e p t t ha t , S of 40 S, t h e y ar e s u c h as t o caus e s hi ps o n W' l y h e a d i n g s t o f i nd i t n e c e s s a r y t o r e d u c e s p e e d f or mo r e t h a n 10 p e r c e n t of t h e i r voyage t i me . T h e s o u t h e r n sunanaer i s, ho~vever, t he s e a s on of gr e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y of t r opi c a l s t o r ms i n t h e S o u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n, see 6. 16. At t h e pe a k of t h e S o u t h - w e s t Mo n s o o n p e r i o d , i n J ul y, s pe e ds of s hi ps i n t h e Ar a b i a n Sea ma y h a v e t o be r e d u c e d f or mo r e t h a n 60 p e r c e n t of t h e t i me wh e n s t e a mi n g i nt o, or a b e a m of, wi n d a n d sea, a n d a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t of t h e t i me i n f ol l owi ng seas. I n t h e S h e mi s p h e r e , seas i n wi n t e r ar e h i g h e r t h a n i n s u mme r a n d t he So u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s a n d t h e We s t e r l i e s ar e at t h e i r s t r onge s t . I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t wi n t e r s t o r ms i n t h e S o u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n h a v e t h e i r gr e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y i n a b o u t 80 E a n d l es s er c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a b o u t 60 E a n d 110 E. Du r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d s , i n Ap r i l a n d Oc t o b e r , sea c ondi t i ons , t h o u g h l ess s ever e t h a n i n J ul y, ma y af f ect s p e e d o n t h e E - W t r a c ks acr os s t h e S o u t h e r n Oc e a n. S of 35 S, s p e e d r e d u c t i o n ma y b e ne c e s s a r y on t h e s e t r acks f or mo r e t h a n 10 p e r c e n t of voyage t i me . C U R R E N T S N o r t h I n d i a n Oc e a n 6. 31. T h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e No r t h I n d i a n Oc e a n ar e r e v e r s e d i n d i r e c t i o n s e a s ona l l y u n d e r t h e i nf l ue nc e of t he mo n s o o n s . T h e s e c o mp r i s e t h e c u r r e n t s of t h e Ar a b i a n Sea a n d Ba y of Bengal , a n d t h e Soma l i Cu r r e n t , b e t we e n 50 55 60 65 70 72 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 5 2 S and Ras Asir. The only current which is not so reversed is the Equatorial Counter-current, which lies mainly S of the equator but sometimes extends a few degrees N of it. The South-west Monsoon circulation is established from May to September. October is a mont h of transition. In November, which is also to some extent transitional, the circulation more resembles that of the two subsequent months. The typical North-east Monsoon circulation occurs during December and January. The later Nort h- east Monsoon period, February to April, constitutes an extended transition period, in which an intermediate type of circulation is developed. The currents are, therefore, described below for the three periods, November to January; February to April; and May to September. 10 6.32. Nort h- east Mons oon peri od, No v e mb e r to January. In the open waters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, the current sets in a general W' l y direction. Owing to the coastal conformation, the current flows round the coasts in a counter-clockwise direction. Off Somalia, the current which sets NE in November reverses during December to become SW in January. Thi s current, known as the Somal i Current, meets the N-goi ng East Afri ca Coast Current and turns towards E to form the beginning of the Equatori al Count er- 15 current. 20 25 30 6.33. Later North-East Mons oon peri od, February to Apri l . Duri ng this period the resultant flow in the open waters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal remains W' ly, though the actual currents experienced are somewhat more variable than during November to January. The coastal circulation, both of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, is, however, reversed to a clockwise direction (see above). Thi s reversal is completed in the Bay of Bengal by about the beginning of February. In the Arabian Sea it is more gradual and is not complete on all parts of the coast until the end of March. In February, the current flows SW off the African coast S of about 8 N, but farther N it sets NE. In the subsequent months the S limit of the NE flow extends progressively S and by April the flow is NE from the equator to Ras Asir. 6.34. Sout h- West Mons oon peri od, May to Sept ember. The clockwise circulation of the coastal region of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal persists and is strengthened. The East African Coast Current and the Somali Current continue to flow N along the coast from the equator to Ras Asir, and the latter is greatly strengthened. From the Somali Current, the flow fans off to the E. In the open waters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal there is a general E' l y drift. Very strong currents occur in this season, especially off the equatorial coasts of Somalia, and S of Socotra where they are probably stronger than anywhere else in the world. Here, mean values of 3 knots have been observed, ~vith extreme rates up to 7 knots on occasions. 6.35. The Equatori al Counter-current. Thi s is an E-setting current which is easily identified during the 35 winter of the N hemisphere between the W-setting monsoon current to the N and the Equatorial Current, also setting W, to the S. In November, the N limit of the counter-current is in about 3 N. It shifts S in the following months and reaches its most S' ly positions in February, when it lies between 2 S and 3 S. It returns N thereafter and by April is in about 2 N in the W, and in about 4 N, E of 80 E. In the South-west Monsoon season the Equatorial Counter-current cannot be distinguished in direction 40 from the general E' l y current of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, but in the region of the counter-current, S of about 2 N, the rate of flow is stronger than in the general monsoon drift. The course of the counter-current on the E side of the ocean is not fully known. In November to January the bulk of it appears to follow the W coast of Sumatra and the S coast of Java in SE' l y and E' l y directions. In the South-west Monsoon period there is some evidence that part of it recurves toward S in the region W of Sumatra, 45 passing into the Equatorial current. The S limit of the counter-current is well S of the Equator in all seasons. South Indi an Ocean 6.36. The ma i n surface ci rcul at i on of the South Indian Ocean is counter-clockwise. 50 There is only one true Equatorial Current in the Indian Ocean, corresponding to the South Equatorial Currents of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The W-going flow of the Equatori al Current of the Indian Ocean lies well S of the equator, thus differing from the South Equatorial Currents of the Atlantic and Pacific, which extend in latitude to a few degrees N of the equator. Its N boundary is usually between 6 S and 10 S, varying according to longitude and season. 55 The N part of the W-going Equatorial Current, after passing the N extremity of Madagascar, meets the African coast in the region of Cabo Delgado. Here it divides, some of the water flowing N along the coast, while the remainder flows S into Mogambique Channel forming a strong coastal current. From Cabo Delgado to Baia de Lourengo Marques this current is known as the Mo z a mbi que Current. Its continuation S is known as the Agul has Cur r ent ; this is reinforced by water from the Equatorial Current setting past the S extremity of 60 Madagascar. The direction of flow of the S part of the Equatorial Current becomes more S' ly as it approaches Madagascar and, near the coast, becomes SSW. It follows the coast, becoming WSW off Cap Sainte Marie. Away from the coast, there is less variation in the direction, which is more consistently SW' ly. At distances of more than 60 miles ~_ 3 from the coast the average speeds are mainly 2 to ~ knot but much larger values occur within a few miles of the 65 coast where the average speed is 1-2 knots and 3 knots or more is sometimes reported. Thi s strong inshore current is known as the Madagascar Current. Some of the water of the Agulhas Current recurves SE between about 20 E and 32 E and passes into the N part of the Southern Ocean Current. The remainder of the Agulhas Current continues along the coastline and, passing over Agulhas Bank, enters the South Atlantic Ocean, where it contributes to the flow of the Benguela 70 Current of that ocean, see 3.11. RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 73 T h e S si de of t he ma i n ci r cul at i on is f o r me d by t he col d wat er of t he So ut he r n Oc e an Current , s et t i ng across t he ocean i n E' l y t o NE ' l y di r ect i ons as f ar as a bout 80 E, a nd i n E' l y t o SE' l y di r ect i ons on t he E si de of t he ocean. As above st at ed, s ome of t he wa r m Agul ha s Cu r r e n t wat er also cont r i but es t o t he S si de of t he ci r cul at i on i n t he W par t of t he ocean. T h e So ut he r n Oc e an C u r r e n t has no def i ned N bounda r y, t he p r e d o mi n a n c e of E' l y set s decr eas i ng wi t h 5 decr eas i ng l at i t ude i n t he cent r al l ongi t ude s of t he ocean unt i l t he y me r g e i nt o t he ext ens i ve r egi on of var i abl e c ur r e nt i n t he mi d d l e of t he ocean S of t he Equa t or i a l Cur r e nt . Some pr e domi na nc e of E' l y set is f o u n d as f ar N as 28 S or 30 S i n t he cent r al l ongi t udes . T h e E si de of t he ci r cul at i on is n o t wel l ma r ke d. I t is f or me d by t he We s t Au s t r a l i a n Cu r r e n t , a weak NW' l y f l ow of f t he W coast of Aus t r al i a. Th i s passes i nt o t he Equa t or i a l Cu r r e n t i n a bout 16 S t o 20 S, 95 E t o 10 105 E. T h e So u t h e r n Oc e a n Cu r r e n t on a ppr oa c hi ng Aus t r al i a sends of f a br a nc h whi c h passes i nt o t he We s t Aus t r al i an Cur r e nt . T h e bul k of t he So u t h e r n Oc e a n Cu r r e n t cont i nues i t s E' l y cour se, S of Aus t r al i a a nd Ta s ma n i a i nt o t he S Paci f i c Ocean. Of f t he coast of We s t e r n Aust r al i a, S of Ca pe Nat ur al i s t e, t he aver age f l ow is SE' l y i n all seasons. N of t hi s cape t he cur r ent s ne a r t he coast , t h o u g h ma i nl y weak and i ncons t ant , s how a seasonal var i at i on. F r o m Apr i l t i l l 15 Se p t e mb e r t he f l ow is SE al ong all t he coast S of t he l at i t ude va r yi ng be t we e n 28 S a nd 32 S. Fa r t h e r N, t he coast al f l ow is N' l y . F r o m Oc t obe r t i l l Apr i l , t he f l ow is N' l y or var i abl e of f t he whol e coast N of Ca pe Nat ur al i s t e. T h e Equat or i al Count e r - c ur r e nt fl ows E across t he ocean t h r o u g h o u t t he year , i mme d i a t e l y N of t he Equa t or i a l cur r ent . I t is mo r e di r ect l y c onne c t e d wi t h t he cur r ent s of t he No r t h I ndi a n Oc e a n t ha n wi t h t hos e of t he So u t h I n d i a n Oc e a n a nd is mor e f ul l y de s c r i be d i n c onne c t i on wi t h t he f or me r , i n ar t i cl e 6. 35. 20 6. 37. Ex t r e me e as t e r n part of I ndi a n Oc e a n . T h e cur r ent s of t hi s par t of t he ocean, i nc l udi ng t he Ar a f ur a Sea, ar e not wel l known. E of Chr i s t ma s I s l and, be t we e n t he par al l el s of a bout 10 S a nd 14 S, t he r e i s a pr e - domi na nc e of W' l y set s dur i ng t he gr eat er par t of t he year, f or mi ng t he mos t E' l y par t of t he Equa t or i a l Cur r e nt . 25 I CE 6. 41. Ge n e r a l r e ma r k s . T h e f ol l owi ng br i e f a c c ount of i ce i n t he So u t h I ndi a n Oc e a n s houl d not be t aken as c ompl e t e or i n any wa y al l - embr aci ng. Mo r e det ai l ed i nf or ma t i on t ha n can be gi ve n her e wi l l be f o u n d i n t he 30 f ol l owi ng publ i cat i ons , whi c h s houl d be cons ul t ed bef or e unde r t a ki ng passages S of t he l at i t ude of Ca pe Agul has . Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r e c t i ons cover i ng t he a ppr opr i a t e areas. T h e Ma r i n e r ' s Ha ndbook. Char t s 5126 (1) t o 5126 ( t 2 ) - - Mo n t h l y Rout e i ng Char t s f or t he I n d i a n Ocean. Cha r t s 5301, 5 3 0 2 - - Wo r l d cl i mat i c char t s. 35 Wa s hi ngt on, U. S. Na vy, Oc e a nogr a phi c At l as of t he Pol ar Seas, H. O. 705. A ge ne r a l s t a t e me nt r e ga r di ng i ce, i nc l udi ng wa r ni ng si gns of i t s pr oxi mi t y, is gi ven i n Cha pt e r 1 of t hi s book. A f act or al ways t o be bor ne i n mi n d whe r e i ce condi t i ons ar e c onc e r ne d is t he i r gr eat var i abi l i t y f r o m year t o 40 year . Fo r t hi s r eason, a nd on a c c ount of t he s par s i t y of obs er vat i ons i n ma n y areas, t he c ha r t e d pos i t i ons of i ce l i mi t s s houl d be r e ga r de d as a ppr oxi ma t e . 6. 42. P a c k - i c e . T h e l o n g - t e r m aver age pos i t i on of t he pack- i ce (4/8 concent r at i on) i n Se p t e mb e r t o Oct ober , at i t s gr eat es t ext ens i on, see char t 5302, r uns f r o m a bout 55 S on t he me r i di a n of Gr e e mv i c h t o 58 S, 50 E, a nd 60 S, 110 E. Cont i nui ng E, t he edge l i es ne a r 61 S as f ar as 160 E. Fo r l east aver age ext ensi on, see 3. 17. No n e of t he nor ma l l y i nha bi t e d pl aces i n t he Sout h I ndi a n Oc e a n is af f ect ed, b u t gr eat ci r cl e sai l i ng be t we e n t he mor e S' l y por t s i n So u t h Af r i ca a nd Aus t r al i a is i nt er f er ed wi t h. 45 6. 43. I c e b e r g s . T h e i ceber gs t hat oc c ur i n t he So u t h I ndi a n Oc e a n ar e not , i n mos t cases, cal ved f r om gl aci er s, 50 b u t cons i s t of por t i ons t hat have br oke n away f r om t he gr eat i ce s hel ves whi c h f r i nge par t s of t he Ant a r c t i c cont i nent . T h e y ar e c ons e que nt l y f l at - t opped, a nd t he y ma y be of i mme n s e si ze. T h e me a n l i mi t of ber gs r eaches i t s f ar t hes t N be t we e n 20 E a nd 70 E i n No v e mb e r a nd De c e mb e r , wh e n i t r uns f r om a bout 44 S i n t he l ongi t ude of Ca pe Agul ha s t o a bout 48 S, 70 E. I t is f ar t hes t N i n Fe b r u a r y a nd Ma r c h E of t he 70t h me r i di a n, wh e n i t r uns be t we e n t he 48t h a nd 50t h par al l el s as f ar as 120 E, a nd t he nc e t o 55 a bout 55 S i n t he l ongi t ude of Ta s ma ni a . I n Ma y a nd J une t he me a n l i mi t of ber gs is e ve r ywhe r e S of t he 50t h par al l el , a nd be t we e n t he 120t h me r i d i a n a nd t he l ongi t ude of Ta s ma n i a i t is S of 55 S. Wi t h r egar d t o e xt r e me l i mi t s , t he season var i es cons i der abl y f r o m one l ongi t ude t o anot her , and, mor e ove r , f act or s ot he r t ha n cl i mat i c ma y be r es pons i bl e f or abnor mal i t i es , so t hat i t i s pr oba bl y best t o r e ga r d t hi s l i mi t as unr e l a t e d t o t he t i me of year . Ear t hquakes , f or exampl e, ma y gi ve r i se t o an excessi ve f or ma t i on of t a bul a r 60 ber gs. T h e e xt r e me l i mi t of i ceber gs, i ndi cat ed on char t s 5301, 5302, and on char t s 5126 (1) t o (12), r uns f r om near 35 S of f t he coast of Af r i ca, gr adual l y r e c e di ng S a nd l yi ng i n a bout 38 S be t we e n 70 E a nd 120 E. Cont i nui ng E, i t r ecedes f ar t her S t o a bout 40 S, 130 E and 48 S, 120 E. RED SEA ROUTES 6. 51. Ge n e r a l . Rout e s i n t he Re d Sea t o por t s on i t s coast s ar e as di r e c t as navi gat i on per mi t s , a nd ar e n o t des cr i bed i n t hi s vol ume . A gener al des cr i pt i on of t he t h r o u g h r out e be t we e n t he Gu l f of Suez a nd t he Gu l f of Ad e n is, however , i ncl uded. Fo r all r out es, Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r e c t i ons s houl d be cons ul t ed. 70 74 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S 6.52. Suez ~-~ Ade n. Recommended routes incorporating traffic separation have been established in the Gul f of Suez, in the S part of the Red Sea, and in the Straits of BSb-al-Mandab. The central passage through the Red Sea, between the Gul f of Suez and Jabal at T~ir, is free from dangers, but the direct course passes much nearer the E side than the W side of the sea; it is therefore advisable, having 5 passed E of the Brothers and on either side of Daedalus Reef, to steer for 17 00' N, 40 40' E, midway between the coastal banks, and thence to the N end of the recommended route in 16 00' N, 41 46' E. Thi s route leads S-bound traffic through Abu Ail Channel, and N-bound traffic E of Abu All islands. The recommended routes in the Straits of B~b-al-Mandab, are in Large Strait. Small Strait is intended for coastal traffic. 10 Between Large Strait and Aden, the routes is as prudent navigation permits. Distance: Suez to Aden 1310 miles. 6.53. No t e s and c aut i ons . Local cross currents, with rates that may approach 2 knots, are not infrequent in all parts of the Red Sea. Constant vigilance is called for, and a good berth should be given to the positions of 15 outlying banks and shoals. Currents exceeding a rate of 2 knots may occur, at times, in the Straits of Bab-al-Mandab during the Nort h- east Monsoon period. When N-bound in short visibility a vessel which has suffered a W' l y set may mistake Gif~tln Islands for Shaker (Shadw~n) Island on first sighting. Since Gif~tln Islands are steep-to on their E side, and Shaker Island can be 20 identified by its light-tower, visual confirmation of the landfall should be possible in these conditions. Lo~v-powered vessels, when N-bound, may find it to their advantage by day to use the channels W of Shaker Island which are less exposed than the Strait of G~bal to the prevailing NW wind. 25 30 35 40 45 PERSI AN GULF ROUTES 6. 54. Rout e s . For routes in the Persian Gulf, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. From the E (Gulf of Oman) end of the Strait of Hormuz (26 21" N, 56 38" E) , distances to various destinations are: Jabal a~ gannah (pilots) Jazirat D~s (pilots) Jazirat Hgh51 (anchorage) Bahrain (Sitrah anchorage) Ra' s Tann~rah (anchorage) Min~ al Abmadi (A1 Fu~aay,hil loading berths) Khaw A1 Amayah (pilots) Bandar Sh~hpflr (pilots) Jazireh-ye Kh~rk (pilots) 270 miles 225 miles 240 miles 340 miles 380 miles 495 miles 495 miles 490 miles 415 miles EAST COAST OF AFRI CA, ARABI AN SEA, AND BAY OF BENGAL 6.55. Mo q a mb i q n e Cha nne l . When planning routes which offer the alternatives of passage through Mozambi que Channel or E of Madagascar, the navigational hazards presented by the islands and shoals in the N approach to Mozambi que Channel should be considered, as well as the restriction they impose on freedom of manoeuvre on the approach of a tropical storm, of xvhich little warning may be expected in these waters. 6.56. Cape Town -+ Du r b a n and Mo z a mb i q u e Channe l . The dominating factors are the Agulhas Current, which flows S and W with considerable strength, and the sea and swell generated by S' ly gales. 50 A counter-current will sometimes be found between 1 and 6 miles offshore between Cape Agulhas and Great Fish Point, and sometimes, during W' l y winds, between Port Shepstone and Cape Natal. When nearing Cape Natal, a strong set-off from the land may be expected. Ships seeking to pass inshore of the Agulhas Current, with the possible benefit of a counter-current, while avoiding the heavy and dangerous seas, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, which sometimes run in the vicinity of 55 the 200 m (110 fms) line during S' ly and SW' l y gales, and particularly off East London, must proceed with caution and, when uncertain of their position, keep in depths of more than 75 m (40 fms). They should in any case take great care to avoid the salient points, and be vigilant against indraught into bays. Tankers carrying cargo oil in excess of one-half per cent of their deadweight tonnage should keep at least 12 miles off a line joining the salient points of the South African coast. 60 A ship making the passage from Cape Town to Mogambique Channel can avoid the main part of the Agulhas Current by keeping to seaward of it, through 36 45' S, 19 00' E; by great circle to 34 30' S, 32 30"E; thence by rhumb line, and nothing to W, to 30 00' S, 38 20' E; thence steering for the E part of Mogambique Channel and passing E of Tle Europa. 65 6.57. Mo q a mb i q u e Cha nne l --~ Du r b a n and Cape Town. The S-bound route through Mozambi que Channel is on the W side of the channel, in the Mozambi que Current. Thence, ships should hold the Agulhas Current by keeping from 20 to 30 miles from the coast as far as Mossel Bay. During SW gales off the latter part of this coast, a very dangerous sea will be experienced at or to seaward of the edge of the coastal bank, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, there is considerably less sea near the coast, and if a vessel keeps about 3 miles 70 or less offshore the reduction in the sea will more than compensate for the loss of favourable current. As directed RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 75 in 6.56, a depth of more than 75 m (40 fm) should be maintained if uncertain of the position, and, in any case, tankers carrying cargo oil in excess of one-half per cent of their deadweight tonnage should keep at least 12 miles off a line joining the salient points of the South African coast. After passing Mossel Bay, course should be shaped to round Cape Agulhas and the Cape of Good Hope at a safe distance. 6.58. Rout es t hrough Mo z a mbi que channel . The currents near the W coast of Madagascar are little known. In mid-channel and extending at least half-way towards Madagascar, the predominant flow is mostly NE, but both direction and rate are highly variable. On the African side of the channel, the Mozambi que Current sets strongly in a generally SSW direction, following the coast; in the region of Mozambi que this current is thought to extend about 50 miles off the coast 10 during most of the year, increasing to nearly 100 miles in June, July, and August. The situation in Moqambique Channel, where strong SSW' l y currents suddenly give place to moderate or possibly strong currents in the opposite direction, has obvious dangers. The boundaries of the currents vary with season and weather, and their rates may differ by as much as 4 knots from those anticipated. From Durban or its vicinity N-bound, haul off to about 100 miles from the coast and pass through 27 15' S, 15 36 00' E and 17 00' S, 42 15' E, passing 30 miles W of Bassas da India. Having passed W of Juan de Nova, steer for ~1 35' S, 42 50' E and thence as required. Alternatively, a route E of [le Europa will give less adverse current at the expense of about 30 miles more distance. The S-bound route from the W coasts of the Arabian Sea passes W of $1es Comores, through 11 35' S, 42 50' E and thence, in the full strength of the Mozambi que Current, about 30 miles offshore abreast Porto de 20 Mo~cambique and to 25 00' S, 35 30' E. 6.59. Rout es be t we e n Moqambi que Channel and Aden. Coastwise, the East African Coast Current flows continually N from Cape Delgado past Mombasa, giving way to the Somali Current, which reverses its direction seasonally, in the region of the Equator. The N-going current on the coastal and offshore routes is at its strongest 25 S of Socotra, where, at the height of the South-west Monsoon, the landfall should be made well to the S. A definite width cannot be assigned to the coastal currents between Cape Delgado and Ras Asir; the NE-goi ng current which prevails during the South-west Monsoon is stronger nearer the coast and decreases rapidly at a distance of over 50 miles offshore. S-bound shipping will therefore generally benefit by keeping a good offing. The choice of route in the vicinity of Socotra presents certain problems, because it is possible to pass on either 30 side of the island, provided that the N side is given a berth of at least 40 miles. During the South-west Monsoon the heaviest weather of the Arabian Sea is E of Socotra and, from that point of view, passage between Ras Asir and Socotra is to be preferred. It is dangerous to try to make Ras Radressa, the E point of Sacotra, during either monsoon. In the period of the North-east Monsoon, the land may be obscured about sunset by heavy rain squalls. During the South-xvest 35 Monsoon, the lower land of the mountain range is often obscured by haze. The depths off Ras Radressa are considerable, and sounding gives no warning of the dangers which extend some distance from the shore. The currents in the vicinity are strong and irregular. As regards the passage between Socotra and Ras Asir, great care is necessary when steering NW and N towards and past Ras Asir in the South-west Monsoon, when the weather and sea are at their worst, the N-going dO current is at its strongest, and the land is generally covered by thick haze. In hazy weather at night, the steep fall of Ras Scenaghef may perhaps be dimly seen when it bears less than about 270 ; if Ras Asir is not sighted, as often happens if the haze is thicker at sea !eve1 and obscures the light-coloured hill, Ras Scenaghef may be mistaken for Ras Asir with disastrous results. In the South-west Monsoon, Ras Hafun should be made before Ras Asir. 45 By day, a gradual change in the colour of the water from blue to dark green will probably be observed as the land is approached. The sea becomes smoother and the swell alters its direction to E of S, when N and W of Ras Hafun. Full directions for the passage between Ras Asir and Socotra are given in Admiralty Sailing Directions, but, although this passage is 40 miles wide, if there is doubt about the vessel's position, she should take the route N 50 of Socotra where there is at least sea room, if stormy. When making Ras A1ula and Ras Asir from the Gul f of Aden, allowance must be made for the possibility of a SW or onshore set, particularly during the Nort h east Monsoon. To summarise for passages between Mozambi que Channel and the Gul f of Aden, the normal route in both directions passes between Ras Asir and Socotra, and for intermediate coastal destinations, vessels should keep 55 coastwise in both directions. S-bound ships may, however, avoid the strongest effects of the South-west ~vIonsoon and of the NE' l y current between [les Comores and Ras Asir by passing through 8 00' N, 52 40' E and 1 10' N, 55 00' E, at a cost of about 220 miles of extra distance on the run from Ras Asir to [les Comores. D~;stances, in miles: N = Northbound, S = Southbound. Cape Town 790 N, 790 S Durban 2620 N, 2580 S 1830 N, 1770 S i Mombasa , , 4020 N, 3970 S 3230 N, 3180 $ i 1610 N, 1610 S Aden 60 70 76 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S 5 6.60. A f r i c a n c o a s t ~-* P e r s i a n Gulf. S of $1es Comores, this route is described in articles 6.55-6.58. To and from Mombasa, the track follows the trend of the African coast and joins the main route in 8 00' N, 52 40' E. N of $les Comores, the main route passes through 8 00' N, 52 40' E, thence to the Strait of Hormuz, passing at least 50 miles clear of the E end of Socotra. Distances from Strait of Hormuz: Cape Town 4690 miles N-bound, 4640 miles S-bound; Durban 3900 miles N-bound, 3840 miles S-bound; Mombasa 2320 miles both ways. For destinations in the Persian Gulf, add the distances given in article 6.54. 6 . 6 1 . A f r i c a n c o a s t - ~ K a r a c h i . As article 6.60, through 8 00' N , 52 40' E, thence direct. Distances: from 10 Cape Town 4730 miles; from Durban 3940 miles; From Mombasa 2360 miles. 15 6.62. Kar achi -~ M o m b a s a . From May to September, steer parallel with the Indian coast to 70 E, thence due S to 17 06' N, 70 00' E, and thence direct to Mombasa. Distance 2720 miles. When the full South-west Monsoon is blowing, low-powered vessels should divert S, through 12 50' N, 70 00' E and 6 00' N, 67 00' E. From October to April, proceed direct. Distance 2350 miles. 6.63. Kar achi --~ M o g a m b i q u e C h a n n e l . From May to September, steer parallel with the Indian coast to 70 E, thence due S to 15 40' N, and thence to Mozambi que Channel, passing 20 miles E of Astove Atoll, 20 bearing in mi nd the strong W' l y set of the Equatorial Current in that region, and about 20 miles SE of $le Mayotte. Proceed thence to pick up the S-bound track in Mozambi que Channel (6.58) in 17 00' S, 40 20' E. Distances: to Durban 4180 miles; to Cape Town 4970 miles. When the full South-west Monsoon is blowing, low-powered vessels should divert S through 12 50" S, 70 00' E, and 6 00' S, 67 00' E, rejoining the route as given above in 3 00" S, 54 00' E, NW of Seychelles 25 Group. From October to April, steer direct to pass 20 miles E of Astove Atoll and about 20 miles SE of $1e Mayotte, thence as for the remainder of the year. Distances: to Durban 3920 miles; to Cape Town 4710 miles. 6.64. Aden ~, P e r s i a n G u l f o r K a r a c h i . While in the Arabian Sea, follow a track as close as practicable to the 3 0 Arabian coast, having regard to the variability of the current, and avoiding a close approach to the Gul f of Masirah, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances : to Strait of Hormuz 1410 miles ; thence, for Persian Gulf, as 6.54; to Karachi 1460 miles. W-bound, after passing Muscat, keep as close to the Arabian coast as navigation permits. Thi s is especially advisable during the South-west Monsoon, when the full force of the wind, and of the NE set, will be felt only 35 in the vicinity of Kuria Muria Islands, and off Ras al Kalb. Ships W-bound from Karachi during the South-west Monsoon may do better by steering coastwise to the meridian of 70 E, then due S to 12 50' N, 70 00' E and thence to Aden. Thi s route will add about 800 miles to the distance, but the head wind and heavy sea will be largely avoided. Duri ng this monsoon the weather is generally very hazy along the Arabian coast so that, though the sky may be clear, the land may not be visible dO until close inshore. In the Persian Gulf, during a shamal in summer or ~vhile the NE wind, known as the Nashi, is blowing in the S part of the Gul f in winter, the haze may obscure the land so completely that the surf on the beach may be the first intimation of its proximity. 6.65. Cape Town or Dur ba n -* B o m b a y . The N-bound routes from Cape Town and Durban through 45 Mozambi que Channel are discussed in detail in articles 6.55-6.58. To continue thence from 17 00' S, 42 15' E, W of Juan de Nova, pass between ~le Anjouan and ~le Mayotte to a position 30 miles W of Aldabra Islands and thence take the t humb line to Bombay, crossing 60 00' E in 5 50' N. Distances: Cape Town 4650 miles; Durban 3860 miles. By night or when uncertain of the position, the foregoing route through the islands at the N end of Mozambi que 50 Channel should always be taken, owing to the strength and variability of the W-going current in the loca|ity. By day, after passing ~le Anjouan, a vessel may pass between Assumption Island and Cosmoledo Atoll. The alternative route from South African ports to Bombay passes S of Madagascar. Traffic from Cape Town should follow the coast, see 6.55, as far as Great Fish Point, and all ships should round the S end of Madagascar at a distance of 60 miles or more offshore, to seaward of the strongest part of the Madagascar Current, see 55 Admiralty Sailing Directions. After leaving the vicinity of Madagascar, the route passes W of ~le de la R6union, Mauritius, and Saya de Malha Bank. Agalega Islands should be given a wide berth. Distances by alternative route : Cape Town 4700 miles ; Durban 3950 miles. Caut i on: During the North-east Monsoon, there is considerable haze over Bombay in the mornings and evenings, and often throughout the day, obscuring everything from view. It is particularly noticeable during the 60 interval between the land and sea breezes. During the South-west Monsoon a northerly set may be expected in making the land off Kh~nderi island. 6.66. Bomba y -+ D u r b a n o r C a p e T o w n . Steer by t humb line to 10 07' S, 48 05' E, 20 miles E of Astove Atoll, and then steer to pass W of ~les Glorieuses and Geyser Reef to a position 20 miles SE of ~le Mayotte. Thi s ~65 part of the voyage should be undertaken by day, if possible, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. When the full South-west Monsoon is blowing, low-powered vessels should divert S from Bombay through 6 00' N, 67 00' E, picking up the direct t humb line NW of Seychelles Group in 3 00' S, 54 00' E. From the position SE of ~le Mayotte, steer to pick up the S-bound route through Mozambi que Channel in 17 00' S, 40 20' E, see 6.58. 70 Distances: to Durban 3830 miles; to Cape Town 4620 miles. Add 80 miles for low-power route. R E D S E A , I N DI A N OC E A N , A N D P E R S I A N GUL F 77 6.67. So ut h coas t of Af ri ca -+ Col ombo, Bay of Bengal , and Sel at Benggal a. Thi s passage can be made either E or W of Madagascar. If using Mogambique Channel, proceed as in articles 6.55-6.58 to 17 00' S, 42 15' E, off $1e Juan de Nova. Thence, from April to October pass 30 miles E of Geyser Reef and $1es Glorieuses, to 8 30' S, 50 40' E, 30 miles NW of Wizard Reef, and so to One and half Degree Channel. From November to March pass between ~le Anjouan and $1e Mayotte to 9 30' S, 45 30' E, 30 miles W of Aldabra Island; thence passing 50 miles N of Seychelles Group to One and half Degree Channel. Attention must be paid to the W-going current which flows strongly past the N point of Madagascar. Throughout the year, proceed thence as navigation permits, the shortest route to Rangoon being through Preparis South Channel. To make the passage E of Madagascar, after rounding the S end of that island at about 60 miles (6.65), from May to Sept ember pass 60 miles SE of Mauritius and E of Diego Garcia; thence as navigation permits, using Ten Degree Channel if bound for Rangoon. From October to March, pass through 14 00' S, 60 00' E ; 5 00' S, 70 00' E; and thence as navigation permits, using Preparis South Channel if bound for Rangoon. Distances, in miles: 10 15 W of Madagascar Colombo Madras Paradip Sandheads Rangoon Selat Benggala E of Madagascar Colombo Madras Paradip Sandheads Rangoon Selat Benggala May to Sept ember October to March Cape Toxvn Durban Cape Town Durban 4510 5030 5480 5560 5660 5320 4450 4930 5360 5430 5520 5010 3710 4240 4690 4770 4870 4530 3690 4170 4600 4670 4770 4250 4640 5160 5620 5690 5790 5460 4380 4880 5310 5390 5470 5090 3850 4370 4830 4900 5000 4670 3620 4130 4560 4630 4740 4330 20 25 30 35 6.68. Col ombo --> Sout h coas t of Af ri ca. This passage may be made either through Moqambique Channel or E of Madagascar. 40 For Mogambique Channel, pass through Eight Degree Channel to a position in 3 00' S, 54 00' E, NW of Seychelles Group ; thence steer to pass 20 miles E of Astove Atoll and through Mogambique Channel as directed in article 6.66. Thi s route is good for all seasons but, during the South-west Monsoon, vessels of lo~v power should consider a S' ly diversion, steering from the Ceylon coast across the equator into the South-east Trade and passing S of Chagos Archipelago before setting course for the N end of Mogambique Channel. Distances 45 by the full-po~ver route are: Durban 3820 miles, Cape Town 4610 miles. Alternatively, in April and October, One and half Degree Channel may be used, after which course should be shaped to pass 30 miles NW of Wizard Reef (8 50' S, 51 03' E) and thence, passing about 40 miles E of iles Glorieuses and Geyser Reef to join the S-bound route in 17 00' S, 40 20' E as directed in article 6.66. Attention is called to the currents S of 5 S, especially near Providence Island, where they will probably be setting 50 NW' l y, and near Iles Glorieuses and Geyser Reef, where the set is usually strong W' ly. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances: Durban 3730 miles; Cape Town 4520 miles. If taking the route E of Madagascar, from November to March steer S of Maldive Islands to 5 00' S, 70 00" E ; thence to 14 00' S, 60 00' E; and thence to pass 20 miles SE of Madagascar. Distances: Durban 3620 miles; Cape Town 4360 miles. From April to October, pass E of Diego Garcia, at the SE extremity of Chagos 55 Archipelago, and thence 20 miles SE of Madagascar. During this period ships bound for ports S of Durban are advised to make a landfall near Durban and thence proceed coastwise, to avoid the heavy weather prevalent to seaward. Distances: Durban 3670 miles; Cape Town 4460 miles. 6.69. Bay of Be ngal ~- Sout h coas t o f Af ri ca. Routes are in most respects similar to those from Colombo 60 given in article 6.68, and the cautions given therein are relevant. Eight Degree Channel is not used, and the route from One and half Degree Channel to enter Moqambique Channel through a position 30 miles NW of Wizard ~ Reef is advised as an alternative to passage E of Madagascar during April and October. The route E of Madagascar, from November to March, passes through 5 00' S, 70 00' E; 14 00' S, 60 00" E, and 20 miles off the SE point of Madagascar. From May to September, course should be shaped to pass E of 65 Diego Garcia, at the S extremity of Chagos Archipelago and thence 20 miles SE of Madagascar. During this period, ships bound for ports S of Durban are advised to continue to a position off Durban and thence to proceed coastwise, to avoid the heavy weather prevalent to seaward. From June to August, ships from Rangoon may fred it advantageous to pass S of Great Nicobar Island and then join the route for South Africa from Selat Benggala, see 6.70. 70 78 Distances, in miles : POWER VESSEL ROUTES 10 15 One and half Degree W of Chagos E of Chagos Channel Archipelago Archipelago Cape Town Durban Cape Town "" Durban Cape Town Durban Madras 5050 4260 4870 i ] 4130 4950 4160 Paradip 5480 4690 5370 4580 Sandheads Rangoon 5650 5550 4760 4860 5300 4560 5380 4630 5470 4730 5450 5530 4660 4740 20 25 30 35 40 45 6. 70. Se l a t B e n g g a l a - + p o r t s o n S o u t h c o a s t o f Af r i c a . Steer by rhumb line, N of Mauritius, to pass 20 miles off the S end of Madagascar, making the coast off Durban or Cape Recife according to season, see 6.69. Distances : Durban 4260 miles; Cape Town 5050 miles via Durban landfall; 5000 miles via Cape Recife. 6.71. Rout es i n Bay o f Be n g a l . In the Bay of Bengal there is little possibility of diversion, even at the cost of distance, to reduce the adverse effects, or to take advantage of wind and current. S-bound ships should keep vell clear of the E and S coasts of Ceylon, offwhich the currents are irregular and sometimes strong; N- S routes off this coast should pass through 7 25' N, 82 45' E. The only passage on which a diversion can be suggested for the purpose of avoiding the South-west Monsoon is from Rangoon to Dondra Head; ships unable to thrust against the full Monsoon should steer E of Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands and through 5 50' N, 94 30' E in June, July, and August. Tropical depressions and cyclones are experienced in the Bay of Bengal, see 6.16. Distances, in miles : Dondra Hd. 545 975 Madras 865 570 Paradip 975 1050 650 110 Sandheads 1150 985 680 640 Rangoon - - _ _ 630 i Selat Benggala For Colombo, add 95 miles to Dondra Head distances. 6.72. Momba s a --~ B o mb a y . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, advantage may be taken of the Africa Coast 50 Current and the Somali Current by following the trend of the coast during the first part of the voyage. From May to September, keep about 50 miles offshore as far as 1 30' N, 45 50' E, and then take the t humb line to Bombay. Distance 2400 miles. From October to April, proceed to 2 30' S, 44 50' E and thence to Bombay by t humb line. Distance 2415. miles. 55 See caution about landfall given in article 6.65. 6.73. Bombay -9 i omba s a . The normal route is direct at all seasons. Distance 2390 miles. During the full South-west Monsoon, low-powered vessels should steer for 6 00' N, 67 00' E and t hence proceed direct. 60 65 70 6.74. Momba s a -+ Dondr a Head or Co l o mb o . At all seasons direct, via One and half Degree Channel or Kardiva Channel, the former being preferred if there is any doubt of the ship' s position, as the W entrance t o Kardiva Channel is not easily identified. Distance by One and half Degree Channel: Colombo 2540 miles; Dondra Head 2530 miles. 6.75. Dondr a Head or Co l o mb o --~ Mo mb a s a . At all seasons direct, via One and half Degree Channel except that, from October to April, traffic from Colombo may favour Eight Degree Channel, and, from May t o September, low-powered vessels should consider steering across the Equator into the South-east Trade and t hen passing S of Chagos Archipelago. Distances by One and half Degree Channel: from Colombo 2540 miles; from Dondra Head 2530 miles. RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 79 6. 76. Ad e n - ~ B o m b a y . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , p r o c e e d d i r e c t by r h u mb l i ne, di s t a nc e 1650 mi l es . Du r i n g t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , h a z e ma y c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e vi s i bi l i t y at Bo mb a y , pa r t i c ul a r l y b e t we e n l a n d a n d sea br e e z e s i n t h e mo r n i n g a n d e ve ni ng. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r ma k e a p o s i t i o n i n 13 00' N, 55 00' E, NE of Socot r a, a n d p r o c e e d t h e n c e b y t h u mb l i ne. Di s t a n c e 1680 mi l es . See c a ut i on a b o u t l a ndf a l l gi ve n i n ar t i cl e 6. 65. 6. 77. B o mb a y - + A d e n . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , p r o c e e d di r e c t b y r h u mb l i ne. Di s t a n c e 1650 mi l es . Du r i n g t h e S o u t h we s t Mo n s o o n t h e b e s t r out e i s d e t e r mi n e d by t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e mo n s o o n . I n Ma y a n d S e p t e mb e r , a N' l y t r ack, t h r o u g h 19 00' N, 70 00' E; 18 30' N, 65 00' E; a n d 17 30' N, 60 00' E, wi t h a 10 d i s t a n c e of 1660 mi l es , i s r e c o mme n d e d . I n J u n e , J ul y, a n d Augus t , wh e n t h e mo n s o o n i s at i t s s t r onge s t , ves s el s s h o u l d ke e p o n t h e pa r a l l e l of Bo mb a y u n t i l a b o u t 100 mi l e s f r o m t h e Ar a b i a n coast , t h e n c e p r o c e e d i n g coas t wi s e ; d i s t a n c e 1680 mi l es . On t hi s pas s age, d u r i n g t h e S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n , t h e wi n d a n d sea ar e at t h e i r h e i g h t b e t we e n t h e me r i d i a n s of 66 E a n d 60 E. T h e a dve r s e c u r r e n t ma y a t t a i n a s pe e d of 2 k n o t s i n t he mi d d l e of t h e Ar a b i a n Sea a n d oc c a s i ona l l y 3 k n o t s i n t h e W p a r t of t h a t sea a n d of f t h e Ar a b i a n coast . 15 T h e r o u t e a dvi s e d f or l o w- p o we r ves s el s d u r i n g t he S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n i s t h r o u g h 6 00' N, 67 00' E; 6 00' N, 60 00' E; 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E; a n d t h e n c e b e t we e n Ras As i r a n d Socot r a. 6. 78. Ad e n --~ D o n d r a H e a d o r C o l o m b o . I n t h e Gu l f of Ad e n a n d N of Socot r a, a l l owa nc e mu s t b e ma d e f or t h e pos s i bi l i t y of a s et t o wa r d s t h e S s hor e, see 6. 59. 20 Ves s el s u s i n g Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l s h o u l d ke e p n e a r e r t o Mi n i c o y I s l a n d t h a n t o t h e Ma l d i v e s , see West Coast of India Pilot. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ap r i l pa s s b e t we e n Ra s As i r a n d t h e i s l a nds E of i t , a n d t h e n c e t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l . Di s t a n c e s : Co l o mb o 2100 mi l e s ; Do n d r a He a d 2160 mi l es . F r o m A~ay t o S e p t e mb e r , t o a voi d t h e h e a v y cr oss sea S of Soc ot r a c a us e d by t h e S o u t h - we s t ~I o n s o o n , pas s 25 N of Soc ot r a t o 13 00' N, 55 00' E; t h e n c e di r e c t or t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l . Di s t a n c e s : Co l o mb o 2100 mi l e s ; Do n d r a He a d 2160 mi l es . 6. 79. Do n d r a H e a d o r C o l o m b o - + A d e n . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , pas s t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l a n d S of Socot r a, b e a r i n g i n mi n d t he di f f i cul t y of i d e n t i f y i n g t he l andf al l , see 6. 59. Di s t a n c e s : f r o m Do n d r a He a d 30 2160 mi l e s ; f r o m Co l o mb o 2100 mi l es . Al t e r n a t i v e l y f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ap r i l pa s s t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l a n d t o 13 00' N, 55 00' E ; a n d t h e n c e N of Soc ot r a t o Ad e n , o b s e r v i n g t h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n ar t i cl e 6. 59. Di s t a n c e s : f r o m Do n d r a He a d 2160 mi l e s ; f r o m Co l o mb o 2100 mi l es . Du r i n g t h e S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n , f u l l y - p o we r e d ves s el s ar e r o u t e d S of t he mo r e di r e c t No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n 35 t r acks . F r o m Ma y t o Se p t e mb e r , l ar ge ves s el s of h i g h p o we r ma y pa s s t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l t o 10 00' N, 60 00' E ; t h e n c e t o 13 00' N, 55 00' E a n d N of Socot r a. Di s t a n c e s : f r o m Do n d r a He a d 2180 mi l es ; f r o m Co l o mb o 2130 mi l es . Ot h e r f ul l y po~ver ed ves s el s s houl d, h a v i n g p a s s e d t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l o n t h e pa r a l l e l of 7 30' N, c o n t i n u e t o 8 00' N, 60 00' E a n d t h e n c e t o Ad e n e i t h e r t h r o u g h 8 00' N, 52 40' E a n d r o u n d Ra s As i r , or t h r o u g h 13 00' N, 55 00' E a n d N of Socot r a. Di s t a n c e s vi a Ra s As i r a n d N of Soc ot r a 40 r e s pe c t i ve l y: f r o m Do n d r a He a d 2290 a n d 2240 mi l e s ; f r o m Co l o mb o 2240 a n d 2190 mi l es . F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , l o w- p o we r e d ves s el s s h o u l d a d o p t one of t h e f ol l owi ng r out es . T h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l o n t h e par al l el of 7 30' N, a n d t h r o u g h 6 00' N, 67 00' E; 6 00' N, 60 00' E; 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E t o Ras As i r . Al t e r n a t i v e l y p r o v i d e d t h a t Ol i ve l i f ur i I s l e t c a n b e ma d e b e t we e n s unr i s e a n d noon, pas s t h r o u g h Ka r d i v a 45 Ch a n n e l a n d t h r o u g h 4 4 4 ' N, 60 00' E t o 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E a n d Ras As i r . Al l s ma l l ves s el s s h o u l d pa s s t h r o u g h On e a n d h a l f De g r e e Ch a n n e l a n d t h e n s t e e r t o cr os s 60 E i n a b o u t 2 00' N, t h e n c e p r o c e e d i n g t h r o u g h 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E t o Ras As i r . T h e c hoi c e of a r o u t e d e p e n d s l ar gel y o n t h e p o we r a n d s e a - ke e pi ng qual i t i es of a vessel . A f act or wh i c h ma y i nf l ue nc e d e p a r t u r e f r o m Ce yl on i s t h a t t h e Sout h- ~ve s t Mo n s o o n of t e n bl ows f r e s h b e t we e n t h e coas t a n d 50 75 E. 6. 80. S t r a i t o f Ho r mu z *-~ C o l o m b o o r D o n d r a H e a d . To a voi d Bas s as de Pe d r o a n d t h e s hoal s E of t h e La c c a di ve I s l a nds , pa s s t h r o u g h 13 00' N, 74 10' E, of f t h e Ma l a b a r coast . Di s t a n c e : Co l o mb o 1800 mi l e s ; Do n d r a He a d 1870 mi l es . 6. 81. B o m b a y o r K a r a e h i +-~ C o l o m b o o r D o n d r a He a d . Di r e c t ; f or t h e pos s i bi l i t y of o n s h o r e set s, see Ad mi r a l t y Sa i l i ng Di r e c t i o n s . 55 Di s t a n c e s , i n mi l e s : 60 I Co l o mb o [ Do n d r a He a d Bo mb a y Ka r a c h i ] 500 1340 [ 1420 Bo mb a y ] 880 I 955 65 6. 82. Se~at Bengga~a ( 5 5~ N~ 95 ~ E)~ between Pu~au Breu~h and Pu~au W6~ is deep~ and is the best channe~ f o r E - b o u n d or W- b o u n d a p p r o a c h a n d d e p a r t u r e f or ves s el s pa s s i ng t h r o u g h Ma l a c c a St r ai t . I t i s de e p 70 80 POWER VESSEL ROUTES throughout; SW' l y or NW' I y winds prevail according to season. There is usually a NW-goi ng current of 1 or 2 knots in the fairway, but near the SW shore the streams are tidal, and low-powered vessels needing anchorage while the stream is adverse may take advantage of this. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 5 6.83. Ma l a c c a St r ai t , about 250 miles long in its narro~ver part, forms part of the shortest route between t he Arabian Sea and Singapore. The least depth in the fairway is about 25 m but the bottom is of sandwave formation, and depths and the configuration of the channel are liable to change. Navigational aids are difficult to maintain and may be unreliable. Deep draught vessels should therefore take particular note of the latest reports of dept hs in or near the fairway, and all ships must appreciate that long periods of considerable vigilance are necessary. 10 There is a considerable amount of traffic in the strait, and manoeuvring room may also be restricted by fishing vessels and their nets. The distance from Selat Benggala, at the NW end of Malacca Strait, to Singapore is 620 miles. 15 ROUT E S T O AND F ROM MAURI T I US 6.90. Po r t L o u i s ~-~ Cape Town. For Cape Town, round the S end of Madagascar at about 20 miles offshore to take advantage of the Madagascar Current (6.36), and steer to make a landfall in the vicinity of Algoa Bay, thence keeping in the Agulhas Current to destination. Distance 2290 miles. From April to October, to avoid the 20 heavy weather prevalent to seaward, a landfall at Durban and the coastwise route thereafter are preferable to the direct route ; the extra distance is 45 miles. From Cape Town, either follow the coast as far as Great Fish Point and pass at least 60 miles SE of Madagascar, or keep to seaward of the main part of the Agulhas Current by proceeding to 36 45' S, 19 00' E ; thence by great circle to 34 30' S, 32 30' E and thence by great circle to destination. Distances: Coastwise 2300 miles; outside. 25 Agulhas Current 2440 miles. 30 35 6.91. Po r t L o u i s ~-~ Du r b a n . The same conditions as for article 6.90 apply to the vicinity of the S end of Madagascar. Distance 1550 miles. 6.92. Po r t L o u i s *-~ p o r t s i n Mo z a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l . Vessels bound for the NW coast of Madagascar should always go round the N end of that island; and those bound for the W coast, or to any ports on the African coast S of 18 S, should pass round the S end. 6.93. Po r t L o u i s ~-~ Mo mb a s a . The usual route is direct in both directions. Distance 1430 miles. Seasonal diversions are advised for vessels of low power S-bound, namely, from November to March t hey should pass N of Seychelles Group, keeping N of the direct route; thence steering E of Saya de Malha Bank and into the South-east Trades before setting the final course. From April to October they should take a similar route, but stand E to about 70 E before making S, well into the South-east Trades. 40 6.94. Po r t L o u i s ,-~ Ad e n . The full power route is direct in both directions, passing E or W of Seychelles Group~ according to the circumstances. Distance 2340 miles (W of Seychelles). As for Mombasa, seasonal diversions are advised for S-bound low power traffic. From October to March,. these vessels should run from Ras Asir through the North-east and North-west Monsoons to cross the equat or in about 64 E, steering thence E of Saya de Malha Bank and into the South-east Trade. From April to September- 45 they should run SE through the South-west Monsoon to cross the equator in about 72 E or even to pass through One and half Degree Channel before turning S into the South-east Trade, then passing E of Chagos Archipelago. and through 10 00' S, 70 00' E. 50 6. 95. Por t Loui s ~-~ Karachi . The normal route is direct, passing W of Saya de Malha Bank. Distance 2740 miles. When the South-west Monsoon is blowing strongly it is advisable, on leaving Karachi, to steer SE coastwise. to 70 E and to proceed along that meridian to cross the equator continuing thence E of Cargados Carajos Shoals and to Port Louis. At this season, low-powered vessels, S-bound, should make their passage E of Laccadi ve Islands, Maldive Islands, and Chagos Archipelago. 55 6.96. Po r t L o u i s *-~ S e y c h e l l e s . The normal route for fully powered vessels is direct, as navigation permits,_ with a distance of 950 miles. From November to March, N-bound vessels of low po~ver should keep rather W of the direct route until in t he Nort h-west Monsoon, while S-bound vessels should stand E, round Saya de Malha Bank and into the South- east Trade, before making for Mauritius. 60 From April to October, S-bound vessels of low power should stand E to about 70 E ; then proceeding S until well into the South-east Trade before shaping course for Mauritius. 6.97. Po r t L o u i s *-~ B o mb a y . For Bombay, the route from Mauritius passes W of Cargados Carajos Shoals. and Nazareth Bank and on either side, as preferred, of Saya de Malha Bank. Distance, passing W of Saya de 65 Malha Bank, 2530 miles. From Bombay, the equator should be crossed in about 66 45' E and the voyage should be continued E of Nazareth Bank and Cargados Carajos Shoals, distance 2520 miles, but at the height of the South-west Monsoon a vessel may do better by steering due S on the meridian of 70 E as far as the equator, then rejoining the foregoing route E of Nazareth Bank. At this season, low powered vessels should steer E of Laccadive Islands and Maldive: 70 Islands and Chagos Archipelago. RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 81 6.98. P o r t L o u i s ~-~ C o l o m b o . For Colombo, steer to pass through 7 30' S, 73 00' E, about 30 miles E of Diego Garcia. S-bound, pass through 7 30' S, 72 35' E, close E of that island. Distance 2140 miles. 6.99. P o r t L o u i s ~ S e l a t Benggal a. Proceed direct. Distance 2710 miles. 5 6.100. P o r t L o u i s ~ S u n d a S t r a i t . (6 25' S, 102 30' E). Proceed direct. Distance 2900 miles. 6.101. Por t Loui s +* Tor t es St ral t and Por t Dar wi n. From October to April the route passes through 11o 30, S, 118 00' E, to pass N of the usual tracks of the Willy-Willies. E of this position, the deep water route S of Ti mor may be used, and Nort h Sahul Passage for Port Darwin. Alternatively, the coastwise route, see 6.125, may be 10 joined S of Cartier Islet in 12 40' S, 123 45' E. Distances, using the coastwise route, are 4920 and 4330 miles for Tort es Strait and Port Darwin respectively; for the deepwater passage S of Ti mor add 15 miles to these distances. From May to September the route passes through 15 30' S, 120 00' E and joins the coastwise route S of Browse Island. Distances: Tort es Strait 4890 miles; Port Darwin 4300 miles. 15 6.102. P o r t L o u i s ~ F r e m a n t l e a n d C a p e Leeuwi n. The routes are direct. Distances: Fremantle 3220 miles; 20 miles WSW of Cape Leeuwin 3160 miles. R O U T E S T O A N D F R O M S E Y C H E L L E S G R O U P 20 6.106. Seychel l es +-> S o u t h A f r i c a . For destinations on the coasts of S o u t h A f r i c a , pass 20 miles E of $1e Mayotte and join the S-bound route through Mozambi que Channel in 17 00' S, 40 20' E. Distances: Durban 2130 miles; Cape Town 2920 miles. N-bound, take the N-bound route through Mozambi que Channel as far as 17 00' S, 42 15' E and continue the voyage as directly as navigation permits. Distances: Durban 2110 miles; Cape Town 2900 miles. See 6.58. 6.107. Seychel l es ~-~ M o m b a s a . The usual route is direct in both directions. Distance 950 miles. From October to April, E-bound ships of low power should keep N of the direct route until the North-west Monsoon (6.12) is picked up in about 45 E. From April to October, E-bound ships of low power, if unable to make their destination on the direct route, should continue until able to make it from a N' l y direction. W-bound, such vessels should allow for the probability of the wind heading them and for the strong N' l y current off the African coast. 25 30 35 6.108. Seychel l es ~-* A d e n . The normal route is direct to and from Ras Asir, except that during the South-west Monsoon Ras Hafun should be made by N-bound traffic before Ras Asir. Distance 1410 miles. From October to March, low-powered vessels outward bound from Aden should keep along the Arabian ,/0 coast until able to weather Ras Asir, whence they should proceed direct. N-bound, from November to March, low-powered vessels should cross the equator in about 61 E and make into the North-east Monsoon until able to weather Socotra. From April to September, S-bound ships of low power should steer from Ras Asir to 3 00' N, 60 00' E, thence proceeding due S across the equator into the South-east Trade. If the South-west Monsoon is still 45 blowing strongly in 3 N, 60 E, a vessel should hold her SE' Iy course until its strength is lost, then turning S across the equator and to her destination. 6.109. Seychel l es ~-~ B o m b a y . The normal route in both directions is direct. Distance 1750 miles. Duri ng the full South-west Monsoon, low-powered ships on leaving Bombay should steer for 6 00' N, 67 00" E; thence to cross the equator in about 59 E and so to destination. 6.110. Seychel l es ~-~ Col ombo. The NE- bound route passes through One and half Degree Channel throughout the year. ~SW-bound, Eight Degree Channel should be taken from October to April and One and half Degree Channel from May to Sept ember: Distances are : by One and half Degree Channel 1680 miles ; by Eight Degree Channel 1740 miles. Low-powered vessels, NE-bound, should, from November to March, proceed through 4 00' S, 70 00' E; then crossing the equator in 80 E and proceeding N to make the Ceylon coast on that meridian. From April to October, they should proceed through Eight Degree Channel or Kardiva Channel, the latter being the more direct but advisable by daylight only. Low-powered vessels, SW-bound, should, from October to April, pass through Eight Degree Channel and stand SW to cross the equator in about 54 E before making for their destination. From May to September, they should establish a good offing from the Ceylon coast and then stand S across the equator into the South-east Trades, passing S of Chagos Archipelago before making for their destination. 6 . 1 1 1 . S e y c h e l l e s , -~ F r e m a n t l e a n d s o u t h c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a . E-bound, proceed to 11 30' S, 6 0 0 0 ' E, and thence by great circle. Distances : Fremantle 3840 miles; 20 miles WSW of Cape Leeuwin 3810 miles. W-bound, proceed as direct as navigation permits. Distances: from Fremantle 3850 miles; from 20 miles WSW of Cape Leeuwin 3840 miles. For continuation of route E of Cape Leeuwin, see 6.130 to 6.137. 50 55 60 82 POWER VESSEL ROUTES APPROACH FROM WES TWARD TO AUS TRALI AN WATERS 6.120. Fr om Sunda Strait. Between the W entrance to Sunda Strait and Torres Strait there are three main routes, namely through the Java and Flores Seas and W&ar Strait, see Chapter 7 ; S of Java and through Sumba, 5 Ombai, and W&ar Straits; and S of all the islands E of Sunda Strait, passing through 11 30' S, 118 00' E. Distances between 6 25' S, 102 30' E, which is the routeing position W of Sunda Strait, and 10 49' S, 140 59' E, the position of Carpentaria light-vessel, are similar, being respectively 2360, 2330, and 2360 miles. In the Java and Flores Seas, the current is to the advantage of E-bound shipping during the North-west Monsoon, between about November and April; otherwise, currents are predominantly W' l y on all three routes. The Java Sea 10 route, between the shoals E of Sunda Strait and through Sapudi Strait and W~tarPassage, demands close atten- tion to navigation. Sumba, Ombai, and W~t~r Straits are wide and deep and present no difficulty, particularly to ships fitted with radar. Ships using the route S of the islands should, when S of Ti mor and Tani mbar Islands, keep in the deep-water gut close S of those islands. Port Darwin can be approached from W either through Sumba and Roti Straits or from seaward through 15 11 30' S, 118 00' E. In the former case, the route continues through Nort h Sahul Passage; in the latter case, the coastal shoal area is entered through 12 40 / S, 123 45' E, 13 miles S of Cartier Islet. The recommended approach tracks are shown on the charts. Distances by the seaward route to Port Darwin from 6 25' S, 102 30' E are 1780 miles by Nort h Sahul Passage, and 1770 miles by the route S of Cartier Islet. 20 25 30 40 45 50 6.12i. Fr om t he Sout h I ndi an Ocean, there are two initial positions for approach to the Arafura Sea. The more N' ly, 11 30' S, 118 00' E, is used on the most S' ly route between Sunda Strait and Torres Strait and therefore caters for traffic passing between Ti mor and the shoal area. The more S' ly position, 15 30' S, 120 00' E, is in general use for the South African traffic except during the summer Willy Willy-season, when the route is better taken through 11 30' S, 118 00' E. COASTWI SE PASSAGES OFF AUSTRALI A 6.125. The following notes on coastwise passages, of which details will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions, have some bearing on those ocean passages in the Indian Ocean which have terminal positions in Australian waters or the Pacific. 6.126. Tor r e s Strai t, (7.53), which connects the Arafura Sea and the Coral Sea, is described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Transit distance between Carpentaria Light-vessel and Twi n Island (10 281 S, l d2 28' E) is 90 miles, and between Carpentaria Light-vessel and Bligh Entrance 219 miles. From the W end of Tort es Strait, the shortest,distance to all ports E of Adelaide is eastabout. 6.127. Many banks in the Ti mo r Sea and the Araf ura Sea are unsurveyed and caution is necessary in their vicinity. The recommended tracks have been surveyed to a width of 10 miles on either side, but less depths than charted may be found outside these limits. On the route between W~tar Strait and Ti mor Strait, keep S of Duddell Shoal and Volsella Shoal. 6.128. Sahul Banks and their vicinity have only been partially surveyed, and caution is necessary in this area. 6.129. Vessels without local knowledge should keep to seaward of Hol ot hur i a Banks, Rowl ey Shoals, and Mo nt e Be l l o I s l ands . 6.130. Approaching the coast between Cape Nat ur al i s t e and Rot t nes t I s l and, unless certain of her position, a vessel should not stand into depths of less than 55 m (30 fro) until N of Naturaliste Reefs (33 13" S, 115 02" E). Thence proceeding N, she may stand into 37 m (20 fro) coarse brown sand mixed with shells, and occasionally gravel and small stones. The depth of 37 m (20 fm), however, will be found within mile of the dangers of Cape VIaming; vessels bound to the N of Rottnest Island should, therefore, not go into less than 55 m (30 fro) as the island is approached. 55 6.131. When rounding Cape Le e u wi n , it should be borne in mi nd that the distance to which dangers extend off a long stretch of coast about the cape, and the frequent thick weather that prevails with strong on-shore winds and an inset in the same direction, make it very desirable to give the cape a wide berth in all but settled weather. From 15 to 20 miles is a good offing to take, and the use of 34 28' S, 114 45' E, 20 miles WSW of Cape Leeuwin, as a routeing position will suit most passages without appreciable loss of distance. 60 The greatest caution should be used if running in to make Cape Leeuwin Light which, in doubtful visibility, may not be visible as far as G6ographe Reef, 8 miles NW, and as mist may hang about the land when it is clear at sea, sounding should never be neglected, and vessels should not stand in to depths of less than 128 m (70 fro). 6.132. Between the vicinity of Cape Leeuwin and I nve s t i gat or Strai t (for Adelaide) or Cape Ot way (for Melbourne) or Sout h We s t Cape (for Hobart), great circle courses may be steered. 6.133. A vessel approaching Bas s Strai t from W should make a landfall off Moonlight Head or Cape Otway. In the approach, due allowance must be made for winds and currents particularly during SW' l y weather, and in thick weather a depth of over 75 m (41 fro) should be maintained. Very strong tidal streams are occasionally encountered off Ki ng Island; combined with the current the E-going tidal stream may produce a SE' Iy onshore Personal Property of S V Victoria Not for navigation RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 83 set of great strength. Many fatal wrecks have occurred on Ki ng Island, from errors in reckoning and i n consequence of not making the land near Cape Otway. In Bass Strait, the channel between Ki ng Island and Tasmania is not recommended as there may be undis- covered dangers i n it. 6.134. Shark and crayfish fishing fleets operate up to 90 miles from the coast between 37 30' S, 140 00' E and 37 00' S, 149 55' E. 6.135. Routes between Ad e l a i d e and ports E' ward are through Backstairs Passage. With S' ly or W' l y winds, currents setting on to the land at rates of up to 2 knots are sometimes experienced bet~' een Cape Willoughby and Cape Otway. 6.136. Routes between Mel bour ne and Hobar t may be taken either W or E of Tasmania, keeping from 10 to 20 miles W of Ki ng Island, according to weather, in the former case, and passing either through Banks Strait or E of the Furneaux Group in the latter. There is very little in the distance, the Banks Strait route being the shortest. As ment i oned above, the currents off Ki ng Island may be strong. 6.137. Di st ances in miles : Torres St. 770* 1560 Port Darwin 970 2450 1870 2580 2000 3780 3190 4060 3470 Melbourne 4230 3640 t Por t Hedl and 1000 Fremantle 1130 175 2320 1370 2600 1650 2780 1820 Cape Leeuwin 1190 Adelaide 1470 460 ! 1650 750 Hobart * Via Cape Van Diemen. 670 miles via Clarence Strait. ]" By Banks Strait 420 miles; Bass Strait and E of Furneaux Group 465 miles; westabout 455 miles. ROUT E S ON EAS TERN SI DE OF I NDI AN OCEAN 6.140. Bay of Bengal ~-~ No r t h coas t o f Aus t ral i a. The choice between an open-ocean route, W of Sumatra and S of Java, and a route passing entirely or partly through the Eastern Archipelago, is governed by considera- tions of draught, weather, distance, and season. For Bay of Bengal and Malacca Strait see 6.71, 6.84; for the approach to Australian waters from the Indi an Ocean see 6.120 and Chapter 7; for routes through the Eastern Archipelago see Chapter 7. Distances, i n miles: 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 By ocean route, S of Java and Ti mor S of Java ; and through Sumba, Ombai and W~tar Straits for Torres Strait, or Sumba and Roti Straits for Port Darwin By Sunda, Sapudi, and W~tar Straits By Malacca and Sapudi Straits; thence by W~tar Strait for Tortes Strait or by Lombok Strait for Port Darwin From Madras Sandheads Rangoon Madras Sandheads Rangoon Madras Sandheads Rangoon Madras Sandheads Rangoon Torres Strait 4120 4220 3880 4090 4190 3850 4110 4200 3860 4040 3980 3530 Port Darwin 3540 3640 3300 3530 3630 3290 3610 3710 3360 3540 3480 3020 55 60 65 70 10 15 20 25 30 84 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 6 . 1 4 1 . W e s t e r n s i d e o f B a y o f B e n g a l ~-~ W e s t c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a . Ro u t e s ar e di r ect , W of Ni c o b a r I s l a n d s f or Pa r a d i p a n d Sa n d h e a d s . Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s b y gr e a t ci r cl e, a r e : Ma d r a s Pa r a d i p .. S a n d h e a d s P o r t He d l a n d 3020 3120 F r e ma n t l e 3380 3550 Ca p e Le e u wi n * 3460 3650 I 3670 t I 3120 " 3560 . *" T o j o i n c oa s t wi s e r o u t e f or S coas t of Aus t r a l i a , see 6. 131- 6. 137. 6. 142. R a n g o o n ~-~ W e s t c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a . Ei t h e r t h e oc e a n r out e S of Ni c o b a r I s l a n d s a n d W of Su ma t r a , or a r out e t h r o u g h Ma l a c c a St r a i t a n d S u n d a St r a i t ma y b e t a ke n. F o r t he r out e t h r o u g h t h e Ea s t e r n Ar c hi pe l a go, see 6. 140. Di s t a n c e s f r o m Ra n g o o n , i n mi l es , a r e : Po r t He d l a n d F r e ma n t l e Ca pe Le e u wi n * By oc e a n r out e 2770 3200 3300 By Ma l a c c a a n d S u n d a St r a i t s 2 8 4 0 t 3340 3450 * T h e S o u t h Au s t r a l i a n coas t wi s e r out e , see 6. 131- 6. 137, ma y b e j o i n e d of f Ca pe Le e u wi n . "~ T h e d i s t a n c e vi a Ma l a c c a St r a i t a n d L o mb o k St r a i t i s 2780 mi l es . T R A N S - O C E A N R O U T E S 6. 150. C a p e T o w n ~-~ S u n d a St r a i t . E- b o u n d , s t e e r acr os s t h e W- g o i n g c u r r e n t t o 36 45' S, 19 00' E a n d t h e n c e t o 33 4 5 ' S, 36 30" E. Ta k e t h e gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c k f r o m t h a t pos i t i on t o S u n d a St r ai t , pa s s i ng t h r o u g h 35 29 00' S, 60 00' E a n d 15 50' S, 90 00' E, a n d N of Cocos I s l a nds . Di s t a n c e 5180 mi l e s t o 6 30' S, 105 00' E, i n t h e e n t r a n c e t o S u n d a St r ai t . W- b o u n d , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , p r o c e e d f r o m t h e a bove pos i t i on b y g r e a t ci r cl e t o 33 4 5 ' S, 36 30' E a n d t h e n ma k e t h e Af r i c a n coas t i n a b o u t 34 00' S, 27 00' E, c o n t i n u i n g t o Ca pe T o wn as d i r e c t e d i n 6. 57. Di s t a n c e 5070 mi l es . F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , p r o c e e d b y gr e a t ci r cl e t o 30 00' S, 56 30' E; t h e n c e b y t h u mb l i ne t o 40 a pos i t i on of f Du r b a n , t o j o i n t he coas t wi s e r o u t e t o Ca pe T o wn . Di s t a n c e 5190 mi l es . 45 50 55 60 6. 151. Du r b a n ~-~ S u n d a S t r a i t . E- b o u n d , p r o c e e d o n t h e par al l el of 30 0 0 ' S t o 56 30" E a n d t ake t h e g r e a t ci r cl e t h e n c e t h r o u g h 29 00' S, 60 00' E a n d 15 50' S, 90 0 0 ' E, a n d N of Cocos I s l a nds . Di s t a n c e 4400 mi l e s t o 6 30' S, 105 0 0 ' E, i n t h e e n t r a n c e t o S u n d a St r ai t . W- b o u n d , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , p r o c e e d f r o m t h e a bove pos i t i on b y gr e a t ci r cl e. Di s t a n c e 4380 mi l es . F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , p r o c e e d b y gr e a t ci r cl e t o 30 00' S, 56 30' E a n d t h e n c e b y r h u mb l i ne. Di s t a n c e 4400 mi l e s . 6. 152. Mo mb a s a ~-~ S u n d a S t r a i t . Di r e c t , pa s s i ng 50 mi l e s N of Se yc he l l e s Gr o u p a n d N of Ch a g o s Ar c h i p e l a g o . Di s t a n c e 3920 mi l e s t o 6 30' S, 105 0 0 ' E, i n t h e e n t r a n c e t o S u n d a St r a i t . 6. 153. Ad e n - + S u n d a S t r a i t . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , r o u n d Ras As i r a n d t ake On e a n d h a l f De g r e e Ch a n n e l . Di s t a n c e 3800 mi l e s t o 6 30' S, 105 00' E, i n t h e e n t r a n c e t o S u n d a St r ai t . F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , pa s s N of Socot r a, t h r o u g h 13 00" N, 55 0 0 ' E, a n d t h e n c e t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l . Ma k e Po i n t de Ga l l e a n d p r o c e e d t h e n c e t o S u n d a St r ai t . Di s t a n c e 3800 mi l es . Lo w- p o we r e d ves s el s , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , s h o u l d r o u n d Ra s As i r a n d p r o c e e d t h r o u g h t h e f ol l owi ng p o s i t i o n s : 3 00' N, 60 00' E ( Oc t o b e r t o F e b r u a r y ) ; 1 00' S, 72 20' E ( Ma r c h a n d Ap r i l ) ; 2 20' S, 76 30' E; 3 0 0 ' S, 94 30' E ; a n d t h e n c e t o S u n d a St r ai t , pa s s i ng on e i t h e r s i de of En g g a n o I s l a nd. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , t h e y s h o u l d f ol l ow t h e f u l l - p o we r r o u t e as f ar as P o i n t de Ga l l e ; t h e n c e c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r i n 96 30' E a n d f ol l owi ng e i t h e r t he Ou t e r or t he Mi d d l e r out e , see Ad mi r a l t y Sa i l i ng Di r e c t i o n s , t o S u n d a St r ai t . 6. 154. S u n d a S t r a i t - + A d e n . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , ma k e Po i n t de Ga l l e a n d pa s s t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l ; t h e n c e s t e e r e i t h e r N or S of Soc ot r a as di r e c t e d i n 6. 79. Di s t a n c e s f r o m 6 30' S, 105 00' E, i n t h e e n t r a n c e t o S u n d a St r a i t : N of Socot r a, 3800 mi l e s ; S of Soc ot r a 3800 mi l es . F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , p r o c e e d t h r o u g h On e a n d h a l f De g r e e Ch a n n e l a n d t h e n c e t h r o u g h 5 50' N, 65 60 00' E a n d 8 00' N, 52 40' E, t o r o u n d Ras As i r , see 6. 59. Di s t a n c e 3920 mi l es . Lo w- p o we r e d ves s el s s houl d, f r o m No v e mb e r t o Ma r c h , s t e e r NW b e t we e n Ke p u l a n a n Me n t u wa i a n d Su ma t r a , e n t e r i n g t h e I n d i a n Oc e a n b y Se l a t Si be r ut . T h e n c e t h e y s h o u l d p r o c e e d t o P o i n t de Ga l l e o n a c u r v i n g cour s e, c r os s i ng t h e Eq u a t o r i n 97 00' E, a n d t h r o u g h 1 50' N, 95 00' E; 5 00' N, 90 00' E; 5 30' N, 85 00' E. W of Ce yl on, t h e y s h o u l d us e t h e f u l l - p o we r r o u t e d e s c r i b e d above. I n Apr i l , Ma y, J u n e , a n d S e p t e mb e r 70 t h e y s h o u l d t ake a r out e cl ose N of Ch a g o s Ar c hi pe l a go, pa s s i ng t h r o u g h 8 00' S, 68 00' E; 8 00' N, 52 40" E; R E D S E A , I N DI A N OC E A N , A N D P E R S I A N GUL F 85 and round Ras Asir. In July and August they should pass through 2 30' S, 65 00" E; 1 10' S, 61 30' E; 8 00' N, 52 40" E; and round Ras Asir. For the approach to Ras Asir, see 6.59. 6. 155. P e r s i a n Gu l f a n d e a s t e r n s i d e o f Ar a b i a n Se a *-* No r t h c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a . Between the Gul f of Oman and the latitude of Cape Comorin the route should be taken through 13 00' N, 74 10' E. Between 5 Karachi or Bombay and Cape Comorin it is as direct as navigation permits. See Admiralty Sailing Directions and articles 6.79 and 6.80. E of Ceylon, the choice between an open-ocean route and a voyage through the Eastern Archipelago will be governed by considerations of draft, weather, distance, and season. Malacca Strait is discussed in article 6.83, and the approach to Australian waters is covered by articles 6.120 and 6.121. For the Eastern Archipelago 10 see Chapter 7. Distances, in miles: By ocean route, S of Java and Ti mor S of Java; and through Sumba, Ombai, and W~tar Straits for Torres Strait, or Sumba and Roti Straits for Port Darwin By Sunda, Sapudi, and \V~tar Straits By Malacca and Sapudi Straits; thence by W~tar Strait for Torres Strait or by Lombok Strait for Port Darwin Str. of Hormuz Karachi Bombay Colombo Str. of Hormuz Karachi Bombay Colombo Str. of Hormuz Karachi Bombay Colombo Str. of Hormuz Karachi Bombay Colombo Torres Strait 5750 5280 4820 3960 5720 5250 4790 3930 5690 5230 4760 3910 5770 5310 4840 4990 Port Darwin 5170 4700 4240 3380 5150 4690 4220 3370 5230 4770 4310 3450 5310 4850 4380 3530 15 20' 25 30 35 6.156. P e r s i a n Gu l f a n d e a s t e r n s i d e o f Ar a b i a n Se a .-~ We s t c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a . Be t we e n t he Gu l f of Oma n and the latitude of Cape Comorin the route should be taken through 13 00' N, 74 10' E. Between Karachi or Bombay and Cape Comorin it is as direct as navigation permits. See Admi ral t y Sailing Directions and articles 6.80 and 6.81. Between Ceylon and the W coast of Australia, routes are direct. In the relatively lo~v latitudes traversed by these routes, which have a strong N- S component, the distance saved by great circle sailing is of minor consequence. The following distances are calculated using great circle tracks on the oceanic parts of the routes. Distances, in miles : Str. of Hormuz 590 Karachi 1010 500 Bombay . 1800 1340 880 Colombo 4610 4160 3690 2840 I . I : 4880 4430 3960 3110 1 4940 4490 4020 3170 Port Hedland Fremantle 20' SSW of Cape Leeuwi n 40 45 50 55 60' 6.157. No t e s o n p a s s a g e s b e t we e n S o u t h Af r i c a a n d Aust ral i a. In the South Indian Ocean, the E-going Southern Ocean Current has no defined N boundary, E' l y sets predominating as far N as 30 S, or approximately the S limit of the South-east Trade Wind. Between the South-east Trades and the Roaring Forties, there is a 65 zone of light, variable winds, the axis of which lies on about the parallel of 35 S in summer and 30 S in winter. The t humb line between Cape Agulhas and Cape Leeuwin coincides with the parallel of 35 S ; its length is 4711 miles, and the corresponding great circle, with a length of 4501 miles, has its vertex in about 45 S. It is therefore evident that any attempt to shorten a voyage by great circle sailing between the t~vo continents is likely, except on the most N' l y tracks, to put a vessel at risk of delay not only due to pack ice, see 6.42, but also due to 70 86 POWER VESSEL ROUTES we a t h e r a nd, i n t h e cas e of W- b o u n d voyages , d u e t o a s t r o n g e r a dve r s e c u r r e n t . I n pr a c t i c e , c o mp o s i t e s ai l i ng i s us ua l l y a d o p t e d o n t he s e r out e s , t h e E - b o u n d t r a c ks b e i n g gi ve n a l i mi t i n g l a t i t ude of 40 S i n s u mr n e r a nd 35 30' S i n wi nt e r , whi l e t h e W- b o u n d t r acks ma k e t h e i r ma i n we s t i n g i n s u mme r o n a gr e a t ci r cl e wi t h i t s v e r t e x i n 35 S, a n d i n wi n t e r b y t h u mb l i ne o n t h e par al l el of 30 S. Voya ge s b e t we e n S o u t h Af r i c a a n d t h e NW a n d N coas t s of Au s t r a l i a ar e n o t gr e a t l y af f ect ed b y t h e f o r e g o i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t , i n vi e w of t h e f r e q u e n c y of t r opi c a l r e v o l v i n g s t o r ms ( Wi l l y- Wi l l i e s ) of f t h e NW coas t of Au s t r a l i a f r o m No v e mb e r t o Fe b r u a r y , ves s el s o n t h e Da r wi n a n d Ar a f u r a Sea r out e s ar e a dvi s e d t o pa s s cl ose u n d e r S u mb a a n d T i mo r d u r i n g t h a t s eas on. See 6. 121 a n d 6. 158. 10 6. 158. C a p e T o wn - + No r t h - we s t a n d no r t h c o a s t s o f Au s t r a l i a . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , cr os s t h e Ag u l h a s Cu r r e n t t o 36 45' S, 19 00' E a n d t h e n s t e e r b y t h u mb l i ne t o 39 00' S, 45 00' E. Th e n c e , f or Po r t Da r wi n or T o r t e s St r ai t , t ake t h e gr e a t ci r cl e t o 11 30' S, 118 00' E, ma k i n g t hi s N' l y l a t i t ude t o a voi d t h e Wi l l y - Wi l l i e s a n d c o n t i n u e t h e voyage cl ose S of Rot i a n d Ti mo r , b r e a k i n g of f f or No r t h Sa h u l Pas s age i f b o u n d f or P o r t Da r wi n . Al t e r na t i ve l y, Po r t Da r wi n ma y b e a p p r o a c h e d b y pa s s i ng S of Ca r t i e r I sl et , see 6. 120. F o r P o r t 15 He d l a n d , l eave t he gr e a t ci r l e i n 19 00' S, 115 00' E. F r o m Ma y t o Se p t e mb e r , i n s pi t e of t he a dve r s e ef f ect of t h e Ag u l h a s Cu r r e n t , do n o t go S of 35 00' S, b u t f ol l ow t h a t par al l el t o 79 15' E a n d t h e n t ake t he gr e a t ch: cl e t o 15 30' S, 120 00' E, t h e r e a f t e r j o i n i n g t he coas t wi s e r o u t e S of Br ows e I s l a nd, or b r e a k i n g of f e a r l i e r a c c o r d i n g t o de s t i na t i on. F o r Po r t He d l a n d , l eave t he gr e a t ci r cl e i n 115 E. 20 Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s : 25 30 35 40 45 Ca p e To~vn t o To r r e s St r a i t Po r t Da r wi n vi a N Sa h u l Pas s age Po r t Dar xvi n vi a coas t wi s e r out e Po r t He d l a n d Oc t o b e r t o Ap r i l 7000 6420 (1) 6380 (2) 5430 Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r 6830 - - 6210 (3) 5370 (1) Vi a N Sa h u l Pa s s a ge ; (2) vi a Ca r t i e r I s l e t ; (3) vi a Br ows e I s l a nd. 6. 159. Du r b a n - + No r t h - we s t a n d n o r t h c o a s t s o f Aus t r al i a. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , f or To r r e s St r a i t or P o r t Da r wi n , t ake t h e gr e a t ci r cl e t o 11 30' S, 118 00' E, a n d p r o c e e d t h e n c e as d i r e c t e d i n 6. 158. F o r o t h e r por t s , l eave t hi s gr e a t ci r cl e i n a b o u t 18 00' S, 105 00' E. F r o m ~, l ay t o Se p t e mb e r , t ake t he gr e a t ci r cl e t o 15 30' S, 120 00' E a n d j o i n t h e coas t wi s e r out e S of Br ows e I s l a n d or b r e a k of f ear l i er a c c o r d i n g t o de s t i na t i on. F o r P o r t He d l a n d , l eave t he gr e a t ci r cl e i n 110 E. Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s : Du r b a n t o To r r e s St r a i t P o r t Da r wi n vi a Sa h u l Pas s age P o r t Da r wi n vi a coas t wi s e r out e P o r t He d l a n d Oc t o b e r t o Ap r i l Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r 6300 6200 5720 - - 5710 . 5580 , 4860 ] 4780 6. 160. No r t h - we s t a n d n o r t h c o a s t s o f Aus t r a l i a - ~ Du r b a n a nd Ca pe T o wn . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , s hi ps f r o m T o r t e s St r a i t a n d Po r t Da r wi n s h o u l d t a ke t h e i r t r a n s - o c e a n i c d e p a r t u r e b y t h e N' l y r o u t e f r o m 50 11 30' S, 118 00' E a n d s hi ps f r o m Po r t He d l a n d s h o u l d d e p a r t f r o m 20 00' S, 115 00' E, of f Mo n t e Bel l o I s l a nds . F r o m t he s e pos i t i ons , s t e e r b y gr e a t ci r cl e e i t h e r f or Du r b a n or, i f b o u n d f or Ca pe To wn , t o 33 45' S, 36 30' E; t h e n j o i n i n g t h e coas t al r out e (6. 56) of f Al goa Bay. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , t h e d e p a r t u r e pos i t i ons f or t r af f i c f r o m t he N' l y por t s a n d Po r t He d l a n d ar e 15 30' S, 120 00' E a n d 20 00' S, 115 00' E r es pect i vel y, wh e n c e gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c ks s h o u l d b e s t e e r e d t o 30 00' S, 55 56 30' E. F r o m t h i s pos i t i on, Du r b a n s h o u l d be ma d e b y al l s hi ps b y r h u mb l i ne o n 30 S; a n ear l i er d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h i s l a t i t ude wo u l d e xpos e ves s el s b o u n d f or Ca pe T o wn t o t h e r i s k of b a d we a t he r . 60 65 70 Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s : Du r b a n Ca pe T o wn To r r e s St r a i t Oc t . - Ap r . 6300 6940 Ma y - S e p t . 6210 7000 Po r t Da r wi n Oc t . - Ap r . 5720 6360 Ma y - S e p t . 5580 6380 Po r t He d l a n d Oc t . - Ap r . 4740 5360 Ma y - S e p t . 4700 5550 RED SEA, I NDI AN OCEAN, AND PERSI AN GULF 87 6. 161. C a p e T o wn a nd Du r b a n - ~ We s t a nd s o ut h coas t s o f Aus t ral i a. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , a f t e r l e a vi ng Cape T o wn cr os s t h e Ag u l h a s Cu r r e n t t o 36 45' S, 19 00' E a n d p r o c e e d t h e n c e b y t h u mb l i ne t o 40 00' S, 55 0 0 ' E, a n d t h e n c o n t i n u e a l ong t h e par al l el of 40 0 0 ' S. Ves s el s b o u n d f or F r e ma n t l e s h o u l d b r e a k of f i n 77 00' E, a n d t hos e b o u n d f or Ad e l a i d e a n d Me l b o u r n e i n 100 0 0 ' E, i n e a c h cas e c o mp l e t i n g t h e voyage o n a gr e a t ci r cl e. Sh i p s b o u n d f or Ho b a r t s h o u l d f ol l ow t he f or e goi ng di r e c t i ons t o 41 30' S, 122 50' E, o n t h e gr e a t 5 ci r cl e t r a c k f or Me l b o u r n e , f r o m wh i c h p o s i t i o n t h e y s h o u l d p r o c e e d by gr e a t ci r cl e t o t h e l a ndf a l l of f S o u t h We s t Cape, Ta s ma n i a . Du r i n g t h i s s e a s on a s h o r t e r b u t mo r e boi s t e r ous r o u t e f or Me l b o u r n e c o u l d b e t a k e n b y s t e e r i ng f r o m 36 45' S, 19 00' E t h r o u g h 44 00' S, 40 00' E; 45 00' S, 65 00' E; 45 00' S, 120 0 0 ' E; al l b y t h u mb l i ne ; a n d t h e n c e t o Ca pe Ot wa y b y gr e a t ci r cl e; or t o Ho b a r t b y c o n t i n u i n g o n t h e par al l el of 45 00' S as f ar as 130 0 0 ' E a n d t h e n c e t o d e s t i n a t i o n . T h i s r o u t e s aves s o me 200 mi l e s o n t he voyage t o i 0 Me l b o u r n e . F r o m Du r b a n , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , p r o c e e d b y gr e a t ci r cl e t o j o i n t he f or e goi ng r out e i n 40 00' S, 77 00' E. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , vessel s f r o m Cape T o wn ar e advi s ed, owi ng t o t h e we a t he r , n o t t o p r o c e e d i ni t i al l y S of 35 30' S a n d h a v i n g ma d e t h a t l a t i t ude i n 20 0 0 ' E, t o ke e p i n i t f or t h e ma i n p a r t of t h e voyage. St r i c t l y f ol l owed, i t wi l l c a r r y a ves s el cl ose u n d e r ~eVest Ca pe Ho we a n d t o I n v e s t i g a t o r St r a i t ; t r af f i c f or F r e ma n t l e 15 s h o u l d b r e a k o f f i n 90 E a n d c o n t i n u e by gr e a t ci r cl e; s hi ps b o u n d f or p o r t s E of Ca pe Le e u wi n s h o u l d p r o c e e d d i r e c t t o t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n s f r o m 35 30' S, 115 08' E, wh i c h i s 68 mi l e s S of Ca pe Le e u wi n . F r o m Dur ba n, f r o m Ma y t o Se p t e mb e r , t ake a gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c k t o j o i n t h e f or e goi ng r out e i n 35 30' S, 67 30' E. T h e pos s i bi l i t y of f i n d i n g i c e be r gs o n t he s e r out e s at any t i me of ye a r c a n n o t be di s c ount e d. See 6. 43. 20 Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s : F r e ma n t l e Ade l a i de Me l b o u r n e Ho b a r t Ca pe T o wn Oc t . - Ap r . 4840 5820 6030 6140 Ma y - S e p t . 4870 5960 6240 6410 Du r b a n Oc t . - Ap r . 4250 5240 5440 5550 Ma y - S e p t . 4270 5360 5630 5800 25 30 6. 162. We s t a n d s o ut h coas t s o f Aus t r al i a --~ Du r b a n a nd Cape To wn . On al l voyages t h r o u g h o u t t he year , ke e p N of 30 0 0 ' S, 100 00' E. F r o m t h e S coas t of Au s t r a l i a a n d T a s ma n i a t h i s pos i t i on s h o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d 35 t h r o u g h 34 37' S, 115 08' E, 15 mi l e s S of Ca pe Le e u wi n ; f r o m T a s ma n i a a gr e a t ci r cl e t r a c k b y p a s s i n g Ca pe Le e u wi n mi g h t a p p e a r pr e f e r a bl e , b u t i t wo u l d o n l y s ave a b o u t 20 mi l e s a n d a dve r s e wi n d s wi t h h e a d seas wo u l d be mo r e l i kel y. F r o m 30 00' S, 100 E, f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , t he r o u t e t o Du r b a n i s by gr e a t ci r cl e. T h e r out e f or Ca p e T o wn f ol l ows t h e gr e a t ci r cl e t o 35 00' S, 65 00' E, a f t e r wh i c h a W' l y c our s e s h o u l d b e s t e e r e d f or a l a ndf a l l 40 o n t h e Af r i c a n coas t at Ca pe Reci f e. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r al l t r af f i c s h o u l d p r o c e e d a l ong t h e par al l el of 30 00' S t o a pos i t i on of f Du r b a n , wh e n c e ves s el s b o u n d f or Ca pe T o wn s h o u l d f ol l ow t h e coas t wi s e r out e, see 6. 57. Di s t a nc e s , i n mi l e s : F r e ma n t l e Ca pe T o wn Oc t . - Ap r . 4960 Ma y - S e p t . 5200 Ade l a i de 6120 6370 Me l b o u r n e Ho b a r t 6400 6580 6650 6830 Du r b a n Oc t . - Ap r . 4350 5520 5800 5980 Ma y - S e p t . 4410 5580 5860 6040 6. 163. Mo mb a s a +-7 Aus t r al i an port s . To a n d f r o m To r r e s St r a i t a n d Po r t Da r wi n , t he r out e t o S u n d a St r a i t ( 6. 152) a n d o n wa r d t h r o u g h t h e J a v a Sea a n d Fl or e s Sea ( 6. 120) ma y be us e d. Al t e r na t i ve l y, f r o m4 00' S, 73 00' E, N of Ch a g o s Ar c hi pe l a go, p r o c e e d t o 11 30' S, 118 00' E a n d c o n t i n u e as di r e c t e d i n 6. 120. F o r d e s t i n a t i o n s b e t we e n Po r t He d l a n d a n d Ca pe Le e u wi n , p r o c e e d N of Se yc he l l e s Gr o u p t o a pos i t i on i n 10 00' S, 80 00' E; t h e n c e di r ect . W- b o u n d , t h e pas s age t o Mo mb a s a i s as di r e c t as n a v i g a t i o n p e r mi t s , k e e p i n g N of 30 S, 100 E, see 6. 162. Di s t a n c e s : T o r t e s St r a i t : Po r t Da r wi n : Po r t He d l a n d : vi a S u n d a St r a i t 6120 mi l e s vi a 11 30' S, 118 00' E 6100 mi l e s vi a S u n d a St r a i t 5620 mi l e s vi a 11 30" S, 118 00' E 5520 mi l e s E - b o u n d 4790 mi l e s W- b o u n d 4720 mi l e s 45 50 55 60 65 70 88 POWER VESSEL ROUTES F r e ma n t l e : Ca pe Le e u wi n : E - b o u n d 4840 mi l e s W- b o u n d 4560 mi l e s E - b o u n d 4860 mi l e s W- b o u n d 4530 mi l e s 6. 164. Ad e n --~ No r t h c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a . T h r o u g h t h e Ar a b i a n Sea, t he r out e f or t hi s pas s age c h a n g e s s e a s on- al l y, see 6. 80. E of Ceyl on, t h e r e i s a choi ce of r out e s , see 6. 155. 10 15 20 Ar a b i a n Sea 6"80 ( Oc t . - Ap r . ) 6"80 ( Ma y - S e p t . ) Ro u t e E of Ce yl on Di s t a n c e i n mi l e s To r r e s St r a i t W e n t r a n c e Oc e a n r o u t e S of J a v a a n d t h r o u g h St r a i t s S u n d a - - W~ t a r St r a i t s Ma l a c c a a n d Sa p u d i St r a i t s Oc e a n r out e S of J a v a a n d t h r o u g h St r a i t s S u n d a - - W~ t a r St r a i t s Ma l a c c a a n d Sa p u d i St r a i t s 5890 5860 5880 6080 5840 5810 5830 6080 Po r t Da r wi n 5310 5290 5380 5580 5250 5240 5330 5590 25 30 35 40 6. 165. No r t h c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a --> Ad e n . F o r pas s age f r o m t h e N coas t of Au s t r a l i a t o t he I n d i a n Oc e a n s ee 6. 120. Pas s age acr os s t h e Ar a b i a n Sea s h o u l d be ma d e as f ol l ows. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l , pa s s t h r o u g h Ei g h t De g r e e Ch a n n e l a n d o n e i t h e r s i de of Socot r a. Di s t a nc e s , p a s s i n g N of Soc ot r a : f r o m To r r e s St r ai t , W e n t r a n c e 6000 mi l e s ; f r o m Po r t Da r wi n vi a Ca r t i e r I s l e t 5390 mi l es . F r o m Ma y t o Se p t e mb e r , pa s s t h r o u g h On e a n d h a l f De g r e e Ch a n n e l ; t h e n c e t h r o u g h 5 5 0 ' N, 60 00' E; 8 00' N, 52 40' E; a n d r o u n d Ras As i r . Di s t a n c e s : f r o m T o r t e s St r ai t , W e n t r a n c e 6060 mi l e s ; f r o m P o r t Da r wi n 5480 mi l es . Al t e r na t i ve l y, f r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r t h e pas s age ma y b e ma d e f r o m t h e Ar a f u r a Sea b y W~t a r , Omb a i , a n d S u mb a St r a i t s t o 9 30' S, 113 00' E; t h e n c e N of Ch a g o s Ar c h i p e l a g o pa s s i ng t h r o u g h 6 30' S, 80 00' E a n d 4 00' S, 73 30' E a n d c r os s i ng t h e Ar a b i a n Sea t h r o u g h 3 00' N, 57 00' E; 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E a n d r o u n d Ra s As i r . I f t h e Mo n s o o n p e r mi t s t h i s r o u t e ma y b e s h o r t e n e d b y a b o u t 20 mi l e s b y s t e e r i ng di r e c t f r o m t h e e q u a t o r i n 64 0 5 ' E t o 8 00' N, 52 4 0 ' E. Di s t a n c e s : f r o m T o r t e s St r ai t , W e n t r a n c e 6180 mi l e s ; f r o m P o r t Da r wi n 5600 mi l es . 6. 166. Ad e n - ~ F r e ma n t l e a n d s o u t h c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a . Pa s s b e t we e n Ra s As i r a n d Soc ot r a ; t h e n c e s t e e r t o 4 00' S, 73 30' E; a n d t h e n c e t o F r e ma n t l e or t o j o i n t h e coas t wi s e r o u t e ( 6. 132- 6. 137) 20 mi l e s WS W of Ca pe Le e u wi n . Di s t a n c e s : F r e ma n t l e 4920 mi l e s ; 20 mi l e s WS W of Ca pe Le e u wi n 4950 mi l es . 6. 167. S o u t h c o a s t o f Au s t r a l i a a n d F r e ma n t l e - > Ad e n . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Apr i l t h e r o u t e i s t h e r e ve r s e of 4 5 t h e E ' b o u n d r o u t e gi ve n i n ar t i cl e 6. 166. F r o m Ma y t o S e p t e mb e r , f i r st ma k e a pos i t i on i n 8 00' S, 68 00' E; t h e n c e t h e pas s age ma y b e c o n t i n u e d e i t h e r N or S of Socot r a, i n t h e f o r me r case t h r o u g h 8 00' N, 60 00' E a n d 13 00' N, 55 00' E; a n d i n t h e l a t t e r cas e t h r o u g h 8 00' N, 52 40' E. Di s t a n c e s vi a N of Soc ot r a : f r o m 20 mi l e s WS W of Ca pe L e e u wi n 5120 mi l e s ; f r o m F r e ma n t l e 5100 mi l e s ; vi a S of Socot r a, f r o m 20 mi l e s WS W of Ca pe Le e u wi n 5010 mi l e s ; 50 f r o m F r e ma n t l e 4980 mi l es . F o r por t s E of Ca pe Le e u wi n , see 6. 132- 6. 137. CHAPTER 7 PACIFIC OCEAN, CHINA AND JAPAN SEAS, AND EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO CONTENTS WI NDS AND WEATHER 7.01 General notes No r t h 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 Paci f i c Oc e an Equatorial Tr ough . . . . Seasonal winds of eastern Nort h Pacific Ocean North-east Trade Wi nd North-east Monsoon South-west Monsoon Variables Westerlies . Polar Easterlies Tropical storms Sout h Paci f i c Oc e an 7.15 Equatorial Trough 7.16 Nort h-west Monsoon 7.17 South-east Trade Wi nd 7.18 Variables , , 7.19 Westerlies (Roaring Forties) 7.20 Tropical storms Page 93 93 94 94 94 95 95 96 96 96 96 97 97 97 98 98 7.25 Nort h Pacific Ocean, east of 160 W . 7.26 Nort h Pacific Ocean, west of 160 W . 7.27 South Pacific Ocean, west of 160 W . 7.28 South Pacific Ocean, east of 160 W . 7.29 Lengt h of swell in Pacific Ocean SWELL 98 98 98 99 99 CURRENTS No r t h Paci f i c Oc e an 7.32 Mai n circulation 7.33 Nort hern part of Nort h Pacific Ocean . . 7.34 China Sea and other regions west of main Pacific circulation Sout h Paci f i c Oc e an 7.37 Mai n circulation . 7.38 Central oceanic region 99 100 100 100 101 7.41 General remarks No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a n 7.42 Pack-ice 7.43 Icebergs So ut h Paci f i c Oc e an 7.44 Pack-ice 7.45 Icebergs ICE 101 101 102 102 102 90 7.48 Soundi ngs and danger s 7.49 Cur r ent s among t he i sl ands POWER VESSEL ROUTES N A V I G A T I O N A L N O T E S 102 103 P AS S AGE S B E T WE E N T OR R E S S T R A I T A N D E AS T COAS T OF A U S T R A L I A 7.51 Sout her n par t 7.52 Nor t her n par t 7.53 Tor r es St rai t 7.54 Di st ances 103 103 103 103 7.57 7.58 7.59 7.60 7.61 7.62 7.63 7.64 7.65 7.66 7.67 7.68 7.69 7.70 7.71 7.72 7.73 7.74 7.75 7.76 7.77 7.78 7.79 7.80 7.81 7.82 7.83 7.84 7.85 7.86 7.87 7.88 7.89 7.90 7.91 7.92 7.93 7.94 7.95 7.96 7.97 7.98 7.99 7.100 R O U T E S B E T WE E N A U S T R A L I A , N E W Z E A L A N D , A N D I S L A N D S I N S O U T H P ACI F I C Hobar t ~-~ Bl uff Har bour . Hobar t *-~ Wel l i ngt on Hobar t +-~ Auckl and Mel bour ne ~-~ Bl uff Har bour Mel bour ne ~-~ Wel l i ngt on Mel bour ne ~-~ Auckl and . Sydney ~-~ Bl uff Har bour Sydney ~ Wel l i ngt on Sydney ,-~ Auckl and Sydney ~-~ Papeet e . Sydney ~-~ Noum6a Sydney ~-~ Tongat apu Sydney ~-~ Suva Sydney ~-~ Api a . Sydney ~ Ocean I sl and Bri sbane ~-~ Bl uff Har bour Bri sbane ~-~ Wel l i ngt on Bri sbane ~-~ Auckl and Bri sbane ~-+ Papeet e Br i sbane +-~ Noum6a Br i sbane ~ Tongat apu Br i sbane ,-~ Suva Br i sbane ~-~ Api a Bri sbane +-~ Ocean Isl and Tor t es St rai t ~-~ Wel l i ngt on Tor t es St rai t ~ Auckl and Tor r es St rai t *-~ Papeet e . Tor r es St rai t +-~ Suva Tor r es St rai t +-~ Api a Tor t es St rai t ~-+ Ocean Isl and Wel l i ngt on +-~ Papeet e Wel l i ngt on ~-+ Auckl and . New Zeal and *-~ Tongat apu Ne w Zeal and ~-~ Ocean Isl and . New Zeal and ~-~ Api a Ne w Zeal and ~ Noum6a or Suva Ne w Zeal and +-~ Papeet e . Suva ~ Ocean Isl and Suva ~-~ Tongat apu Suva ~ Papeet e Suva ~ Api a . Tongat apu ~-~ Api a . Tongat apu ~-~ Papeet e Api a ~ Papeet e , . 104 i 04 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 R O U T E S I N E A S T E R N A R C HI P E L A GO, C H I N A SEA, A N D E A S T E R N S EA 7.111 Si ngapore ~-~ Sunda St rai t or Dj akart a 7.112 Si ngapore ~ Bangkok or Sai gon . 7.113 Nor t h ~-~ sout h rout es t hr ough Chi na Sea . 7.114 Java Sea ~-~ Chi na Sea 106 :106 106 107 7. 115 7. 116 7. 117 7. 118 7: 119 7. 120 7. 121 7. 122 7. 123 7. 124 7. 125 7. 126 7. 127 7. 128 7. 129 7. 130 7. 131 7. 132 7. 133 7. 134 7. 135 7. 136 7. 137 7. 138 7. 139 7. 140 7. 141 7. 142 7. 143 PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS Si n g a p o r e --> Pa l a wa n Pa s s a ge " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Si n g a p o r e --> Ho n g Ko n g Ho n g Ko n g - + Si n g a p o r e Ho n g Ko n g ~ S h a n g - h a i a n d n o r t h e r n p o r t s Si n g a p o r e --> S h a n g - h a i S h a n g - h a i - + Si n g a p o r e Si n g a p o r e ~ Na ga s a ki Si n g a p o r e ~-+ Yo k o h a ma F l o t s a m Si n g a p o r e ~-~ ~I a ni l ~ Si n g a p o r e ~-~ S u l u Sea a n d Ba s i l a n St r a i t Si nga por e , S u n d a St r ai t , a n d Dj a k a r t a ~ L o mb o k St r a i t a n d W&a ~ St r a i t Si n g a p o r e ~-~ Amb o n Si n g a p o r e ~-~ Ma k a s s a r Si n g a p o r e ~-~ Su r a b a y a . Si n g a p o r e ~-~ Ba l i k P a p a n Si n g a p o r e ~-~ T a r a k a n Si n g a p o r e ~-~ S a n d a k a n Ba n g k o k a n d Sa i gon +-~ p o r t s i n Ea s t e r n Ar c h i p e l a g o Ko n g Ko n g ~-~ S u n d a St r ai t , Dj a k a r t a , or Su r a b a y a Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ S a n d a k a n Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ Ta r a k a n , Ba l i k l ~a pa n, ' or Ma k a s s a r Ho n g Ko n g ~ Amb o n Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ Ma n i l a . . Ho n g Ko n g +-~ I l oi l o Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ Ce b u - - Ma n i l a ~-~ S u n d a St r a i t or D j a k a r t a Ma n i l a ~ Su r a b a y a , Ma ka s s a r , Ba l i k Pa p a n , or T a r a k a n Ma n i l a ~-~ Sa n d a k a n , Ce b u , or I l oi l o . 91 107 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 7. 160 7. 161 7. 162 7. 163 7. 164 7. 165 7. 166 7. 167 7. 168 7. 169 7. 170 7. 171 7. 172 7. 173 7. 174 7. 175 7. 176 7. 177 7. 178 7. 179 7. 180 7. 181 7. 182 ROUT E S ON WE S T E RN S I DE OF P ACI F I C OCE AN Au s t r a l i a a n d Ne w Ze a l a n d ~-~ As i a t i c s hor e s of Paci f i c Oc e a n No r t h a n d eas t coas t of Aus t r a l i a , a n d Ne w Ze a l a n d +-~ Ch i n a a n d t ~as t er ~ Seas Oc e a n r o u t e b e t we e n eas t coas t of Aus t r a l i a , a n d Ne w Ze a l a n d ~-~ No r t h - we s t s hor e s ~f Paci f i c Oc e a n Si n g a p o r e a n d Ho n ~ Ko n ~ ~-~ E' asterr~ a n d ~out he' r n coas t s o f ' Au s t r a l i a We s t coas t of Au s t r a l i a ~-~ Ch i n a Se a a n d n o r t h - we s t Paci f i c Oc e a n S y d n e y ~-~ Ba l i k P a p a n S y d n e y ~-+ T a r a k a n Ma n i l a ~-~ S h a n g - h a i Ma n i l a ~ Yo k o h a ma Ho n g Ko n g ~ J a p a n S h a n g - h a i ~-~ Yo k o h a ma . - - Yo k o h a ma or Ha k o d a t e ~-~ Pe t r o p a v l o v s k Yo k o h a ma --~ Du t c h Ha r b o u r . Ha k o d a t e - + Du t c h Ha r b o u r Du t c h Ha r b o u r --~ Ha k o d a t e or Yo k o h a ma T o r t e s St r a i t ~-~ Ya p or Gu a m . Si n g a p o r e ~-~ Ya p Ap i a a n d Su v a ~-~ Yap, Ma n i l a , a n d Ho n g Ko n g Yo k o h a ma +-~ Gu a m or Ya p Ap i a ~ Yo k o h a ma Su v a ~-~ Yo k o h a ma . o Ap i a ~-~ Gu a m a n d S h a n g - h a i . Su v a ~-~ Gu a m a n d S h a n g - h a i . 110 110 111 112 113 113 113 113 113 113 114 114 114 114 114 114 114 114 114 115 115 115 115 ROUT E S ON E AS T E RN S I DE OF P ACI F I C OCE AN 7. 190 Du t c h Ha r b o u r ~-* No r t h a n d Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a 7. 191 Pa s s a ge s b e t we e n p o r t s o n Paci f i c coas t s of No r t h ' a n d ~ e n t r a i Ame r i c a . 7. 192 Sa n Fr a n c i s c o or Sa n Di e go ~-+ Cal l ao or I q u i q u e 7. 193 Sa n Fr a n c i s c o or Sa n Di e g o ~-~ Va l pa r a i s o . 7. 194 Sa n Fr a n c i s c o ~-~ Es t e r o d e Ma g a l l a n e s 7. 195 P a n a ma +-~ Paci f i c c oa s t of S o u t h Ame r i c a . 7. 196 Di s t a n c e s 115 115 115 115 115 115 . . . . 116 92 POWER V E S S E L R O U T E S 7. 200 7. 201 7. 202 7. 203 7. 204 7. 205 7. 206 7. 207 7. 208 7. 209 7. 210 7. 211 7. 212 7. 213 7. 214 7. 215 7. 216 7. 217 7. 218 7. 219 ROUT E S T O AND F ROM HONOL UL U Ho n o l u l u ++ S y d n e y or Bri s bane Ho n o l u l u ~ Tor r e s St rai t Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Ne w Ze al and Ho n o l u l u *+ Api a Ho n o l u l u ~-+ Suv a Ho n o l u l u *-~ Oc e an I s l a n~ Ho n o l u l u +~ To ng a t a pu . Ho n o l u l u ++ Gu a m or Ya p Ho n o l u l u *-~ Pape e t e Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Si ngapor e Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Mani l a Ho n o l u l u ++ Ho n g Ko ng Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Sha ng - ha i Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Yo k o h a ma Ho n o l u l u ~ Ha k o d a t e Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Du t c h Ha r b o u r Ho n o l u l u ~ Pr i n c e Ru p e r t Ho n o l u l u ~-~ J u a n de F u c a St r a i t , Sa n Fr a nc i s c o, or S a n Di e go Ho n o l u l u +~ P a n a ma Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Paci f i c c oa s t of S o u t h Ame r i c a 116 116 116 116 116 116 116 116 116 116 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 7. 225 Pa p e e t e 7. 226 Pa p e e t e 7. 227 Pa p e e t e 7. 228 P a p e e t e 7. 229 P a p e e t e 7. 230 Pa p e e t e 7. 231 Pa p e e t e 7. 232 Pa p e e t e 7. 233 Pa p e e t e 7. 234 Pa p e e t e 7. 235 Pa p e e t e 7. 236 Pa p e e t e ROUT E S T O AND F ROM P AP E E T E ~- ~ G u a m , . , ~ Ho n g Ko n g or Ma n i l a ~-~ S h a n g - h a i ~-~ Yo k o h a ma ~-* Pr i n c e Ru p e r t . . ~-~ Por t s s o u t h of Pr i n c e Ru p e r t - ~ P a n a ma ~-~ Cal l ao ~-~ I q u i q u e . - ~ Va l pa r a i s o . ~-~ Es t r e c h o de Ma g a l l a n e s ~ Ca b o de Ho r n o s 117 117 117 117 118 118 118 118 118 118 118 118 S OUT H P ACI F I C T RANS - OCE AN ROUT E S 7. 240 S o u t h e r n r o u t e s acr os s Paci f i c Oc e a n 7. 241 T o r r e s St r a i t - + S o u t h Ame r i c a 7. 242 Ho b a r t - + P a n a ma . 7. 243 We l l i n g t o n - + P a n a ma 7. 244 Au c k l a n d --> P a n a ma 7. 245 P a n a ma --> Ne w Ze a l a n d 7. 246 Ch i l e a n d Pe r i l --> Ea s t c oa s t of Aus t r a l i a , a n d Ne w Ze a l a n d 7. 247 Ap i a ~ S o u t h Ame r i c a 7. 248 Suva~-~ S o u t h Ame r i c a 118 119 119 119 119 i 1 9 119 120 120 7. 260 7. 261 7. 262 7. 263 7. 264 7. 265 7. 266 7. 267 7. 268 7. 269 7. 270 7. 271 7. 272 7. 273 7. 274 MI D- P ACI F I C T RANS - OCE AN ROUT E S E a s t b o u n d t r a n s - o c e a n r o u t e s i n l ow l a t i t ude s . Ce n t r a l Ro u t e S y d n e y - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Br i s b a n e - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e T o r t e s St r a i t - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e . Su v a a n d Ap i a --* Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Ho n o l u l u - ~ Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Gu a m - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Ya p - ~ Ce n t r a l Ro u t e . . Oc e a n I s l a n d - ~ Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Ba s i l a n St r a i t - ~ Ce n t r a l Ro u t e S a n Be r n a r d i n o - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Ba l i n t a n g Ch a n n e l - + Ce n t r a l Ro u t e Me l b o u r n e a n d S y d n e y --~ P a n a ma P a n a ma --~ S y d n e y Br i s b a n e - + P a n a ma 120 120 120 120 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 7.275 7.276 7.277 7.278 7.279 7.280 7.281 7.282 7.283 7.284 7.285 7.286 7.287 7.288 P A C I F I C OC E A N , C HI N A A N D J A P A N S E A S Panama ~-~ Br i s bane Tor r e s St rai t - ~ Pa na ma . Oc e an I s l a nd - ~ Pa na ma . Singapore --~ Panama ~ - - Panama -~ Manila or Singapore Pa na ma - + Gu a m Guam -~ Panama Ne w Zealand, Suva, ' and Apia *-~ Nort h America Sydney or Brisbane ~-~ Nort h America Torres Strait ~-~ Nort h America Suva and Apia ~-* Panama Guam or Yap ~ Nort h Americ~ Guam -~- Manila or Singapore . Hong Kong ~-~ Guam or Yap 93 121 121 121 121 122 122 122 122 122 123 123 123 123 123 7.295 7.296 7.297 7.298 7.299 7.300 7.301 7.302 7.303 7.304 7.305 7.306 7.307 7.308 7.309 7.310 7.311 7.312 7.313 7.314 7.315 7.316 7.317 7.318 NORT H P ACI F I C TRANS - OCEAI ~ ROUT E S General notes Singapore --* Nort h America Manila --~ Panama . Manila --* San Diego or San Francisc~ - - Manila -~ Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Rupert Hong Kong --~ Panama Hong Kong -+ San Diego or Sa~ Francisco" Hong Kong -+ Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Ru ~ert Shang-hai --* North America Yokohama --~ Panama Yokohama -~ San Diego or San' Frandisco i Yokohama --~ Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Rupert Hakodate --~ Panama . Hakodate --~ San Diego or San Francisco . . Hakodate -~ Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Rupert Panama --* Hong Kong or Shang-hai San Diego or San Francisco --~ Singapore, Manila, and China Sea: Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Rupert -~ Singapore, Manila, and China Seas San Diego or San Francisco -+ Yokohama . Juan de Fuca Strait --~ Yokohama Prince Rupert -+ Yokohama San Diego or San Francisco --~ Hako~ate Juan de Fuca Strait --~ Hakodate Prince Rupert -* Hakodate 123 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 126 126 127 127 WI NDS AND WE AT HE R 45 7.01. The following description of the winds and weather of the Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas amplifies the general statement given in The Mari ner' s Handbook. For more precise information regarding oceanic winds and weather, the mariner is referred to the atlases of Mont hl y Meteorological Charts of the East and West Pacific Ocean (MO 518 and MO 484 respectively), published by the Marine Branch of the Meteorological 50 Office. Similar information is also contained in Charts 5127 (I) to (12) (Monthly Routeing Charts for Nort h Pacific Ocean) and Charts 5128 (1) to (12) (Monthly Routeing Charts for South Pacific Ocean). Detailed informa- tion about specific localities should be sought in the appropriate Admiralty Sailing Directions. In reading the following description reference should also be made to World Climatic Charts 5301 and 5302. In the E part of the Pacific Ocean, the winds and weather conform, in the main, with the text-book description 55 of oceanic winds and weather published in The Mari ner' s Handbook. In the W part of the ocean, however, the seasonal heating and cooling of the Asiatic land mass results i n the establishment here of a monsoonal regime. Conditions are further complicated, i n the region between Australia and the Philippines, by numerous islands, many of which are of some size and height, causing marked differences i n the winds and weather experienced i n different localities. These local effects are dealt with in the Sailing Directions. 60 No r t h Pa c i f i c Oc e a n 7.02. T h e Eq u a t o r i a l T r o u g h , known also as the Do l d r u ms , the Dol drum Belt, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z.), the Intertropical Front (I. T. F. ), the Equatorial Front, or the Shearline, remains permanently N of the equator, in longitudes E of about 160 W. To the W of that meridian, it lies in the S hemisphere from 65 about November or December unt i l April or May; in the summer of the N hemisphere it is virtually non- existent W of about 150 E. In the W part of the North Pacific, therefore, the Equatorial Trough is really only in evidence during the change of the monsoons, from about mid-September to mid-November, and from about mid-April to mid-May. The weather of the Equatorial Trough is that typical of the Trough i n other oceans, i.e. light, variable winds with calm alternating with squalls, heavy showers, and thunderstorms; but W of about 70 94 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 130 W, the frequency of calms and variable winds is considerably less than in the Equatorial Trough of other oceans, and most winds are from an E' l y point. The mean positions of the Trough in January and July are shown on charts 5301 and 5302. The actual position is subject to much variation, as is the width of the Zone, which averages about 150 miles. The worst weather is generally experienced when the Trade Winds of the two' hemispheres meet at a wide angle. Visibility is normally good, except in heavy rain. : 7 . 0 3 . S e a s o n a l w i n d s o f e a s t e r n N o r t h P a c i f i c O c e a n . I n s u m m e r , E of about 1 2 0 Q W; a n d b e t w e e n the Equatorial Tr ough and the equator, there is an area covered by prevailing SW' l y winds, see chart 5302. These winds are of a monsoonal nature, and result from the summer heating of t he Nort h American continent, which I0 causes a reduction of pressure over that area, and a N' l y distortion of t heEquat or i al Tr ough; the South-east Trade Wi nd of the South Pacific Ocean is drawn across the equator, is deflected to the right by the effect of the earth' s rotation, and is felt as a SW' l y wind in the area under consideration. Over the greater part of the area these winds prevail from about June to October, and replace the North-east Trade Winds which prevail there in winter, see 7.04. The duration of the season of these south-westerlies varies 15 with latitude, being longest near the equator, near which S to SW winds are prevalent in most months E of 100 W. Winds are mostly light or moderate, though squalls, in which the wi nd may at times reach gale force, are rather common. Tropical storms, see 7.10, also produce strong winds and gales at times. The weather is generally cloudy and unsettled, and rainfall is considerable, it is, in fact, these winds which 20 bring the rainy season to much of Mexico and Central America. Visibility over the open ocean is generally good except in rain. 7.04. T h e N o r t h - e a s t T r a d e W i n d blows on the equatorial side of the large clockwise circulation around the oceanic high pressure area situated in about 30 N. Thi s "hi gh" lies farther N and is somewhat more intense 25 in summer than in winter, and, while in the former season it generally consists of a single cell, in the latter it more often represents the resultant of a succession of anticyclones moving E across the Nort h Pacific from Asia, and becoming stationary over the E part of the ocean. In summer, the Trade Wi nd blows in the region E of about 150 E, and between the Equatorial Trough and about 32 N; the limits are not fixed, but fluctuate considerably. To the W of 150 E the Trades give way to the South-west Monsoon of the W part of the Nort h 30 Pacific, which is described in article 7.06. As with the Trade Winds of other oceans, these winds are remarkable over large areas for their persistence and steadiness. The general direction and steadiness of the wind in different parts of the zone can best be seen from a study of charts 5301 and 5302, which will show that the direction becomes more N' l y (or even NW' l y) near the American coast, and mainly E' ly, in summer, in the SW part of the area covered by these winds. 35 The strength of the North-east Trade averages force 3-4, but it often freshens to 5-6. Winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 1-3 days per mont h in the heart of the Trades; in the vicinity of the Mexican coast, N of about 10 N, and between about 90 W and 100 W, the frequency rises to 3-6 days per mont h from November to February. Apart from squalls, winds of this strength are unlikely within about 600 miles of the equator. 40 The typical weather of the Trade Wi nd zone is fair, with scattered showers, and skies about half covered by small cumulus cloud. At times the Trade becomes unsteady, being interrupted by a day or two of unsettled showery weather with occasional squalls. In the NE part of the zone, near the American coast, cloud amounts are generally smaller than elsewhere, and rain is rare. Visibility over the open ocean is generally good, except in rain, but there is often a light haze which restricts 45 visibility to between 8 and 15 miles; showers, cloud, and haze usually increase when the wind freshens. Dust haze is sometimes prevalent off the American coast and is associated with fresh or strong offshore winds. 7.05. N o r t h - e a s t M o n s o o n . In the winter of the N hemisphere, the cooling of the Asiatic land mass results in the establishment of an intense area of high pressure over Mongolia and the E part of Siberia. The anticyclonic 50 wind circulation resulting from this pressure distribution gives rise to the establishment, at this season, of NE' l y winds over the W part of the N Pacific S of about 30 N, and in the China Sea, and Yellow Sea. The N and E limits of the area covered by the Monsoon are not very well defined. On its E side it merges with the North-east Trade wind of the central and E parts of the N Pacific, while to the N it gives way to the prevailing westerlies of higher latitudes. 55 The time of onset of the Monsoon varies with latitude. In the N it begins about September, while towards the equator it does not become established until November. In April it becomes less steady, the prevailing direction becomes more E' ly, and winds with a S' ly component are more frequent. The general direction and steadiness of the Monsoon are indicated on chart 5301 ; at the height of the season, in January, winds over the open waters of the South China Sea and E of the Philippines are almost exclusively 60 from between N and E, while in the Yellow Sea the direction becomes more N' ly, and over the S part of Japan it is NW' l y. Wi nd direction becomes more variable as latitude increases. The strength of the wind changes with latitude; it averages force 6 in T' ai -wan Strait, force 5 in the China Sea, and force 4 S of 10 N. It becomes less steady, lighter, and more N' l y in direction towards the equator and amongst the islands of the Sulu Sea and the Sulawesi Sea. 65 The strength of the wi nd over the open sea averages about force 5 in the N part of the monsoon zone, rising to 6 in T' ai -wan Strait, and decreases to force 4 S of about 10 N. The movement of depressions in an E' ly direction across the area also affects the strength of the wind. As far E as the general longitude of Japan there is often no closed wind circulation round newly formed "l ows"; their passage is marked by a slackening of the monsoon ahead of t hem and a freshening, often to gale force, in their 70 r e a r . PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 95 At the height of the season in December and January, winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 6-10 days per mont h over much of the area between Vietnam, Luzon, T' ai -wan and Japan, as indicated on chart 5301 ; the stormiest area is E of Luzon and T' ai -wan, where winds of this strength are likely on more than 11 days per month. In the Yellow Sea their frequency is about 3-6 days per month, while S of the 10th parallel it decreases to 0-3 days per month. 5 To the N of about 20 N, overcast skies with periods of light rain or drizzle are typical during this season, especially from January to April, though at times there are periods of more broken skies, and in October and November generally fair conditions prevail along the SE coast of China. In the Gul f of Pohai and the Gul f of Liaotung, immediately t o leeward of the Asiatic land mass, a good deal of fine and settled weather with only small amounts of cloud prevails. S of about 17 N, over the open sea, skies are only about half covered and there 10 are occasional showers; cloudiness increases again towards the equator and showers become more frequent. The weather in the vicinity of land is greatly affected by the degree of exposure to the prevailing monsoon. Where the monsoon blows onshore, and especially when the coast is backed by high ground, cloud amounts are larger and rainfall is heavier than over the open sea, while to leeward of high ground fairer conditions prevail. Information about specific localities is published in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 Over the open ocean, visibility is good except in rain. Off the coasts of China and Vietnam, poor visibility becomes increasingly frequent after December, and mist or fog may occur on more than 10 days per mont h in the vicinity of Nort h Vietnam in February and March, and on 8-9 days per mont h off Hong Kong in March and Apr i l In the Gul f of Pohai and the Gul f of Liaotung, strong NW' l y winds at times bring dust haze from the interior of Mongolia. 20 7.06. South-west Monsoon. In the summer of the N hemisphere, intense heating of the Asiatic land mass results in the formation of an area of low pressure centred approximately over NW India with an extension over the E part of Asia, see chart 5302. The South-east Trade Wi nd of the Pacific and Indian Oceans is drawn across the equator and is deflected to the right by the effect of the earth' s rotation. Thi s wind, known as the South-west 25 Monsoon, is felt in the W part of the Nort h Pacific Ocean and the China Sea and Yellow Sea as a prevailing S to SW wind, and in the Japan Sea as a S to SE wind. The N and E limits of the Monsoon are ill defined but, W of about 140 E and S of about 40 N, winds are predominantly from between SE and SW at the height of the season, in July. The general direction and steadiness of the winds at this period are indicated on chart 5302. The Monsoon is steadiest in the South China Sea, where nearly all winds are from S and W; farther N and E 30 they are much more variable in direction, and in the early part of the season N of about 25 N, travelling depres- sions may cause winds from any direction; along the China coast between 20 N and 30 N, and in the vicinity of T' ai -wan, north-easterlies are still more common than south-westerlies in May. The average strength of the Monsoon over the open sea is about force 3-4 in the South China Sea and force 3 elsewhere, but squalls, in which the wind may reach gale force, are fairly common. Apart from these squalls 35 or in the vicinity of tropical storms (7.10), winds do not often reach force 7 in the Monsoon season. Land and sea breezes prevail close to the coast, and calms are not uncommon. The weather over the open sea away from the effects of land is mainly fair, with skies about half covered, and with occasional showers. Over the coasts, especially if exposed to the Monsoon and backed by high ground, cloudy weather with frequent heavy rain prevails. 40 Visibility over the open ocean is good except when reduced by rain, but along the China coast there is a high frequency of sea fog in certain months, due to the spread of warm moist equatorial air over water previously cooled by the NE winds of the winter Monsoon. The water recovers its normal temperature progressively from S to N, and the foggy season reaches its maxi mum in April off Hong Kong (8-9 days per month), in June off Ch' ang Chiang (12 days), and in July off S Shantung (12 days). In the Japan Sea, fog occurs on 3-4 days per 45 month, and on 5-7 days per mont h off N Honshfi. After these months the incidence drops sharply to about 2 days per month, and fog is rare in the later part of the season. 7.07. Vari abl es. In a belt extending across the central part of the Pacific Ocean, and situated in about 25 N- 30 N in winter, and 35 N- 40 N in summer, there are variable and mainly light or moderate winds in the 50 vicinity of the oceanic anticyclone. In the E part of this zone winds are mainly N' l y in all seasons, and form a N extension of the North-east Trade around the E flank of the oceanic "hi gh". In the W part of the zone, in summer, winds become mainly S' ly, and merge with the South-west Monsoon described in article 7.06, while in winter they give way, W of about 150 E, to prevailing NW' I y winds forming part of the circulation of the North-east Monsoon. 55 In summer, winds are generally light, and are likely to reach force 7 only on rare occasions except in association with tropical storms, (7.10), and E of about 140 W, where they may be expected to reach this strength on 1-4 days per month, the higher figure applying towards the American coast, near which strong N to !NIW winds are common. At the height of the winter season in January, winds may be expected to reach force 7 or above on 1-3 days per mont h E of about 140 W, and on 3-6 days per mont h W of that meridian, increasing to 6- I 0 days 60 per mont h in the area covered by the North-east Monsoon W of about 150 E, described in article 7.05. The weather in summer is generally fair or fine near the normal position of the oceanic "hi gh", see chart 5302, which, at this season, usually consists of a single cell, and rain is infrequent. Cloudier conditions prevail E and W of the area of high pressure; rainfall is light on the E side, towards the American coast, but more common to the W. In winter the "hi gh" shown on chart 5301 usually consists of a series of E moving anticyclones, near 65 which fair or fine ~veather prevails, the intervening troughs of relatively low pressure being characterised by cloudy, showery weather. Visibility in winter is mostly good except in rain, and over the open ocean fog is not common. In summer fog and poor visibility become increasingly frequent towards the N limit of the zone (40 N at this season) ; in the W this is due to the N' Iy flow of warm moist equatorial air over progressively colder water, aggravated off the E coast of N Honshfi by contact with the cold Oya Shio ; in the E it is due to a similar 70 96 POWER VESSEL ROUTES cooling by the California Current. Over much of the zone fog may occur on 3-4 days per mont h at this season, rising to 5-7 days per mont h off the coast of California. 7. 08. We s t e r l i e s . On the polar side of the oceanic anticyclone, the prevailing winds are from some W' l y point, 5 but summer and winter conditions are markedly different, and it is convenient to treat the two periods separately. In winter, N of 40 N, the almost continuous passage of depressions from the vicinity of China and Japan in a NE' l y direction towards the Aleutian Islands and S Alaska causes winds to vary greatly in both direction and strength, and winds from any direction may be experienced. As can be seen on chart 5301, strong winds and gales are frequent. The region of highest gale frequency extends from E of Japan to the area S of the Aleutians 10 and the Alaska peninsula; in this region winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 12 to 18 days per month. The main feature of the weather is its great variability, periods of overcast skies and rain or snow alternating with fairer intervals. Fine weather is seldom prolonged and cloud amounts are generally large. Although fog is not common at this season, rain and snow often reduce visibility drastically; it is also often only moderate with winds from a S' ly point, but is generally good (except in precipitation) with N' l y or NW' l y winds. 15 In summer, depressions are less frequent, much less intense, and their tracks are farther N than in winter. Winds therefore, although they still vary a good deal both in direction and strength, are much lighter, and gales are far less common. Over the greater part of the zone, winds may reach force 7 or above on 1-5 days per mont h S of about 50 N; the quietest mont h is July, during which winds of this strength are unlikely on more than one day on average. N of the 50th parallel observations are scarce, but the frequency of gales is probably the same 20 as above. Over the greater part of the zone the weather is very cloudy and foggy; W of about 160 W fog occurs on about 5-10 days per mont h in most parts, rising to more than 10 days per mont h over large areas, see chart 5302. Thi s high incidence is due to the N' l y flow of warm moist S to SW winds over progressively colder water, in particular over the cold waters of Oya Shio and the Kamchatka Current. E of 160 W the frequency is less but 25 it increases again to 5-10 days per mont h towards the W coast of Arneriea over the cold waters of the California Current. Apart from fog, visibility is generally moderate. 30 35 7.09. Pol ar East erl i es. Since, in winter, the tracks of most depressions are S of the Aleutian Islands, the pre- vailing winds in the Bering Sea at this season are often E' ly. As in the case of the westerlies, great variations in both strength and direction occur, due to the passage of some depressions close to and across the area. The N part of the zone is not navigable on account of ice; in the S part winds may reach force 7 or more on over 10 days per month. The weather is generally very cloudy, and precipitation, usually in the form of snow, is frequent, amounts being greatest in the S. Visibility is often poor because of snow. 7.10. Tr o pi c a l s t or ms . In the W part of the Nort h Pacific these storms are known as t yphoons, and in the E part as hur r i canes. They are fully described in The Mariner's Handbook, with their wami ng signs, and advice on avoiding them. The area mainly affected by typhoons is W and N of the Caroline Islands and Marianas Islands, and includes 40 the N part of the Philippines, the N half of the South China Sea, the vicinity of the China coast and T' ai -wan, the Eastern Sea and Japan. Although typhoons may occur in any month, more than half are experienced from July to October, and nearly 90 per cent between May and December inclusive; September is the mont h with the greatest frequency with an average of just over 4 storms. The number experienced in any mont h varies greatly in different years. 45 Taking the area as a whole, no mont h is i mmune from typhoons, but some parts of it are free from them in certain months, notably the China coast, T' ai -wan Strait, and the W part of the Eastern Sea, in which areas they have not been recorded from December to April. The area mainly affected by hurricanes is the vicinity of the Pacific coast of America between about 10 N and 30 N; they have, however, been recorded as far W as 130 W to 140 W, generally in the early part of the 50 season. Almost all hurricanes occur in the period from June to October, the mont h of greatest frequency being September, with an average of 2 storms; they are occasionally recorded in May and November, and very occasionally in December; they are unknown from January to April. As with all tropical storms, the number experienced in different years varies greatly. 55 More detailed information regarding the frequency of typhoons and hurricanes in different localities will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions, and in the atlases of Mont hl y Meteorological Charts for the West Pacific (MO 484) and the East Pacific (MO 518) referred to in article 7.01. So ut h Paci f i c Oc e an 60 7.15. As stated in article 7.02, the Equat or i al Tr ough remains N of the equator throughout the year in longitudes E of about 160 W. In more W' l y longitudes it lies in the S hemisphere from about November or December to April or May, reaching its extreme S position in February. The seasonal movement of the belt in the W part of the South Pacific is thus large, as also is the day to day variation in its position, especially in the extreme W in the vicinity of N Australia and New Guinea. The width of the zone averages about 150 miles, but it may at 65 times be as little as 50 miles and at others over 300 miles. The weather is that typical of the Equatorial Trough elsewhere, in which calms and light, variable winds and fine weather alternate with squalls, heavy rain (most often in the form of showers), and thunderstorms. Con- ditions are generally more severe in the W part of the South Pacific than elsewhere in this ocean, due to the wide angle at which the South-east Trade Wi nd and the Nort h-west Monsoon, see 7.17 and 7.16, meet. Visibility 70 over the open sea is good except in heavy rain. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 97 7.16. Nor t h- west Monsoon. Duri ng the summer of the S hemisphere, pressure is low over the N part of the heated Australian land mass, and the Equatorial Trough is located over that area. The North-east Monsoon of the W part of the Nort h Pacific is drawn across the equator, is deflected to the left by the earth' s rotation, and is felt over the South Pacific, W of about the 180th meridian and between the equator and the Equatorial trough as a prevailing NW' l y wind known as the North-west Monsoon. The season of this monsoon varies 5 somewhat with latitude; in the vicinity of N Australia it is generally only firmly established in January and February, while farther N in the Java Sea and the Banda Sea it normally blows from December to March. The general wind direction is indicated on chart 5301 ; winds are mainly from N and NE near the equator, and back gradually to between NW and W in more S' ly latitudes. Over much of the area the constancy of the Monsoon is not great, and winds from other directions are also experienced, though at the height of the season 10 and away from the effects of land, winds from between S and E are uncommon; in the vicinity of the numerous islands, local effects may give rise to variation in both the direction and force of the wind. The strength of the Monsoon is generally only light or moderate, but squalls, in which the wind may reach gale force, are rather common. Apart from these, or in the vicinity of tropical storms (7.10), winds of gale force are unlikely. The weather is generally cloudy, and rain, usually in the form of heavy showers, is frequent over 15 most of the area. In the vicinity of land, the wind often varies greatly over short distances ; off coasts exposed to the monsoon--especi al l y if backed by high ground--rai nfal l is often very heavy and cloud amounts are large, while off sheltered coasts fair weather and less cloudy conditions prevail. VisibililTy over the open sea is generally good except in heavy rain. Information relating to specific localities is published in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 2O 7.17. The Sout h-east Tr ade Wi nds blow on the equatorial side ofthe oceanic high pressure area situated in about 30 S. In the E part of the zone the Trade Winds are maintained by the semi-permanent anticyclone situated towards the E side of the ocean and shown on charts 5301 and 5302, while in the W they are due to migratory anticyclones moving E from the vicinity of Australia. Over the greater part of the ocean, the N limit of the Trades is defined by the Equatorial Trough. In the winter 25 of the S hemisphere, E of about 120 W, and W of about 140 E, the N limit is the equator, N of which the Trades recurve to form the South-westerlies of the E part of the Nort h Pacific, and the South-west Monsoon respectively; these winds are described above among those of the Nort h Pacific Ocean. The S limit of the Trade winds is situated in 15 S to 20 S in winter and in 20 S to 25 S in summer. As with the Trade Winds of the other oceans, those of the South Pacific are remarkable over large areas for 30 their persistence and steadiness. The general direction and constancy of the wind can best be seen by studying charts 5301 and 5302. In the vicinity of the W coast of South America the Trades blow from between S and SE, while farther W the direction becomes predominantly E' ly. It becomes SE' l y again in winter W of about 160 E and over the seas N of Australia, where it is sometimes known as the Sout h-east Monsoon. W of about 140 W, from November to April, the Trade Wi nd is unsteady over large areas, and though the predominant direction 35 remains from between NE and SE, winds from other directions are rather frequent. The average strength of the Trade Wi nd is about force 4, but it often freshens to force 5 or 6 over large areas. Over the greater part of the Trade Wi nd zone, winds of force 7 or above are unlikely on more than 1 or 2 days per mont h and, apart from short-lived squalls, are rare within 10 degrees of the equator. In an area between the NE coast of Queensland, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides, however, the frequency rises to 3-6 days per 40 mont h for much of the year. Over the open ocean the characteristic weather of the steady South-east Trade Wi nd is fair with occasional showers; skies are about half covered with small cumulus clouds, and there is a slight haze which reduces visibility to between about 8 and 15 miles. Showers, cloud, and haze generally increase when the wind freshens. To the E of about the 180th meridian, and between the equator and about 8 S but varying somewhat with the 45 season, there is a belt in which rainfall and cloud amounts are generally small. Thi s dry belt widens towards the coast of South America to include most of the area covered by the Trade Wi nd; weather here is cloudier and overcast skies are common. From November to April, W of about 140 W, but excluding the dry belt mentioned above, weather is often unsettled, the Trade becomes unsteady, and is followed by a period of cloudy, showery weather before settling 50 in again with increased strength and some squalls from between S and E. Over the seas N of Australia, during the season when the South-east Trade Wi nd prevails in these regions, namely from April to Sept ember or October, cloud amounts and rainfall are small; extensive dust haze prevails, especially towards the end of the season, due to the persistent offshore winds from the increasingly dry interior of the continent. These conditions are most marked in the Ti mor Sea, but are also prevalent in the Java Sea 55 and Banda Sea, and to a lesser extent in the A_rafura Sea. Visibility in haze is often less than 5 miles. Fog and mist are rather common towards the coast of South America over the cold waters of the Pert~ Current (7.37) but rarely occur elsewhere. 7.18. Vari abl es. Between the S limit of the South-east Trades and the N limit of the Westerlies, there is a 60 wide belt of variable winds of mainly moderate strength. The approximate area covered by this belt extends from 25 S to 40 S in summer, and from 20 S to 30 S in winter. It does not, however, extend completely across the ocean. To the E of about 85 o W, S to S E winds prevail, forming a S extension of the South-east Trades around the E flank of the oceanic "hi gh". Except in the E part of the zone referred to above, winds vary consider- ably in strength as well as in direction, and, in general, strong winds become more frequent with increasing 65 latitude. Over the greater part of the area winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 1-3 days per month, rising to 3-6 days per mont h towards the S limits of the zone. Thi s latter frequency is also reached in many months over large areas W of about 160 W. The weather is variable, being governed largely by the E-movi ng anticyclones already mentioned, iXTear the centres of these anticyclones it is fair or fine, while the intervening troughs of low pressure are characterised 70 10 98 POWER VESSEL ROUTES by cloudy, unsettled weather, with rainfall increasing towards the S. To the E of 85 W to 90 W, rainfall becomes progressively smaller towards the N and E, and it is very infrequent in the vicinity of the American coast. In this area, cloud amounts are often large, and overcast skies are common in winter. Visibility is generally good in the N part of the zone except when reduced by rain, but the frequency of moderate and poor visibility increases with latitude and towards the S limits of 40 S in summer and 30 S in winter; visibility of less than 5 miles is recorded in some ten to fifteen per cent of ships' observations in summer, and five per cent in winter. It is generally associated with winds from some N' l y point. In the extreme E part of the zone, over the cold waters of the Perd Current, fog is rather prevalent, and off the W coast of South America it occurs on 3-5 days per mont h towards the S limit of the zone. 7.19. T h e We s t e r l i e s , or R o a r i n g F o r t i e s , predominate S of the belt of high pressure described in articles 7.17 and 7.18. As in the zone of the Westerlies in other oceans, the almost continuous passage of depressions from W to E causes the wind to vary greatly in both direction and strength. Gales are very common, especially in winter, during which season winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 5-10 days per mont h over most of the 1S area between 30 S and 40 S, and on more than 12 days per mont h S of the 40th parallel. One of the stormiest areas is to the W of NW of Cabo de Hornos, in which region winds of this strength are likely on about 20 days per mont h from July to September. In summer, gales are somewhat less common and occur farther S. To the E of about 150 W, and between 40 S and 45 S, winds are likely to reach force 7 or above on 5-10 days per month, and S of the 45th parallel the frequency rises to more than 10 days per month. To the W of 150 W, the area of 20 highest gale frequency is farther S, but in few parts of the zone of the Westerlies, namely S of the 40th parallel at this season, is the frequency less than 3-5 days per month. Charts 5301 and 5302 give an indication of the distribu- tion of gales in summer and winter respectively. As in the Westerlies of other oceans, the weather is very variable, periods of overcast skies and rain or snow associated with the fronts of E-movi ng depressions alternating with fair weather. Fi ne weather is seldom pro- 25 longed and cloud amounts are generally large at all times. Visibility also varies greatly; with winds from a S' ly point it is generally good, while N' l y winds are often associated with moderate or poor visibility. Fog is rather common in summer and may be expected on 3-5 days per month. 30 7.20. T r o p i c a l S t o r m s are known as hur r i canes in the South Pacific. They are described, and advice on avoiding t hem is given, in The Mariner's Handbook. The area mainly affected is W of about 155 W and S of 8-10S. Most storms occur from December to April, and the season of greatest frequency is from January to March; they are not unknown at other times and the actual number of storms varies from year to year. 35 More detailed information about the frequency of hurricanes in specific localities will be found in Admiralty Sailing Directions and in the atlas of Mont hl y Meteorological Charts for the Western Pacific (MO 484) referred to in article 7.01. dO SWELL 45 50 7.25. T h e N o r t h Pa c i f i c Oc e a n , e a s t o f 160 W, has large areas devoid of recorded observations of swell. Information is therefore confined to certain localities. Off the coast of America between about 20 N and 40 N a W' l y swetl, mainly low or moderate and rarely heavy, persists throughout the year. To the N of 50 N, swell is predominantly SW to W; it is mainly moderate but the frequency of heavy swells increases to 20 per cent to 30 per cent in winter. A NE' l y swell persists throughout the year SE of Hawaii. It is normally moderate or heavy, and may extend as far E as 130 W and, in winter, as far S as the equator. From June to November inclusive, a SW' Iy swell may be experienced off Colombia; it is normally low or moderate. Farther W, between 100W and 150 W, a SE' l y swell which is moderate and, at times, heavy occurs between the equator and 10 N. For monthly details, see the Atlas of Mont hl y Meteorological Charts of the Eastern Pacific (MO 518). 55 7.26. In the N o r t h Pa c i f i c Oc e a n , w e s t o f 160 W, swell waves are frequently interrupted by the many islands, particularly S of 20 N and near the Aleutian Islands. The statements which follow apply to the uni nt errupt ed areas. In the SW part of the Nort h Pacific, the swell is governed by the monsoons. From the equator to 20 N, a NE' l y swell predominates from November to March inclusive. It is mainly low or moderate, but it is heavy on 10 per cent of occasions. ,60 The South China Sea is affected by a SW' Iy swell, sometimes moderate but only rarely heavy, from June to August inclusive. To the N of 20 N and W of 140 E, there is no predominant direction, though a NW' l y swell is often found. Swell in this region is normally moderate or heavy; the frequency of heavy swells is about 30 per cent in the area close E of Japan. 7.27. T h e S o u t h Pa c i f i c Oc e a n , w e s t o f 160 W, is encumbered by islands which interrupt swell waves. The following statements therefore apply only to areas where there are few islands. From the equator to 20 S, swell is predominantly from between NE and SE, and is mainly moderate in height. From 20 S to 30 S, swell is frequently from between SE and SW but no direction predominates. In this region swell is normally moderate or heavy. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 99 F r o m 30 S t o 50 S, swel l i s p r e d o mi n a n t l y SW' l y , mo d e r a t e or he a vy. S of 30 S, t wo or e v e n t h r e e swel l s ar e o f t e n p r e s e n t a n d r e p o r t s of c o n f u s e d swel l s ar e f r e q u e n t . T o t he S of 50 S, s wel l c o me s ma i n l y f r o m b e t we e n NW a n d SW, mo d e r a t e or he a vy. 7. 28. I n t h e So ut h Paci f i c Ocean, eas t o f 160 W, t h e r e ar e va s t ar eas f or wh i c h swel l da t a ar e a l mo s t n o n - 5 e xi s t e nt , pa r t i c ul a r l y b e t we e n 30 S a n d 50 S a n d b e t we e n 80 W a n d 120 W. Ava i l a bl e da t a s h o w t h e f ol l owi ng. Of f t h e coas t of S o u t h Ame r i c a , b e t we e n 10 S a n d 40 S, a S t o S W' l y swel l pe r s i s t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e year , n o r ma l l y mo d e r a t e b u t h e a v y at t i me s . F r o m t h e e q u a t o r t o 20 S a n d f r o m 100 mi l e s of f t h e coas t of S o u t h Ame r i c a t o 130 W, a S E' l y swel l p r e - d o mi n a t e s . I t i s ma i n l y mo d e r a t e , t h o u g h oc c a s i ona l l y heavy. 10 F r o m 30 S t o 50 S a n d b e t we e n 130 W a n d 160 W a mo d e r a t e t o h e a v y S W' l y swel l p r e d o mi n a t e s . Swel l s o v e r 6 m i n h e i g h t ar e a c o mmo n f e a t ur e S of 35 S. T o t h e S of 50 S, swel l c ome s ma i n l y f r o m b e t we e n NW a n d SW, a n d i s e i t h e r mo d e r a t e or heavy. As i n t h e W p a r t of t h i s ocean, r e p o r t s of c o n f u s e d swel l ar e f r e q u e n t S of 30 S. 7. 29. L e n g t h o f s we l l i n Paci f i c Ocean. I n t h e No r t h Paci f i c, swel l i s n o r ma l l y a ve r a ge i n l e n g t h t h o u g h s h o r t a n d l o n g swel l s c a n al so b e e n c o u n t e r e d . I n t he S o u t h Paci f i c, mo s t swel l s ar e s h o r t or a ve r a ge i s l e ngt h, b u t wa ve s of mo r e t h a n 300 m i n l e n g t h oc c ur q u i t e of t e n a n d i t i s i n t h i s oc e a n t h a t t h e l onge s t swel l s occur . I n t he S o u t h Paci f i c Oc e a n, f r eak wa ve s ma y occur , see 3. 09. 15 20 CURRENTS No r t h Paci f i c Oc e an 25 7. 32. I n es s ent i al s , t h e ma i n c i r c ul a t i o n of t h e No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a n r e s e mb l e s t h a t of t h e No r t h At l a n t i c Oc e a n (2. 15, 2. 16), t h o u g h t h e r e ar e s o me di f f er ences . Owi n g t o t h e e x t e n t of t h e oc e a n a n d t h e l i mi t a t i ons of s h i p p i n g t r acks , t h e a va i l a bl e o b s e r v a t i o n s of c u r r e n t ar e i n a d e q u a t e t o s u p p o r t a c c ur a t e det ai l s of t h e f l ow ove r l ar ge p a r t s of t h e ocean. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a ppl i e s t o t h e mi d d l e l ongi t ude s , b o t h i n t h e e qua t or i a l r e gi on a n d i n t h e r e g i o n of v a r i a b l e c u r r e n t l yi ng f a r t h e r N. 30 T h e S p a r t of t h e ma i n c i r c u l a t i o n i s f o r me d b y t he W- g o i n g No r t h Equat or i al Current . I mme d i a t e l y S of t h i s c u r r e n t , t h e Equat or i al Count e r - c ur r e nt fl ows E acr os s t h e ocean, so t h a t t h e N b o u n d a r y of t h i s f o r ms t h e S l i mi t of t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t . T h e l i mi t s of t h e Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t ar e n o t exact l y k n o wn . I t s S l i mi t l i es i n a b o u t 2 N t o 4 N i n wi n t e r . I n t h e W p a r t of t he oc e a n t h e r e is n o t mu c h s eas onal c ha nge , b u t i n t h e E t h e r e i s a s e a s ona l s hi f t , t o a b o u t 6 N ( i n 110 W) i n s u mme r . T h e N l i mi t l i es b e t we e n a b o u t 6 N a n d 35 10 N, b e i n g f a r t h e s t N i n t h e E i n s u mme r . T h e S o u t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t , t h e N l i mi t of wh i c h r e a c he s t o a b o u t 4 N, i s d e s c r i b e d i n ar t i cl e 7. 37. T h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t ha s n o de f i ne d N l i mi t . T h e p r e d o mi n a n c e of t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d ( 7. 04) de c r e a s e s wi t h i n c r e a s i n g l a t i t ude a n d t h e W' l y c u r r e n t s a c c o r d i n g l y decr eas e. T h e p r e d o mi n a n c e of W' l y c u r r e n t t h u s g r a d u a l l y l es s ens u n t i l i t i s l os t i n t he r e gi on of va r i a bl e c u r r e n t wh i c h oc c upi e s t h e c e n t r a l dO p a r t of t h e oc e a n. T h e l a t i t ude t o wh i c h s o me p r e d o mi n a n c e of W' l y c u r r e n t e x t e n d s a p p e a r s t o va r y wi t h t h e s eas on. I n t h e mi d d l e l o n g i t u d e s of t he oc e a n i t i s a b o u t 25 N i n wi n t e r a n d a b o u t 30 N i n l at e s u mme r or a u t u mn . T h e Eq u a t o r i a l Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t fl ows c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e ye a r acr os s t he whol e e x t e n t of t h e ocean, di f f e r i ng i n t h i s r e s pe c t f r o m t h e c o r r r e s p o n d i n g c u r r e n t of t he At l a n t i c Oc e a n (2. 15). I t al so di f f er s i n 45 t h e f a c t of i t s mo r e di r e c t or i gi n f r o m one of t h e Eq u a t o r i a l c u r r e n t s , o n t h e W s i de of t h e ocean. Du r i n g Ma r c h t o No v e mb e r t he Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t i s f o r me d j o i n t l y b y t h e r e c u r v a t u r e of t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t t o t h e S, a n d t h a t of t h e S o u t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t t o t h e N. I n De c e mb e r t o Fe b r u a r y , p a r t of t h e wa t e r of t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t i s d i v e r t e d S d o wn t h e E coas t s of t h e i s l a nds of t h e P h i l i p p i n e Gr o u p S of Lu z o n . T h i s wa t e r t u r n s di r e c t l y E a n d f o r ms t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t i n a b o u t 128 E. Du r i n g t he s e mo n t h s 50 t h e S o u t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t , N of t h e e qua t or , b e g i n s t o t u r n S i n a b o u t 140 E t o 150 E, a n d f i nal l y SE, so t h a t i t pl a ys n o p a r t i n t h e f o r ma t i o n of t h e Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t . I n al l s e a s ons p a r t of t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t wa t e r e n t e r s t h e Sul a we s i Sea, e me r g i n g t h e r e f r o m i n a NE ' l y d i r e c t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t . T h e Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t i s s t r o n g e s t i n t h e mo s t W' l y p a r t of i t s cour s e, f r o m N of Ha l ma h e r a (1 N, 128 E) t o a b o u t 145 E. 55 T o c o mp l e t e t h e ma i n c i r c ul a t i on, a l ar ge p a r t of t h e wa t e r of t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t t u r n s N, t o t h e E of Lu z o n , a n d pas s es u p t h e E c oa s t of T ' a i - wa n t o f o r m Kn r o Sh i o , a wa r m c u r r e n t wh i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e Gu l f S t r e a m of t h e No r t h At l a n t i c . T o t h e S of t he J a p a n e s e i s l a nds Ku r o Sh i o f l ows i n a NE' I y di r e c t i on. T h e c u r r e n t s u b s e q u e n t l y f a ns o u t t o f o r m t h e No r t h P a c i f i c C u r r e n t , wh i c h set s E acr os s t h e o c e a n t o t h e Ame r i c a n coast . I t i s j o i n e d b y c ol d wa t e r f r o m t h e Be r i n g Sea, wh i c h f l ows d o wn t h e E coas t of Ka mc h a t k a as t h e 60 Ka mc h a t k a Current , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t u r n s SE a n d t h e n E. T h e whol e f o r ms a b r o a d b e l t of va r i a bl e c u r r e n t wi t h a p r e d o mi n a n c e of E' l y set s, f i l l i ng t h e gr e a t e r p a r t of t h e r e g i o n b e t we e n 35 N a n d 50 N acr os s t h e oc e a n. T h e c ol de r p a r t of t h e E- g o i n g wa t e r i s f o u n d N of a b o u t 42 N a n d i s k n o wn as t h e Al e ut i a n or Sub- arct i c Current . E of a b o u t 160 E, wa t e r f a ns o u t SE a n d S f r o m t h e S p a r t of t he No r t h Paci f i c Cu r r e n t . T o t h e W of a b o u t t he 65 180t h me r i d i a n , t h i s wa t e r pas s es i n t o t h e r e g i o n of va r i a bl e c u r r e n t ; b e t we e n 175 W a n d 140 W t he S- g o i n g wa t e r , c o mp r i s i n g t h e wh o l e of t he r e s t of t he No r t h Paci f i c Cu r r e n t , t u r n s S W a n d pas s es i n t o t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t . Be t we e n a b o u t 140 W a n d t h e Ame r i c a n coast , t h e b u l k of t he Al e u t i a n Cu r r e n t t u r n s S a n d S W a n d f i nal l y pas s es i n t o t h e No r t h E q u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t . T h e p a r t of t h i s S- g o i n g c u r r e n t n e a r t h e c oa s t i s cal l ed t h e Ca l i f or ni a Cu r r e n t . 5 10 100 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S The Ca l i f o r n i a Cu r r e n t does not meet the coast. From November to February a countercurrent, known as the D a v i d s o n Cu r r e n t , sets N between the California Current and the coast to about 48 N. Duri ng the rest of the year, the space between the California Current and the coast is filled by a number of irregular current eddies. In the region of the extreme E part of the Equatorial Counter-current, great seasonal variations occur off the Central American coast, and numerous eddies are formed, which appear to vary from one year to another. In most months the Counter-current will be met between 5 N and 6 N, and in the long run the water turns W and then NW along the Central American coast, finally passing on to the Nort h Equatorial Current. In the early part of the year some of the Counter-current branches S and enters the South Pacific Ocean, see 7.37. There is an inflow into both sides of the Gul f of Panama. Some water from the Counter-current enters its W side and some water from the Per6 Current enters its E side, during the greater part of the year. There is a resul- tant outflow in the middle of the Gulf, crossing 80 W and turning SW to pass into the South Equatorial current. 15 7.33. N o r t h e r n p a r t o f N o r t h Pa c i f i c Ocean. Not much is known about the currents of the Ber i ng Se a, but there is a general counter-clockwise circulation round the coasts, N' l y on the E side and S' l y on the W side. Thi s cold S-going current is the Kamchatka current referred to in article 7.32; it continues along the coast of Kamchatka and passes the Kuril Islands, where it becomes known as Oy a S h i o . Oya Shio continues along the E coast of the main Japanese island of Honshfi, until it meets the N edge of Kuro Shio in about 36 N. Oya Shio 20 thus corresponds to the Labrador Current of the Nort h Atlantic Ocean. Between 34 N and 36 N Oya Shio turns E. Water also fans out SE and E all along the course of the current S of Kamchatka. The resulting E' l y current flows parallel with and adjacent to the Nort h Pacific Current, being known as the Aleutian Current as already stated. It has also been stated that the bulk of the Aleutian Current sets S, on the E side of the ocean, to form the California Current. The remainder inclines NE, and then sets NW past Queen Charlotte Islands and along 25 the coast of SE Alaska. Thi s current is known as the Al a s k a Cu r r e n t . It is reinforced, during November to January, by water from the Davidson Current, which then sets up the American coast in a N' l y direction as far as the region of Vancouver Island. The Alaska Current follows the coastline of the Gul f of Alaska, setting in a W' l y direction across its head and subsequently flowing W along the S coasts of the Aleutian Islands. To the W of the meridians of 155 o W to 160 W, water recurves from the Alaska Current in S and SE directions to rejoin the 30 E-going Aleutian Current. The general circulation of the Gul f of Alaska thus forms a large counter-clockwise eddy. The remainder of the W-going current S of the Aleutian Islands recurves N, perhaps between Tanaga Island and Amchitka Island and so enters the Bering Sea. Thence turning NE and E, it forms the E side of the Bering Sea circulation, referred to above. 35 7. 34. Ch i n a S e a a n d r e g i o n s w e s t o f m a i n Pa c i f i c c i r c u l a t i o n . In the China Sea and in the Java Sea the currents are monsoonal. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, the general direction of the current is W in the Java Sea, NE in the China Sea and the Eastern Sea, and N in the Yellow Sea. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, these directions are reversed to S in the Yellow Sea, SW in the Eastern Sea, and the China Sea and E in the Java 40 Sea. In the S part of the China Sea there is an area of variable current W of Borneo and Palawan where caution is advised, see 7.113, in both monsoons, but a weak monsoonal current runs along the W coasts alternating between NE and SW during the year. The E part of the East China Sea is occupied by Kuro Shio. In the China Sea, the NE current is found from May to August inclusive. September is the transition month, but the NE current still persists in the S part of the China Sea. In October the SW current becomes established 45 everywhere, and this continues till the middle or end of March. April is the transition month. In the Java Sea, the W' l y current runs from June to September and the E' l y current from November to March. April, May, and October are transition months. In the Japan Sea, the general circulation is counter-clockwise throughout the year, the N-goi ng current on the E side of the sea being a branch of Kuro Shio which has passed through Korea Strait. Part of the N-goi ng 50 current branches off through Tsugaru Kaiky6 and flows into Oya Shio, and another part branches off through S6ya KaikyS. Ther e is little or no current in the central part of the Sea of Okhotsk. A counter-clockwise current flows round the coastal regions. 55 S o u t h Pa c i f i c Oc e a n 7.37. The ma i n s u r f a c e c i r c u l a t i o n of the South Pacific Ocean is counter-clockwise. Less is known about the currents of the South Pacific than about those of the other oceans S of the equator, on account of its great extent and the large areas, particularly on the E side of the ocean, which are not traversed by the normal shipping tracks. 60 The S o u t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t of the Pacific Ocean has its N limit from 1 to 4 or 5 N of the equator in different longitudes and seasons, the limit being defined by the E-going Equatorial Counter-current of the Nort h Pacific Ocean, which flows immediately N of it. The South Equatorial Current lies farthest N of the equator in the summer of the S hemisphere and only just N of the equator in the winter. To the S of about 6 S, there is, generally speaking, a considerable reduction in the average strength of the South 65 Equatorial Current, though the general W' l y direction remains. In the region between about 6 S and 20 S, this weaker and less constant W' l y current is known as the S o u t h S u b - t r o p i c a l Cu r r e n t . On the W side of the ocean, the course of the South Equatorial Current varies seasonally. In June to August the whole current follows the N coast of New Guinea in a NW' l y direction and then recurves to the N and NE, passing into the E-going Equatorial Counter-current of the Nort h Pacific Ocean, to which the Nort h Y0 Equatorial Current of that ocean also contributes. In September to November and in Ma r c h t o May PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 101 some water also recurves from the N part of the South Equatorial Current into the Equatorial Counter-current. It recurves SW and S and flows past the N coast of New Guinea in a SE' Iy direction. Ther e is thus a complete reversal of current along this coast during the year. Water flows SW from the South Sub-tropical Current past Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, but the currents experienced in this region, so far as they are known, show considerable variation. 5 Little is known of the currents of the Coral Sea except that in the N part the resultant set is towards Torres Strait and in the S part it is SW or S' ly, towards the East Austral i an Coast Current, which sets S along the SE coast of Australia. The S side of the main circulation is formed by the Sout her n Ocean Cur r ent , setting in E' l y or NE' Iy direc- tions. Observations of this current are scanty over the great extent of the ocean. They appear to show that the 10 current is in general weaker and more variable than it is in the longitudes of the South Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean, and that N' l y sets are not infrequent. Between Australia and New Zealand the current is variable with some predominance of E' l y sets. The bulk of the East Australian Coast Current mixes with the water of the Southern Ocean Current that flows in an E' ly direction S of Tasmania and through Bass Strait. Some of this combined water sets as a NE' I y current 15 along both the W and E coasts of South Island, New Zealand. The bulk of the Southern Ocean Current passes direct into the South Atlantic Ocean, S of Cabo de Hornos. The N part of this current, however, meets the coast of Chile between Isla Chilo6 and Golfo de Pefias. There it divides, part going N to form the beginning of the Peril Current and part following the coast SE to rejoin the main body of the Southern Ocean Current S of Cabo de Hornos. 20 The E side of the main circulation is formed by the relatively cool l~er~ Cur r ent , sometimes known by its older name of Humbol dt Cur r cnt . It follows the coastline in a N' l y direction to the equator. Between Golfo de Guayaquil and the equator, the bulk of the Peril Current trends seaward and passes into the South Equatorial Current. The Peril Current is of considerable width, perhaps 300 miles or more. The part near the coast is sometimes called the Per d Coastal Current, while the part at some distance from the coast, which does not 25 follow the mi nor irregularities of the coastline, is called the Per d Oceani c Current. A branch of the Peril Current continues N off the coast during the greater part of the year and enters the Gul f of Panama, see 7.32. Duri ng the winter of the N hemisphere, in the more E' l y longitudes of the Nort h Pacific Ocean, the E-going Equatorial Count er-current (7.32) extends farther S than at other seasons. At this time, a branch of this current 30 turns S along the coast of Ecuador into the South Pacific Ocean, but in most years its S limit is only a few degrees S of the equator. Thi s warm S-going current is called "El Ni ho", or the Hol y Chi l d Cur r ent . While sometimes it begins to flow about the time of Christmas, it is more regularly observed in February and March. In exceptional years, it extends farther S along the coast of Per'd, occasionally to beyond Callao. 7.38. Central oceani c regi on. On account of the great width of the South Pacific Ocean there is a vast central area, bet ~een about the 20th and 45th parallels of S latitude, while forms the largest area of variable currents in the world. Over the greater part of this area, current observations are scanty, particularly on its E side. Certain regions show a slight predominance of current in various directions; in other regions the number of currents observed in all directions are almost equal. No general trend of current over any extensive area is shown during any part of the year. Between New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Tonga, currents in any direction may be experienced, but there is some predominance of currents between N and E, particularly in the half-year May to October. 35 40 ICE 45 7.41. Gener al r emar ks . The following brief account ofi ce in the Pacific Ocean should not be taken as complete or in any way all-embracing. More detailed information than can be given here will be found in the following publications, which should be consulted, as appropriate, before undertaking passages through areas in which 50 ice is likely to be encountered. Admiralty Sailing Directions covering the appropriate areas. The Mariner's Handbook. Washington, U. S. Navy, Climatological and Oceanographical Atlas for Mariners, Vol. II, N. Pacific Ocean, 1961. 55 Washington, U. S. Navy, Oceanographic Atlas of the Polar Seas, H. O. 705. Charts 5127 (1) to 5127 (12)--Mont hl y Routeing Charts for the Nort h Pacific Ocean. Charts 5128 (1) to 5128 (12)--Mont hl y Routeing Charts for the South Pacific Ocean. Charts 5301, 5302--Worl d Climatic Charts. Mont hl y Ice charts for the Nort h Pacific Ocean. 60 A general statement regarding ice is given in Chapter 1 of this book. A factor always to be borne in mi nd where ice conditions are concerned is their great variability from year to year. For this reason, and on account of the sparsity of observations in many areas, the charted positions of the limits should be regarded as approximate. 65 Nort h Pacific Ocean 7.42. Pack-i ce. Charts 5301 and 5302 indicate the meanl i mi t s of 4/8 pack in March and Septemherrespectively, in which months it attains its greatest and least extent. The Routeing Charts indicate the maxi mum limit of pack-ice in any particular month. An examination of these limits reveals the marked influence of winds and currents; on the W side of the ocean the N' l y winds of winter and cold Kamchatka Current and Oya Shio bring 70 102 POWER VESSEL ROUTES the ice to relatively low latitudes, while on t he e side, except in the N part of the Bering Sea, open water is maintained by:the warm Nort h Pacific Current. Duri ng an average winter, navigation off the E coasts of Asia is i mpeded as far S as about 45 N. By mi d- November, coastwise navigation is interrupted as far S as 60 N, and is Closed N of 62 N; ice is also present in 5 all coastal waters of the N and W parts of the Sea of Okhotsk, in t he N part of the Gul f of Tartary, and E of Ostrov Smkhalin N of 50 N. In December, navigation is closed to all ports N of 60 N, and ice may be found anywhere in the Gul f of Tartary N of 47 N, as well as along the E coast of Ostrov Sakhalin and along the coasts of the Russian Maritime Province as far S as 43 N. From January to March, the whole of the coastal waters of the Russian Maritime Province, the greater part 10 of the Gul f of Tartary, and the coasts of N Hokkaid6 and the SW Kuril Islands are encumbered with ice in varying degrees, as also is the whole of the Sakhalin area and the greater part of the Sea of Okhotsk, except the deep central portion. Ice is also present in the vicinity of the NE Kuril Islands and along much of the E coast of Kamchatka and the coast farther N. In April the ice edge begins to retreat N, and by mid-May, after an average winter, there is little or no ice S 15 of about 52 N. By mid-June, ice is confined to the SW part of the Sea of Okhotsk. the N part of Penzhinskiy Zaliv, Proliv Litke, Zaliv Olyutorskiy, and from Anadyrskiy Zaliv to the N. By late July, vessels can generally pass through Bering Strait. The months during which ports are closed to navigation vary not only with the severity of the season and the prevailing winds, but also with the availability of ice breakers; detailed information should be sought in 20 Admi ral t y Sailing Directions. Ice may also be found in the shallow waters of the Gul f of Pohai and the Gul f of Liaotung between the middle of November and the end of March; the port of Ying k' ou (Newchwang) at the head of the latter gulf is closed to navigation from December to March. Along the Alaskan coast in the average winter, ice extends as far as 56 N from December to April; in very 25 severe winters the extreme NE Aleutian Islands may be affected. The ice edge advances S during October and November and retreats N during May and June, and ice is not normally found frrom July to September except near the Bering Strait. Duri ng the ice season, the N half of the Bering Sea is filled with pack-ice, though it is not solidly frozen. 30 7.43. I ceber gs are not a feature of the Nort h Pacific Ocean, because there are no breeding grounds for them. Occasional floebergs may be expected among the pack ice, particularly in the W part of the Bering Sea. Sout h Paci fi c Ocean 7.44. Pack-i ce. Charts 5301 and 5302 indicate the mean limits of 4/8 pack in February-March and Sept ember- 35 October, in which months it attains its least and greatest extent respectively. None of the normally inhabited places in the South Pacific Ocean is affected, but great circle sailing between Australian or New Zealand ports and the more S' ly ports of South America is prevented~ 7.45. I ceber gs. The icebergs that occur in the Southern Ocean are not, in most cases, calved from glaciers, but dO consist of portions that have broken away from the great ice shelves which fringe parts of the Antarctic continent. They are consequently flat-topped, and they may be of immense size. In November and December, when the mean limit reaches its farthest N, it runs from about 100 miles S of Cabo de Hornos along the 57th parallel to 90 W, whence it curves N to 52 S, 120 W. Between 120 W and the 180th meridian it is situated between 50 S and 52 S, whence it continues in a SW' l y direction to about 55 S ,~5 in the longitude of Tasmania. In May and June the mean limit of icebergs is everywhere S of the 55th parallel. W of 150 W it lies within a degree or two of 60 S. Wi t h regard to the extreme limit of icebergs, information for many parts is too scanty for a confident description. The season of greatest extent varies from one longitude to another. Moreover, factors other than climatic may 50 be responsible for abnormal numbers or abnormal movement of bergs. Earthquakes, for example, may increase the number calved. Accordingly, it is probably best to regard the extreme limit of icebergs as unrelated to the time of year. The extreme limit is indicated on charts 5301, 5302, and on charts 5128 (1) to (12). 55 NAVI GATI ONAL NOTES 7.48. Soundi ngs and dangers. Very large areas of the Pacific Ocean are unsurveyed, or imperfectly so. In many areas no sounding at all has been recorded. 60 The presence of a single sounding on the chart can only prove the non-existence of a shoal or reef within a very limited area, and it may be said, as an approximation, that no shoal is likely within a radius of 7 miles from a sounding of 3660 m; within 3 miles of a sounding of 2740 m; or within 2 miles of a sounding of 1830 m. A danger may lie within mile, or less, of a depth of 900 m, so precipitous is the rise of a coral reef or a vigia from the ocean bed. 65 Many reefs, shoals, and patches of discoloured water were reported in the years 1943 to 1945, when many vessels were navigating off the usual routes. The routes laid down in this book are those considered most likely to lead clear of dangers, but Owing to the reasons stated above, t he only safeguards are a good look out, and careful sounding. In the interests of all vessels it cannot be stressed too strongly that a sounding should be obtained (from a boat is possible), over any suspected 70 danger. ~ ~ ' ' PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND . ~APAN SEAS 103 7.49. Currents a mo ng the i sl ands. Particular and constant attention must be paid to the current when navi- gating amongst the groups, for, when near the islands, it is sometimes deflected and always accelerated. Again, most of the islands are so low that it is almost impossible to see t hem at night, and ships may be driven on the barrier or fringing reefs with no warning from sounding, the reefs having, i n general, very deep water close to. 5 PASSAGES BETWEEN TORRES STRAI T AND EAST COAST OF AUSTRALI A 7.51. Sout hern part. Coastwise passages off the S part of the coast of Queensland and the Pacific coast of 10 New South Wales are affected by the East Australian Coast Current, which sets S at all times offmost of this part of the coast. Between 32 S and 34 S the strength and constancy of the current are decreased by reason of the diversion of water i n a SE' ly direction towards the open ocean. Between 34 S and Cape Howe currents may set in any direction, sometimes with an onshore component; close inshore there may be a predominantly N-going current at t~mes. 15 Cape Pillar and Tasman Island may be rounded at a distance of 1 mile, but the rest of the E coast of Tasmania should not be closed within 5 miles. Because of the current, ships navigating off the mainland coast should keep well inshore, and inside of Montagu Island when N- bound; S-bound, they should maintain an offing of about 15 miles. 20 7.52. Nort hern part. Between ports S of Brisbane and Torres Strait, ships may take either the Outer Route, E of Great Barrier Reefs and through the Coral Sea, or make the N part of the passage inshore of the Reefs by the Inner Route. The Outer Route is not normally used, as numerous large reefs have to be given a wide berth, especially at night, owing, to the strong and variable sets which can often be experienced. The most satisfactory Outer Route track leads from off Sandy Cape to the passage between Saumarez Reef and Frederick 25 Reef (21 00" S, 154 20" E), which are both lit, and thence E of Lihou Reef, E of Eastern Fields, N of Lagoon Reef, and to Great North East Channel by the recommended track which is shown on the charts. On the Inner Route, adequate navigational aids are available and the saving i n distance is considerable. It is described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. For the purposes of this book, it is assumed that pilots are embarked or disembarked off Cartwright Point, Brisbane, and that Capricorn Channel is used. 30 7.53. Tor r es Strait (6.126) itself has not been properly surveyed, but, of the several channels through the Strait, Prince of Wales Channel has been surveyed in considerable detail and is the best and most commonly used. Thi s channel is approached from E either from the Inner route through Adolphus Channel, or from the Coral Sea through Bligh Entrance (9 12" S, 144 00' E) and Great North East Channel. The approach from W is made from the vicinity of Carpentaria Shoal, through Gannet Passage, where the controlling depth will probably be found, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, which also publish the latest information on pilotage and limitation of draught. 7.54. Di s t ances : Bligh Entrance, 9 12" S, 144 00' E to j unct i on with Inner route off Twi n Island, 129 miles; thence to 10 50' S, 140 59' E, SW of Carpentaria Shoal, 90 miles ; total for Torres Strait as quoted in this book 219 miles. Between ports on E and S coasts of Australia and the position SW of Carpentaria Shoal, using Inner Route distances are: SW of Carpentaria Shoal Brisbane 1370 Adelaide 1820 470 Sydney 2360 1000 540 Melbourne 2780 1430 945 460 2440 1080 620 see 6.138 40 45 50 750 Hobart 55 Rout es passi ng t hrough Torres Strait. Directions and distances for routes passing through Tortes Strait will be found from the references given below. Distances E and W of Torres Strait are worked from the W 60 entrance i n 10 50' S, 140 59' E, SW of Carpentaria Shoal. Cape of Good Hope 6.121, 6,157, 6.158, 6.160 Red Sea 6.164, 6.165 Persian Gul f 6.155 Bay of Bengal 6.140 65 Singapore 7.163 Sunda Strait 6.120 Australian coastwise 6.125-6.137 and 7.51-7.54 NewZeal and 7.81, 7.82 South Pacific Ocean 7.83-7.86, 7.240, 7.241 70 104 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Western shores of Pacific Ocean Honol ul u 7.201 Central America 7.263 Nort h America 7.284 7.160-7.163, 7,165 10 15 ROUTES BETWEEN AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND I SLANDS I N SOUTH PACI FI C 7.57. Hobar t *-~ Bl uff Har bour . By great circle between Cape Pillar and Solander Island. Distance 920 miles. 7.58. Hobar t ~-~ Wel l i ngton. By great circle between Cape Pillar and Cape Farewell, in the W approach to Cook Strait. Distance 1270 miles. Alternative routes are SE of South Island. Distance, passing S of Stewart Island, 1410 miles ; through Foveaux Strait, 1370 miles. 7.59. Hobar t *-~ Auckl and. By great circle between Cape Pillar and a position between Three Kings Islands and Cape Reinga, thence coastwise. Distance 1520 miles. 7.60. Mel bour ne --* Bl uf f Har bour . Pass through Banks Strait and thence steer by great circle to the landfall 20 at Solander Island. Distance 1170 miles. 7.61. Mel bour ne ~-~ Wel l i ngton. After clearing Bass Strait proceed by great circle to pass N of Cape Farewell and thence steer for Cook Strait. Distance 1450 miles. 25 7.62. Me l bour ne ~ Auckl and. By great circle between Wilson Promontory and a position midway between Three Kings Islands and Cape Maria van Diemen, thence coastwise. Distance 1620 miles. 30 7.63. Sydney ~-~ Bl uff Har bour . By great circle between Port Jackson and Solander Island. Distance 1100 miles. 7.64. Sydney ~-~ Wel l i ngton. By great circle between Port Jackson and the W entrance to Cook Strait. Distance 1220 miles. 35 7.65. Sydney +-~ Auckl and. As direct as navigation permits, passing on either side of Three Kings Islands. Distance 1250 miles. 7.66. Sydney ~-~ Papeete. By great circle, passing between Raoul or Sunday Island and Macaulay Island, in the Kermadec Islands, and on either side of Mangaia (21 55" S, 157 55" W) . See Admiralty Sailing Directions. Few soundings are charted on this route E of about 175 W. Distance 3300 miles. 40 7.67. Sydney ~-~ Noum6a. By great circle, passing about 40 miles NW of Middleton Reef. Distance 1050 miles. 45 7.68. Sydney ~-~ Tongatapu. By great circle between Sydney and 21 00' S, 175 24' W, in the W approach to Ava Lahi. Thi s track passes close S of Ball's Pyramid, and close N of Norfolk Island, and about 30 miles NW of Minerva Reef. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distance 1940 miles. 50 7.69. Sydney ~ Suva. The great circle track between Sydney and Kandavu Passage, which should be followed, passes about 22 miles SE of Elizabeth Reef, 18 miles SE of Hunt er Island, and 32 miles NW of Conway Reef. Caution is necessary near Elizabeth Reef owing to the variability of the currents. Distance 1730 miles. 7.70. Sydney ~-~ Apia. The route is by great circle between Sydney and 19 50' S, 180 00' W; E of which position it passes 10 miles SE of Ongea Ndriki, 20 miles NW of Cura~oa Reef, and through Apolima Strait. Distance 2360 miles. 55 7.71. Sydney .-~ Ocean I sl and. As direct as possible, passing NW of Bampton Reefs. Thi s track passes close to Selfridge Bank and the position of the 25 m (14 fm) shoal reported i n 1960 about 68 miles ENE of Bird Islet, on Wreck Reef. Distance 2210 miles. 7.72. Br i sbane ~-~ Bl uff Har bour . By great circle between the approach to Brisbane and Solander Island 60 Distance 1420 miles. 70 7.73. Br i sbane ~-~ Wel l i ngton. By t humb line to the W entrance to Cook Strait. The rhumb line track clears Lord Howe Island and Ball' s Pyramid better t han the great circle. Distance 1390 miles. 7.74. Br i sbane ~-~ Auckl and. By rhumb line t o pass 13 miles N of Three Kings Islands. Thi s track gives better clearance of Middleton Reef than does the great circle. Distance 1290 miles. 7.75. Br i sbane ~-* Papeet e. Take' the great circle track to 21 00' S, 159 50' W, about 10 miles N of Rarotonga, and pass 10 miles S of Mauke. Thi s track passes clear of all known dangers but there are few soundings E of 177 W. Distance 3210 miles. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 105 7.76. Br i sbane ~-~ Noum6a. By rhumb line, passing midway between Capel Bank and Kelso Bank. Distance 765 miles. 7.77. Br i sbane ~-~ T o n g a t a p u . Direct, by great circle between Brisbane and the entrance to Ava Lahi. Distance 1770 miles. 7.78. Br i sbane ~-~ Suva. Pass S of Capel Bank, through 25 40' S, 160 00' E and 23 20' S, 170 00' E to clear the reported banks and dangers SE of New Caledonia. Proceed thence direct to Kandavu Passage, passing midway between Matthew and Hunt er Islands. Distance 1510 miles. 7.79. Br i sbane ~-~ Apia. Take the great circle track between Brisbane and 20 00' S, 178 45' W, about 30 miles WSW of Vatoa, keeping nothing to N of this track when in the vicinity of the reef reported, in 1943, to lie about 42 miles W of Vatoa. From this position, steer to pass 20 miles NW of Curagoa Reef and thence through Apolima Strait. Distance 2150 miles. 7 . 8 0 . B r i s b a n e *-* O c e a n I s l a n d . Pass between Cato Island and Wreck Reef to 21 30' S, 156 05' E; thence by great circle to Ocean Island. Distance 1810 miles. 10 15 7.81. Tor r es St rai t ~ W e l l i n g t o n . Take the Inner route between Great Barrier Reef and Capricon Channel (7.52), thence proceeding by rhumb line to pass N of Middleton Reef and to Cook Strait. Distance: Torres Strait (W entrance) to Wellington 2710 miles. 7.82. Tor r es St rai t *-* A u c k l a n d . Take the Inner route between Great Barrier Reef and Capricorn Channel (7.52), thence to round Cape Brett and coastwise to Auckland. Distance: Tort es Strait (W entrance) to Auckland 2600 miles. 7.83. T o r r e s S t r a i t *-* P a p e e t e . From Great Nort h East Channel (7.52) steer to round the N point of Espiritu Santo Island (New Hebrides) and thence continue N of Fiji Islands to Tahiti, passing S of Niua Fo' ou and Niuatoputapu. Balmoral Reef, Zephyr Bank, and Durham Shoal lie on the S side of this track. Distance: Torres Strait (W entrance) to Papeete 4140 miles. 7.84. T o r r e s S t r a i t ~-. Suva. From Great Nort h East Channel (7.52) proceed as navigation permits to pass N of Cape Cumberl and and the N point of Maewo Island, New Hebrides, to Kandavu Channel. Distance: Tort es Strait (W entrance) to Suva, 2340 miles. 7.85. T o r r e s S t r a i t ~ Api a. From Great Nort h East Channel (7.52) steer to pass either N or S of Banks Islands. Thence steer to pass midway between $1es de Horne and the shoal reported in 1944 to lie about 70 miles NW. From this position proceed direct to Apolima Strait. Distance: Torres Strait (W entrance) to Apia 2850 miles. passing N of Banks Island; add 10 miles for passage S of that island. 7.86. T o r t e s S t r a i t ~-~ O c e a n I s l a n d . Cross the Solomon Sea either between Jomard Entrance and Bougainville Strait or by passing S of Louisade Archipelago and between Guadalcanal and San Crist6bal Islands to a position N of Ulawa Island. In the fomer case, pass S of Ontong Java Group ; in the latter, pass 25 miles E of Stewart Islands. Distance from Tort es Strait (W entrance) via Bougainville Strait 2000 miles; via Ulawa 2020 miles. 20 25 30 35 40 45 7.87. Wel l i ngt on ~ P a p e e t e . As direct as navigation permits. The great circle track passes through the charted position of Haymet Rocks, the existence of which is doubtful, in 27 11' S, 116 13' W, and about 30 miles SE of Ties Maria. Distance 2340 miles. 7.88. Wel l i ngt on +-~ Auckl and. Coastwise. Distance 545 miles. 50 7.89. N e w Z e a l a n d ~-~ T o n g a t a p u . The bottom between Kermadec Group and Fiji and Tonga Islands is very uneven, and the region extending about 250 miles S from the latter group must be regarded with suspicion, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Taking this into account, a track from Wellington passing through 31 20' S, 179 30" W to 22 30' S, 177 00' W and 21 25' S, 176 00' W passes W of Kermadec Islands, Pelorus Reef, and other charted dangers. Vessels from Auckland should join this track W of Pelorus Reef in 22 30' S, 177 00' W. Distances: Wellington 1420 miles; Auckland 1100 miles. 7.90. N e w Z e a l a n d ~-~ O c e a n I s l a n d . As navigation permits, bearing in mi nd that much of the N part of the route is not surveyed and that several dangers have been reported near it. The positions of these reports, which are charted, should be given a wide berth. Distances: Auckland 2170 miles; Wellington, passing W of Nort h Island 2440 miles; passing E of Nort h Island 2580 miles. 7.91. N e w Z e a l a n d +-~ Api a. The route from Wellington and South Island ports passes through 31 20' S, 179 30' W, thence W of Kermadec Islands and Pelorus Reef to 22 30 * S, 177 00' W. The route from Auckland is direct to this position. Thence, the New Zealand routes pass W of Tonga Islands to 15 o 17' S, 173 o 55" W, W of Curagoa Reef, and through Apolima Channel. The region S of Tonga Islands must be navigated with caution, see article 7.89. Distances: Auckland 1580 miles; Wellington 1890 miles, 55 60 65 70 106 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S 7.92. New Zeal and ~-~ NoumSa or Suva. The routes from Auckland are direct in both cases; from Wellington and ports in South Island, proceed W of North Island. Distances from Auckland: NoumSa 970 miles; Suva 1130 miles; from Wellington: Noum6a 1210 miles; Suva 1460 miles. 5 7.93. N e w Z e a l a n d ,-~ P a p e e t e . Proceed by great circle in either direction. Distances: Auckland 2210 miles; Wellington 2340 miles. 7.94. Suva ~-~ Ocean I sl and. Thi s passage may be made either W or E of Fiji Islands, but the E route through Nanuku Passage is preferred although it is the longer by about 140 miles. N of about 12 S, both routes are i n 10 unsurveyed waters ; the W route passes through the area between Charlotte Bank and Penguin Bank where many shoals have been reported, and close to Balmoral Reef. Distance by E route 1350 miles. 7.95. Suva ~-~ T o n g a t a p u . Proceed as directly as navigation permits. Distance 410 miles. 15 7.96. Suva +-~ P a p e e t e . The route is direct between Tahi t i and either Nanuku or Lakemba Passage. Although the distance by Lakemba Passage is some 30 miles the shorter, this passage is not recommended except in fine weather with extreme visibility. Distance via Nanuku Passage 1880 miles. 7.97. Suva ~-~ Ap i a . The route is direct, via Nanuku Passage and N of Zephyr Bank. Distance 640 miles. 20 7.98. Tongat apu ,-~ Apla. Pass E of Tonga Islands and through Apolima Strait. Distance 570 miles. Passage E of Upolu Island entails about 15 miles extra distance. 7.99. Tongat apu ~-, P a p e e t e . Steer to pass N of Aitutaki (18 52" S, 159 45" W) in the Lower Cook Islands 25 and about 20 miles S of Niue ( 19 00" S , 169 55' W) . Distance 1530 miles. 7.100. Api a +-~ P a p e e t e . The route is as direct as navigation permits. Distance 1300 miles. 30 35 ROUTES I N EASTERN ARCHI PELAGO, CHI NA SEA, AND EASTERN SEA 7.111. Si ngapor e +* S u n d a St r ai t o r Dj a k a r t a . The choice lies between a route passing E of all the islands immediately S of Singapore Strait and thence through Selat Gelasa (Gaspar Strait), and one of the slightly shorter and better sheltered routes through Selat Bangka. The route through Selat Gelasa has better depths in general. Details of the various routes are given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances from Singapore to Sunda Strait, NE entrance : 570 miles via Selat Gelasa; 550 miles via Selat Duri an and Selat Bangka. Between Singapore and Djakarta, the distance is 565 miles by either route. 40 7.112. Si ngapor e ~ B a n g k o k o r S a i g o n . The distances by the most direct routes are: Bangkok 825 miles; Saigon 600 miles. Duri ng the S o u t h - w e s t Mo n s o o n low-powered ships bound for the Gul f of Thai l and may find it advan- tageous, after passing Pulau Redang, to steer along the W shore of the Gulf. If bound for Saigon and certain of the position, they should pass W of Poulo Condore during this monsoon. S-bound, if proceeding from Bangkok 45 to Singapore, they should keep along the W shore of the Gul f of Thai l and as far as Pulau Redang, thence passing inside Pulau Tenggol and keeping close inshore for the rest of the voyage. From Saigon, they should keep coast- wise along the coast of Cambodia, then steering across to the Malay coast and passing inshore of Pulau Ti oman and Pulau Sibu. Duri ng the strength of the N o r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , in December and January, it is probably better for low- 50 powered ships N- bound to pass E of Anambas Kepulauan if bound for the Gul f of Thai l and and E of Nat una Kepulauan if bound for Saigon. S-bound from Bangkok, they should steer along the E side of the gulf inshore of Koh Tang and Poulo Panjang, see Admiralty Sailing Directions ; thence E of Pulau Tenggol to Singapore Strait. From Saigon, they should pass E of Poulo Condore and thence direct. 55 7.113. Nor t h ~-~ S o u t h r o u t e s t h r o u g h Ch i n a Se a. There is a considerable area of dangerous ground i n the SE part of the China Sea, lying between the parallels of 7 30' N and 12 00' N, separated on its SE side from Palawan and the adjacent islands by the comparatively narrow Palawan Passage and, on its NW side, from the Cambodian Peninsula by a wider and less encumbered part of the sea. Vessels are recommended, when possible, to follow the tracks indicated on the charts. 60 The principal axial routes, known as the Mai n Route and the Eastern Route, pass W of the dangerous ground, the Mai n Route being suitable N- bound for fully powered ships at all times and for S-bound ships in the North- east Monsoon, while the Eastern Route has some advantage N- bound during the North-east Monsoon, when it is recommended for ships of moderate power. Dur i ng the strength of the South-west Monsoon smoother water may be found nearer the coast of the Cambodian Peninsula. 65 The Mai n Rout e passes W of Anambas Kepul auan; thence E of $1es Catwick and between Macclesfield Bank and the Paracel Islands. The Ea s t e r n R o u t e also passes W of Anambas Kepul auan; thence about 30 miles W of Prince of Wales Bank and Nort h Danger and about 30 miles E of Macclesfield Bank. Pal awa~ Passage is deep, but there may be less depth t han charted off the W coast of Palawan, and when in 70 that vicinity a depth of at least 180 m should therefore be maintained. Furthermore, off the NW coast of Borneo PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 107 and in Palawan Passage, between latitudes 2 N and 11 N, currents may set in any direction throughout the year, with rates of up to 1 knot or more; they have caused the stranding of vessels on either side of the passage~ Particular attention is drawn to the remarks on currents in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Palawan Passage is useful for low-powered ships N-bound during the North-east Monsoon, but its use is reported to be declining. Pratas Reef, about 160 miles SE of Hong Kong, is a serious danger to vessels in its vicinity, particularly in low visibility during the North-east Monsoon. Ships should always pass to leeward of this reef during the strength of either monsoon. 7.114. Java Sea ~-~ Chi na Sea. The customary route between the China Sea and Sunda Strait or Djakarta is through Selat Gelasa (Gaspar Strait) and E of Pengiki Besar (0 15" N, 108 03' E). From October to March the route E of Borneo, through Makassar Strait, is generally used by low-powered vessels N-bound. Between the E part of the Java Sea and Singapore or the China Sea, Karimata Strait is generally used. 10 7.115. Si ngapor e --> Pal awan Passage. From Singapore Strait, steer to pass about 5 miles N of Subi Kechil, 15 carefully allowing for the current, then steer to make good 077 for a distance of about 230 miles, whence the course is clear up to the entrance to Palawan Passage, passing between South Luconia Shoals and Tanj ong Baram, and keeping as close as circumstances may make convenient to the Borneo coast, until abreast of that point. As an alternative, steer from Singapore Strait to pass S of Kaju Ara and thence a safe distance S of Muri 20 (St. Petrus). Pass through Api Passage, favouring its N side, and thence to the position off Tanjong Baram. Thi s route is very slightly the shorter. The narrowest and most dangerous part of Palawan Passage, where it is only 29 miles wide between dangers, lies abreast Royal Captain Shoal and after passing Balabac Island. If it is necessary to make a landfall to establish the position, the island may be closed to a distance of 12 miles in clear weather, but it should not be approached 25 within that distance on account of off-lying shoals. With a W' l y wind and thick cloudy weather the island should not be approached within 30 miles ; with such winds there is usually a strong E' l y set through Balabac Strait. Off the SW end of Balabac Island it is not unusual, about September and October, for the wind, especially in squalls, to veer to WNW or sometimes NW, blowing with violence. Under these conditions it is prudent to pass Royal Captain Shoal in daylight. 30 If uncertain of the vessel' s position, the safest part of the edge of the 180 m bank to obtain soundings lies NW of Balabac Island, N of 8 05' N and S of 8 30' N, with Balabac Peak bearing between 120 and 160 . Experience shows that even in the thickest weather the land is seldom totally obscured for any length of time, but generally presents a well defined outline between the squalls. When soundings are obtained on the edge of the bank, haul off to the NW, to give the edge a berth of about 10 miles and then steer a mid-channel course until past Bombay 35 Shoal, whence a course parallel with the bank and from 8 to 12 miles off it may be steered. 7.116. Si ngapor e --> Hong Kong. For general remarks on the routes for this passage, see article 7.113. The usual route in both Monsoons is the Main Route. Distance 1450 miles. During the strength of the South- west Monsoon, rather smoother water will be found by keeping closer to the coast of Vietnam, and passing W of the Paracel Islands. By this route the distance is lessened by 20 miles. Alternatively, the Eastern Route may be taken during the North-east Monsoon, when it is recommended for vessels of only moderate power; the distance by this route is 1540 miles. The distance from Singapore to Hong Kong by Palawan Passage is 1920 miles. 7.117. Hong Kong -+ Si ngapore. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, the Mai n Route (7.113), may be used, distance 1450 miles. Alternatively, a route passing 30 miles W of the Paracel Islands, from 15 to 20 miles E of Cap Varella, and E of Tles Catwick will make good use of the predominant current of this Monsoon, flowing S' ly in the W part of the China Sea. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, steer to pass 30 miles W of the Paracel Islands and, if the monsoon is strong, make a landfall off Cu Lao R6 and keep about 10 miles offshore as far as Mui Di nh (Cape Padaran), steering thence to make Pulau Aur and Singapore Strait. In light monsoon weather, steer direct for Cap Varella from the position W of the Paracel Islands. It is advisable to pass E of Tles Catwick unless the weather is clear or the position well established. 40 45 50 55 7.118. Hong Kong +-, Shang-hai and nort hern ports. Except against a strong North-east Monsoon, the route between Hong Kong and Shang-hai is as direct as safe navigation permits, keeping from 5 to 10 miles E of the outer islands. Against a strong North-east Monsoon, keep as close to the coast as safety permits until N of Chou-shan ch' 0n-tao. When navigating along this part of the coast care is necessary at all times, as the tidal streams are very strong 60 in places, especially in the vicinity of Nan-p' eng ch' fin-tao (Lamock Islands), Hsia-men (Amoy), Wu-ch' i u hsii (Ockseu Islands), Yin shan (Tung-yung), T' ai -chou lieh-tao (Taichow Islands), Chou-shan ch' On-tao (Chusan Archipelago), and the approach to Ch' ang Chiang. From time to time vessels have stranded on outlying islands on the coast of China between Fokai Point and the entrance to Ch' ang Chiang, and, in most cases, the stranding would not have occurred if attention had been 65 paid to the necessity of constantly sounding in thick or misty weather. Many lighthouses on the islands are of considerable elevation, and often the upper parts of the islands and the lights are obscured by fog, so, as a general rule, if a light is not seen when a vessel is within its distance of visibility, she should sound at once, even if the weather is apparently quite clear, and proceed out to a safe depth, continuing sounding until the position is ascertained. 70 5 108 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Large fleets of fishing junks may be met with off the coast of China; they often carry no lights. Low-powered vessels should not attempt to proceed N during the North-east Monsoon or during the typhoon season, except by the inshore passage which is described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances : Shang-hai 775 miles; Vladivostok 1650 miles. 7.119. Si ngapor e --~ Shang-hai . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon proceed by the Main Route of the China Sea (7.113) to a position NW of Macclesfield Bank, steering thence between Pratas Reefs and Vereker Banks and through T' ai -wan Strait W of T' ai -wan Banks, and thence as direct as safe navigation permits, keeping from 5 to 10 miles E of the outer islands. Distance 2140 miles. 10 Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, take the Main Route as above and keep as close to the coast of China as safe navigation permits. See 7.118. Distance 2160 miles. In a strong North-east Monsoon the track E of Macclesfield Bank through Pescadores Channel and N along the coast of T' ai -wan may be taken. In addition to getting smooth water and a favourable current, a great advantage obtained by vessels using 15 Pescadores Channel is the absence of the big fleets of fishing junks which are encountered along the China coast and which, on a dark night, are a source of great anxiety. The channel is well lighted. 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 7.120. Shang-hai --~ Si ngapor e. Normally, proceed by T' ai -wan Strait and by the Main Route of the China Sea (7.113). From May to August, if the South-west Monsoon is very strong, an alternative is to pass W of the Paracel Islands, thence making a landfall off Cu Lao R6 and completing the voyage as in article 7.117. Distance by Mai n Route 2140 miles. 7.121. Si ngapor e ~-~ Nagasaki . Pass E of Macclesfield Bank to the S point of T' ai-wan, and thence coastwise in Kuro Shio, E of T' ai -wan, thence to Nagasaki as navigation permits. Distance 2420 miles. If the Main Route of the China Sea and T' ai -wan Strait be taken, as in article 7.119, the distance is also 2420 miles. The S-bound route is governed by the same considerations as the route from Shang-hai, see 7.120. Kuro Shio flows NE' l y along the E coast of T' ai -wan throughout the year; in the Eastern Sea and T' ai -wan Strait the currents change direction according to the monsoons. 7.122. Si ngapor e ~-~ Y o k o h a m a . Steer W of Prince Consort Bank and E of Macclesfield Bank, thence through Balintang Channel and direct to Yokohama. Distance 2890 miles. 7.123. Fl ot s am. In navigating the waters of the Philippines during the rainy season a sharp look-out must be kept for flotsam. Trees of immense size will be frequently met afloat. They have been found especially numerous on the south coast of Luzon; in one case, near Mari nduque island, a group of t hem was adrift, still upright and resembling an island. 7.124. Si ngapor e ~-~ Mani l a. Follow the Eastern Route (7.113) as far as Nort h Danger, after rounding which at about 30 miles distance, steer a direct course to Manila. Distance 1330 miles. Alternatively, during the North-east Monsoon, Palawan Passage (7.115) may be used, with a distance of 1370 miles. 7.125. Si ngapor e +-~ Sul u Sea and Basi l an Strait. Proceed by Palawan Passage (7.115) Balabak Strait (Nasubata or Main Channels), and thence as navigation permits. Distances: Iloilo 1290 miles, Cebu 1380 miles; Basilan Strait 1200 miles; S point of Mindanao for Central Route (7.269) 1470 miles. For Sandakan, see 7.132. 7.126. S i n g a p o r e , S u n d a St r ai t , a n d Dj a k a r t a ,-+ L o m b o k a n d W~ t a r St r a i t s . From Singapore, pass through Karimata Strait and on either side of Pulau Bawean. From Sunda Strait or Djakarta, proceed coastwise along the N coasts of Java and Madura. Both routes then pass S of Kangean Kepulanan (by day) or through Sapudi Strait, an extra distance of 15 miles (at night), continuing to Lombok Strait or to a position on 8 00' S midway between Maddang Island and Sakuntji (Maria Regensburgen Banks), thence along 8 00' S to Wbtar Strait. Distances, in miles: Lombok Strait N approach W~tar Strait N approach Singapore 965 1500 Sunda Strait N approach 650 1190 D jakarta 610 1140 70 7.127. Si ngapor e ~-~ Ambon. Pass through Karimata Strait to a position S of Bawean, thence S of Gosong Taka Rewataja (De Bril Bank) and through Saleier Strait and Buton Passage. Thi s is probably a better route to the Molukka Sea, in both monsoons, than a passage N of Borneo. Distance 1690 miles. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 109 7.128. S i n g a p o r e *-~ Ma k a s s a r . Pass t hr ough Kar i mat a St r ai t and t hr ough t he Java Sea. Ent er Makassar St r ai t S of Pul au Laut , pass N of Laur el Reefs, and appr oach Makassar t hr ough t he swept channel . Di st ance 1110 mi l es. 7.129. S i n g a p o r e ~-~ Su r a b a y a . Pass t hr ough Kar i mat a St r ai t and t hence di rect . Di st ance 760 mi l es. 7.130. S i n g a p o r e ~-* B a l i k Pa p a n . Pass t hr ough Kar i mat a St r ai t , t hr ough t he Java Sea and Makassar St r ai t as navi gat i on per mi t s. Di st ance 1070 mi l es. 7.131. S i n g a p o r e ~-~ Ta r a k a n . Pr oceed ei t her N of Borneo, t hr ough Bal abac St r ai t and Si but u Passage, di st ance 1350 mi l es; or S of Borneo, t hr ough Kar i mat a St r ai t , Java Sea and Makassar St r ai t : di st ance 1420 mi l es. 7.132. S i n g a p o r e +-, S a n d a k a n . Pr oceed t hr ough Api Passage and one of t he channel s bet ween Borneo and Bal abak. Th e shor t est r out e is vi a Banggi Sout h Channel , di st ance 1030 mi l es. 7.133. B a n g k o k a n d S a i g o n ~-~ P o r t s i n Ea s t e r n Ar c h i p e l a g o . I n al l cases pr oceed as di r ect l y as navi gat i on per mi t s, bear i ng i n mi nd t he advi ce gi ven i n art i cl e 7.113 on t he pr i nci pal axi al r out es t hr ough t he Chi na Sea, and in ar t i cl e 7.117 on t he S- bound passage f r om Hong Kong dur i ng t he Sout h- west Monsoon. 10 15 Di st ances, i n mi l es : 20 Ho n g Ko n g Bangkok 1550 Sai gon 925 Mani l a 1450 870 Dj akar t a 1260 25 1040 The Si ngapor e r out e is des cr i bed i n ar t i cl e 7.112. 30 7.134. t t o n g Ko n g ,-~ S u n d a St r ai t , Dj a k a r t a , o r S u r a b a y a . S- bound, dur i ng t he Nor t h- eas t Monsoon, t he Ma i n Rout e (7.113), may be used for t he N par t of t he voyage. Al t er nat i vel y, a r out e passi ng 30 mi l es W of t he Par acel Isl ands, f r om 15 to 20 mi l es E of Cap Varel l a, and E of ~les Cat wi ck wi l l make good use of t he pr edomi nant cur r ent of t hi s monsoon, flowing S' l y i n t he W par t of t he Chi na Sea. Af t er passi ng W of Vanguar d Bank (7 30 "N, 109 30" E), course shoul d be shaped t o pass E of Pengi ki Besar 35 (0 15" N, 108 03' E) and t hence t hr ough Sel at Gel asa ( Gaspar St rai t ) for Sunda St r ai t or Dj akar t a, or Kar i mat a St r ai t for Sur abaya and t he E par t of t he Java Sea. N- bound, reverse t he t r acks gi ven above for t he S par t of t he voyage, and j oi n t he Ma i n Rout e W of Vanguar d Bank. Di st ances: Sunda St r ai t 1790 mi l es; Dj akar t a 1780 mi l es; Sur abaya 1930 mi l es. 40 7.135. Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ S a n d a k a n . Pr oceed t hr ough Pal awan Passage (7.115), and Bal abac St r ai t . Di st ance vi a Nor t h Bal abac St r ai t 1200 mi l es. 7.136. H o n g K o n g ~- Ta r a k a n , B a l i k Pa p a n , o r Ma k a s s a r . Th e Sul u Sea may be ent er ed t hr ough Mi ndor o 45 St r ai t , or Ver de I s l and Passage i f i t is desi r ed t o avoi d t he weat her si de of Mi ndor o dur i ng t he Sout h- west Monsoon, or Bal abac St r ai t . Th e t r ack used for t he fol l owi ng di st ances passes t hr ough Mi ndor o St r ai t by Apo East Pass and Cuyo East Pass. Di st ances are si mi l ar i f Ver de I s l and Passage is used and 90 mi l es gr eat er i f Bal abac St r ai t is used. Af t er crossi ng t he Sul u Sea, pass t hr ough Si but u Passage i nt o t he Sul awesi Sea and Makassar St r ai t . Whe n 50 navi gat i ng Si but u Passage, gr eat at t ent i on shoul d be pai d t o t he t i dal st reams. Di st ances: Tar akan 1360 mi l es; Bal i k Papan 1640 mi l es; Makassar 1840 mi l es. 7.137. H o n g K o n g ~-~ A m b o n . Pr oceed t hr ough ei t her Mi ndor o St r ai t or Ver de I sl and Passage, t hence t o Basi l an St r ai t . Round t he NE end of Sul awesi ei t her by passi ng bet ween Bi aro and Tal i sei , or t hr ough Bangka St r ai t , and t hence t hr ough Mani pa St r ai t t o Ambon. Di st ance 1830 mi l es. 7.138. H o n g K o n g ++ Ma n i l a . As di r ect l y as navi gat i on per mi t s. Di st ance 625 mi l es. 55 7.139. Ho n g Ko n g ~ I l oi l o. Fr o m Hong Kong st eer for Ver de I s l and Passage and Tabl as St r ai t . Dur i ng t he 60 Nor t h- eas t Monsoon, pass t hr ough Tabl as St r ai t and t hence coast wi se off t he W coast of Panay t o Il oi l o. Di st ance, ent er i ng St r ai t of I l oi l o f r om SW, 910 mi l es. Dur i ng t he Sout h- wes t Monsoon, af t er passi ng Dumal i Poi nt on t he E coast of Mi ndor o, st eer E of Maes t r e de Campo I s l and and S of Si mar a I s l and; t hence t hr ough Rombl on Pass and Ji nt ot ol o Channel , passi ng t hence al ong t he E coast of Panay t o Il oi l o. Di st ance t o pi l ot at NE end of I l oi l o St r ai t 920 mi l es. 65 7.140. H o n g K o n g *-~ Ce b u . Fr om Hong Kong st eer for Ver de I s l and Passage and, af t er passi ng Duma l i Poi nt on t he E coast of Mi ndor o, st eer E of Maest r e de Campo I s l and and S of Si mar a I s l and; t hence t hr ough Rombl on Pass and Ji nt ot ol o Channel . The n pr oceed t o Mal apascua I sl and, off t he N end of Cebu I s l and and t hence S t o Cebu. Di st ance t o pi l ot at NE ent r ance 960 mi l es. 70 110 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 7.141. Mani l a +-~ S u n d a St rai t or Dj akart a. Proceed by Palawan Passage and Selat Gelasa, passing E of Pengiki Besar, see 7.114, Distances via Palawan Passage: Sunda Strait 1580 miles; D jakarta 1570 miles. 10 7.142. Mani l a *-* Surabaya, Makas s ar , Ba l i k Pa pa n or Tarakan. Between Manila and the Sulu Sea Verde Island Passage should be used during the South-west Monsoon, and Mindoro Strait otherwise. Use Si but u Passage to pass from the Sulu Sea to the W end of the Sulawesi Sea. Distances, via Mindoro Passage: Surabaya 1650 miles; Makassar 1300 miles; Balik Papan 1100 miles; Tarakan 820 miles. 7.143. Mani l a ~-+ Sa nda ka n, Ce bu, or Iloilo. Between Manila and Sandakan, it is better to use Verde Island Passage during the South-west Monsoon, and Mindoro Strait otherwise. Distance via Mindoro Strait 650 miles. For Cebu, proceed through Verde Island Passage and, after passing Dumali Point steer E of Maestre de 15 Campo Island and S of Simara Island; thence through Romblon Pass and Jintotolo Channel. Then proceed to Malapascua Island and Cebu. Distance to pilot at NE entrance 395 miles. For Iloilo, take Verde Island Passage and, during the North-east Monsoon, pass through Tablas Strait and thence coastwise off the W coast of Panay. Distance to pilot at SW entrance 355 miles. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, after passing Dumali Point steer E of Maestre de Campo Island and as above as far as Jintotolo 20 Channel, passing thence along the E coast of Panay to the NE entrance of Iloilo Strait, Distance 360 miles. 25 ROUTES ON WES TERN SI DE OF PACI FI C OCEAN 7.160. Aus t r al i a a nd Ne w Ze a l a nd *-. As i at i c s ho r e s o f Paci f i c Oc e an. The complicated pattern of N- S routes on the W side of the Pacific Ocean gives a variety of choice when pl anni ng a passage. In selecting the most direct route, the circumnavigation of Australia, the comparative merits of the various routes through the Eastern Archipelago or the Solomon Sea, and the depth required to suit the vessel's draught, may be important 30 factors. The seasonal variations of winds, currents, and weather in an area extending 45 or more N and S of the equator must also play a large part in determining a route agreeable to the characteristics of the vessel and the object of the voyage. The basic routes are: Between Cape Leeuwin and the~apan Sea, by Sunda Strait, Selat Gelasa, the China Sea, and the Eastern Sea, 35 with a least charted depth of about 20 m in the NE approach to Sunda Strait. An alternative is a deep water route through Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, and the Sulawesi Sea, and into the Pacific to make northing E of the Philippines. Between the E coast of Australia or New Zealand and Japan, by Torres Strait and a seasonal route through the Eastern Archipelago, on which the controlling depth is in the Tortes Strait, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, 40 or by an ocean route which passes through the Solomon Sea. Where applicable, passage through the Solomon Sea is recommended using Jomard Entrance and the tracks recommended by the charts, or passing E of Adele Islet, at the E end of Louisade Archipelago, to Pioneer Channel rather than Bougainville Strait, which is probably not attractive to deep-draught ships. The passages E and W of Guadalcanal Island and Malaita Island appear to be deep and safe. 45 Between the SE coast of Australia and the China Sea, either a S' ly route across the Great Australian Bight to Cape Leeuwin and Sunda Strait, or an E' ly route through Torres Strait. These routes are limited in depth as stated above, but deeper access to the China Sea is possible from the Indi an Ocean through Lombok Strait and thence W of Borneo through Karimata Strait, or by a deep route from Lombok Strait, E of Borneo through Makassar Strait, and thence through Sibutu Passage and either Balabak Strait or Mindoro Strait. 50 As regards distance, voyages via Torres Strait and via Cape Leeuwin are roughly the same each way between Singapore and Sydney and between Hong Kong and Melbourne. 7. 161. No r t h a nd eas t c oas t s o f Aus t ral i a, and Ne w Ze a l a nd *-~ Chi na a nd Eas t e r n Seas. There are 55 two principal routes, one through Torres Strait and the Eastern Archipelago (Torres Strait Route) and the other E of New Guinea and the Philippine Islands (Ocean Route), see article 7.162. The Torres Strait Route, described below, is approached from Australian ports by the Inner Route (7.52), or from New Zealand ports as directed in articles 7.81 and 7.82. Thence the N- bound route as far as Manila varies according to the monsoon. The route from Port Darwin passes through Sermata Islands between Sermata 60 and Babar, and E of Damar, to join the Torres Strait Route in Manipa Strait. N-bound, after leaving Torres Strait, during the South-east Monsoon from May to September, pass S of Le Cher Bank and the unexamined shoals W of it, give the S end of Pulau-pulau Aru a wide berth, and enter the Banda Sea between Tani mbar Islands and Pulau-pulau Ewab (Kai Islands). Pass through Mani pa Strait and between Obi Major and Sula Islands into the Molukka Sea. Thence pass round the NE end of Sulawesi, or 65 through Bangka Strait if desired, cross the Sulawesi Sea to Basilan Strait, and proceed through Mindoro Strait to Manila or onward to Hong Kong or Shang-hai, see articles 7.138 and 7.167. N- bound during the North-east Monsoon from December to March, after leaving Torres Strait give False Cape (8 22" S, 137 35' E) a wide berth, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, pass between the New Gui nea coast and Pulau-pulau Aru and Ceram, and into the Pacific Ocean by Djailolo Passage. Thence, for Manila or Hong 70 Kong, steer E of Mindanao, through Surigao Strait (7.176) into the Sulu Sea, and through Tablas Strait and PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND f f APAN SEAS 111 Verde Island Passage to Manila and into the China Sea. In this monsoon Hi nat uan Passage, between the NE end of Mindanao and the off-lying islands, gives some protection against the weather but Surigao Strait is normally recommended. The route through Tablas Strait and Verde Island Passage is clear, although care must be taken near Baco Islets, SE of Verde Island; it is a favourite N- bound route during the North-east Monsoon because of the lee given by Negros and Panay, and the sheltered water E of Lubang and under the W coast of 5 Luzon, which gives the opportunity of avoiding the strong monsoon that is generally felt on clearing Lubang Islands. If bound for Shang-hai during the North-east Monsoon, the route through Djailolo Passage should be considered as an alternative to a continuation N from Manila, see paragraph 7.167. Having made Djailolo Passage, as described above, steer to pass E of T' ai -wan through 22 55' N, 122 40' E, and thence to destination. 10 The reverse of this route is not recommended S-bound against Kuro Shio. S-bound from the China Sea the route is the reverse of the above, namely through Mindoro Strait and Basilan Strait and to the passage between Obi Major and Sula Islands. Thence, the usual route passes through Manipa Strait, and between Tani mbar Islands and Pulau-pulau Ewab to Tortes Strait. In July and August S-bound ships in particular may be affected by the high seas which are raised in the Arafura Sea by the South-east Monsoon, 15 and a diversion after passing Obi Major, N of Ceram, Pulau-pulau Ewab and Pulau-pulau Aru will give the advantage of smoother water although the route is a little longer and not so well known as the Banda Sea passage. Distances for the usual S-bound route are the same as for the N- bound route i n the South-east Monsoon. Distances, in miles : Port Darwin Brisbane Sydney Melbourne Auckland Wellington SE MONSOON Manila 1840 3550 4000 4540 4780 4890 Hong Kong 2380 4090 4540 5080 5320 5430 Shang-hai 2920(1)(3) 4610 5070 5640 5860 5960 20 NEMONSOON Manila Hong Kong Shang-hai { 1840(1) 2380(1) 2910(1)(2) 3510 4050 4820(2) 4360(3) 3960 4500 5280(2) 4820(3) 4500 5040 5810(2) 5350(3) 4740 5280 6060(2) 5600(3) 4850 5390 6160(2) 5700(3) 25 30 35 (1) W of Philippines; (2) W of T' ai -wan; (3) E of T' ai -wan. Djailolo Passage not included in Port Darwin routes. 40 7 . 1 6 2 . O c e a n r o u t e b e t w e e n e a s t c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a , a n d N e w Z e a l a n d p o r t s *-~ N o r t h - w e s t s h o r e s o f P a c i f i c O c e a n . 45 The routes through Torres Strait and the Eastern Archipelago to the China Sea are described in article 7.161, with a continuation N in articles 7.167 and 7.168. The Ocean route, E of New Guinea and the Philippine Islands, passes through the Solomon Sea and continues NW through the Caroline Islands and Marianas Archipelago to destinations in China Japan, and on the N Asiatic coast. To pass through the Solomon Sea from Brisbane and ports S, steer to pass 20 miles E of Frederick Reef, or 50 to make a landfall on it, and thence midway between Adele Islet and Pocklington Reef at the E end of Louisade Archipelago for Pioneer Channel (5 S, 154 E) or 30 miles E of Pocklington Reef for Bougainville Strait. From New Zealand ports, steer to 21 00' S, 157 30' E, avoiding Kelso Bank and the shoals S and W of Bellona Reefs, and enter the Solomon Sea as above. From Torres Strait, enter the Solomon Sea by Jomard Entrance and leave it by Bougainville Strait or Pioneer Channel. 55 From Pioneer Channel or Bougainville Strait, all routes pass E of Lyra Reef. From a position E of Lyra Reef, vessels bound for Yap, Manila, or Hong Kong should pass 20 miles S of Sorol Atoll. Manila should be approached through San Bernardino Strait after passing close S of Yap Island. For Hong Kong, pass through Balintang Channel. From the position E of Lyra Reef, vessels bound for Guam and other destinations W of 150 W should pass 60 through the Caroline Islands at 20 miles W of Ul ul Island at the W extremity of Namonuito Islands (8 45' N, 150 00" E). Thence, for Hong Kong, pass through Balintang Channel; for Shang-hai, pass through Nansei Shot6 between Okinawa Gunt 6 and Sakishima Gunt 6 at 25 30' N, 126 30' E, and approach through Hsiao- pan-men (Steep Island Pass) ; for Yokohama and Hakodate, proceed direct, in the former case passing at least 20 miles E of the Marianas Archipelago and Ogasawara Gunt6. 65 For Petropavlovsk and Dutch Harbour, ships from Australia pass through the Solomon Sea as above and thence through the Caroline Islands between Oroluk Lagoon and the Senyavin Islands (7 00" N, 158 00" E). The following distances are quoted i n miles, via Pioneer Channel. The alternative route, through Bougainville Strait, is slightly the longer for passages to destinations W of 150 E, and shorter for passages to ports E of that meridian. 70 112 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S Tort es Strait Sydney Brisbane Auckland Wellington (W entrance) 5 Manila Yap Hong Kong Shang-hai Guam 10 Yokohama Hakodate Petropavlovsk Dut ch Harbour 3550 2410 4140 3920 2320 3590 3960 4510 5270 4280 3140 4870 4650 3050 4320 4690 5240 6000 3830 2690 4420 4200 2600 3870 4240 4790 5550 4840 3690 5430 5200 3600 4880 5240 5010 3860 5600 5370 3770 5050 5410 - - - - 15 20 7.163. Si ngapor e and Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ Eas t ern and s o ut he r n coas t s o f Aust ral i a. The distances between Singapore and Sydney are much the same whether the passage is made N of Australia through Torres Strait or S of the continent, across the Great Australian Bight. Similarly, the distances between Hong Kong and Melbourne are about the same by either route. If proceeding from Sydney S-about, the beneficial effect of the S-going East Australian Coast Current must be weighed against the frequency of W' l y and NW' l y gales S of Australia. Pas s ages nor t h of Aus t r al i a are routed by the Inner Route, see articles 7.52 to 7.54, and Torres Strait. Routes between Tortes Strait and Singapore are described below; for routes between Hong Kong and Tort es 25 Strait see 7.161. The N- bound route from Torres Strait to Singapore, from April to October, passes S of Timor, in depths of more than 180 m to avoid the shoal area in the Arafura Sea, through Roti Strait and either Alas Strait or Lombok Strait to the Java Sea, and thence to Singapore via Karimata Strait, see 7.126. Alternatively, ships may pass N of Ti mor through Ombai Strait, and thence through Sumba Strait, thus avoiding most of the dangerous 30 areas in the Arafura Sea and making use of the bold shores of the straits as aids to navigation. From November to March the route is through Wbtar Strait and Wbtar Passage into the Flores Sea and Java Sea; thence to Singapore as above. The passage may also be made S of all the islands and through Sunda Strait at any time of year, but the distance is greater and the only advantage is ease of navigation over much of the route. The S-bound route from Singapore to Torres Strait, from April to October, passes through Karimata Strait, 35 the Java and Flores Seas, and W~tar Passage and W~tar Strait as described in article 7.126. From November to March the passage should be made through Lombok Strait or Alas Strait, Roti Strait, and S of Ti mor. Distances between Singapore and Sydney for passages N of Australia are as follows; for Brisbane subtract 460 miles. For N- bound route passing S of Ti mor and through Roti, Sumba and Lombok Straits 4350 miles; passing N 40 of Ti mor and through Ombai, Sumba and Lombok Straits 4340 miles; through Wbtar Strait, Flores Sea, and Java Sea 4260 miles ; S of Java and through Sunda Strait 4660 miles. Distances between Hong Kong and ports between Torres Strait and Melbourne, for passages N and E of Australia, will be found in article 7.161. -/5 Pas s ages s o ut h of Aus t ral i a. From Singapore, proceed to Sunda Strait as directed in article 7.111; and thence to make Cape Leeuwin, passing about 20 miles E of Christmas Island. From Hong Kong, proceed to Sunda Strait as directed in article 7.134. Between Cape Leeuwin and Adelaide in either direction, follow the parallel of 35 30' S ; between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Otway proceed by great circle. E of Cape Otway passages to mainland ports are coastwise, except that when making S off the coast of New South Wales, a vessel should 50 keep about 15 miles offshore, in depths of about 180 m, to obtain the full effect of the S-going East Australian Coast Current, see 7.51, while, in general, not allowing the land to dip. The land should be closed again off Cape Howe. Distances between Singapore or Hong Kong and Australian ports, via Sunda Strait and Cape Leeuwin, in miles : 55 60 65 70 Brisbane 470 1030 Sydney 565 Melbourne 1410 945 460 Adelaide 2590 2160 1650 1370 Fremantle 4810 4350 3860 3580 2280 6050 5590 5100 4820 3520 Singapore Hong Hong PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 113 7.164. We s t coas t o f Aus t r al i a +-~ Chi na Sea and no r t h- we s t Paci f i c. The route to Singapore and the China Sea through Sunda Strait is described i n articles 7.111, 7.114, 7.134, and 7.163. It is continued to Shang-hai i n article 7.119, to Nagasaki in article 7.121, and to Yokohama in article 7.122. For deep draught ships, the most direct passage is by Lombok Strait, whence the voyage may be continued through Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, and Mindoro Strait to Manila, Hong Kong, and the China coast; or through Makassar Strait and the Sulawesi Sea to enter the Pacific S of Mindanao, for Shang-hai (alternative to the China Sea route), Japanese ports, and destinations farther N. Distances in miles: 10 Manila Cape Leeuwin (20" WSW of) Hong Kong Shang-hai Yokohama via China Sea via Pacific Lombok Strait (S Entrance) 1580 2120 2650 2730 3090 ' 3130 3020 Fremantle ' ~ 3670 4200 3560 4080 Port Hedland ] 2820 i 3350 4280 4160 3430 I 2280 15 4650 20 4530 3790 25 7.165. Sydney ~-~ Bal i k Papan. Passage may be made E-about via Torres Strait or W-about via Cape Leeuwin. For the passage via Torres Strait, proceed from Sydney via the Inner Route (7.52), and after passing through Tort es Strait and the Arafura Sea enter the Flores Sea through WStar Strait. There are two routes between WStar 30 Strait and Makassar Strait, either close N of Flores to 8 00' N, 121 00" W and thence E of Postilion Kepulauan and Gosong Taka Rewataja (De Bril Bank), and thence as navigation permits, with a distance of 3520 miles; or through Saleier (Salayar) Strait, with a distance of 3490 miles. For the passage via Cape Leeuwin, proceed from Sydney to a position 20 miles WSW of Cape Leeuwin as directed in article 7.163, and approach Makassar Strait via Lombok Strait. Distance 4090 miles. 35 7.166. Sydney ~ Tarakan. The routes described in article 7.165, for Balik Papan, are good at all seasons for Tarakan, departure being made off Cape William (2 38' S, 118 50" E). Distances via Torres Strait and Saleier Strait 3750 miles; via Cape Leeuwin 4350 miles. In the South-east Monsoon, after passing through Tortes Strait, N- bound ships may steer to enter the Banda Sea between Tani mbar Islands and Pulau-pulau Aru. Thence they should steer a NW' l y course for Mani pa Strait and the passage between Obi Major and Sula Islands, continuing through the Molukka Sea to round the NE end of Sulawesi either through Bangka Strait or to seaward of Bangka and Talisei. Thence they should proceed direct to Tarakan. Thi s passage is only recommended N-bound. Distance 3560 miles. See also 7.160. 7.167. Mani l a *-~ Shang-hai . In the South-west Monsoon, from May to September, pass E of T' ai -wan and from 15 to 20 miles E of P' eng-chia Hsti (Agincourt Island). The influence of the N-going Kuro Shio will be felt duri ng the greater part of this voyage. Distance 1080 miles. In the North-east Monsoon, from December to March, pass W of T' ai -wan through P' eng-hu Chiang-tao (Pescadores Channel) or W of P' eng-hu Ch' fin-tao (Pescadores Islands) as desired. Distance via Peng-hu Chiang-tao 1090 miles. Great caution should be observed when approaching T' ai -wan Banks, on account of uneven depths, overfalls and currents. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 7.168. Mani l a ~-~ Yokohama. N-bound, full advantage should be taken of the Kuro Shio by steering E of T' ai -wan to a position i n 26 00' N, 123 00" E, and thence through Nansei Shot6, passing between Amami Gunt 6 and Tokara Gunt 6. Distance 1830 miles. S-bound, and alternatively N- bound though less favourable N- bound as regards current, steer by rhumb line between Balintang Channel and the approach to Yokohama. Distance 1760 miles. 40 45 50 55 60 7.169. Ho n g Ko n g ~-~ Japan. N-bound, keep as close as prudent to the coast of China during the Nort h- east Monsoon unt i l abreast Tung- yi n Shan (Tung Yung Island) (26 22" N, 120 30" E). Thence for Nagasaki, proceed direct; for Yokohama, steer either to pass through Osumi Kaiky6 south of Kyfishfi Island, and thence direct, or, if preferred, to pass between Tokara Gunt 6 and Amami Gunt 6 at about 29 20' N, and thence to destination. There is practically no difference i n distance, and Kuro Shio sets strongly NE of either 65 route. For Hakodate, steer to pass through Korea Strait on either side of Tsushi ma and thence to destination. S-bound off the S coast of Japan, keep as close to the coast as safety permits, to avoid the strength of Kuro Shio. I n these circumstances it must be remembered that there is often a strong indraught into the deep bays especially between O Shima and Mikomoto Shima, with E' l y winds, and that during the typhoon months the 70 114 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S 5 currents in this locality are subject to great irregularity. Departure from Japanese waters should be taken through Osumi Kaiky6 and the S-bound route should be continued through T' ai -wan Strait. Distances from Hong Kong: Nagasaki 1070 miles; YOkohama 1590 miles; Hakodate via Korea Strait 1810 miles. 7.170. Shang- hai ~-~ Yo k o h a ma . Pass round the S end of KyOshfi through 0sumi Kaiky6. Distance 1030 miles. Alternatively, passage may be made through Naikai (The Inland Sea of Japan), see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 10 7. 171. Yo k o h a ma o r Ha k o d a t e *-* Pe t r o p a v l o v s k . As di rect as navigation permits. Pack-ice may be found off the SE coast of Hokkaid6 during February, March, and Apr i l As regards current, it may be possible to reduce the effect of the SW-going Oya Shio by keeping 60 miles or more off the Kuril Islands. Distances: Yokohama 1400 miles; Hakodate 1050 miles. 15 20 25 7.172. Yokoha ma - + Dut c hHa r bour . Proceed by great circle from the approaches to Yokohamat o 44 40' N, 163 40' E. Thence proceed by t humb line tracks through 49 00' N, 180 00' to Akutan Pass or Uni mak Pass, according to weather. Distance via Uni mak Pass 2770 miles. Alternatively, to pass N of the Aleutian Islands, proceed by great circle to 51 06' N, 179 30' E ; thence pass through Amchitka Pass and steer N of the islands to destination. Distance 2560 miles. 7.173. Hakodat e -~ Dut ch Har bour . Proceed as directly as navigation permits, passing N or S of the Aleutian Islands. The latter route may also be taken by proceeding by rhumb line to 49 00" N, 180 00' and thence to Akutan or Uni mak Pass, according to weather, See Admiralty Salting Directions. Distances: N of islands, 2240 miles; S of islands 2450 miles; via 49 00' N, 180 00' and Uni mak Pass 2490 miles. 7.174. Du t c h Ha r b o u r --> Ha k o d a t e or Yo k o h a ma . The route is S of the Aleutian Islands, as navigation permits, to 50 30' N, 180 00'. Thence, for Hakodate, the winter route from 1st November to 31st March passes through 50 30' N, 175 00' E; 50 10' N, 170 00' E; 49 30' N, 165 00' E; 48 20' N, 160 00' E; 46 30' N, 155 00' E; 44 00' N, 150 00' E, after which it is as direct as navigation permits. Distance via Uni mak Pass 30 2460 miles. The summer route for Hakodate, from 1 st April to 31 st October, passes through 50 00' N, 175 00' E ; 49 15' N, 170 00' E; 48 20' N, 165 00' E; 47 10' N, 160 00' E; 45 20' N, 155 00' E; 44 00' N, 152 00' E, after which it is as navigation permits. Distance via Uni mak Pass. 2570 miles For Yokohama, in winter, take the route given above as far as 44 00' N, 150 00' E and proceed thence by rhumb line as navigation permits. Distance 2770 miles. In summer, take the route given above to 44 00' N, 35 152 00' E and proceed thence as navigation permits. Distance 2760 miles. 40 7.175. Tor t es St rai t ~-~ Yap or Guam. The route passes through Djailolo Passage as directed for the North-east Monsoon in article 7.161. Between Torres Strait and Djailolo Passage give False Cape a wide berth, and pass between the coast of New Guinea, NE, and Pulau-pulau Aru and Ceram, SW. The ocean part of the passage is direct, as navigation permits. Distances: Yap 1860 miles; Guam 2300 miles. 7.176. Si ngapor e *-~ Yap. There are three alternatives for this passage. The shortest route is coastwise betnveen Singapore and Balabac Strait; thence through the Sulu Sea and Surigao Strait. d5 Surigao Strait is the only passage for large vessels from the Pacific to the interior waters of the Philippine Archipelago, with the exception of San Bernardino Strait; it is of advantage to vessels going to the southern Philippines or to the Sulu Sea, and is normally recommended (76.11) for ships from Australia who wish to escape the full force of the North-east Monsoon. The main strait is safe and deep throughout its length, and the shores of the islands that border it are steep-to. The entrance to the strait from the Pacific is between Suluan Island, N, and Dinagat Island, S ; the W side of 50 the strait is formed by the SE side of Leyte, and Panaon, and the E side by the islands lying N of the NE part of Mindanao. Alternatively, a route may be taken S of Mindanao, through the Sulawesi Sea, Makassar Strait and Java Sea, and Karimata Strait, see 7.114 and 7.128. The third alternative is through San Bernardino Strait and Verde Island Passage to join the Eastern Route 55 through the China Sea (7.113) NW of Nort h Danger. Distances: via Surigao Strait 2260 miles; via Java Sea 2520 miles; via San Bernardino Strait 2400 miles. 7.177. Ap i a a n d S u v a ~-~ Yap, Ma n i l a , a n d Ho n g Ko n g . All routes pass close S of Yap. From Apia, pass S 60 of Ellice Islands through 10 00' S, 180 00 ' to cross the equator in 154 00' E and thence to Yap. From Suva, proceed by Kandavu Passage t o pass S of Vanikoro Islands (11 40' S, 166 50" E) and between Santa Cruz Islands and Solomon Islands, passing N of Tasman (Nukumanu) Islands and thence to Yap. From Yap for Manila, pass through San Bernardino Strait and Verde Island Passage; for Hong Kong, pass through Balintang Channel. Distances from Apia: Yap 3320 miles; Manila 4460 miles; Hong Kong 4890 miles. From Suva: 65 Yap 2970 miles; Manila 4120 mi l es; Hong Kong 4540 miles. 70 7.178. Yokoha ma *-~ Gu a m or Ya p. By rhumb line from the approach to Yokohama. The track for Guam passes t hrough Nanp6 Shot6 between Kazan Rett6 and Ogasawara Gunt6. I n Nanp6 Shot6, caution is called for owing to volcanic activity in the area, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Distances: Guam 1340 miles; Yap 1570 miles. P A C I F I C OC E A N , C HI N A A N D J A P A N S E A S 115 7.179. Api a ~-~ Y o k o h a m a . The great circle track between the two ports passes through Marshall Islands and Gilbert Islands. Thi s part of it, though navigable, is not advised as a standard route in the existing state of hydro- graphic knowledge concerning these waters and owing to the uncertainty of the currents. The great circle track should be followed between the approach to Yokohama and 18 00' N, 160 .0 00' E. SE of this position, the recommended route passes between Eniwetok Atoll ( I I 30' N, 162 20" E) and Ujela_ng Atoll, 120 miles SW; W of Marshall Islands and Gilbert Islands; and between Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands to Apia, having crossed the equator in 172 E. Distance by recommended route 4130 miles; by great circle 4040 miles. 7.180. Suva +-~ Y o k o h a m a . Direct, by great circle to or from Kandavu Passage. The track passes between Kusaie (5 20" N, 163 00" E) and Pingelap Atoll, 140 miles NW. Distance 3950 miles. 7.181. Apia*-* Gua m and Shang-hai . FromApi a, proceedas for Yokohama (7.179) asf ar as300' S, 17500' E, between Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands, and thence to a position close S of Guam, passing N of Kusaie Island and Caroline Islands. From Guam proceed as directed in article 7.162 through Nansei Shot6 at 25 30' N, 126 30' E to Hsiao-pan-men. Distances: Guam 3000 miles; Shang-hai 4730 miles. 7 . 1 8 2 . S u v a <-~ G u a m a n d S h a n g - h a i . From Suva, proceed by Kandavu Passage to pass S of Vanikoro Islands (11 40" S, 166 50' E) and between Santa Cruz Islands and the Solomon Islands to join the E Australia ~-~ Guam route (7.162) at 20 miles W of Ulul. Distances: Guam 2820 miles; Shang-hai 4460 miles. 5 10 15 20 R O U T E S O N E A S T E R N S I D E O F P A C I F I C O C E A N 7.190. D u t c h H a r b o u r *-* N o r t h a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . The routes between Dut ch Harbour and destinations on coasts to the SE, N of San Diego, are as direct as navigation permits. For destinations farther S, the coastal route should be joined in 28 14' ~XI, 115 20' W, W of San Benito Islands, the passage from Dut ch Harbour having been made by great circle. Distances : Dixon Entrance 1270 miles; Juan de Fuca Strai t 1620 miles; San Francisco 2060 miles; San Diego 2480 miles; Panama 5270 miles. 30 7.191. P a s s a g e s b e t w e e n p o r t s o n P a c i f i c c o a s t s o f N o r t h a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . On many passages N of Juan de Fuca Strait the choice may be made between an ocean route and a passage inshore of the islands fringing the cost. The inshore passages are fully described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. They afford smooth water and suitable anchorages at moderate distances apart, and protection against the oceanic weather. Navigation is, 35 however, intricate in many parts and it should be constantly borne in mi nd that many of the minor passages may have only been partially examined. Navigation along the Pacific coast of the Uni t ed States requires to be carried out with all due caution, as the courses between salient points are, in general, long, and must be traversed during frequent periods of thick weather, with the vessel subject to the action of currents, the rate and direction of which are uncertain. 40 From a study of the investigations made into the causes of strandings on this coast, it was found, however, that a large percentage of the strandings were due to the lack of the ordinary precautions essential to safe naviga- tion, e. g. , sounding, knowledge of the errors of the compass, etc. The recommended track S of the Strait of Juan de Fuca is discussed in detail in Admiralty Sailing Directions. In general, an inshore route as direct as possible is recommended, on account of the better use that can be made of navigational aids and soundings, 45 and in order to avoid the heavy seas in the offing. Offshore, the California Current flows SE, but, from November to January or February, the Davidson Current flows N' l y, close inshore between the California Current and the coast, N of Point Conception or sometimes farther S. Between San Francisco and Panama, the coast may be followed as closely as navigation permits. For distances, see 7.196. 50 7.192. S a n F r a n c i s c o o r S a n D i e g o , - , C a l l a o o r I q u i q u e . Steer through 26 40; N, 115 00' W and thence direct to Callao by t humb line, passing E of Archipi61ago de Col6n. For Iquique, proceed as navigation permits after crossing the equator. For distance, see 7.196. 7.193. S a n F r a n c i s c o o r S a n D i e g o ~-, V a l p a r a i s o . Proceed through 26 40' N, 115 o 00' W; 7 00' N, 90 00' W; and thence by great circle. For distance, see 7.196. 7.194. S a n F r a n c i s c o ~-~ E s t e r o d e M a g a l l a n e s . Pass W of Isla de Guadalupe (29 1 Y N, 118 18" W) and then take a great circle track to cross the equator in 106 30' W, thereafter taking a second great circle to Cabo Pilar. The track passes through Islas Revilla Gigedo between Roca Partida and Clarion Island; it also passes about 70 miles W of Clipperton Island, and some 45 miles W of Germaine Bank (5 09" N, 107 35" W) . For distance, see 7.196. 7 . 1 9 5 . P a n a m a ~-~ P a c i f i c c o a s t o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . I n all cases take as direct a route as navigation permits. Off this coast, the Peril Current flows predominantly N, particularly near the land. Fog is most frequent off the coast of Perd, and least so in the parts N of 6 S, and except in April and NIay, between 15 o and 30 S. The highest and lowest frequencies of fog, over the region as a whole, occur in April and October respectively. For distance, see 7.196. 55 70 I 0 15 20 116 7.196. Di st ances, i n miles: Strait of Juan de Fuca POWER VESSEL ROUTES 680 1110 435 San Diego 3920 3220 2840 Panama 4650 3960 3570 1340 Callao 5280 4590 4210 1980 650 Iqui que 5800 5100 4720 2600 1290 780 6620 San Francisco 5940 5560 3710 2430 1970 Valparaiso 1210 Estrecho de Magallanes ROUTES TO AND FROM HONOLULU 25 7.200. Honol ul u *-* S y d n e y or Bri s bane. The Sydney route passes from off Sugarloaf Point through positions 30 miles E of Cato Island and 30 miles NW of Bampton Reefs, thence midway between Torres Island and Vanikoro; through 10 00' S, 170 00' E; midway between Nanumea Atoll and Aror~e Island, to cross the equator i n 178 50' W and thence by great circle. Distance 4490 miles. The Brisbane route passes between Cato Island and Wreck Reef, through 21 30' S, 156 05' E and thence to 30 a position 30 miles NW of Bampton Reefs, where it joins the Sydney route. Distance 4090 miles. 35 7.201. Honol ul u ~--~ Tor t es Strait. There is a choice of three routes for this passage. The shortest passes through Jomard Entrance and Bougainville Strait and between Gilbert Islands and Marshall Islands. Distance 4080 miles. The route passing about 5 miles S of Tagula Island and thence between Guadalcanal Island and San Cristobal Island and N of Ulawa Island, thence S of Gilbert Islands to Honolulu has a length of 4160 miles. The third route passes S of Indispensable Reef, S of Santa Cruz Islands and between Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands. Distance 4270 miles. 40 7.202. Honol ul u ,-* Ne w Zeal and. From Auckland, steer to pass 20 miles W of Cura~oa Reef; thence W of Savaii and between Tokelau Group and Swains Island (11 05" S, 171 03" W) . Distance 3800 miles. From Wellington, pass through 31 20' S, 179 30' W; and 22 30' S, 177 00' W, joining the Auckland route W of Cura~oa Reef. See 7.89, New Zealand ~-~ Tongatapu. Distance 4120 miles. 45 7.203. Honol ul u *-* Api a. By great circle. Distance 2250 miles. 7.204. Honoht l u *-* Suva. Proceed, using Nanuku Passage, either by great circle, which entails passage through Phoenix Islands, all low and not easily sighted, and the islands and dangers NE of Fiji Islands or by a clear route passing E of these dangers. Distances: by great circle 2760 miles; via a position NW of Savaii and thence 50 as article 7.202, 2840 miles. 7.205. Honol ul u *-* Oc e an I s l and. As navigation permits, passing N of Abaiang Atoll (1 49' N, 173 00' E). Distance 2330 miles. 55 60 65 70 7.206. Honol ul u .-~ Tongat apu. As navigation permits, passing 20 miles W of Cura~oa Reef. Distance 2730 miles. 7.207. Honol ul u *-~ Gu a m or Yap. By great circle. The track for Guam passes close to Wake Islet which, although only 6 m high, is a good radar target. The immediate vicinity of Wake Islet is a prohibited area. Ulithi Atoll (10 00" N, 139 40" E) lies on the track about 85 miles ENE of Yap. Distances: Guam 3320 miles; Yap 3750 miles. 7.208. Honol ul u *-~ Papeet e. The direct track passes between Caroline Island (10 01' S, 150 14' W) and Vostok Island and close to the position of the breakers reported in 1926 about 30 miles SW of Filippo Reef (5 31' S, 151 40" W) . Distance 2370 miles. 7.209. Honol ul u *-* Si ngapor e . E-bound, take the Mai n Route through the China Sea to Cape Bojeador; thence pass through Babuyan Channel and proceed by great circle to Honolulu. Distance 6070 miles. W-bound, proceed to 26 00' N, 180 00' by rhumb line, and thence by great circle to Cape Engano; thence through Babuyan Channel, to j oi n the Mai n route for Singapore. Alternatively, Balintang Channel may be used. Distance via Babuyan Channel 6090 miles. P A C I F I C OC E A N , C HI N A A N D ] A P A N S E A S 117 The passage may also be made i n either direction via the Eastern Route through the China Sea, leaving it near Nort h Danger Reef and passing thence through Verde Island Passage and San Bernardino Strait, proceeding thence to Honolulu by great circle. Distance 6010 miles. Via Guam, the distance is 6050 miles. Alternatively, if it is desired to use Palawan Passage, the voyage may be routed NW of Borneo through Balabak Strait, the Sulu Sea, and Surigao Strait. Distance 5910 miles. For routes through the China Sea, see 7.113 and 7.115. 7.210. Honol ul u ~-~ Mani l a. Through Verde Island Passage and San Bernardino Strait. Distance 4780 miles. 7.211. Honol ul u- ~ Ho n g Kong. From Hong Kong, steer for 21 25' N, 121 00' E i n Bashi Channel, and thence steer by great circle to 26 00' N, 180 00'. Thence steer by rhumb line to Honolulu, keeping S of the Hawaiian Islands. Thi s route can be used i n either direction. Distance 4880 miles. Alternatively, E-bound, the passage may be made via T' ai -wan Strait. After passing through the strait, steer round the N end of T' ai -wan and then proceed by rhumb line to 25 50' N, 127 40' E. Thence pass N of Muko- shima Rett6 through 28 00' N, 142 00" E, after which steer by great circle to Honolulu, passing S of the Hawaiian Islands. Distance 4870 miles. 10 15 7.212. Honol ul u ~-~ Shang- hai . The route passes from Shang-hai, S of Japan by Osumi Kaikys, and crosses the meridian of 140 E i n 30 10' N between Tori Shima and Sffu Gan. It then follows the great circle to Midway Island (28 13" N , 177 21" W) and passes along the N side of the Hawaiian Islands. Distance 4350 miles. 20 7.213. Honol ul u ~-~ Yo k o h a ma . The rhumb line track, on which good weather is usually experienced, passes about 20 miles S of the Hawaiian Islands. Distance 3440 miles. The great circle track between Kauai Channel and the landfall off Nojima Saki passes 15 miles N of Midway Island. Distance 3390 miles. 25 7.214. Honol ul u ~ Hakodat e . By great circle between Kauai Channel and the E approach to Hakodate. Distance 3310 miles. 7.215. Honol ul u ~ Dut ch Haxbour. By great circle between Kauai Channel and Uni mak Pass. Distance 2100 miles. 30 7. 216. Ho n o l u l u ~-~ Pr i nc e Rupert . By great circle between Kaiwi Channel and Dixon Entrance. Distance 2370 miles. 35 7.217. Honol ul u ~-~ Juan de Fuc a Strai t, San Fr anc i s c o, or San Di e g o . By great circles between Kaiwi Channel and destination. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 2280 miles; San Francisco 2080 miles; San Diego 2270 miles. 7.218. Honol ul u ~ Panama. By great circle between Kaiwi Channel and landfall off Isla Coiba, avoiding Guardi an Bank (9 10" N, 87 15" W) . Distance 4710 miles. The E-bound voyage may also be made by the Central Route, distance 5030 miles, see 7.265. 40 7. 219. Ho n o l u l u ,-~ Paci f i c coas t o f Sout h Ame r i c a . Routes are by great circle, departure being taken from the NE side of the Hawaiian Islands for destinations N of about 35 S. The great circle track for a vessel i nt endi ng to round Cabo de Hornos passes about 40 miles E of ~les Marquises and Henderson Island. Distances: Callao 5720 miles; Iquique 5920 miles; Valparaiso 4760 miles; Cabo Pilaf for Estrecho de Magallanes 6140 miles; 20 miles S of Islas Diego Ramirez 6430 miles; Cabo de Hornos 6470 miles. 45 50 ROUTES TO AND FROM PAPEETE 7.225. Papeet e ~-~ Gu a m. E-bound, steer N of the Caroline Islands, cross the equator i n 171 30' E, and pass S of Tamana and Aroree i n the Gilbert Islands. Pass S of Nukunonu Atoll and Fakaofo Atoll and N of Swains Island. Tahi t i should be approached S of Suvorov Islands (13 15" S , 163 05" VV) and the Society Islands. Landfall should not be attempted on Tle Manuae at night or i n thick weather. W-bound, reverse these directions. Distance 4360 miles. 55 7. 226. Pape e t e ~-~ Ho n g Ko ng or Mani l a. Proceed via a position close S of Yap, crossing the equator at about 154 E. For Manila, approach through San Bernardino Strait; for Hong Kong, approach through Balintang Channel. Distances: Manila 5760 miles; Hong Kong 6190 miles. To Yap, the distance from Papeete is 4620 miles; from Hong Kong 1580 miles; from Manila 1170 miles. 60 7.227. Papeet e ~-~ Shang- hai . Proceed, as in 7.225, between Guam and Papeete, and as in 7.181, through 65 Hsiao-pan-men and 25 30' N, 126 30' E, between Shang-hai and Guam. Distance 5990 miles. 7.228. Papeet e ~-~ Yokohama. Take the great circle track, which passes 30 miles NE of Wake Island and between Tongareva and Rakahanga ( 10 03" S , 161 06" W) at a distance of about 80 miles from the former. Distance 5130 miles. 118 - . POWER VESSEL ROUTES 5 7.229, Pape e t e ~ , Pr i nc e Rupe r t . The route is by great circle between 147 45"S, t48 55' W, NW of Matahiva, and either Di xon Entrance or Hecat e St rai t : Di st ance via Dixon EntranCe 4470 miles: ~ . 7.230. Papeet e ~-~ port s s o ut h o f Pr i nc e Rupert ; Ports on the Canadian, Uni t ed States, and Mexican coasts as far S as the Gul f of California are on clear great circle tracks from a position NW of Matahiva, passing NW of $les Marquises. Distances : Juan de Fuca Strait 4170 miles; San Francisco 3650 miles; San Diego 3550 miles. , I 0 7.231. Papeet e +-~ Panama. Pass W and N of Archipel des Tuamot u, and thence by great circle to and from the Gul f of Panama. Distance 4600 miles . . . . . : 7.232. Papeet e ~-* Cal l ao. There are two routes, of which the longer passes W and N of Archipel des Tuamot u 15 and uses the great circle track between a position N of ~les du D6sappointement (14 10" S, 141 20" W) and Callao. Distance 4370 miles. The shorter and more S' l y route passes through Archipel des Tuamot u S of Ahunui (19 40" S, 140 28" W) , using the great circle track between that position and Callao; Distance 4210 miles. 20 25 7.233. Papeet e ~-~ I qui que . The route passing S of Archipel des Tuamot u and using the great circle track between Pitcairn Island and Iquique, passing close N of Isla Sala y Gomez, has a distance of 4510 miles. Alternatively, the shorter direct great circle track, pasaing through Archipel des Tuamot u S of Ahunui (I 9 40" S, 140 28" W) and N of Turei a and Marutea has a distance of 4480 miles. 30 7.234. Papeet e ~ Val parai s o. The route passes at a safe distance S of Hereheretue Atoll and Group d' iles Duc de Gloucester (20 41" S, 143 03' W) , and thence by great circle direct to Valparaiso. The track passes close S of Islas Alejandro Selkirk (M~s a Fuera) and Robinson Crusoe (Juan Fernandez). Distance 4260 miles. 7.235. Papeet e *-. Es t r e c ho de Magal l anes. The great circle track is recommended, in both directions. Distance 4020 miles. 35 40 7.236. Papeet e ~-~ Cabo de Hor nos . Steer by great circle to 55 00' S, 80 00' W, on the Southern Route (7.240), and thence by rhumb line to a position 20 miles S of Islas Diego Ram:fez or to Cabo de Hornos. Distance 4240 miles to the position S of Islas Diego Ram:fez; 4280 miles to Cabo de Homos. S OUTH PACIFIC TRANS- OCEAN ROUTES 7. 240. So ut he r n r out e s acros s Paci f i c Ocean. The most S' l y route usually adopted by E-bound traffic passes through 48 30' S, 165 00' W; 50 00' S, 140 00' W; 51 30' S, 120 00' W; 52 45" S, 100 00' W; 55 00' S, 80 00' W. When the great circle track between the terminal positions passes S of this route, vessels 45 are advised to steer, by great circle if possible, to join it at the most convenient position. Similarly, they should leave the route at a position which enables t hem to make their destination, by great circle if possible, without passing S of the track described above, which is referred to as the Sout he r n l t out e . For ice, see 7.44 and 7.45. W-bound routes across the South Pacific lie far N of the Southern route, following the parallel of 30 S for various distances between the meridians of 120 W and 150 W. 50 The passages for which the Southern route, or part of it, are appropriate are best seen by plotting it on chart 5098, the gnomonic chart for the South Pacific and Southern Oceans. The following are the best joining and leaving positions. From Joi n in 55 Hobart or Snares Islands 48 30' S, 165 00' W Cook Strait 49 30' S, 150 00' W Auckland 50 00' S, 140 00' W For Leave in 60 Callao 48 30' S, 165 00' W Iqui que 49 30' S, 150 00" W Valparaiso 50 00' S, 140 00' W Estrecho de Magallanes 52 45" S, 100 00' W 20' S of Islas Diego Ramirez 55 00' S, 80 00' W 65 From Cook Strait to Callao the route is direct after passing N of Chatham Islands. From Auckland to Iqui que and Callao the route is direct after clearing the New Zealand coast. From Sydney or Brisbane for destinations S of and including Callao, proceed via Cook Strait. Alternatively, from Sydney, the route S of New Zealand is practicable for Valparaiso and ports S, and only slightly longer. 70 Approaching Cabo de Hornos from W, pass 20 miles S of Islas Diego de Ramirez. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS Distances, in miles, E-bound by the above routes : 119 {obart delbourne ;ydney (via Cook St.) ;ydney (via Snares) ~risbane Vellington luckland Ca l l a o 6780 7030 6940 7115 5720 5840 Iqui que 6700 6950 6880 7050 5660 5820 Valparaiso 6110 6370 6290 6320 6460 5070 5150 Estrecho de Magallanes 5400 , 5660 5580 5540 5760 4360 4440 Islas Diego de Ramirez 5620 5870 ~5800 5830 5970 4570 4650 Cabo de Hornos 5660 5910 5840 5870 6010 4610 4700 10 Note: Passages from Auckland to Iqui que or Callao do not use the Southern Route. For Iquique, the route is by great circle direct; for Callao it is by great circle to 41 40' S, 160 00' W, as in article 7.244, and thence by great circle. 7.241. T o r r e s S t r a i t - ~ S o u t h A m e r i c a . Pass S of Bellona Reefs to 28 30' S, 170 00' E, NE of Norfolk Island; thence by great circle to join the Southern Route (7.240) in 50 00' S, 140 00' W if bound for Cabo de Hornos or Estrecho de Magallanes, or direct for Valparaiso or Iquique. If bound for Callao, steer by great circle to 38 00' S, 150 00' W and thence to destination. Distances from W Entrance: Cabo de Hornos 7450 miles; Islas Diego de Ramirez 7400 miles; Estrecho de Magallanes 7130 miles; Valparaiso 7850 miles; Iqui que 8390 miles; Callao 8350 miles. 7.242. Hobar t --~ P a n a m a . Proceed by great circle to 47 50' S, 167 50' E, ENE of Snares Islands; thence by great circle to Cabo Mala. Distance 7640 miles. 7.243. Wel l i ngt on --* P a n a m a . The direct great circle track between Cook Strait and the Gul f of Panama crosses the meridian of 150 W in about 38 30' S. The area immediately N of this position has in it several reported dangers, including Maria Theresa and Ernest Legouv~ Reefs. For this reason it is considered that a better route, about 45 miles longer, is by great circle to 41 40' S, 160 00' W; thence by great circle crossing the meridian of 150 W in 40 00' S, to a position on the equator in 83 00' W. From this position, steer direct to Panama, passing E of Isla Malpelo. Distance 6540 miles. 7.244. Auckl and -~ P a n a m a . Proceed by great circle to 41 40' S, 160 00' W; thence by great circle to a position on the equator in 83 00' W; thence direct to Panama, passing E of Isla Malpelo. Distance 6630 miles. See 7.243. 7.245, Panama --~ N e w Z e a l a n d . Steer to 2 10' S, 90 00' W, about 50 miles S of Archip61ago de Col6n. Steer thence by great circle to 25 40' S, 130 00' W, 30 miles S of Pitcairn Island, passing about 25 miles S of Henderson Island, and then take another great circle to 3'6 30' S, 160 00' W, with due regard t o the reports of breakers N of Ernest Legouv6 Reef (35 14" S, 150 38" W). From the position on the 160th meridian, proceed to destination by great circle. Distances: Auckland 6530 miles; Wellington 6530 miles. 7.246. C h i l e a n d P e r d --~ E a s t c o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a , a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . The parallel of 30 S forms part of all routes, see 7.240. To reach this parallel, proceed from the departure position by great circle, ships from Estrecho de Magallanes or Cabo de Hornos to 30 00' S, 140 00' W; from Valparaiso (passing either side of Archipi61ago de Juan Fermlndez), Iqui que and Callao to 30 00" S, 120 00' W. If bound for a New Zealand port, steer from 30 00' S, 140 00' W by great circle to 36 30' S, 160 00' W, with due regard to the reports of breakers N of Ernest Legouv6 Reef (35 14" S, 150 38" W), and thence to destination by great circle. For Australian ports, keep on 30 S as far as 150 W and then proceed to destination, passing N of New Zealand, or via Cook Strait if desired. Distances, in miles: 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Cabo de Hornos Estrecho de Magallanes Valparaiso Iqui que Callao Wellington Auckland Sydney 5670 5390 ' 5800 6090 5950. 5670 5390 5800 6090 5950 6870 6590 7000, 7290 7150 70 5 10 15 20 120 P OWE R V E S S E L R O UT E S 7.247. Api a *-~ So ut h Ame r i c a . For Callao, in both directions, the route is by great circles meeting in 19 46' S, 140 26' W, SE of Ahunui Atoll, Archipel des Tuamot u. For Iquique, the route is direct by great circle in both directions, passing close to Pitcairn Island and Isla Sala y Gomez. For Valparaiso, the E-bound route is direct by great circle passing close to Rarotonga, the dangers SE of ~les Australes, and l i e Rapa and Marotiri Islands. W-bound, from Valparaiso proceed by great circle to 30 00' S, 120 00' W as directed in article 7.246, and thence along the parallel of 30 00" N to 139 00' W and by great circle as on the E-bound route to Valparaiso. Distances: Callao 5500 miles; Iqui que 5760 miles; Valparaiso 5460 miles E-bound and 5510 miles W-bound. 7.248. Suva ~-~ So ut h Ame r i c a . For Callao, the route is the same in both directions. From Suva, proceed from Nanuku Passage by rhumb line to 18 44' S, 159 47" W, N of Aitutaki Island; and thence to 19 46' S, 140 26' W, SE of Ahunui Atoll, Archipel des Tuamot u; thence by great circle. For Iquique, the route is the same in both directions, from Suva as for Callao to the position N of Aitutaki Island; thence by t humb line to 24 55' S, 130 10' W, N of Pitcaim Island; thence by great circle. For Valparaiso E-bound, proceed to 17 30' S, 173 00' W and thence by great circle. W-bound, proceed by great circle to 30 00' S, 120 00' W; thence along the parallel of 30 00' S, to 139 00' W; thence by great circle to 17 30' S, 173 00' W, a track which passes near Beveridge Reef and Niue Island; thence to Suva. Distances: Callao 6060 miles; Iqui que 6300 miles; Valparaiso 5920 miles E-bound and 5990 miles W-bound. MI D- PACI FI C TRANS - OCEAN ROUTES 25 7.260. Ce nt r al Rout e . The constant W' l y flow of water in the equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean between, roughly, the latitudes of Hawaii in the N and Fiji and the Society Islands in the S, together with the North-east Trade and South-east Trade Winds which blow on either side of the Equatorial Trough, tend to lengthen voyage times and to increase fuel and maintenance costs on ships E-bound through these waters. All passages from ports between Hong Kong and Sydney to destinations on the coasts of Central America and equatorial South America 30 may be affected enough to merit the diversion of part of the route into the E' l y flow of the Equatorial Counter- current (7.32) which, as described in Admiralty Sailing Directions and below, flows across the ocean from W to E in a narrow belt a few degrees N of the equator. Also the central and E part of the Ocean is favoured by the light weather of the Equatorial Trough. Although the limits of the Equatorial Counter-current are often sharply defined at sea, they have not been 35 precisely delineated by observation. It is known that there is some seasonal shift which tends to be N' l y or S' ly following the declination of the sun. W of 160 E, the limits are about 3 N to 9 N from Mayt o November, and about 5 N to 7 N from December to April. To the W of 140 E average speed is about 1 knot, and over 2 knots has been recorded; farther E the average is to knot. Between 160 E and 165 W the current is at its narrowest in March, April and May, when it flows between about 4 N and 8 N. It extends to about 2 N, 40 W of 150 E, from June to December. From long. 180 to 110 W the S edge of the current lies permanently in about 4 N, while the N edge, continuing on 8 N, shifts towards 10 N as the year progresses from June towards November. The Central Route, quoted in this book, is an average counter-current route between the Sulawesi Sea and the Gul f of Panama, with an overall length of 9250 miles between 5 o 00' N, 125 o 30' E, S of Mindanao, and 7 00' 45 N, 80 00' W, off the Gul f of Panama. It passes between Sonsorol Islands and Pulau Anna on 5 N, continuing on that parallel to a position S of Kusaie Island in about 163 o E; thence to a position S of Palmyra Island in 5 30' N, 162 00' W, and to make Cabo Mala. Positions for joining and leaving the route depend on local as well as climatic considerations; with this in view Panama-bound ships from Hong Kong might join in 168 E, between the Marshall and Caroline Islands, at a cost of 820 miles over the shortest navigable distance of 9270 miles. 50 Ships from Sydney, joining in 150 W, would accept an extra distance of about 700 miles compared with the 7700 miles of the route via Cook Strait (7.64 and 7.243). Several joining routes are described in the following articles. 55 60 7.261. Sydney--~ Ce nt r al Rout e . Steer by great circle to 19 50' S, 180 00' ; thence, after passing about 10 miles S of Ongea Ndriki ( 19 12" S , 178 24" W) and W of Savaii, steer to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 30' N, 150 00' W. Distance to Panama 8390 miles. 7.262. Br i sbane --~ Ce nt r al Rout e . Steer by great circle to 22 05' S, 175 00 E, about 30 miles SE of Conway Reef; thence to 19 50' S, 180 00' ; thence, after passing about 10 miles S of Ongea Ndriki ( 19 12"S, 178 24" W) and W of Savaii, steer to j oi n the Central Route (7.260) in 5 30' N, 150000 ' W. Distance to Panama 8180 miles. 7.263. To r t e s St rai t --~ Ce nt r al Rout e . Steer to pass about 5 miles off the reefs S of Tagula Island and thence, between Guadalcanal Island and San Cristobal Island and midway between Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands to 65 cross the equator in about 175 00' W. Thence, steer by rhumb line to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 N, 160 W. Distance to Panama 8670 miles. Alternatively, pass through Jomard Entrance and Bougainville Strait; thence S of Ontong Java and N of Abaiang Atoll (I 58" N, 172 50" E) to join the Central Route on the 180th meridian in about 5 15' N. Thi s will increase the total distance by about 90 miles but will allow favourable weather and current to be carried for 70 an additional 1200 miles. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND J APAN SEAS 121 7.264. S u v a a n d A p i a - * C e n t r a l R o u t e . From Suva, pass through Nanuku Passage and close W of Savaii; from Apia proceed direct. In both cases, join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 30' N, 150 00' W. Distances to Panama: Suva 6660 miles ; Apia 6040 miles. Alternatively, join the Central Route in 140 W; but this will reduce the chance of a favourable Equatorial Counter-current by about 600 miles while only reducing the distance by 110 miles. 7.265. Honol ul u -~ C e n t r a l R o u t e . As navigation permits to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 50' N, 134 00' W. Distance to Panama 5030 miles. 7.266. Gua m -+ Cent r al R o u t e . After rounding the S point of Guam steer to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 00' N, 168 00' E, to pass between Namorik Atoll and Ebon Atoll. Distance to Panama 8300 miles. 10 7.267. Yap -~ Cent r al Rout e. Direct, to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 00' N, 150 00' E. Distance to Panama 8670 miles. 15 7 . 2 6 8 . O c e a n I s l a n d --~ C e n t r a l R o u t e . P a s s N of Abaiang Atoll (1 58' N, 172 50' E) to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 15' N, 180 00' Distance to Panama 6840 miles. 7.269. B a s i l a n S t r a i t - - . C e n t r a l R o u t e . Fr om the E entrance to Basilan Strait steer across the Sulawesi Sea to join the Central Route (7.260) S of Mindanao, in 5 00' N, 125 o 30' E. Distance from Basilan Strait to Panama 10090 miles; from the position S of Mindanao to Panama 9360 miles. 7.270. S a n B e r n a r d i n o S t r a i t --~ C e n t r a l Rout e. From the E entrance to San Bernardino Strait steer to pass S of Palau Islands and thence to join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 00" N, 150 00' E. Distance from San Bernardino Strait to Panama 9530 miles. 20 25 7.271. B a l i n t a n g C h a n n e l --~ C e n t r a l R o u t e . From 19 45' N, 122 10' E, in Balintang Channel, pass close S of Guam and join the Central Route (7.260) in 5 00' N, 168 00' E, to pass between Namorik Atoll and Ebon Atoll. Distance to Panama 9620 miles. 30 7.272. M e l b o u r n e a n d S y d n e y - ~ P a n a m a . Cross the Tasman Sea from Bass Strait or Sydney by great circle, to pass N of New Zealand, on either side of Three Kings Islands with due regard to the tidal streams in that locality, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. To the E of New Zealand the routes follow a common track, by great circle to 30 00' S, 150 00' W, thence by t humb line to 25 40' S, 130 00' W, S of Pitcairn Island; thence by 35 great circle to 2 10' S, 90 00' W. S of Archipi61ago de Col6n and to Cape Mala. Distance: Mel bourne 8050 miles; Sydney 7700 miles. Alternatively, passage from Sydney may be made via Papeete (7.66 and 7.231), or via Suva (7.69 and 7.285) and thence, leaving the Fiji Islands by Nanuku Passage or Lakemba Passage (7.96) proceeding by great circle to 6 30' S, 120 00' W, on the route between Papeete and Panama. Distance via Papeete 7900 miles; via Suva 40 7980 miles. For Central Route, see 7.261. 7.273. Panama- - ~ Sydney. From the Gul f of Panama, steer to 2 10' S, 90 00' W, S of Archipi61ago de Co16n and thence by great circle to 25 40' S, 130 00' W, S of Pitcairn Island. Then steer by rhumb line to 30 00' S, 150 00' W and then by great circle to pass N of New Zealand to a position 5 miles N of Three Kings Islands, whence a great circle track may be taken for Sydney. Distance 7700 miles. 7.274. Br i sbane --~ P a n a m a . Thi s passage may be made via Papeete (7.75 and 7.231) or via Suva as in 7.78 and 7.285. Distance via Papeete 7810 miles; via Suva 7860 miles. For Central Route, see 7.262. 7.275. Pa na ma -~ Br i sbane. Follow the Panama - , Sydney route (7.273) as far as 30 00" S, 150 00' W, thence proceeding by rhumb line to pass N of the Kermadec Islands. Distance 7740 miles. 45 50 7.276. T o r r e s S t r a i t ~-~ P a n a m a . The great circle track between 13 10' S, 160 30' E, S of Indispensable 55 Reefs, and the Gul f of Panama is encumbered with dangers between Indispensable Reefs and $1es Marquises. The distance, neglecting navigational diversions, is 8570 miles. A recommended route, comparatively free as regards navigational hazards, is by the routes given in article 7.85, Torres Strait ~-~ Apia and article 7.285, Apia ~-~ Panama, with a distance of 8590 miles. Both the above distances are from the W entrance to Tort es Strait. For Central Route, see 7.263. 60 7.277. Ocean I sl and ~-, P a n a m a . By great circle between the Gul f of Panama and Ocean Island. Distance 6760 miles. See 7.268 for the Central Route as alternative. 7.278. Si ngapor e --. P a n a m a . There is a choice between several routes, each with different characteristics of 65 depths, navigational hazard, shelter, weather, currents, and bunkering facilities. The principal routes are as follows, the distances including fuelling stops at the ports mentioned. To Yokohama 2890 miles; thence to Panama; total 10530 miles. Articles 7.122, 7.304 refer. To Yokohama 2890 miles; thence to Honolulu 3440 miles; thence to Panama; total 10510 miles. Articles 7.122, 7.213, 7.218 refer. 70 122 P OWE R V E S S E L R OUT E S Through the China Sea by the Eastern Route to Balintang Channel, thence by great circle across the Pacific Ocean to j oi n the coastal route off Manzanillo i n about 19 00' N, 105 00" W. Distance 10510 miles. Articles 7.113, 7.191 refer. Through the China Sea to Verde Island Passage, as directed i n 7.124, and San Bemardino Strait to Guam 5 2740 miles; thence to Panama as i n 7.281 ; total 10780 miles. Through San Bemardino Strait as above and by great circle to j oi n the coastal route off Marmanillo, see 7.191 ; total distance 10620miles. Through Balabac Strait and Basilan Strait, to j oi n the Central Route S of Mi ndanao; see 7.125, 7.269. Total distance 10830 miles. 10 Through the Eastern Archipelago to Tort es Strait, see 7.163 ; thence to Panama by Central Route, see 7.263 Tot al distance, depending on route used through the Eastern Archipelago, about 11200 miles. 7.279. Pa~ama --~ Mani l a o r S i n g a p o r e . By keeping N of the E-bound Central Route (7.260), the North Equatorial current can be carried for most of the ocean crossing and, if fuel is needed, little distance is lost by 15 calling at Honol ul u (7.218) or Guam (7.280). For this direct route, after clearing Cabo Mala, take a great circle to 13 30' N, 170 00" E and t hen pass between Bikar Atoll and Taongi Atoll; thence passing close S of Guam and to San Bernardino Strait and Verde Island Passage. Having entered the China Sea, join the Eastern Route NW of Nort h Danger and continue to Singapore. 20 See 7.113. Distances: Manila 9580 miles; Singapore 10810 miles. 2,5 7 . 2 8 0 . P a n a m a - - > Gua m. Proceed either by the direct route given i n article 7.279, or via Honol ul u (7.218 and 7.207). Distance by direct route 8090 miles; via Honol ul u 8040 miles. 7.281. Gua m -+ P a t a a m a . Proceed by great circle, which passes through Hawaiian Islands between Gardner Pinnacles and Brooks Bank, and between Islas Revilla Gigedo (19 00" N, 112 00" W) . Distance 8040 miles. Alternatively, use the Central Route (7.266); distance 8300 miles. 7.282. New Zeal and, Suva, and Apl a ~-~ N o r t h A m e r i c a . Suva and Apia lie near the route NE from New 30 Zealand (7.202), which passes close W of the Samoa Islands and on towards Honolulu. Great circle tracks for voyages between New Zealand ports and Nort h American coast ports pass through areas S of the equator which are encumbered with. dangers and which, i n parts, lack charted soundings. Similarly, the great circle tracks between Suva or Apia and the Nort h American coast are obstructed to some extent and, unless the great circle track is clear, as i n the case of Apia ~-+ San Francisco or San Diego, a track pa~sing E of Tokelau Islands, through 35 about 10 30" S, 171 00" W and keeping to the great circles, subject to navigational hazards, is recommended for each route. Although the great circle tracks between New Zealand and the equator, and through Phoenix Islands, should be avoided, these direct distances, neglecting navigational diversions, are given below for comparison with those recommended. 40 Distances, in miles; D = direct, R = recommended. 45 50 55 Wellington D R ~uckland D R San Diego 5830 6090 5650 5770 San Francisco 5870 6040 5660 5720 Juan de Fuca Strait 6290 6370 6040 6050 Prince Rupert 6440 6490 6160 6160 3uva D 4790 4730 5030 5110 i byNanuku Passage) R 4800 4750 5080 5200 ~pia D 4180 4140 4480 4600 R 4180 4140 4890 5010 60 7.283. Sydney o r B r i s b a n e ~-~ N o r t h A m e r i c a . The portion of the direct route S of the equator is common to all passages. It is described i n article 7. 200. From the position on the equator i n 178 50' W the routes are by great circle to each destination. The great circle track for San Francisco should be diverted slightly to pass 65 through Alenuihaha Channel, between Hawaii and Maul For Juan de Fuca Strait, the track passes close SE of the reported position of Wilder Shoal (8 17" N, 173 29" W) and through the Hawaiian Islands E of Nihoa. For Hecate Strait, it passes E of Necker Island and for Dixon Entrance it passes E of French Frigate Shoal. On all the direct routes, a diversion to Honol ul u for fuel presents no problem. If Suva is used as a fuelling stop on the San Diego or San Francisco routes, great circle courses may be steered between those ports and a landfall 70 at Savaii, Samoa Islands. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND ~t APAN SEAS Di st ances by di r ect rout es, i n mi l es : 123 Sydney Brisbane San Di ego 6700 6300 San Fr anci sco 6550 6150 I Pr i nce Ru ' pert Juan de Fuca St r ai t I ( by Di xon Ent r ance) 6740 6750 6340 6350 10 7.284. T o r t e s St r a i t *-~ No r t h Ame r i c a . Th e di r ect gr eat ci r cl e t r ack bet ween Bougai nvi l l e St r ai t and San Di ego passes dos e t o Honol ul u, a nd t hose for por t s f ar t her N pass t hr ough Mar s hal l I sl ands and t he Hawai i an I sl ands. Th e cl earest r out es ar e t her ef or e vi a Honol ul u; t he t abl e bel ow r ef er s t o t he r el evant par a- gr aphs for each composi t e r out e, and gi ves t he di r ect gr eat ci rcl e di st ance, not a11owing for t he avoi dance of navi gat i onal hazar ds, for t he benef i t of t hose consi der i ng a di r ect r out e. Di st ances are f r om Tor t e s St r ai t ( W ent r ance) , i n mi l es. 15 San Di ego San Fr anci sco J uan de Fuca St r ai t Pr i nce Ruper t Di r ect 6570 6350 6390 6260 vi a Honol ul u 6580 6380 6590 6670 Reference 7.201 7.217 7.201 7.217 7.201 7.217 7.201 7.216 20 25 7.285. Suv a a n d Api a *-~ Pa n a ma . Th e r out es bet ween Api a or Suva and 10 45' S, 136 35" W, SE of Tles Mar qui ses, ar e by gr eat ci rcl e, and agai n by gr eat ci rcl e bet ween t hat posi t i on and Panama. Di st ances: Suva 6350 mi l es; Api a 5740 mi l es. For E- bound passages by cent r al r out e, see 7.264. 7.286. Gu a m or Ya p ~ - No r t h Ame r i c a . Rout es ar e as near l y gr eat ci r cl e t r acks as navi gat i on per mi t s. Di st ances, negl ect i ng navi gat i onal di versi ons, are, i n mi l es. 30 San Di ego San Fr anci sco Juan de Fuca St r ai t Pr i nce Ruper t Gua m 5410 5080 4830 4570 Yap 5830 5500 5260 4980 35 7.287. Gu a m ~-~ Ma n i l a or Si ng a po r e . Th e nor mal r out e f r om Gu a m i s by gr eat ci rcl e t o San Bemar di no St r ai t , Ver de I s l and Passage, and Mani l a, cont i nui ng t o pi ck up t he East er n Rout e i n t he Chi na Sea, NW of Nor t h Danger , see 7.113 and 7.124, and so t o Si ngapore. Di st ances f r om Gu a m: Mani l a 1510 mi l es, Si ngapor e 2740 mi l es. Al t er nat i vel y, a di r ect passage ma y be made bet ween Si ngapor e and Guam, par t i cul ar l y E- bound i n t he Nor t h- east Monsoon, b y Bal abac St r ai t and Sur i gao St r ai t . Di st ance 2640 mi l es. 7.288. Ho n g Ko n g ~- Gu a m a r Yap. As navi gat i on per mi t s, t hr ough Bal i nt ang Channel . Th e vi ci ni t y of Pr at as Reef and Ver eker Banks shoul d be avoi ded, see 7.113 and Admi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons. Di st ances: Gu a m 1840 mi l es; Yap 1580 mi l es. 40 45 50 NOR T H P ACI F I C TRANS - OCEAN ROUTES 7.295. Ge ne r a l No t e s . Br oadl y speaki ng, t he t r e nd of t he coast l i ne bor der i ng t he Nor t h Pacific basi n fol l ows 55 t he arc of a gr eat ci rcl e. I n fact , a gr eat ci rcl e dr awn bet ween a posi t i on i n Luzon St r ai t and a posi t i on on t he coast of Br i t i sh Col umbi a wi l l pass t hr ough t he Sea of Japan and t he Ber i ng Sea, whi l e a gr eat ci rcl e bet ween Luzon St r ai t and t he coast of Cal i f or ni a wi l l pass cl ose t o Yokohama and not far S of t he Al eut i an I sl ands. A hi gh- l at i t ude r out e for t he t r ans- ocean voyage is t her ef or e at t r act i ve on t he score of di st ance, but i t has di sadvant ages i n weat her and cur r ent s, t o some ext ent seasonal, whi ch obl i ge consi der at i on of a r out e i n l ower 60 l at i t udes par t i cul ar l y when W- b o u n d i n wi nt er . Wi t h r egar d t o t he weat her, i n summer , fog i s f r equent over t he whol e NW par t of t he ocean. I n wi nt er , snow of t en r educes vi si bi l i t y. Th e E coast of Japan is f ul l y exposed t o t he st r ong E' l y gal es pr eval ent i n Spr i ng. Gener al not es on wi nds, weat her, cur r ent s and i ce wi l l be f ound i n art i cl es 7. 01-7. 10, 7.25, 7.26, 7. 32-7. 34, 7. 41-7. 43. 65 I n t hese ci r cumst ances, t he choi ce of an E- bound r out e depends mai nl y on t he cur r ent s l i kel y t o be me t and t he navi gat i onal r equi r ement s. Fuel l i ng por t s are r easonabl y avai l abl e. W- bound, i t ma y be desi r abl e t o t ake a mor e S' l y rout e, based on t he par al l el of about 35 N or even f ar t her S i n whi ch a compr omi s e is effect ed bet ween ext r a di st ance and t he r educed i nfl uence of wi nd and cur r ent , and whi ch allows for t he possi bi l i t y of r ef uel l i ng at ei t her Honol ul u or Guam. 70 124 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 7.296. Si ngapor e -+ No r t h Ame r i c a . Yokohama, at a distance of 2890 miles from Singapore (7.122), and near the great circle joining Singapore with positions on the North American coast, is a convenient fuelling point. If calling at or passing close to Yokohama, onward routes are as follows: 5 For Route reference Total distance (miles) Dut ch Harbour 7.172 5650 (S of Aleutian Is.) Prince Rupert 7.306 6740 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.306 7070 San Francisco 7.305 7410 10 San Diego 7.305 7810 15 7.297. Mani l a --> Pa n a ma . The direct route passes N of Luzon, crossing the Pacific Ocean from Balintang Channel by great circle to join the American coastal route i n about 19 00' N, 105 00' W, off Manzanillo. Distance 9380 miles. To make the passage by the Central Route, proceed by Verde Island Passage and San Bernardino Strait to j oi n the Central Route in 5 00' N, 150 00' E as instructed in article 7.270. Distance 9870 miles. Composite routes are via Yokohama, see 7.168 and 7.304, distance 9530 miles; or via Guam and Honolulu, see 7.287, 7.207, and 7.218. Distance 9540 miles. These distances allow for fuelling stops at the ports indicated. 20 7.298. Mani l a -+ San Di e g o or San Fr anc i s c o. The direct route crosses the Pacific Ocean by great circle from Balintang Channel direct to either destination. Distances: San Diego 6620 miles; San Francisco 6240 miles. Composite routes are via Yokohama, see paragraphs 7.168, 7.305; distances to San Diego 6760 miles; to San Francisco 6360 miles; or via Guam and Honolulu, see 7.287, 7.207, and 7.217, distances to San Diego 25 7100 miles; to San Francisco 6910 miles. These distances allow for fuelling stops at the ports indicated. 30 7.299. Mani l a -~ Juan de Fuc a St rai t or Pr i nc e Rupe r t . For the direct route, take a great circle track from Balintang Channel to 41 00' N, 157 00' E; then steer by rhumb line to 49 00' N, 180 00" and by rhumb line to destination. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 5910 miles; Prince Rupert 5570 miles. Composite routes are via Yokohama, see 7.168 and 7.306; distances to Juan de Fuca Strait 6040 miles; to Prince Rupert 5700 miles; or via Guam and Honolulu, see 7.287, 7.206.7.216, 7.217: distances to Juan de Fuca Strait 7110 miles; to Prince Rupert 7200 miles. These distances allow for fuelling stops at the ports indicated. 35 7.300. Hong Ko n g - ~ Pa n a ma . Steer as directed in article 7.169 to a position off Yokohama and then take the great circle tracks to j oi n the Nort h American coastal route as directed i n article 7.304. Distance 9270 miles. To make the passage by the Central route, proceed through Luzon Strait, passing between Babuyan and Balintang Islands, and then, after passing close S of Guam, join the Central route (7.271), in 5 00' N, 168 00' E. Distance 10090 miles. dO 7. 301. Ho n g Ko n g - + San Di e g o or San Fr anc i s c o. By a small margin, the shortest route is via T' ai -wan Strait, Korea Strait and Tsugaru Kaikyo, calling at Hakodate if necessary, and thence, having cleared Erimo Misaki, by great circle to destination. The vertex of the great circle to San Francisco is in 50 30' N, 175 00' W, about 80 miles S of the Aleutian Islands, See 7.308. Alternatively, the passage may be made via the approaches to Yokohama (7.169), and onward by great circle, ~/5 see 7.305. Distances via Tsugaru Kakyo and Yokohama respectively are: San Diego 6450 and 6460 miles; San Francisco 6050 and 6060 miles. A favourable current may be expected over most of the passage if the route is taken as above, but, on the other hand, the vessel will be exposed to the weather of the Nort h Pacific. Better weather, but less favourable current, is likely to be experienced on the longer routes via Honolulu (7.211, 7.218), or via Guam and Honol ul u (7.288, 50 7.207, 7.218). Distances, calling at Honol ul u: San Diego 7140 miles; San Francisco 6940 miles; calling at Guam and Honol ul u: San Diego 7430 miles; San Francisco 7240 miles. 55 7. 302. Ho n g Ko n g --~ Juan de Fuc a St rai t or Pr i nc e Rupe r t . The most direct route is via T' ai -wan Strait, Korea Strait and Tsugaru Kaikyo, calling at Hakodate if necessary, see 7.169, 7.309. Thence, after clearing Erimo Misaki, proceed by rhumb line to 49 00' N, 180 00' ; and continue by rhumb line to destination. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 5720 miles; Prince Rupert 5390 miles. Alternatively, the passage may be made via the approaches to Yokohama, see 7.169, and onward by the routes given in article 7.306. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 5740 miles; Prince Rupert 5400 miles. 60 7.303. Shang-hai -+ No r t h Ame r i c a . The shortest route is via the Sea of Japan and Tsugaru Kaiky6, following the directions given in articles 7.307, 7.308, and 7.309 after clearing Erimo Misaki. Distances: Panama 8540 miles; San Diego 5760 miles; San Francisco 5350 miles; Juan de Fuca Strait 5020 miles. 7. 304. Yo k o h a ma ~-~ Pa n a ma . Take the great circle track between the approaches to Yokohama and 22 40' N, 65 110 00' W, S of Cabo Falso on the Nort h American coastal route, continuing on that route to Panama. Distance 7650 miles. Alternatively, a route via Honolulu is recommended, particularly to ships W-bound. It avoids the generally E-going current which can be expected on the great-circle route, and it carries the probability of better weather with an opportunity of fuelling midway on the route. See 7.213 and 7.218. Distance by shortest combination of 70 tracks 8100 miles. PACI FI C OCEAN, CHI NA AND f f APAN SEAS 125 7.305. Yokohama --~ San Di e g o or San Fr anc i s c o. The direct routes are by great circle i n both cases, with a highest latitude on the route to San Francisco of 47 30' N, i n 170 00" W. Distances: San Diego 4930 miles; San Francisco 4530 miles. Alternatively, to avoid bad weather, the reverse of the most S' ly ret urn routes (7.313) may be taken, namely from Yokohama to 35 00' N, 141 00' E; to 35 00' N, 140 00' W; thence direct to San Diego or via 37 00" N, 130 00' W to San Francisco. Distances: San Diego 5250 miles; San Francisco 4860 miles. 7.306. Yokohama - , J uan de Fuc a Strai t or Pr i nc e Rupert . Proceed by great circle to 440 40" N, 163 40" E; thence by rhumb line to 49 00' N, 180 00' ; and thence by t humb line to either destination. Thi s route is usually i n a warm E-going current throughout. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 4200 miles; Prince Rupert 3870 miles. 7.307. Hakodat e --> Pa na ma . Proceed by great circle to 28 40" N, 118 20' W, S of Isla de Guadalupe, and thence as navigation permits. Distance 7430 miles. 10 7.308. Hakodat e -> San Di e g o or San Fr anc i s c o. Passage may be made either direct, on a great circle track, 15 or by a more S' ly track whose most N' l y point is in 47 30' N, 167 00' W. By the latter route a favourable current may be expected; this is doubtful on the more direct route. On the direct route, if bound for San Diego take the great circle track from off Erimo Misaki, bearing away S when nearing the Californian coast so as to round Point Conception, at the entrance to Santa Barbara Channel. For San Francisco, the great circle track, with its vertex some 80 miles S of the Aleutian Islands, is direct to the 20 traffic separation route i n the approach. Distances: San Diego 4650 miles; San Francisco 4240 miles. The more S' Iy route is by great circle or t humb line from offErimo Misaki to 46 15" N, 180 00' for San Diego and 47 00' N, 180 00' for San Francisco. Thence, for San Diego, proceed by great circle to Santa Barbara Channel; for San Francisco, proceed by great circle direct. Distances: San Diego 4670 miles; San Francisco 4260 miles. 25 7.309. Hakodat e -+ Juan de Fuc a Strai t or Pr i nc e Rupert . Proceed by t humb line to 49 00' N, 180 00' and thence by rhumb line to either destination. Distances: Juan de Fuca Strait 3910 miles; Prince Rupert 3580 miles. 7.310. Pa na ma --~ Hong Ko n g or Shang- haL The passage recommended is via Guam, proceeding thither either direct or via Honolulu, see 7.280. From Guam, proceed to Hong Kong via Balintang Channel; for 30 Shang-hai, proceed as directed in article 7.162 through Nansei Shot6 to Hsiao-pan-men. Distances (using direct passage to Guam) : Hong Kong 9890 miles; Shang-hai 9720 miles. 7. 311. San Di e g o or San Fr a nc i s c o - ~ Si ngapor e , Mani l a, and Chi na Seas. The following seasonal routes, for vessels not making an intermediate port of call, are recommended. 35 1st June to 30th September. Proceed by great circle to Luzon Strait. A composite great circle track passing through Nanp6 Shot6 at 31 00" N, 140 00' E and continuing to Cape Engafio will observe the caution advised by Admiralty Sailing Directions i n the volcanic area of Nanp6 Shot6, while entailing less opposition from Kuro Shio t han a more N' l y track. For Manila and Singapore, continue through Babuyan Channel and, for Singapore, by the Eastern Route (7.113), unless the strength of the monsoon dictates a more W' l y route in the China Sea. 40 For destinations S of Fu-chou, sue Balintang Channel or Bashi Channel; for Fu-chou, leave the great circle as convenient to pass S of Okinawa Gunt 6; for Shang-hai, leave it after passing through Nanp6 Shot6, or as for Fu-chou. I n working the distinces given below, the departure position for Shang-hai is 31 00' N, 140 00' E. For the rest of the year, a route based on a rhumb line crossing of the Pacific is recommended. In the transitional months of April, May, October, and November, owing to the possibility of heavy weather i n the N part of the 45 ocean, a direct rhumb line should be taken to Luzon Strait. From 1st December to 31st March an even more S' ly t humb line, from 30 00' N, 140 00' W to Luzon Strait, is advised. For Manila or Singapore, continue by Babuyan Channel and as navigation permits, using the Eastern Route (7.113), for Singapore. For destinations S of Fu-chou, use either Balintang Channel or Bashi Channel, and for Fu-chou and destinations farther N, leave the trans-ocean t humb line in 150 E and continue S of Kazan Retto and Okinawa Gunto. 50 Distances i n miles (1) June-Sept. (2) April, May, Oct, Nov. (3) Dec.-Mar. : Singapore Manila Hong Kong Shang-hai ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) San Diego 7770 8110 8120 6650 6980 6990 6660 7010 7020 5980 6660 6630 San Francisco 7380 7710 7920 6250 6580 6800 6270 6600 6820 5590 6250 6440 $5 60 65 70 126 POWER VESSEL ROUTES 7. 312. J ua n de Fu c a St rai t or Pr i nc e Rupe r t - - , Si ng a po r e , Ma ni l a , a n d Ch i n a Seas. As suggested in article 7.295, the shortest route in all cases is via Tsugaru Kaiky6 and Korea Strait. Directions as far as Hakodate are given in articles 7.317 and 7.318; the route continues through the Sea of Japan and the China Sea as directed in articles 7.169 and 7.113. 5 To avoid the worst of the adverse current and the winter weather of a route in N latitudes vessels bound for China ports may proceed first by great circle to 30 00' N, 180 00" and then approach the Asiatic coast on about that parallel, passing through Nanp5 Shot6 between Tor i Shima and SSfu Gan, and for Shang-hai as in 7.212. For ports in S China, pass through Nansei Shot6 between Tokara Gunt6 and Amami Gunto, but Kuro Shio runs NE on the W part of this route. 10 A second alternative, effective for Hong Kong and destinations farther S, is to proceed to Guam by great circle (7.286) and thence to destination by the appropriate route given for Singapore and Manila in article 7.287 and for Hong Kong in article 7.288. Thi s route, which also avoids the worst of the adverse current and winter weather, allows for re-fuelling at Guam. Fr om Guam a favourable current will be carried, except during June, July, and August, when it will 15 be adverse in the China Sea. Distances in miles for all seasons : (1) via Sea of Japan; (2) via 30 N, 180 , (3) calling at Guam. 20 25 Singapore Manila 30 HongKong 35 Shang-hai ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) Juan de Fuca Strait 7010 7500 7570 5970 6360 6340 5660 6320 6670 4960 5780 - - Prince Rupert 6670 7330 7300 5630 6190 6070 5320 6150 6410 4620 5610 - - 7. 313. San Di e g o or San Fr a nc i s c o ~ Yo k o h a ma . The summer route, for June, July, and August, is by 40 great circle. A contrary current is likely throughout the voyage. Distances: from San Diego 4930 miles; from San Francisco 4530 miles. From Sept ember to May, a more S' l y route is recommended, see 7.295. From San Diego, proceed by rhumb line to 35 00" N, 140 00' W; from San Francisco, proceed by rhumb lines through 37 00' N, 130 00" W to that position. Thence proceed by rhumb line to Yokohama. On this route, bad weather is unusual, and the 45 strength of the contrary current should not be felt until approaching Japan. Distances: from San Diego 5160 miles; from San Francisco 4850 miles. 7.314. J uan de Fu c a St rai t - + Yo k o h a ma . Proceed as for Hakodate, see 7.317, as far as 50 30" N, 180 00. The route thence is seasonal as far as 44 N. Over this section the winter route, from 1 st Novembef to 31st March, 50 passes through 50 30' N, 175 00' E; 50 10' N, 170 00' E; 49 30' N, 165 00' E; 48 20' N, 160 00' E; 46 30' N, 155 o 00' E; to 44 00' N, 150 00' E. The summer route, from 1 st April to 31 st October, passes through 50 00' N, 175 00' E; 49 15' N, 170 00' E; 48 20' N, 165 00' E; 47 10' N, 160 00' E; 45 20' N, 155 00' E; to 440 00' N, 152 00' E. Fr om either of these seasonal positions, the route is by t humb lines t6 34 00" N, 140 00" E, making a landfall at Inub6 Saki (35 42" N, 140 52" E) or, if preferred, at Kinkasan t6 (38 17' N, 141 35" E). 55 These routes, which lead close S of the Aleutian Islands, are usually N of the W' l y winds and are in the track of the W-goi ng current throughout. Distances: winter 4180 miles; summer 4160 miles. 60 7.315. Pr i nc e Rupe r t - + Yo k o h a ma . Proceed as for Hakodate, see 7.317, as far as 50 30" N, 180 00"; and thence by the appropriate seasonal route, see 7.314, to Yokohama. Distances: winter 3820 miles; summer 4000 miles. 7. 316. San Di e g o or San Fr a nc i s c o --> Hakodat e . Ther e is a seasonal route through the N part of the Pacific Ocean and an alternative route farther S. On these routes, a contrary current may be expected throughout the 65 voyage. If refuelling is desired, a call at Dut ch Harbour entails a slightly longer passage, less favourable as regards weather but with a favourable current in parts. The routes from the seaward end of Santa Barbara Channel (for San Diego), and from the approaches to San Francisco are by great circle to S0 30' N, 180 00" t hroughout the year, and thence the winter route, from 1st November to 31st March, passes through 50 30" N, 175 00' E; 50 10" N, 170 00' E; 49 30' N, 165 00' E; 70 482'N6'E;463'N55'E;44'N5'Eandthenceasnavigatinpermits.Thesummer P A CI F I C OCE A N, CHI NA A ND . ~ A P A N S E A S 127 r out e , f r o m 1st Ap r i l t o 31s t Oc t o b e r , pa s s e s t h r o u g h 50 0 0 ' N, 175 00' E; 49 15' N, 170 0 0 ' E; 48 20" N, 165 0 0 ' E; 47 10" N, 160 00" E; 45 20" N, 155 0 0 ' E; 44 00" N, 152 00' E, a n d t h e n c e as n a v i g a t i o n p e r mi t s . Di s t a n c e s a r e t h e s a me b y wi n t e r a n d s u mme r r out e s , n a me l y 4660 mi l e s f r o m S a n Di e go a n d 4250 mi l e s f r o m S a n Fr a nc i s c o. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e i s b y g r e a t ci r cl e t o 4 4 40" N, 163 4 0 ' E, wi t h a h i g h e s t l a t i t ude o n t h e r o u t e f r o m 5 S a n Fr a n c i s c o o f 47 30" N, 170 0 0 ' W, a n d t h e n c e t o Ha k o d a t e b y t h u mb l i ne. Di s t a n c e s f r o m S a n Di e g o 4680 mi l e s ; f r o m S a n F r a n c i s c o 4270 mi l es . 7. 317. J u a n d e F u c a S t r a i t --~ Ha k o d a t e . T h e r o u t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e year , as f ar as 50 30" N, 180 0 0 ' pas s es t h r o u g h 49 30' N, 130 0 0 ' W; 50 1 0 ' N, 135 0 0 ' W; 50 3 5 ' N, 140 00" W, 50045 ' N, 145 0 0 " W; 50 50' N, 10 150 00" W; 50 50' N, 160 00" W; 50 4 0 ' N, 165 00' W; 50 30" N, 170 00" W; 50 30' N, 175 00" W; t h e n c e i t i s s e a s ona l as o n t h e r o u t e s g i v e n f r o m Sa n Di e go or S a n Fr a n c i s o i n 7. 316. Di s t a n c e : 3860 mi l e s (al l s eas ons ) . 7. 318. Prince Rupert - + I - Lakodat e. T h e r o u t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e year , as f ar as 50 3 0 ' N, 180 0 0 ' W, pa s s e s 15 t h r o u g h 54 4 0 ' N, 135 0 0 ' W; 54 50' N, 140 00' W; 54 50" N, 145 00' W; 54 30" N, 150 0 0 ' W; 54 10" N, 155 00" W; 53 4 0 ' N, 160 00' W; 53 00' N, 155 00' W; 52015 , N, 170 00" W; 51 30' N, 175 0 0 ' W. T h i s p a r t of t h e r o u t e pa s s e s a b o u t 30 mi l e s S of t h e Al e u t i a n I s l a nds , a n d i s f a v o u r a b l y af f ect ed b y t h e W- g o i n g Al a s ka c u r r e n t . W of t h e 1 8 0 t h me r i d i a n , t h e r o u t e i s s eas onal , as g i v e n f or S a n Di e go or Sa n Fr a n c i s c o i n ar t i cl e 7. 315. Di s t a n c e : 3520 mi l e s (al l s eas ons ) . 20 CHAPTER 8 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION FOR POWER VESSELS 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 C O N T E N T S T HROUGH ROUTES General remarks . . English Channel ~-* Gul f of Mexico English Channel ~-~ Caribbean Sea English Channel ~ east coast of South America . . . English Channel and European ports ~-~ west coast of Africa Rounding the Cape of Good Hope Cape Town ~-~ Cabot Strait, Halifax, or New York Cape Town --, Galleons Passage and Colon Cape Town --* ports in Gul f of Mexico and Caribbean Sea Colon and ports in Caribbean Sea and Gul f of Mexico ---> Cape Town Europe and north-west coast of Africa +-~ Gul f of Mexico and Caribbean Sea Europe and north-west coast of Africa ~ East coast of South America Gul f of Guinea ,-~ Canada and northern Uni t ed States ports . Gul f of Guinea ~-~ Colon . East coasts of Canada and Uni t ed States of America ~-~ Gul f of Mexico and Caribbean Sea East coasts of Canada and Uni t ed States of America +-~ East coast of South America Gul f of Mexico and Caribbean Sea ~-~ East coast of South America Cape of Good Hope or Durban ~-~ Singapore Mauritius ,-+ Singapore Aden ~-~ Singapore . Colombo ~-~ Singapore Madras ~-* Singapore Cape of Good Hope -~ New Zealand and Pacific Ocean Aden --> New Zealand and Pacific Ocean . Routes between ports in Indian Ocean and on east coast of Australia Straits and passages in Eastern Archipelago OPI NI ONS AND COMME NT S 8.40 General remarks 8.41 Persian Gul f - + African coast 8.42 Tort es Strait --> Manila via Obi Strait 8.43 Japanese ports --~ ports in T' ai -wan . . 8.44 Dampi er Archipelago -+ Yokohama or Osaka 8.45 Routeing deep-draught ships round Cabo de Hornos or through Estrecho de Magallanes 8.46 Nort h-sout h passages through Caroline Islands Page 128 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 131 132 132 132 132 132 133 133 55 60 70 T HROUGH ROUTES 8.01. Ge ne r a l r e ma r k s . Passages made through the sea areas covered by more than one chapter of this book are described in detail in the chapters concerned. The following articles contain information and advice which may be helpful in transferring from one chapter to another. 8. 02. En g l i s h Ch a n n e l ~-~ Gul f of Mexi co. Proceed W-bound to Nort h-East Providence Channel (2.83), or E-bound through Florida Strait (2.82). Alternatively, the passage may be made in either direction via Turks Island Passage (2.86, 4.30), and Old Bahama Channel or Windward Passage. 8. 03. En g l i s h Ch a n n e l +-~ Ca r i bbe a n Sea. For Belize, Providence Channels (2.83) or Turks Island Passage and Windward Passage (2.86, 4.30) are suitable. For Kingston or Colon, Turks Island Passage and Windward Passage (2.86, 4.30) are suitable in either direction. For Colon or Curacao, Mona Passage or Sombrero Passage (2.86, 4.30) are suitable in either direction. 8. 04. En g l i s h Ch a n n e l ~-~ eas t coas t o f So ut h Ame r i c a . Between the English Channel and a landfall off Cabo de $5o Roque, proceed by great circle, with caution in the region of the W-going South Equatorial Current (2.39, 2.111, 2.116, 2.117). For passages off the E coast of South America, see 3.31. I N F OR MA T I ON F OR P OWE R V E S S E L S 129 8. 05. En g l i s h Cha nne l and Eur o pe a n port s ~-~ We s t coas t o f Af ri ca. For passages between the English Channel and Cape Palmas, see 2.96, 2.97. For continuation off the west coast of Africa, see 3.41, 3.42. If calling at Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde, see 2.126, 2.127. An outward bound route that has been used by some shipping lines is to pass ~le d' Ouessant at a distance of 30 miles and Cabo Finisterre at 50 miles; thence between Isla de Tenerife and Isla Gran Canaria, and at least 60 miles off Cape Blanc, Cap Vert, and Bijag6s Breaker (11 32" N, 16 54" W) , crossing the equator i n 10 W, and then steering a direct course for a landfall off Cape Town. If not calling at Cape Town, pass 50 miles W of the Cape of Good Hope and j oi n the E-bound route given in Chapter 6. 8. 06. Ro u n d i n g t he Cape o f Go o d Ho pe . 8.06.01. F r o m t he So ut h At l ant i c Ocean, to pass S of the Agulhas Current, pass through 36 45' S, 19 00' E and thence by great circle to 34 30' S, 32 30' E. Alternatively, by keeping close inshore (6.56), it may be possible to take advantage of local counter-currents. 8. 06. 02. F r o m t he I ndi a n Ocean, the Agulhas Current should be sought, but there can be a dangerous sea offthe edge of the coastal bank (6.57, 6.150). 8.07. Cape T o wn ~-~ Cabot Strai t, Hal i f ax, or Ne w York. Steer by great circles, for Cabot Strait and Halifax passing through 14 40' N, 24 55' W, SW of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde; and for New York, direct. Distances from Cape Town: Cabot Strait 6430 miles; Halifax 6470 miles; New York 6810 miles. 8. 08. Cape T o wn --> Ga l l e o ns Pas s age and Col on. Follow the great circle track to 4 40" S, 34 35' W, between Cabo de S~o Roque and Atol das Rocas, and proceed thence to 10 58' N, 60 48' W, i n Galleons Passage. For continuation to Colon, see 4.29, 4.30. Distances: Galleons Passage 5260 miles; Colon 6450 miles. 8. 09. Cape T o wn --> port s i n Gul f o f Me x i c o and Car i bbe an Sea. Follow the great circle track as 8.08 to Cabo de Sgo Roque and then proceed to enter the Caribbean Sea through 13 28' N, 61 10' W, about 5 miles N of St. Vincent. For continuation, see 4.26, 4,27, 4.30. Distance from Cape Town to St. Vincent 5350 miles. 8. 10. Co l o n and port s i n Car i bbe an Sea and Gu l f o f Me x i c o -> Cape To wn . The E-bound route i n the Atlantic Ocean is somewhat N of the W- bound routes described in 8.08 and 8.09. It passes (see 2.106 and 4.28) through 13 28' N, 61 10' W, about 5 miles N of St. Vincent, and continues first to 5 00' N, 45 00' W; and thence to 4 40' S, 34 35' W, between Cabo de Sgo Roque and Atol das Rocas; thence to Cape Town by great circle. Distance from Colon 6520 miles; from St. Vincent 5370 miles. 8. 11. Eur o pe and no r t h- we s t coas t o f Af ri ca *-~ Gu l f o f Me x i c o and Car i bbe an Sea. Routes and distances across the Atlantic Ocean are discussed i n 2.81-2.86 ; the channels between the islands of the West Indies, and navigation in that area, are dealt with in Chapter 4. Owing to the complex variety of voyages and ships' require- ments, the choice of a route must depend, in the main, on these factors, and on comparison between the distances involved. 8. 12. Eur ope and no r t h- we s t coas t o f Af ri ca ~-, East coas t of Sout h Ame r i c a . Routes in the Nort h Atlantic Ocean are discussed i n 2.39, 2.111, 2.116, 2.117; for passages offthe coast of South America see 3.31-3.39. 8.13. Gul f of Gui nea .-, Canada and no r t he r n Un i t e d St at es port s. Pass SW of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde, using great circle tracks where possible. See 2.126, 2.127. Distances, i n miles: Gamba Takoradi Lagos Bonny Douala Oil Termi nal Pointe-Noire Lobito Halifax 4220 4540 4740 4890 5000 5140 5460 New York 4560 4880 5070 5230 5340 5480 5800 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 8. 14. Gu l f o f Gui ne a ~-~ Co l o n 8.14.01. From ports between Takoradi and Douala, proceed to 4 20' N, 9 20' W, off Cape Palmas and continue 6 5 by great circle to 11 35' N, 60 35' W, about 10 miles N of Tobago. Steer thence as navigation permits to Colon; From Pointe Noire and Lobito, proceed by great circle to Galleons Passage (10058 , N, 60048 , W) and thence direct to Colon. ' Distances by the above W- bound routes are from Takoradi 4730 miles; Lagos 5050 miles; Bonny 5240 mi l es; Douala 5400 miles; Gamba Oil Termi nal 5490 miles; Pointe Noire 5630 miles; Lobito 5840 miles. 70: Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation 10 15 20 130 P O W E R V E S S E L R O U T E S 8.14.02. Vessels W- bound between ports i n the Gul f of Gui nea and Colon may obtain considerable help by making use of the W-going South Equatorial Current (3.11) and the Nort h Equatorial Current (2.15, 4.11). W- bound from ports farther S, the South Sub-tropical Current (3.11) should be beneficial duri ng the ocean crossing. E- bound routes from Colon to the Gul f of Gui nea are, i n general, subject to unfavourable currents but it may be possible to find the E-going Equatorial Count er-current ; and the Gui nea Current sets permanently to the E; see 2.15. 8. 15. Eas t c oas t s o f Ca na da a nd U. S. A. *-~ Gu l f o f Me x i c o a nd Ca r i bbe a n Sea. See 2.101, 2.102, 2.103 for routes i n the Atlantic Ocean, and Chapter 4 for the Gul f of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Owing to the variety of voyages and ships' requirements, the choice of a particular route must rest on scrutiny of the charts and publications covering the area and comparison between the distances involved. 8.16. East coast s of Canada and U.S.A. *-* East coas t o f So ut h Amer i ca. See 2.39, 2.105 for Nort h Atlantic Ocean and 3.31-3.39 for the coast of South America. 8.17. Gul f of Mexi co a n d Ca r i bbe a n Sea *-* East c oas t o f So ut h Amer i ca. For passages i n the Gul f of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, see Chapter 4. For passages off the NE coast of South America, see 2.106, 2.107; for the E coast of South America, see 3.31-3.39. 8.18. Cape of Good Hope or Dur ba n ~-, Si ngapore. Passage may be made either through Malacca Strait or Sunda Strait, i n either direction, except W- bound for Durban, when Malacca Strait is advised. See 6.70, 6.82, 6.150, 6.151, 7.111. 25 8.19. Maur i t i us ~-~ Si ngapore. Via Malacca Strait, see 6.81, 6.99. 8.20. Aden *-* Si ng a po r e . Via Malacca Strait (6.70, 6.77, 6.78, 6.81) i n either direction, or, E- bound only, via Sunda Strait (6.153, 7.111). 30 8.21. Col ombo *-, Si ngapore. Via Malacca Strait, see 6.70, 6.81. 35 40 45 8.22. Madr as ~-+ Si ngapor e a nd Eas t e r n Archi pel ago. If distance is the mai n consideration, the following table of voyage distances by Malacca Strait and Sunda Strait will assist the choice of route. See 6.70, 6.81, 7.125-7.132. To Via Malacca Strait Via Sunda Strait (miles) (miles) Singapore 1590 u Ambon 3260 3360 Balik Papan 2660 2790 D jakarta 2160 2045 Makassar 2700 2810 Sandakan 2620 3330 Surabaya 2350 2190 Tarakan 3010 3130 8.23. Cape of Good Hope -+ New Zeal and a nd Pac i f i c Ocean. East-bound, from October to April, proceed as directed i n 6.161 as far as 41 30' S, 122 50" E and thence by great circle to 47 50' S, 167 50' E, ENE of 50 Snares Islands, or alternatively by great circle passing close S of Tasmania, to Cook Strait. If the shorter route for Mel bourne (6.161) is taken, departure for Snares Islands or Cook Strait should be made from 45 00' S, 130 00" E. From May to September, follow the directions given i n 6.161 as far as 35 30' S, 115 08' E, 68 miles S of Cape Leeuwin and continue thence by great circles to a landfall off South West Cape, Tasmani a and thence to 55 Snares Islands or Cook Strait. 60 8.24. Aden --* New Zeal and and Pacific Ocean. East-bound, from October to April, pass between Ras Asir and Socotra and to 4 00' S, 70 30' E. Proceed thence by great circle to 41 30" S, 122 50" E and thence as directed i n 8.23. From May to September proceed as above to 4 00" S, 70 30' E, and thence by great circle to 35 30" S, 115 08' E, 68 miles S of Cape Leeuwin. Continue thence by great circles to a landfall off South West Cape, Tasmania, and onward to Snares Islands or Cook Strait. 8. 25. Ro u t e s b e t we e n por t s i n I ndi a n Oc e a n a nd o n eas t c oas t o f Aust ral i a. Two criteria, both of which 65 vary, govern the basic choice between routes N and S of Australia. The distance on any particular route may vary owing to seasonal changes i n the route, and, i n cases where the distances N-about and S-about are similar, the balance between climatic conditions may vary seasonally. I n the fotlowing table of distances, Brisbane is taken as the central Australian port, and distances are quoted from it i n miles. A comparison for Sydney may be obtained by adding 460 miles to the N-about distances given 70 below and subtracting that amount from the S-about routes. I NFORMATI ON FOR POWER VESSELS Seasonal routes are quoted O- A = October to April or M- S = May to September. *v/a Malacca Strait. 131 Between Brisbane and 36 45" S, 19 00" E Cape Town Durban Mombasa Aden Strait of Hormuz Karachi Bombay Colombo Madras Sandheads Rangoon S-about O- A E-bound O - A M - S O - A M - S 6820 7000 7210 6410 6600 7300 7390 7380 6930 6460 5610 5900 6110 5740 N-about O- A 8180 O- A 8370 M- S 8190 O- A 7670 M- S 7560 7470 O- A 7230 M- S 7180 6910 6440 5980 5130 5410" 5340* 4890* W- bound S-about N-about - - O- A 7370 O- A 8300 M- S 7620 M- S 8360 O- A 6770 O- A 7670 M- S 6830 M- S 7580 6970 O- A 7380 O- A M- $7410 M- S 7380 6930 6460 5610 5900 6110 5740 References and Remarks common reference 7.51-7.54 For E-bound traffic from S Atlantic (O-A only) 6.157, 6.158, 6.160, 6.161, 6.162 6.157, 6.159, 6.160, 6.161, 6.162 7470 6.163 7370 6.164, 7430 6910 6.155, 6440 6.155, 5980 6.155, 5130 6.155, 5410" 6.140, 5340* 6.140, 4890* 6.140, 6.165, 6.166, 1.167 6.156 6.156 6.156 6.156 6.141 6.141 6.142 8.26. Straits and passages i n Ea s t e r n Ar c h i p e l a g o . The following brief notes are for use when pl anni ng passages between the Indi an Ocean and the Nort h Pacific Ocean. Admlralty Sailing Directions should also be consulted. 10 15 20 25 30 Strait or passage Geographical position Remarks Alas Strait 8 40" S, 116 40' E Alor Strait Ball Strait Bangka Strait Selat Bangka Basilan Strait Berhala Strait Boling and Lamakera Straits Buton Passage Buton Strait Dampier Strait Djailolo Passage Duri an Strait Flores Strait Selat Gelasa Hi nat uan Passage Karimata Strait Lombok Strait Makassar Strait 8 15" S, 123 55' E 8 10' S, 114 25' E 1 45' N, 125 05" E 2 30" S, 105 45' E 6 54' N, 122 04' E 1 00' S, 104 20' E 8 25' S, 123 20' E 5 20' S, 123 15" E 4 56' S, 122 47" E 0 40" S, 130 40' E 0 00", 129 00' E 1 00' N, 103 35' E 8 25' S, 122 55' E 3 00' S, 107 15" E 9 40" N, 125 45" E 3 00' S, 109 00" E 8 30' S, 115 30' E 2 00" S, 118 00' E Indi an Ocean to Makassar and Sapudi Straits. No dangers. An alternative to Lombok Strait if anchor- 35 age is desired. Sawu Sea to Flores Sea. Deep. Usually only used for local navigation. Strong tidal streams. Seldom used except by local traffic. Molukka Sea to Sulawesi Sea. Shortest route round 40 NE end of Sulawesi but not lighted. Between coast of Sumatra and Bangka, the shortest route between Sunda Strait and Singapore. Between Sulu Sea and Sulawesi Sea, the shortest route SW of Mindanao. Deep. 45 Between coast of Sumatra and Singkep on the i nner route between Singapore and Sunda Strait. Lighted. Controlling depth 10 m at NW end. Sawu Sea to Flores Sea. Deep. Somewhat exposed. Strong tidal streams. 50 Deep, wide, and clear. Lighted. Coastal route, easy to navigate by day. 18 m i n South Narros. No routeing advantage over Buton Passage. Connects Pacific Ocean with Ceram Sea NW of New Guinea. 55 Between Ceram Sea and Pacific Ocean. Deep. Entrance to Singapore Strait from i nner route from Sunda Strait. Swept to 14 m (1934). Sawu Sea to Flores Sea. Deep and clear except for Narrows at N end. Strong tidal streams i n parts, 6(1 calling for a good reserve of power. Frequent l y i n use between Java Sea and China Sea as alternative to Selat Bangka. Connects Pacific Ocean with S end of Surigao Strait. Wide passage connecting China Sea with E part 65 of Java Sea. Wide. Easy to navigate. The most important passage between Makassar Strait and Indi an Ocean. About 400 miles i n length, connecting Sulawesi Sea with Java Sea and Flores Sea. 70 132 POWER VESSEL ROUTES Strait or passage Geographical position Remarks Malacca Strait Manipa Strait 3 15' S, 127 20' E Mindoro Strait 11 30' N, 121 20' E 10 Obi Strait 1 15' S, 128 00' E Ombai Strait 8 30' S, 125 00' E Pantar Strait 8 20' S, 124 20' E 15 Riouw Strait 0 55' N, 104 20' E Roti Strait 10 25" S, 123 30' E 20 Sagewin Strait 0 55" S, 130 40' E Saleier Strait 5 40' S, 120 30' E San Bemardi no Strait 13 00' N, 124 30' E Sape Strait 8 30' S, 119 20" E 25 Sapudi Strait 7 00" S, 114 15" E Sele Strait 1 10" S, 131 05' E Sumba Strait 9 00' S, 120 00' E 3O Sunda Strait 6 15' S, 105 00' E 35 Surigao Strait Wbtar Strait 10 30' N, 125 20' E 8 15' S, 126 25' E About 250 miles long in its narrower part connecting Bay of Bengal with Singapore Strait and Durian Strait. Depths irregular, from about 25 m. See. 6.83. Wide and deep passage connecting Ceram Sea with Banda Sea. Wide and deep strait in frequent use between Manila and islands to the S. Wide and deep. Connects Molukka Sea with Halmahera Sea and Djailolo Passage. Wide and deep, between Alor Islands and Ti mor. Connects between Flores Sea and Ombai Strait. Used by local traffic. Approach from S to Singapore Strait. Well lighted and buoyed. Main channel carries 18 m. Connects between Sawu Sea and Arafura Sea, SW of Ti mor. Deep. Connects Pacific Ocean with Ceram Sea iXlW of New Guinea. Deep. Usual route between Java Sea and Molukkas. Wide and deep. Import ant passage on Pacific routes. Connects between Sumba Strait and Flores Sea. Regularly used between Java Sea and Lombok Strait or Flores Sea. Lighted. Connects between Pacific Ocean and Ceram Sea, NW of New Guinea. Wide and deep passage between Sumba Island and Flores Island. Principal connection between Indian Ocean and Java Sea but limited for deep draught vessels by lack of water NE. Connects between Pacific Ocean and Mindanao Sea to Sulu Sea. Safe and deep. Connects between Arafura Sea and Flores Sea through Wbtar Passage; used for main routes between Singapore and Australia. 40 45 OPI NI ONS AND COMME NT S 8.40. The no t e s wh i c h f ol l ow are derived from information which has been received from time to t i me by the Hydrographer of the Navy, or issued in response to specific requests. Reports and suggestions from sea are invaluable, and masters and ship operators are freely invited to suggest new routes or to comment on their experi- ence of established routes, giving full supporting reasons. Such information may, after evaluation, be embodied in this book or in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 8.41. Per si an Gul f -+ Af r i c an coas t . In June 1931, SS British Dominion, bound from the Persian Gul f to the 50 Cape of Good Hope, after rounding Ras al Hadd, steered S on the 60th meridian with the object of crossing the South-west Monsoon area as soon as possible and, consequently, meeting less adverse current. On reaching 6 30' N, course was altered direct for ~les Comores. Thi s route, though longer than that recommended in 6.60, was found to be advantageous. On the other hand, Captain P. J. Davies has reported that in about 1959 he followed the track of British 55 Dominion and "got the hammeri ng of his life". He was of the opinion that the track recommended in 6.60 was preferable. 60 8.42. Tor r es St rai t --> Ma n i l a v i a Obi Strai t. In 1969, the Eastern Australian Steamship Company Li mi t ed proposed a route for the South-east Monsoon (May to September) passing S of False Cape (822 "S, 137 35" E); E of Pulau-pulau Aru and Ceram; thence NE of Obi Islands (1 30" S, 127 45" E), to join the route given in 7.161 in the Molukka Sea. 8. 43. J a pa ne s e por t s t o por t s i n T' ai - wan. In 1969, Captain R. N. Fi rt h of SS Pando Gulf comment ed on the passage from Yokohama to Kao-hsiung Chiang, on the SW coast of T' ai -wan, in the South-west Monsoon period (May to September), to the effect that he preferred the slightly longer route E of Okinawa to that through T' ai -wan Strait, on account of Kuro Shio. On the other hand, from Kobe, T' ai -wan Strait was preferred. 8.44. Da mp i e r Ar c h i p e l a g o - > Yo k o h a ma or Osaka. In 1964, the Hydrographer of the Navy suggested the following route for a ship drawing 48 feet (15 m 8). From Dampi er Archipelago (20 1 O" S, 116 40" E) proceed to 9 35' S, 123 05' E, thence through Ombai Strait and between Alor Island and Kambi ng Island to Manipa Strait I NFORMATI ON FOR POWER VESSELS 133 (3 15" S, 127 20" E). Pass through Manipa Strait and between Obi Islands and Sula Islands to 0 05' N, 126 28' E and enter the Pacific Ocean in 4 00' N, 127 50' E. Proceed thence by great circle. Distances: Yokohama 3700 miles; Osaka 3580 miles. 8.45. Rout el ng deep-draught shi ps round Cabo de Hornos or through Estrecho de Magallanes. In 1970 5 the Hydrographer of the Navy, in response to a request, gave the opinion that no difficulty could be foreseen in passing between Cabo de Hornos and Islas Diego de Ramirez. There are no radio aids to navigation, but Cabo de Hornos is lighted. The SW coast of Chile is inhospitable and there are no lights; vessels should keep well to seaward of it. Tankers in ballast W-bound SW of Chile may pound in W' l y weather. Passage through Estrecho de Magallanes, with a saving of about 350 miles, is possible. There are several lights, 10 but tidal streams are strong and there is a weather hazard. Strangers should first make the passage in ballast and in good conditions. In 1972, the master, MV Adelaide Star, reported, after completing a W-bound passage of Estrecho de Magal- lanes without a pilot, that the collective opinion of masters of his acquaintance, experienced in the Strait andi n the passage round Cabo de Hornos, favoured the passage of the Strait both W-bound and E-bound, and particularly for vessels W- bound and in ballast. 15 See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 8.46. Nort h- sout h passages t hrough Caroline Islands. In 1972, Captain A. J. Murdoch, of SS Cathay, re- ported that he considered the passage between West Fayu Island (8 04" N, 146 43' E) and Pikelot Island, 53 miles farther E, to be unsafe for a large vessel owing to existing and reported shoal depths. He preferred to pass 10 miles W of Fayu Island. 20 Notes PART II SAH. I NG VESSEL ROUTES CONTENTS Introductory remarks Chapter 9--Atlantic Ocear~ and ~Iedit~rrane~n Se~ , Chapter 10~I ndi an Ocean, Red Sea, and Eastern Archipelago Chapter 11--Pacific Ocean Page 135 137 155 198 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Al t hough i t ma y be ar gued t hat a s t andar d wor k on Ocean Passages ought t o be confi ned t o t he needs of cont empor ar y seamen and t hat t her ef or e di r ect i ons for sai l i ng shi ps are out of pl ace, a shor t ened ver si on of t he i nf or mat i on and advi ce gi ven on t he subj ect i n pr evi ous edi t i ons of t hi s book is gi ven here, for t he benef i t of t owi ng mast er s and of craft speci al l y suscept i bl e t o t he mai n wi nd and cur r ent ci r cul at i on of t he oceans, and, of course, for ocean- goi ng sai l i ng vessels. I t mus t be st ressed, however, t hat t he r out ei ng advi ce i n t hi s sect i on was or i gi nal l y i nt ended for l arge sai l i ng vessel s abl e t o st and up t o, and t ake advant age of, t he heavy weat her t o be expect ed on many of t he passages. I n addi t i on t o t he r out es descr i bed i n t hi s vol ume, char t 5309--Tracks followed by sailing and low-powered steam vessels--shows many rout es. As r egar ds di st ances t raversed, i t has been consi der ed mor e usef ul to express t hem as t he average numbe r of days t aken i n or di nar y weat her by a wel l - f ound sai l i ng vessel of about 2000 t ons, whi ch i n good condi t i ons coul d l og speeds of 1 0- 12 knot s but gener al l y aver aged 100-150 mi l es a day. Th e fol l owi ng list, s uppl i ed by Messr s. Har di e and Company, of Gl asgow, gi ves t he dur at i on of a numbe r of voyages. Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Engl i sh Channel t o Ne w York, wi nt er . Channel t o Ne w York, s ummer Channel t o Ne w Or l eans C h a n n e l t o R i o d e J a n e i r o o r e rto Sant ,s Channel t o Ri o de La Pl at a Channel t o Val par ai so ( ar ound ~a bo ~e Ho~nos) " Channel t o Cal l ao ( ar ound Cabo de Hor nos) . Channel t o San Fr anci sco ( ar ound Cabo de Hor nos) Channel t o Cape To wn Channel t o Du r b a n Channel t o Bombay Channel t o Cal cut t a Channel t o Rangoon Channel t o Sunda St r ai t Channel t o Hong Kong ( Sout h- west I~Ions~on) Channel t o Adel ai de Engl i sh Channel t o Me l bour ne Engl i sh Channel t o Sydney (or N~wcast' le) Ne w Yor k t o Engl i sh Channel Ne w Yor k t o Cape To wn . New Yor k t o Ri o de La Pl at a New Yor k t o Me l bour ne Ne w Yor k t o Sunda St r ai t . Cape To wn t o Me l bour ne . Cape To wn t o Wel l i ngt on . Cape Town t o Ri o de La Pl at a (across t he At l ant i c) Cape Town t o Ri o de La Pl at a ( ar ound Cabo de Hor nos) Cape Town t o Cal cut t a Cape To wn t o Shang- hai (via Sur~da St r ai t , S~ut h-~rest l~Ionsoon) Cal cut t a t o Sydney . Cal cut t a t o Cape To wn Cal cut t a t o Engl i sh Channei Hong Kong t o Engl i sh Channel (~qort h' east ~aonso; n) Hong Kong t o San Fr anci sco Hong Kong t o Sydney Me l bour ne t o Val par ai so . Me l bour ne t o San Fr anci sco Mel bour ne *o Ri o de La Pl at a (around- ~a bo ~e Ho~nos) : Mel bour ne t o Engl i sh Channel ( ar ound Cabo de Hor nos) Mel bour ne t o Ha mp t o n Roads Wel l i ngt on t o San Fr anci sco Wel l i ngt on t o Val par ai so Wel l i ngt on t o Ri o de La Pl at a Wel l i ngt on t o Engl i sh Channel Valp aiso t o E n g l i s h Ch el --( ound b a b o h o Ho os " Val parai so t o Ne w Yor k ( ar ound Cabo de Hor nos) . Number of days 35- 40 40- 50 45- 55 45- 60 55-65 90- 100 95- 120 125 - 150 50- 60 60- 65 100-110 100- 120 100- 120 90- 100 100-120 80- 90 80- 90 85- 100 25- 30 65- 70 60-65 100-120 100-110 35- 40 40- 45 45 110 40- 50 60 60 45 90- 100 110-120 40 50- 60 40- 50 60- 70 70- 80 80- 100 80-95 60- 70 30-35 55- 60 80- 100 80--90 75- 85 136 Valparaiso to Cape Town . . Rio de La Plata to English Channel Rio de La Plata to New York Rio de La Plata to Cape Town Rio de La Plata to Mel bourne New Orleans to English Channel SAI LI NG VESSEL R 0 UTES 65 70--80 60-70 20 50-55 ~-5-50 CHAPTER 9 ATLANTIC OCEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN SEA SAILING ROUTES 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 CONTENTS ROUTES FROM PORTS ON EAS TERN SI DE OF ATLANTI C OCEAN AND I N MEDI TERRANEAN SEA From Norwegian and Baltic ports From North Sea ports . . From Irish Sea and River Clyde English Channel to Canada and Uni t ed Sta~es English Channel to Bermuda English Channel to West Indiesl Gul f of Mexico, "and nort h coast of South America English Channel to South America Atlantic Ocean to Pacific Ocean Sout hbound from English Channel English Channel to Cape of Good Hope English Channel to West African ports English Channel to St. Helena . Bay of Biscay and west coasts of Spain ~nd P~rtugal to Atlantic Ocean and English Channel Gibraltar to English Channel Gibraltar to Halifax or New Yo~k Gibraltar to West Indies, South America, Cabo d~ Hor~aos or Cape of Good H~pe Page 138 138 138 138 139 139 140 141 142 143 143 144 144 144 144 144 ROUTES I N MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 9.19 Gibraltar to Gul f of Lions and Genova 9.20 Gibraltar to Sardinia, Sicily, or Napoli 9.21 Gibraltar to Malta . 9.22 Malta to Gibraltar . o . 9.23 Napoli, Sicily, or Sardinia to Gibraltar 9.24 Genova and Gul f of Lions to Gibraltar 145 145 145 145 146 146 ROUTES FROM PORTS ON WEST COAST OF AFRI CA AND FROM ATLANTI C I S LANDS 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36 9.37 9.38 9.39 9.40 9.41 9.42 9.43 Freetown or Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde to English Channel Freetown to Ascension Island Gold Coast, Nigeria, or Bight o~ Biafr~ to Freetown or '~ntern~ediat~ ports Gold Coast, Nigeria, or Bight of Biafra to English Channel Gold Coast, Nigeria, or Bight of Biafra to South America Gold Coast and Bight of Biafra to Cape Town and Cape of Good Hope Ascension to English Channel Ascension to South America Ascension to St Helena - - dood - - Ascension to Cape Town Cape of Hope : Ascension to equatorial and south-western coasts of Africa St Helena to South America St Helena to Ascension and English C'hann~l St Helena to west coast of Africa St Helena to Cape Town or Cape of Good Hope . Cape Town or Cape of Good Hope to St Helena, Ascension, English Channel, or Bordeaux Cape Town or Cape of Good Hope to North and Central America and West Indies . Cape Town to South America . Cape Town to west coast of Africa 146 146 146 146 146 147 147 147 147 147 147 147 148 148 148 148 148 148 149 ROUTES FROM PORTS ON WES TERN SI DE OF ATLANTI C OCEAN 9.44 From Canada and east coast of Uni t ed States . . . 9.45 New Orleans to east coast of Nort h America, or English Channel 9.46 New Orleans to Colon, or Mosquito coast 149 150 150 138 9.47 9.48 9.49 9.50 9.51 9.52 9.53 9.54 9.55 9.56 9.57 9.58 9.59 9.60 9.61 9.62 9.63 9.64 9.65 9.66 9.67 9.68 9.69 9.70 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES South-west part of Gul f of Mexico to Atlantic Ocean Belize to English Channel or coast of Nort h America Colon or Colombian ports to English Channel . . Fr om the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea northward Jamaica to New York, Halifax, or English Channel Jamaica to Curaqao and southern shores of Caribbean Sea West Indies to Uni t ed States ports, to Canadian ports, or to English Channel Barbados to north-east coast of South America R/o Amazonas to Recife Rio Amazonas to New York or English Channel . Recife and north-east coast of South America to English Channel or New York P6rto do Salvador to Europe or Nort h America Rio de Janeiro to P6rto do Salvador or Recife Rio de Janeiro to Europe or Nort h America Rio de Janeiro to Cape of Good Hope . Rio de La Plata to Europe or Nort h America Rio de La Plata to Cape of Good Hope Rio de La Plata to Falkland Islands Rio de La Plata to round Cabo de Hornos . Cabo de Hornos to English Channel . . Cabo de Hornos to east coast of Nort h America Cabo de Hornos to east coast of South America Cabo de Hornos to Cape Town . . Cabo de Hornos eastward to Indian Ocean and Australian ports 150 150 150 150 151 151 151 151 151 152 152 152 152 152 152 152 153 153 153 153 153 153 154 154 30 ROUTES FROM PORTS ON EASTERN SIDE OF ATLANTI C OCEAN AND FROM MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 9.01. Fr o m Nor we gi an and Bal ti c port s 9.01.01. For Canadi an and east ern Uni t e d States ports, there are two main routes, Nort hern and Southern, and a direct route. 35 On the Nort hern Rout e, which should only be taken in autumn, when it is clear of ice, vessels should pass N of Orkney Islands or of Shetland Islands if the weather so dictates. Thence, they should stand W to cross 30 W in about 55 N, and continue the Nort hern Route as in 9.04.02. On the Sout hern Rout e, vessels should pass N of Orkney Islands or Shetland Islands if necessary, and stand W far enough to ensure weathering the British Isles. When clear, they should stand S to j oi n the Southern 40 Route from the English Channel (9.04.03). The Di rect Rout e is seldom taken, since it is almost directly against the prevailing winds and the Nor t h Atlantic Drift. To follow it, round Orkney Islands or Shetland Islands as above, make W to at least 10 W, and thence SW to j oi n the Nort hern Route in about 47 N, 40 W. 45 9.01.02. For ot her Atl anti c ports, Cabo de Hornos , or t he Cape of Good Hope, use the Southern Route (9.01.01) and join the appropriate route from the English Channel (9.10) in about 40 N. 50 55 9.02. Fr o m Nort h Sea port s 9.02.01. For east coast s of Canada and Uni t ed States, there are three main routes as in 9.01. On the Nort hern Route with W' l y winds in summer a vessel will probably do better by going N-about round the British Isles than by beating down the English Channel. On the Southern and Direct Routes the latter is preferable. 9.02.02. For ot her Atl anti c ports, Cabo de Hornos , or t he Cape of Good Hope, proceed via the English Charmel and the appropriate route from 9.05, 9.06, or 9.07. 60 65 9.03. Fr o m Iri sh Sea and Ri ver Cl yde 9.03.01. For At l ant i c Ocean port s. If taking the Nort hern or Di rect Routes (9.01) to Newfoundland, Canada or the Uni t ed States when bound from Liverpool or the Clyde, it is generally better to pass N of Ireland with W' l y winds in summer. On the Southern Route, and on the routes to other ports the weather at the time of sailing will determine the most advantageous course to join the routes from the English Charmel described below. 9.04. Engl i s h Cb ~ e l to Canada and Uni t e d States 9.04.01. Ther e are two principal routes, a Northern, and a Southern, and also a direct route. The Nort hern Route should, as a rule, only he taken in autumn, when it is free from ice. ATL. 4NTI C OCE. , qN AND MEDI TERR. 4NE. dN SE.,4 139 9.04.02. On t he Nort hern Rout e, although heavy weather is frequently experienced, the winds are generally more favourable, and the currents from the Arctic assist i n the latter part of the voyage. When dear of the British Isles stand W and cross the meridian of 30 W i n about 55 N; then steer, according to destination, for the Strait of Belle Isle, for St. John' s, or for Canadian or Uni t ed States ports. For Gul f of St. Lawr e nc e or Hal i fax, either try to make Cape Race by passing N of Virgin Rocks, or, i n 5 order to avoid the ice, cross the banks on the parallel of 44 N, and hanl up on the proper course on reaching 55 W, heavy ice being seldom met with W of that meridian. Make Cape Race if the weather is dear, and thence steer for a position S of St. Pierre Island. While on Grand Bank during fog, or when there is uncertainty regarding the position, soundings should be obtained frequently, and an indraught towards the S coast of Newfoundland must be guarded against. 10 Notes: The S coast of Newfoundland, E of Cape Ray, is broken, rocky and dangerous, and the tidal streams are influenced by the winds. S' ly, E' ly, and often also SW' l y winds, bring a thick fog, which is most dense near the lee shore. Thi s coast therefore should not be approached, except with a decidedly N' l y wi nd and clear weather. Sable Island should be given a wide berth, as it is a very dangerous locality owing to the prevalent fogs and 15 variable currents near it. Sounding should never be neglected i n crossing the banks, and should be continuous whether bound for a Nova Scotia or a Uni t ed States port. I n thick weather, the thermometer is also a useful guide i n approaching the banks off Newfoundland, as the temperature of the water falls on nearing them. Wi t h SW' Iy winds, while foggy E of the meridian of Fl i nt Island, Cape Breton Island, it is frequently clear for some miles off the land W of it. 20 Betweon St. Pierre and Cape Breton Island, when feeling the way by sounding, in foggy weather, the edges of the deep water channel r unni ng through the banks into Cabot Strait are especially good guides. Cape Pine should not be approached within depths of 70 m nor Cape St. Mary within depths of 90 m in fog. There is deep water, of 180 m to 260 m i n the approach to Placentia Bay. 25 9.04.03. The Sout hern Rout e is the best route to be followed during the whole of the year except aut umn, on account of the better weather likely to be experienced, the certainty of the wind, and the avoidance of both fog and ice off the Newfoundland banks, duri ng the spring and early part of the summer. By this route, leaving the English Channel with a fair wind, steer a direct course as long as it lasts, and at least ensure sufficient westing to avoid the danger of being set into the Bay of Biscay. When the fair wi nd fails, take 30 the Madeira route (9.07.01), and if the wi nd permits pass midway between that island and Arquip61ago dos A96res into the North-east Trade Wi nd, but if the wi nd does not favour, the Trade Wi nd will usually be gained sooner by passing nearer to Madeira. I n that neighbourhood, it is usually found i n the summer season between 32 and 31 N; i n winter, a degree or so farther S. For Hal i fax, or Canadi an port s, when well within the Trade Wi nd limits, run W unt i l i n about 48 W, 35 and thence edge off to the NW passing about 200 miles E of Bermuda, and direct for Halifax, allowing for the Gul f Stream setting ENE across the track. For Ne w York, or ot her Uni t ed States port s, when well into the Trade Wi nd limits, r un W, keeping S of 25 N unt i l i n about 65 W; then steer NW for any Uni t ed States port, hauling out rather earlier for ports on the N part of this coast. The Gul f Stream will have to be crossed i n the latter part of this 40 route. 9.04.04. The Di rect Rout e across the Atlantic, from the English Channel or New York, which is about 1000 miles shorter t han the Southern Route, can seldom be taken on account of the prevailing W' l y winds, and of the Nort h Atlantic Current and Gul f Stream combined, runni ng contrary to the desired track. It is, however, recommended by some navigators, making as directly as possible from the Channel, to cross 50 W at 45 N, and thence to the desired port. 45 9.05. Engl i s h Channel to Be r muda 50 9.05.01. There are two routes, the Direct and the Southern. By the Di rect Rout e, proceed generally as directed i n 9.04.04. By the Sout hern Rout e, proceed as directed i n 9.07.01 as far as Madeira, and thence steer SW unt i l within the N limit of the North-east Trade Wi nd (which will be entered when the sun is i n the nort hern tropic between the parallels of 31 and 32 N, and when it is near the southern tropic between those of 30 and 31 N), 55 when the course should be altered gradually towards W keeping within the limit of the Traae Wi nd. Cross 40 W i n 25 N, which parallel should be preserved unt i l the meridian of 60 W is reached, when a course for Bermuda may be steered. Caution: When approaching the islands every opportunity should be taken to verify the vessel's position, and should it be at all doubtful and the weather unfavourable for seeing the lights, the parallel of the islands should 60 not be crossed during the night, for ~the 180 m contour line is too close to the reef for soundings to give warning. 9.06. Engl i s h Channel to Wes t I ndi es , Gul f of Me xi c o and nort h coast of Sout h Ame r i c a. 9.06.01. Fi r st pr ocoed as directed i n 9.07.01 as far as Madeira. After passing Madeira t ry to cross the parallel of 25 N between 25 and 30 W, the object being to reach the North-East Trade Wi nd as soon as possible. The season must be taken into consideration, as to how far S it will be necessary to go to insure holding the Trade Wi nd. Continue as follows : - - 70 10 15 20 ~5 30 140 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 9.06.02. For Cuba, if bound to Habana or Puerto Matanzas pass through Nort h West Providence Channel close along the W edge of Great Bahama Bank, round the elbow of Double-headed Shot cays, Cay Sal bank, and across towards Punta Guanos, on the western side of Matanzas, out of the stream. Old Bahama Channel may also be used or, if approaching from W, Cabo San Antonio may be rounded. Bound to any port on the S side of Cuba, it is better to pass N of Puerto Rico and Santo Domi ngo-Hai t i during the period of S' ly winds, which is the rainy season, and S of these islands when N winds are prevalent. 9.06.03. F o r t h e Leewar d Isl ands, J a ma i c a , B e l i z e , o r t h e Gu l f o f Me x i c o , cross 40 W in about 18 N, and thence steer direct to pass between Antigua and Guadaloupe; thence pass close S of Haiti and Jamaica, and thence continue nearly direct. Notes: The channel between Antigua and Guadeloupe is 30 miles wide, and there is generally much less current here than farther N or S. It will be better, however, in using this channel, to keep the Antigua shore on board, and to sight the island on the parallel of 17 N. Vessels sometimes pass between Antigua and Barbuda; this may be done without much risk by day, but by no means at night, for the soundings are so irregular that in running down it would be difficult to tell whether to haul N or S. To ports in the Gul f of Mexico, Nort h West Providence Channel is used by a great number of vessels, keeping on the edges of the banks, to avoid the strength of the current. Old Bahama Channel is also used, but less commonly. 9.06.04. For t h e n o r t h c o a s t o f S o u t h A m e r i c a , T r i n i d a d , a n d t h e Gu i a n a s , proceed as follows: For the Venezuelan, Colombian, and Caribbean ports, as far W as San Juan del Nort e (Greytown) (10 53" N, 83 43' I/V), cross the meridian of 40 W in about 13 N; thence steer direct to the NE extreme of Tri ni dad and thence W to the desired port, keeping in the strength of the prevailing W' l y current. For the islands northward of Trinidad, the season must be considered as to how far S it will be necessary to go to ensure holding the Trade Wind. In making for any of the Windward Islands get in the parallelof the island about 100 miles E of it. For Cayenne, cross the meridian of 40 W in 9 N; thence steering to make the parallel of the port from 100 to 200 miles to windward, to allow for the strong W' l y current which prevails at all seasons, thence gradually closing the shore in depths of from 13m to 18 m. For Surinam and Demerara, cross the meridian of 40 W between the parallels of 11 o N and 12 N, and thence steer to make the land to windward as for Cayenne. 40 9. 07. E n g l i s h C h a n n e l t o S o u t h A m e r i c a 9.07.01. Engl i s h Channel to Arqui p61ago d e Ca b o Ve r d e . On leaving the English Channel at once make westing, as the prevailing winds are from that direction. Wi t h a fair wind from the Lizard, steer a WSW' I y course to gain an offing in 10 or 12 W. If the wind should be from W keep on the tack which enables most westing to be made to get a good offing, and 45 keep clear of the Bay of Biscay, even standing NW until well able to weather Cabo Finisterre on the starboard tack. By making a long board to the W nothing is lost, as the wind willgenerally be found to veer, so that a change of wind will be favourable, and even permit a vessel to pursue a course with a free wi nd; whilst if embayed in the Bay of Biscay, any change of wind to the W would necessitate beating to windward against the current. It must be borne in mi nd that the prevailing winds and currents have a tendency to set towards ~le d' Ouessant, 50 and into the Bay of Biscay when S of it. To get well to the W is therefore of the greatest importance. ]le d' Ouessant should, in no case, be sighted. Fr om 10 or 12 W, shape course to pass Madeira at any convenient distance, giving a wide berth to Cabo Finisterre, in passing it, as the current from the Atlantic usually sets right on-shore there. In winter it is preferable to pass W of Madeira, for the strong W' l y gales which occur in November, December and January produce 55 eddy winds and heavy squalls E of the island. From Madeira the best track is to pass W of, but just in sight of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde as the winds are stronger and steadier W of than E of them. .60 9.07.02. Arqui p61ago d e Ca b o V e r d e t o n o r t h c o a s t o f Brazi l . No particular crossings of the equator are necessary (see 9.07.03), as the E coast of South America has not to be weathered. From abreast Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde steer a direct course, taking care to make the coast E of the destination, and thence steering along the coast in depths of from 18 m to 27 m. 9.07.03. Ar q u i p 6 1 a g o d e Ca b o V e r d e t o t h e e q u a t o r . In considering where to cross the equator it is necessary 65 to bear in mi nd that if a vessel crosses far to the W there will be a less interval of doldrum to cross, but it may be requisite to tack to weather the coast of South America, and these crossings vary during the year, as the direction of the South-east Trade Wi nd is more S' ly when the sun is N of the equator than when S of it. After passing Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde, stand S between the meridians of 26 and 29 W, being nearer 26 W from May to October, and nearer 29 W from November to April. The equator should be crossed at 70 points varying according to the season, as fol l ows: -- ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 141 Be t we e n J a n u a r y a n d Apr i l , wh e n t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d s ar e wel l t o t h e S, c o n t i n u e o n a S' l y cour s e, a n d cr os s t h e pa r a l l e l of 5 N b e t we e n 25 a n d 28 W, a n d t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 28 a n d 31 W. I n Ma y a n d J u n e t h e S' l y wi n d s wi l l b e me t wi t h b e t we e n 5 a n d 10 N. On me e t i n g t h e m, s t a n d o n t h e s t a r - b o a r d t a c k so as t o cr os s t h e pa r a l l e l of 5 N b e t we e n 18 a n d 20 W. Be t we e n 5 a n d 4 N, go r o u n d o n t o t h e p o r t t ack, a n d cr os s t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 25 a n d 23 W. I n J ul y, Au g u s t a n d S e p t e mb e r , t h e S' l y wi n d s wi l l be me t b e t we e n 10 a n d 12 N. On me e t i n g t h e m s t e e r o n t h e s t a r b o a r d t a c k s o ' a s t o cr os s 5 N b e t we e n 17 a n d 19 W. Go r o u n d t h e n o n t h e p o r t t ack, a n d cr os s t h e e qua t or , as i n Ma y a n d J u n e , b e t we e n 25 a n d 23 W. I n Oc t o b e r , No v e mb e r a n d De c e mb e r , t h e S' l y wi n d s wi l l b e me t b e t we e n t h e par al l el s of 8 a n d 6 N. On me e t i n g t h e m, s t e e r so as t o cr os s 5 N b e t we e n 20 a n d 23 W, t h e n t a ke t h e t a c k wh i c h gi ves mo s t s o u t h i n g , a n d cr os s t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 29 a n d 24 W. Caution: T h e S o u t h Eq u a t o r i a l C u r r e n t i s n o t so s t r o n g i n t h e wi n t e r of t h e N h e mi s p h e r e as i n s u mme r a n d a u t u mn ; b u t t h e ma r i n e r mu s t r e me mb e r t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c u r r e n t i nc r e a s e s as i t a dva nc e s t o wa r d s t h e Ame r i c a n coas t . 9. 07. 04. F r o m t h e e q u a t o r s o u t h w a r d . Ha v i n g c r os s e d t h e e q u a t o r as r e c o mme n d e d , s t a n d acr os s t h e S o u t h - eas t T r a d e Wi n d o n t h e p o r t t ack, e v e n s h o u l d t h e vessel f al l of f t o a b o u t 260 , f or t h e wi n d wi l l d r a w mo r e t o t h e E as t h e ves s el a dva nc e s , a n d f mal l y t o d u e E a t t h e S l i mi t of t h e Tr a d e . Wh e n i n t h e vi c i ni t y of Pe n e d o s de Sao P e d r o e Sao Paol o, f r e q u e n t a s t r o n o mi c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s s h o u l d b e ma d e , t h e c u r r e n t s h o u l d b e wa t c h e d a n d al l owed f or , a n d a good l ookout s h o u l d b e ke pt , as t he s e r oc ks ar e s t e e p- t o, a n d c a n o n l y b e s e e n o n a cl ear da y f r o m a di s t a nc e of a b o u t 8 mi l es . T h e s a me p r e c a u t i o n s ar e neces s ar y, i f pa s s i ng we s t wa r d of I l h a de F e ma n d o de No r o n h a , wh e n a p p r o a c h i n g t h e d a n g e r o u s At o l das Rocas . On a p p r o a c h i n g t h e Br a z i l i a n c oa s t b e t we e n Ma r c h a n d S e p t e mb e r , wh e n t h e wi n d i s f r o m SE a n d t h e c u r r e n t n e a r t h e c oa s t s et s N, i t wi l l b e b e t t e r t o ke e p f r o m 120 t o 150 mi l e s of f t h e l a n d u n t i l we l l S, a n d s t e e r so as t o b e t o wi n d wa r d of t h e p o r t of d e s t i n a t i o n ; b u t f r o m Oc t o b e r t o J a n u a r y , wh e n t h e NE ' l y wi n d s pr e va i l a n d t h e c u r r e n t s et s SW, t h e c oa s t ma y b e a p p r o a c h e d wi t h p r u d e n c e , a n d a ves s el ma y s t e e r a c c o r d i n g t o c i r c u m- s t a n c e s f or h e r i n t e n d e d p o r t . 9. 07. 05. F o r R i o d e J a n e i r o , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ma r c h ma k e Ca b o Fr i o a n d gi ve t h e c oa s t a p r u d e n t b e r t h , as a c o n s t a n t a n d s o me t i me s h e a v y s wel l s et s i n. T h e i s l a nds at t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e h a r b o u r s h o u l d n o t b e a p p r o a c h e d u n t i l t h e s ea b r e e z e i s wel l s e t i n, as a ves s el ma y r u n i n t o a c a l m a n d b e e xpos e d t o t h e s wel l a n d c u r r e n t . 9. 07. 06. F o r Mo n t e v i d e o o r R i o d e L a P l a t a , s t a n d d i r e c t t h r o u g h t h e S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s , p a s s i n g a b o u t 200 mi l e s E of Ri o de J a ne i r o. 9. 07. 07. F o r Ba h i a B l a n c a a n d p o r t s s o u t h w a r d . Bo u n d t o Ba h i a Bl a nc a , or if, h a v i n g cal l ed a t Mo n t e v i d e o , a n d S - b o u n d a f t e r l eavi ng, or p a s s i n g Ri o de La Pl at a, ke e p wel l i n wi t h t h e coast . T h i s c a n b e d o n e wi t h saf et y, as t h e wi n d s ar e a l mo s t al ways f r o m W, a n d a n E' l y gal e n e v e r c o me s o n wi t h o u t a mp l e wa r n i n g . Pa s s Ca b o Co r r i e n t e s a t a di s t a nc e of 40 t o 50 mi l es , a n d ma k e t h e l a n d S of Ca b o Bl a n c o a n d a f t e r wa r d s ke e p i t t o p p i n g o n t h e h o r i z o n u n t i l t h e e n t r a n c e t o Es t r e c h o de Ma g a l l a n e s h a s b e e n pas s ed. T h i s we s t e r n r o u t e c a n n o t b e t oo mu c h i n s i s t e d on, a n d a ves s el wo u l d do we l l t o ma k e a t a c k i n - s h o r e , e v e n t h o u g h wi t h a p p a r e n t l oss of g r o u n d , t o ma i n t a i n i t . As l ong as t h e wi n d doe s n o t b a c k t o t h e E of S t h e wa t e r wi l l b e s mo o t h , a n d mo r e sai l c a n b e c a r r i e d t h a n i f f a r t h e r o u t ; a n d s h o u l d t h e wi n d c o me f r o m SE ( unl e s s wh e n j u s t of f Ca b o Bl anco) , t h e l a n d r e c e de s so mu c h as t o af f or d p l e n t y of sea r oom. 9. 08. At l a n t i c Oc e a n t o P a c i f i c O c e a n 9. 08. 01. E s t r e c h o d e Ma g a l l a n e s i s n o t a dvi s e d as a s ai l i ng r out e . T h e pa s s a ge s of t h e ol d na vi ga t or s , s o me of wh o m we r e mo r e t h a n 80 da ys b e t we e n P u e r t o del Ha mb r e a n d Ca b o Pi l ar , t h e vi ol e nc e of t h e s qual l s , a n d t h e l ack of sea r o o m, s uf f i c i e nt l y a t t e s t t hi s . 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 9. 08. 02. R o u n d i n g Ca b o d e H o r n o s w e s t b o u n d , t h e us ua l t r a c k i s t a ke as d i r e c t a c our s e as pos s i bl e f r o m a pos i t i on 200 mi l e s E of Ri o de J a n e i r o t o a b o u t 45 S, 60 W, a n d f r o m t h e n c e so as t o pa s s 30 or 40 mi l e s E of 55 I s l a de l os Es t a dos . T h i s t r a c k l i es b e t we e n 120 a n d 200 mi l e s E of t h e P a t a g o n i a n coast , a n d i s t h e mo s t d i r e c t r o u t e f or a l ar ge a n d we l l - f o u n d s hi p. T h e ol de r na vi ga t or s , howe ve r , r e c o mme n d t h a t s a i l i ng s hi ps s h o u l d ke e p wi t h i n 100 mi l e s of t h i s coast , i n o r d e r t o a voi d t h e h e a v y s ea t h a t i s r a i s e d b y t h e W' l y gal es a n d t o pr of i t b y t h e v a r i a b l e n e s s of t h e i n s h o r e wi n d s wh e n f r o m a W' l y di r e c t i on. Ne a r t h e coas t f r o m Ap r i l t o S e p t e mb e r , wh e n t h e s u n ha s N de c l i na t i on, t h e wi n d s pr e va i l mo r e f r o m WNW 60 t o NNW t h a n f r o m a n y o t h e r q u a r t e r . E' l y gal es ar e of v e r y r a r e oc c ur r e nc e , a n d e v e n wh e n t h e y do bl ow, t h e d i r e c t i o n b e i n g o b l i q u e l y u p o n t h e coast , i t i s n o t h a z a r d o u s t o ke e p t h e l a n d a boa r d. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ma r c h , wh e n t h e s u n h a s S de c l i na t i on, t h o u g h t h e wi n d s s h i f t t o t h e S of W, a n d f r e q u e n t l y b l o w ha r d, ye t as i t i s a we a t h e r s hor e, t h e s ea goes d o wn i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r a gal e. T h e wi n d s at t h i s t i me ar e c e r t a i nl y a ga i ns t ma k i n g q u i c k pr ogr e s s , ye t as t h e y s e l d o m r e ma i n f i xed i n one poi nt , a n d f r e q u e n t l y b a c k or 65 ve e r 6 or 8 p o i n t s i n as ma n y hour s , a d v a n t a g e ma y b e t a k e n of t h e c h a n g e s so as t o ke e p cl ose i n wi t h t he coast . Wh e n pa s s i ng I s l a de l os Es t a d o s t h e us ua l c our s e i s E of t h e i s l and, b u t t h e r e i s, of f i t s E e xt r e mi t y, a h e a v y t i d e - r i p wh i c h e x t e n d s f or a di s t a nc e of 5 or 6 mi l es , or e v e n mor e , t o s e a wa r d. Wh e n t h e wi n d i s s t r o n g a n d o p p o s e d t o t h e t i d a l s t r e a m, t h e ove r f a l l s ar e o v e r wh e l mi n g , a n d v e r y da nge r ous , e v e n t o a l ar ge a n d we l l - f o u n d vessel . S e a me n mu s t us e e v e r y p r e c a u t i o n t o a voi d t h i s pe r i l ous ar ea. 70 142 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Estrecho de le Maire provides the shortest route round Cabo de Homos with a valuable saving, when the difficulty of making westing is considered, of some 60 miles. Furthermore, a vessel is to some extent protected from W' l y gales and heavy seas when between Estrecho de le Maire and Cabo de Hornos, and she will avoid the NE' Iy current which is encountered between the E extremity of Isla de los Estados and Cabo de 5 Homos. On the other hand, the conditions must be suitable. Passage of Estrecho de le Maire is best attempted duri ng daylight, with a fair wind and tide; the best time for begi nni ng the passage through being at one hour after high water. A vessel should, if necessary, heave-to off the entrance to the strait unt i l that moment. Under these conditions, even should the wi nd fail, or come adverse, a vessel would probably drive through rapidly, for the 10 tidal streams are strong. Wi t h a S' ly wind, it would not be advisable to attempt the strait, for, with a weather- going tide, the sea is very turbulent, and might severely endanger the safety of a small vessel, and do much damage to a large one. I n calm weather it would be still more imprudent, unless the W side of the strait can be reached, where a vessel might anchor, on account of the tidal streams which set towards Isla de los Estados where, if it became necessary to anchor, it would be i n very deep water, and close to the land. 15 Should the wi nd fail, and the tidal stream not be sufficiently strong to carry a vessel through, there is a con- veni ent anchorage i n Bahia Buen Suceso. N' l y and NE' l y winds are often accompanied by thick, misty weather; vessels approaching the strait are thus often compelled to lie-to for a time. June and July are the best mont hs for making a W- bound passage around Cabo de Homos, as the wi nd is 20 t hen often i n the E quarter. The days are short, however, and the weather is cold. August and September are bad months, heavy gales with snow and ice occurring at about the time of the Equinox. From October to March, i n summer, the winds are almost invariably W' ly. I n April and May, the winds are slightly more favourable. The passage from E to W around Cabo de Homos should usually be made i n about 57 S, or at about 100 miles S of the cape, but if, after passing Isla de los Estados, the wi nd be W' ly, the vessels should be kept upon 25 the starboard tack, unless it veers to the S of SSW, unt i l i n 60 S, and then on the tack upon which most westing may be made. On this parallel the wi nd is thought by some persons to prevail more from the E t han any other quarter. It would usually be necessary to stand S in this manner from August to March; but from April fair passages have been made by keeping nearer the land and sighting Islas Diego Ramirez. There is no advantage to be gained 30 by attempting, even with a fair wind, to go close to Cabo de Hornos; for the E-going Southern Ocean Current sets close past the cape, and appears to flow with greater velocity under the land t han farther seaward on the route from Cabo San Juan. 35 9.09. Sout hbound f rom Engl i sh Channel 40 45 9.09.01. Gener al di rect i ons. For all destinations, at once make westing, as the prevailing winds are from that direction. Wi t h a fair wind, from the Lizard, steer to the WSW to gain an offing i n long. 10 12 W. 9.09.02. For west er n Fr ench port s, the above WSW' l y course should be modified, according to weather, in order to reach the destination more directly; but it must be borne i n mi nd that the prevailing winds and currents have a tendency to set a vessel toward $1e d' Ouessant and the many surroundi ng dangers. If circumstances require it, shelter may be obtained i n one of the French anchorages unt i l the weather improves, but Pointe de Penm~rc' h should never be made. 9.09.03. For Li sbon, having gained an offing in 10 or 12 W, and with the wi nd from the W, haul to the wi nd on the tack which will best enable the approach to the proper course to be made without being drawn into the Bay of Biscay, which is especially to be avoided. Duri ng and after SW' l y gales the indraft of the Bay is strongest, and is most to be guarded against. 50 Should S' ly and SE' Iy gales have been experienced the vessel will have been driven W, and i n this case the aim should be to make progress S. On the other hand, if W' l y gales have prevailed, and the vessel has become embayed, it may be found difficult to weather Cabo Finisterre or even Cabo Ortegal; i n these circumstances refuge may be found i n E1 Ferrol, La Corufia, Ria del Barquero, or Ria de Vivero; and, i n extreme cases, i n the ports and roadsteads of France from the Gironde to Brest. 55 Rather t han r un any risk of becoming embayed i n this manner, it will be better to make a long board to the W (as described above), and since W' l y winds generally veer, ff a good offing has been made, the course can after- wards be pursued a point or two free, making allowance for a SE' Iy set. Proceeding S from off Cabo Finisterre, shape course to clear Os Farilh~Ses and Ilha Berlenga, which should be given a wide berth i n thick weather; with SW' Iy winds it is better to keep off the land, to avoid the N' l y 60 current that sets along the coast with those winds, as well as to be i n a position to profit by any change of wi nd to the W and NW. I n short, it is better to run to the S at some distance from the coast of Portugal, as W' l y winds make it a lee shore, and i n winter these gales are frequent, blowing with great strength, and cont i nui ng for several days together. Bound to Lisbon, when abreast ILha Berlenga, steer for a position off Cabo da Roca. 65 70 9.09.04. For t he Strait of Gi br al t ar , take the Li bson r ou~ as directed i n 9.09.03 to clear Os Farilh~Ses and Ilha Berlenga, and t hen continue down the coast as far as Cabo de Sao Vicente; thence shape a course for the Strait of Gibraltar, as follows-- Cabo de Sao Vicente should be sighted, and then, after roundi ng it, as the vessel proceeds SE, the state of the wi nd and weather, and the indraft and current of the Strait of Gibraltar, must be considered and allowed for. ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 143 Wi t h the wi nd from NW, through N, to NE, make Cabo Trafalgar; with it from W, through S, to E, make Cabo Espartel. I n thick weather the safety of the vessel may be assured by making the bank which extends about 20 miles from the coast abreast Cabo Trafalgar, but care must be taken, on nearing Isla de Tarifa, to avoid Los Cabezos. Cabo Espartel is safe to approach and can be seen from a long distance. To the S of Cabo Espartel, the land falls, and has been mistaken for the mout h of the strait; so that at night, when the light is not seen, caution is necessary. If an E' l y wi nd be met, and it is too strong to beat against, shelter will be found under Cabo Espartel, the vessel either keeping under weigh, or anchoring off Playa de Jeremias, about 3 miles S of the cape. When working through the Strait of Gibraltar against an E' l y wind, keep i n mid-channel to have the advantage of the current whilst the W-going tidal stream is runni ng, but with the E-going stream either shore may be approached, with a chance of meeting favourable slants of wind. When Tarifa is passed, the force of the wind lessens. When the E' l y wi nd inclines to the N, it is advisable to keep on the Spanish coast, avoiding La Perla, but when it inclines to the S, the African coast is preferable. 9.10. Engl i s h Channel to Cape of Good Hope I0 15 9.10.01. General di rect i ons. Follow the directions given i n 9.07.01 between 23 W and 31 W according to season (see 9.07.03), passing W of ArquipOlago de Cabo Verde, and, having crossed the equator, stand across 20 the South-east Trade on the port tack, even if the vessel cannot make a better course than WSW, for t he wi nd will draw more to the E as the vessel advances, and finally to E at the S limit of the Trade. When i n the vicinity of Penedos de S~o Pedro e S~o Paolo and Ilha de Fernando de Noronha precautions should be taken as i n 9.07.04. Duri ng the greater part of the year the South-east Trade fails on a line drawn from the Cape of Good Hope to Ilha da Tri ndade (20 30" S, 29 19" W) and Ilhas Mart i n Vaz. Thi s limit varies according 25 to season. When S of the South-east Trade, fresh winds variable i n direction will be met. Those from NE through N to NW, if accompanied by cloudy weather, often shift suddenly to SW or S, but sometimes the wind steadies between W and WSW. From Ilha da Tri ndade shape course to the SE to cross the parallel of 30 S i n about 22 W, and the meridian of Greenwich i n about 35 to 37 S, whence to the Cape of Good Hope winds from 30 W and S usually prevail. If E-bound round the Cape of Good Hope, cross the meridian of Greenwich i n about 40 S. After passing the meridian of Greenwich, a strong N' l y current will be frequently experienced; and on nearing the land, when bound to Tabl e Bay, great attention is required, as there it will be found almost constantly r unni ng strongly to the N and, if it is disregarded, a vessel may have difficulty and lose time i n reaching the bay. If bound to 35 Simons Bay during the southern summer, it will be better to make the land about Cape Hangklip, as a strong current sets at that period across the entrance to False Bay towards Cape Point. If near the coast at night, and the land is not visible, keep to the SW unt i l the position is ascertained. I n any circumstances, at night, there is great difficulty in j udgi ng the distance of lights situated under high land. There- fore, the prudent course for a stranger to pursue when making Tabl e Bay is to keep off and on unt i l daylight, 40 far enough W of Green Point to prevent being becalmed near the land and set i n upon the coast by the heave of the sea. For continuation to the Indi an Ocean, see 9.70. Note: As the wi nd seldom, if ever, blows from E or NE (i.e., directly offthe peninsula), sailing vessels bound either for Tabl e Bay or round the Cape of Good Hope should ensure a weatherly position to the N or S, according 45 to the season. Those for Simons Bay have been detained many days by south-easters off Li on' s Head and Hour Bay, i n consequence of their making the land too far to the N during the summer season. The same winds would have been fair for t hem had they been 30 miles farther S. On the other hand, a vessel bound for Tabl e Bay i n the winter season will find it difficult to make her port from a position off Cape Point, during the continuance of N and NW winds, notwithstanding the general prevalence of NNW' l y current. 50 9.11. Engl i s h Channel to Wes t Afri can port s 9.11.01. For Bathurst or Freet own, follow the directions given i n 9.07.01, as far as Madeira. Thence steer 55 so as to pass 60 to 100 miles W of Islas Canarias and from abreast these islands take one of the following routes, according to season. From November to April, steer due S to about 20 N, and t hen edge over to the African coast, and steer as directly as possible to destination. From May to October, keep more to the W, so as to sight ArquipOlago de Cabo Verde; and, after picking up 60 the South-east Trade i n about 10 N, stand on the starboard tack direct to destination. Note: Some navigators recommend standing to the W of ArquipOlago de Cabo Verde, from abreast Islas Canarias; the North-east Trade being sometimes held longer by doing so, and t urni ng E after passing them. 9.11.02. For Lagos or Calabar Ri ver, follow 9.11.01, as far as Islas Canarias, and t hen take the following 65 seasonal routes. From November to April, after edging over towards the coast as i n 9.11.01, keep it at about 60 miles distance unt i l abreast the port of destination. From May to October, keep about 200 mi l es off the African coast duri ng the South-west Monsoon. Tur n to the E i n about 6 or 7 N, 15 W and, closing the land to keep in the Gui nea Current, steer to destination. 70 144 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10 15 20 9. 12. En g l i s h Ch a n n e l t o St. He l e n a 9.12.01. Th e us ua l r out e is as for the Cape of Good Hope (9.10.01) to beyond the South-east Trade, then making enough easting to be able to enter the Trade again and weather St. Helena, which should be approached from SE. As a rule, avoid going on the starboard tack, or decreasing latitude, until St. Helena bears about 035 . 9.12.02. No r t he r n Rout e. From January to April another route, known as the Nort hern Route, is, by some authorities, deemed preferable; that is, pass E of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde and along the African coast until past Cape Palmas, and thence, keeping in the Guinea Current, pass close to Ilha de S~o Thom6. In March, try to reach about fat. 7 S or 8 S, and long. 4 E, or 5 E, from whence St. Helena will generally be fetched on the port tack; but in June and early July it will probably be sufficient to get as far as 4 S or 5 S in the same longitude, as the wind is then generally more E' ly. 9. 13. Bay o f Bi s c ay and we s t coas t s of Spai n and Port ugal t o At l ant i c Oc e an and En g l i s h Cha nne l 9.13.01. Th e us ua l rout e. Whet her N- bound or S-bound, the importance of making to the W as quickly as possible, to join the routes to or from the Channel, cannot be too strongly stressed. From the Bay of Biscay, it may even be advisable to postpone sailing until a favourable wind enables a vessel to avoid all risk of being embayed. The indraft of the Bay is strongest after SW' l y gales. See articles 9.04-9.12 from English Channel and article 9.14 from Gibraltar. 25 9.14. Gi bral t ar t o En g l i s h Cha nne l 9. 14. 01. Gener al di r ect i ons. The W-bound passage through the Strait of Gibraltar against the general E-going current is, even with a fair wind (especially during neap tides), somewhat difficult for sailing vessels, but with W' l y winds, which increase the strength of the current, it is, for a large ship, almost impossible. 30 From Europa Point work along the coast of Spain during the W-going tidal stream until reaching Isla de Tarifa, and, if necessary, anchor there to await the next favourable stream. If from Algeciras, get under way at half ebb and so reach Punta de1 Acebuche by the commencement of the W-going stream. If successful in doubling Isla de Tarifa by keeping to the Spanish coast, continue working up Playa de los Lances while the tidal stream remains favourable. After gaining Punta de la Pena tower (if it be preferred not 35 to work inshore of Los Cabezos) cross to the African coast and work up under that as directed below. If the wind be from SW with moderate weather keep to the Spanish coast, as by crossing to the African coast, where the wind will probably be less, a vessel will be set to leeward. Should the wind shift to WNW or NW, the Spanish coast should still be kept. If unable to fetch Tangier by following these directions cross to the African coast and work up that coast with 40 the favouring stream, anchoring when necessary, until Tangi er Bay is reached. But Isla de Tarifa should be fetched before standing across, otherwise there will be no certainty of weathering Punta Cires, and, should a vessel fall to leeward of it, it will be difficult even to regain Gibraltar Bay. Having weathered Punta Cites, work within the counter-current and near the shore to take advantage of any slant of wind that may occur, and then doubling Malabata Point, gain Tangier Bay, whence it will be easy to regain the Spanish coast. When the meridian 45 of Tangi er is passed, there is less current and a more manageable wind than in the narrows. Note: Wi t h W' l y winds, if a small vessel makes Peninsula de la A1mina, Ceuta, instead of Europa Point, she may work up on the African coast within the limits of the tidal streams, anchoring during the E-going stream. From S of Ceuta to Gibraltar work up as far as Punta Cites, then taking advantage of the W-goi ng stream, 50 cross the strait, sailing a point free. If the wind is SW this is more easily done, with the favourable slants of wind met with on the African coast. In light winds, preserve a good offing when in the vicinity of Cabo de S~o Vicente, as the currents generally set strongly along the land, and have a tendency towards the cape. Ripples are occasionally seen about 3 miles SW of and off the cape. After passing Cabo de $5o Vicente stand out to the NW on the prevailing N' l y winds 55 until a favourable wind is met. Get an offing of at least 100 or 150 miles to avoid the S and SE' l y current near the coast of Portugal. If a S' ly wind should be met with, stand to the N keeping sufficiently to the W to be able easily to weather Tle d' Ouessant and do not steer an E' l y course until N of the parallel of that island. 60 65 70 9. 15. Gi bral t ar t o Hal i f ax or Ne w Yo r k 9.15.01. Ge ne r al Di r e c t i ons . Having cleared the Strait of Gibraltar as described in article 9.14, stand to the SW into the North-east Trade Wind. Thence continue as directed in article 9.04.03. 9. 16. Gi bral t ar t o We s t I ndi e s , Sout h Ame r i c a , Cabo de Ho r no s or Cape o f Go o d Ho p e 9.16.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Having cleared the strait as described in article 9.14, stand SW and join the appropriate route (9,05-9.10). ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 145 ROUTES I N MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 9. 19. Gi bral t ar t o Gul f o f Li o n s and Ge no v a 9.19.01. After l eavi ng Gi br al t ar , keep in mid-channel whether the wi nd be from E or W; thence follow the summer or the winter route described below. 9.19.02. S u mme r rout e. Pass between Islas Baleares and Spain. A vessel bound to Marseille should sight Cabo de San Sebastian or Cabo Creus before crossing the Gul f of Lions; but if bound to Golfo di Genova she should make the land about $1es d' Hybres. I n most cases, when bound to Genova or Livorno, the sooner the coast of Provence is made, the more secure the voyage, unless the wi nd should be settled from SE to SW. 9.19.03. Wi nt e r rout e. Keep along the coast of Spain up to Cabo Creus, where shelter may be obtained in Bahia de Rosas i n case of a N' l y gale or bad weather, and thence, if bound to Marseille, stand across the Gul f of Lions and pass well W of $1e de Planier, but in case of a SE wind try to make easting as quickly as possible as far as 5 E. If bound to Golfo di Genova make $1es d' Hybres. 9. 19. 04. Caut i ons. Sailing vessels roundi ng Cap Corse, the N end of Corsica, in the winter, should give it a berth of 6 or 8 miles, as within that distance dangerous whirlwinds and squalls come off from the cape. When approaching the N shore of the Gul f of Lions, with S' ly winds, the greatest caution is necessary, as the currents with these winds set strongly N and NW, and many vessels have been wrecked. 5 10 15 20 9. 20. Gi bral t ar t o Sardi ni a, Si c i l y, or Na po l i 9.20.01. S u mme r rout e. Wi t h a fair wind, pass between Isla de Albor~n and the coast of Spain and midway between Islas Baleares and the coast of Africa, along the S coast of Sardinia, and N or S of Sicily according to the port to which bound. Wi t h an E' l y wind, work to windward in mid-channel, and then between Islas Baleares and the coast of Africa, keeping nearer the coast of Africa with the wind to the S of E, but nearer the islands with the wind to the Nof E. 9.20.02. Wi nt e r rout e. Keep along the coast of Spain as far as Cabo de Palos, and thence make for the S end of Sardinia, and pass N or S of Sicily. 9. 21. Gi bral t ar t o Mal t a 9.21.01. S u mme r rout e. From May to September, steer midway between Spain and Africa until abreast Cabo de Gata, and thence keep to the African coast as far as Cap Bon to profit by the E' ly current, passing N of ~le de la Galite. Thence proceed direct for Malta, passing N or S of Isola di Pantelleria and the Maltese islands according to circumstances. 25 30 35 40 9.21.02. Wi nt er rout e. From October toApril, W' l ywi nds ( SWt o NW) principally prevail, maki ngi t desirable to keep along the coast of Spain as far as Cabo de Palos, and then to steer for the S coast of Sardinia. In all cir- 45 cumstances the African coast should be avoided i n the winter, as the N' l y gales make it a dangerous lee shore. From S of Sardinia make for Cap Bon, and pass N of Isola di Pantelleria and Gozo. Wi t h a strong SW' l y wind, however, the African coast may be kept as far as Cap Bon. Note: If leaving Gibraltar with an E' ly wind, work to windward i n mid-channel as far as Cabo de Palos, and thence to the S end of Sardinia. Thence make for Cap Bon, and pass N or S of Isola di Pantelleria and the 50 Maltese islands according to circumstances. 9. 22. Mal t a t o Gi bral t ar 55 9.22.01. Usual rout e. Wi t h a fair wind, after passing Cani Rocks, keep well off the African coast to avoid the E' l y current, and make the Spanish coast about Cabo de Palos, afterwards keeping along it to Gibraltar. Great care is needed in making the Strait of Gibraltar in the thick weather which usually accompanies E' l y winds, as vessels mistaking the Rock of Gibraltar for Sierra Bullones and supposing they were passing through the strait and vice versa, have been wrecked i n Bayla Mala and Ensenada de Tet uan, where the land is low. 60 Wi t h NW' l y winds work along the coast of Sicily to Isola Marettimo and then work across to the S coast of Sardinia and the S coast of Spain. The difficulty of getting to windward with a W' l y wi nd increases as the Strait of Gibraltar is approached, vessels being frequently obliged to remain some days at anchor off the coast. Short tacks should be made along the Spanish coast to avoid the E' l y current in mid-channel. If a NW' l y gale be encountered between Malta and Isola di Pantelleria, it is better to put back to Malta rather 65 than risk straining the ship in the heavy sea then met in that channel. 9.22.02. An al t e r nat i ve rout e, recommended as a better one, is, on leaving Malta, to stand on the starboard tack towards the coast of Africa, and work along it up to Cap Bon, subsequently keeping well off the coast of Africa. 70 10 146 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S 9.23. Na p o H, S i c i l y , o r S a r d i n i a t o Gi br al t ar 9.23.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . At al l times of the year pass along the S coasts of Sardinia and Islas Baleares, and keep along the coast of Spain from Cabo de Palos, noting the remarks i n article 9.22.01. 9. 24. G e n o v a a n d G u l f o f L i o n s t o Gi b r a l t a r 9.24.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . At all times of the year make for Cabo de San Antonio, and t hen keep along t he coast of Spain, not i ng the remarks i n 9.22.01. 15 20 R O U T E S F R O M P ORT S O N WE S T COAS T OF A F R I C A A N D F R O M A T L A N T I C I S L A N D S 9.25. F r e e t o w n o r Ar q u i p 6 1 a g o d e Ca b o V e r d e t o E n g l i s h C h a n n e l 9.25.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Stand to the NW into the North-east Trade Wi nd. Run through the Trade, passing W of Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde, and then follow the route recommended for sailing vessels from Cape Town to England i n article 9.40.01. 25 30 35 9. 26. F r e e t o w n t o A s c e n s i o n I s l a n d 9.26.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . When clear of St. Ann Shoals r un along the coast, within 50 miles of the land, unt i l past Cape Palmas, when an endeavour should be made to cross the equator between the meridians of 3 00" W and 8 00' W, and then, without making a tack, Ascension Island will be fetched. Duri ng November long-continued calms and a strong NW' l y current are experienced i n the vicinity of St. Ann Shoals. 9. 27. G o l d Co a s t , N i g e r i a o r B i g h t o f Bi a f r a t o F r e e t o w n o r i n t e r m e d i a t e p o r t s 9.27.01. F o r F r e e t o w n , stand S from the N part of the Bight of Biafra and, if possible, pass W of Fernando P6o and cross the equator as soon as possible, unless the vessel can point as high as WNW. When S of the equator stand W in the South Equatorial Current, and as westing is made the wi nd will be found to shift gradually round to the SE. When i n about 10 W recross the equator and shape course for Freetown. From any place i n the Gul f of Gui nea E of Cape Palmas, stand S into the South Equatorial Current, and t hen proceed as above. 40 9.27.02. F o r i n t e r m e d i a t e p o r t s , i n working to windward i n the Bight of Benin, it is advisable to stand off on the starboard tack duri ng the day, and inshore on the port tack by night, tacking if the wi nd should veer. If going some distance along the Gui nea coast it is advisable to stand across the equator and make westing i n the South Equatorial Current. I n the Harmat t an season (November to February) the Gui nea Current near the land i n this bight is checked, 45 and inshore a W' l y set is felt. 50 55 60 9. 28. G o l d Co a s t , N i g e r i a o r B i g h t o f Bi a f r a t o E n g l i s h C h a n n e l 9. 28. 01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . St and S of the equator into the South Equatorial Current, and then make westing, as from the Bight of Biafra to Freetown (9.27.01). Re-cross the equator in about 20 W, and then, as from the Cape of Good Hope (9.40.01) run through the North-east Trade, and shape a course for the English Channel. 9. 29. G o l d Co a s t , N i g e r i a o r B i g h t o f Bi a f r a t o S o u t h A m e r i c a 9.29.01. Vi a St He l e n a . Keep in the Gui nea current unt i l in the Bight of Biafra, and then work along the coast as far as 6 S, whence there will generally be little difficulty in reaching St. Helena by keeping on the port tack. From Cape Palmas (4 22" N , 7 44" E) a vessel on the starboard tack will generally reach Cap Lopez (0 38" S, 8 42" E) and often S of Annobon (I 28" S, 5 38" E) . From St. Helena, keep i n the South-east Trade, at about 20 S, unt i l leaving Ilha da Tri ndade, when edge off for Rio de Janeiro, or directly thence to the required destination. 9.29.02. Via Ascensi on, stand S on the starboard tack, generally weathering Ilha de $5o Thom6, as far as the equator; then stand W, taking care to keep in the South Equatorial Current. Progress will be slow at first, but 65 as westing is made, the South-east Trade Wi nd will be felt. From Cape Coast castle (5 06" N, 1 14" W) stand across the equator on the starboard tack, and t hen as above. For vessels from the coast S of the equator the winds are always favourable, gradually backing from SW to SE as the island is approached. From Ascension, stand through the South-east Trade Wind, to pick up the route from the English Channel 70 to South America (9.07) and by it proceed direct to the required destination. ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 147 9. 30. G o l d Co a s t , a n d B i g h t o f Bi a f r a , t o Ca p e T o w n a n d Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e 9.30.01. F o r Ca p e T o w n . Along the whole shore of the Bight of Biafra work to windward with the land and sea breezes, anchoring when necessary to prevent being set N by the current, especially during April and May, the season of calms and tornadoes. 5 From Cap Lopez to the Congo mai nt ai n a good offing, only approaching the shore to take advantage of the land breezes, which begin to blow at, or a few hours before, sunrise. In February, and sometimes i n October, the sea breeze extends so well to the W as to enable vessels to head along the coast on either tack, but during May the wind blows steadily along the coast from S and S by E, night and day, with a N' l y current of I knot. To cross the Congo Stream (see Admiralty Sailing Directions) either keep 200 miles off the coast or keep in 10 anchoring ground; the latter is preferable. The usual course is to beat alongshore as far as Ponta Vermelha (539"S, 12 09" E), keeping on the bank of soundings i n order to anchor if the wind falls light, crossing the Stream when the sea breeze has well set in. From the Congo to Luanda, anchor every ni ght when the sea breeze falls light; weigh with the first of the land breeze and continue on the port tack unt i l about 1300; then tack, and by the time the sea breeze fails good 15 progress will have been made to the S. From Luanda to Bata de Mossamedes. In the neighbourhood of Ponta das Palmeirinhas, the current sets N with considerable force, and a good tack off the land for 50 or 60 miles will enable the vessel to weather the point; it seldom answers to work alongshore. Do not get away from the land more than 50 or 60 miles, as beyond these limits the sea breeze declines i n force and draws more to the S, which would necessarily cause a loss of ground 20 of the inshore tack, besides which the advantage of the alternate land and sea breezes, which are almost invariably experienced closer inshore, would be lost. To the southward of Cabo Negro there is no difficulty i n working S if advantage is taken of the variations of the wind, and the tacks are arranged accordingly. As rollers are frequent, the shore must be given a good berth. To the S of Cape Frio, N' l y winds may be expected from May to August. 25 9.30.02. F o r t h e Ca p e o f G o o d Hope ' , s t and of f and run through the Trade Wind, and approach the Cape as when bound from England. See 9.10.01. 9. 31. A s c e n s i o n t o E n g l i s h C h a n n e l 9.31.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Ascension Island lles on the direct route from Cape Town to the English Channel. Follow the relevant part of the directions in paragraph 9.40.01. 9. 32. A s c e n s i o n t o S o u t h A m e r i c a . 9.32.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s are given in articles 9.29.02 and 9.07. 9. 33. A s c e n s i o n t o St . H e l e n a 9.33.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Proceed S on the port tack, and when beyond the limit of the Trade Wi nd make casting and re-enter the Trade Wi nd far enough to windward to ensure weathering St. Helena Island. Avoid going on the starboard tack, or decreasing the latitude, unt i l St. Helena Island bears about 010 . 30 35 40 45 9. 34. A s c e n s i o n t o Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e 9.34.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Run to the S on the port tack through, and t hen out of, the South-east Trade. Then stand SE with the object of crossing the Greenwich meridian between 35 S and 37 S. The parallel of 30 S will be crossed probably not W of about 14 W. Continue between the parallels of 35 S and 37 S, and make destination from SW. If bound to the Indi an Ocean without calling at an intermediate port, proceed as directed i n article 9.70.01. 50 55 9. 35. A s c e n s i o n t o e q u a t o r i a l a n d s o u t h - w e s t e r n c o a s t s o f Af r i c a 9. 35. 01. N o t e s a n d p r e c a u t i o n s . Leaving Ascension Island on the starboard tack, a vessel will fetch the coast of Africa, according to the season at some point between Cap Lopez and Luanda or even farther S. I n May, however, the wi nd tends to be more E' l y and a vessel may not weather Annobon; on the other hand, a good vessel, sailing well, may make a landfall S of Congo River. Two precautions are, however, necessary, the first is not to get N of the parallel of 3 00' N or 4 00' N, and the second, not to bring the port of destination to bear more t han 160; an occasional short tack, as the wi nd shifts a little, may therefore be necessary, but the whole passage may sometimes be made with a free wind. 60 9. 36. St . H e l e n a t o S o u t h A m e r i c a 70 148 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 9. 36. 01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . P r o c e e d as d i r e c t e d i n 9. 25. 01, a n d i f b o u n d t o Mo n t e v i d e o p a s s a b o u t 100 mi l e s S of I l h a d a T r i n d a d e ; s t e e r t h e n c e as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e t o d e s t i n a t i o n . 10 15 9. 37. St . H e l e n a t o A s c e n s i o n a n d E n g l i s h C h a n n e l 9. 37. 01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Si nc e b o t h St . He l e n a a n d As c e n s i o n l i e on, or v e r y cl ose t o t h e r o u t e f r o m Ca p e T o wn t o t h e Ch a n n e l , f ol l ow t h e r e l e v a n t d i r e c t i o n s i n 9. 40. 01. 9. 38. St . H e l e n a t o w e s t c o a s t o f Af r i c a 9. 38. 01. No t e s . Ve s s e l s wi l l ge ne r a l l y f e t c h as f a r S as Be ngue l a , e x c e p t i n Ma y , wh e n t h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e h a s mo r e c a s t i ng i n i t a n d t h e l ee c u r r e n t i s s t r ong. T o al l pl aces N of Be ngue l a , t he r e f or e , t h e wi n d s ar e f a v o u r - abl e. T h e y v e e r f r o m SE t o S a n d S W as t h e c oa s t i s a p p r o a c h e d . 20 25 9. 39. St . H e l e n a t o Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e 9. 39. 01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Ru n S o n t h e p o r t t a c k t h r o u g h a n d o u t of t h e Tr a d e , a n d t h e n s t a n d SE, c r os s i ng t h e me r i d i a n of Gr e e n wi c h b e t we e n 35 S a n d 37 S ( p r o b a b l y n o t g e t t i n g W of 10 t o 14 W) . T h e n k e e p b e t we e n t h e s e par al l el s , as i n t h e pas s age f r o m E n g l a n d t o Ca p e T o wn ( 9. 10. 01) a n d ma k e Ca p e T o wn or t h e Ca p e of Go o d Ho p e f r o m SW. I f b o u n d t o t h e I n d i a n oc e a n wi t h o u t cal l i ng at a n i n t e r me d i a t e por t , f ol l ow t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n 9. 70. 01. 9. 40. Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e t o St. He l e n a , A s c e n s i o n , E n g l i s h Ch a n n e l , o r B o r d e a u x 9. 40. 01. F o r t h e E n g l i s h Ch a n n e l , f i r s t o b t a i n a good of f i ng t o t h e NW as s qua l l s f r o m NW a n d WNW a r e 30 n o t i n f r e q u e n t n e a r t h e coast , a n d h a v e b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d i n b o t h s eas ons . T h e n s h a p e c our s e f or St . He l e n a . F r o m St . He l e n a s t e e r a d i r e c t c our s e f or As c e ns i on, pa s s i ng i t o n e i t h e r si de, a n d c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 25 W a n d 30 W ( i n J u l y b e t we e n 20 W a n d 25 W, t o e n s u r e b e t t e r wi nds ) . T h e n ma k e a N' l y c o u r s e t o r e a c h t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e as s oon as pos s i bl e ( i n J u l y a n d Au g u s t c r os s i ng t h e pa r a l l e l of 10 N t o t h e W of 30 W) , a n d r u n t h r o u g h i t . T h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d wi l l p r o b a b l y b e l os t i n a b o u t 26 N t o 28 N, a n d 35 38 t o 40 W, wh e n W' l y wi n d s ma y b e e xpe c t e d, a n d o n r e a c h i n g t he s e s h a p e c our s e f or t h e En g l i s h Ch a n n e l . I t i s s e l d o m a dvi s a bl e t o pa s s E of Ar qui p61ago dos Ag6r e s b u t s h o u l d t h e wi n d d r a w t o t h e NW wh e n n e a r t h e m t h e mo s t c o n v e n i e n t c h a n n e l t h r o u g h t h e m ma y b e t a ke n. I f E' l y wi n d s ar e e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r p a s s i n g Ar qui p61ago dos Ag6r e s t h e ves s el s h o u l d s t i l l b e k e p t o n t h e s t a r b o a r d t ack, as W' l y wi n d s wi l l p r o b a b l y b e s o o n e r f o u n d . 40 F r o m No v e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y , a ves s el s h o u l d pa s s a b o u t 50 mi l e s W of I l h a da s Fl or e s a n d I l h a do Co r v o ; b u t f r o m J u n e t o Au g u s t , at a b o u t 250 mi l e s W of t h e s e i s l a nds . At o t h e r t i me s of t h e year , a t i n t e r me d i a t e pos i t i ons . 45 50 9. 40. 02. F o r B o r d e a u x , p r o c e e d as f or t h e En g l i s h Ch a n n e l b u t b e g i n t o ma k e c a s t i ng o n r e a c h i n g t h e par al l el of 30 N, p a s s i n g b e t we e n I l h a Te r c e i r a a n d I l h a de S5o Mi g u e l a n d r o u n d i n g t h e NW p o i n t of S p a i n at f r o m 60 t o 80 mi l e s di s t a nc e . 9. 41. Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e t o N o r t h a n d Ce n t r a l A m e r i c a a n d We s t I n d i e s 9. 41. 01. T o c r o s s t h e e q u a t o r , f ol l ow t h e r o u t e t o t h e En g l i s h Ch a n n e l ( 9. 40. 01) as f a r as 5 E a n d t h e n s t e e r wi t h a f a i r T r a d e Wi n d t o wa r d s I s l a F e r n a n d o de No r o n h a . On r e a c h i n g 10 S, a t a b o u t 30 W, s t a n d mo r e t o t h e N, so as t o cr os s t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 31 a n d 34 W, a n d as s oon as t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e h a s b e e n p i c k e d up, s t e e r t h r o u g h i t , a n d t h e n c e as f o l l o ws : - - 55 9. 41. 02. F o r N e w Yo r k , t r y t o r e a c h 30 N, 70 W, a n d t h e n c e s t e e r as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e t o Ne w Yor k. 60 65 70 9. 41. 03. F o r t h e Ca r i b b e a n c o a s t , T r i n i d a d a n d t h e Gu i a n a s , p r o c e e d t o wa r d s Ne w Yo r k as i n 9. 21. 02; l eave t h a t r o u t e wh e n cl ear of t h e Eq u a t o r i a l Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t a n d p r o c e e d t o d e s t i n a t i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n ar t i cl e 9. 06. 04. 9. 41. 04. F o r L e e w a r d I s l a n d s , J a ma i c a , B e l i z e , o r p o r t s i n t h e Gu l f o f Me x i c o . Pr o c e e d as i n 9. 41. 03, ma k i n g W as d e s c r i b e d i n ar t i cl e 9. 06. 03. 9. 41. 05. F o r Cu b a , p r o c e e d as a bove , b u t ma k e W as d i r e c t e d i n ar t i cl e 9. 06. 02. 9. 42. Ca p e T o w n t o S o u t h A m e r i c a n p o r t s 9. 42. 01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Fo l l o w t h e di r e c t i ons i n ar t i cl e 9. 41. 01 as f ar as 20 S; t h e n r u n a l ong t h i s pa r a l l e l wi t h a f ai r So u t h - e a s t T r a d e wi n d as f ar as 30 W, wh e n c e s t e e r d i r e c t f or Ri o de J a ne i r o, or i f f or p o r t s ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 149 to the S, pick up, at 35 W, the outward route from the English Channel (9.07.06, 9.07,07. 9.08.) to the required destination. 9. 43. Cape T o wn t o we s t coas t o f Af ri ca 9.43.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . First obtain a good oiTmg to the NW, as squalls from NW or WNW are not infrequent near the coast, and have been experienced in all seasons. Steer to the N in the South-east Trade, taking advantage of the Benguela Current. Bound to ports on the coast E of Cape Palmas, proceed as directly as navigation permits after first obtaining the offing described above. 10 ROUTES FROM PORTS ON WESTERN SI DE OF ATLANTI C OCEAN 9. 44. F r o m Canada and east coas t o f Un i t e d St at es 9.44.01. For En g l i s h Cha nne l , owing to the prevailing fair winds and favourable currents, great circle or t humb line courses may be steered as desired, provided that care is taken to avoid ice. 15 20 9.44.02. For Cape T o wn or Cape o f Go o d Ho pe , make for 35 N, 45 W. It is better to be about 60 miles N of this position in mi dsummer and the same amount S in midwinter. From this position there are two main routes according to the time of year, each offering the quickest passage through the Doldrums. From May to September, steer from about 36 N, 45 W to 25 N, 30 W, and thence through the North-east Trade Wi nd until meeting the South-east Trade Wi nd between the parallels of 1 N and 5 N. Then proceed 25 on the starboard tack, crossing the parallel of 5 N between 17 and 20 W- - t he more E' l y longitude in July and August - - and then put the vessel about, so as to cross the equator between 25 and 23 W. Thence stand S through the South-east Trade Wind, and begin to make casting from 25 S, 30 W, running due E along the parallel of 35 S as soon as it is reached, direct to destination. October to April. From the position in about 34 N, 45 W, take a direct track through the North-east Trade 30 Wind, so as to cross the parallel of 5 N between 20 W and 23 W. The S' ly winds will be met with in about 7 N; and on doing so, put the ship on whichever tack gives the most southing, and cross the equator between 20 W and 24 W. Directions for crossing the equator are also given in article 9.07.03. After crossing it, stand through the South-east Trade Wind, and when it is lost, steer SE so as to cross the 35 parallel of 30 S in about 30 W, and thence so as to cross the meridian of Greenwich in 40 S. From this point, steer direct for Cape Town, taking care not to be set N by the Southern Ocean and Benguela Currents, which make NE' Iy somewhat across the track. For general directions for rounding the Cape of Good Hope when bound to the Indian Ocean or to Australia, see 9.70.01. 40 9. 44. 03. For Sout h Ame r i c a n port s, proceed as for Cape Town (9.44.02) as far as 5 S, and then follow the directions given in articles 9.07.04 to 9.08.02, as required by the destination. 9. 44. 04. For Ri o Ama z o n a s , stand E to about 33 N, 50 W. Then turn S, and make as directly as possible to destination, but nothing to the W of 43 W until reaching 5 N, on account of strong W-going Nort h Equatorial Current. In July and August it will be advisable to make for 20 N, 37 W, and then to stand S until the South-east Trade Wi nd is picked up, between 5 N and 10 N, thus approaching Rio Amazonas from well to the E. 45 50 9. 44. 05. For Car i bbe an Sea and Gu l f o f Me xi c o. Bound for Barbados or Tr i ni dad, make good easting, passing either side of Bermuda, but steering so as to cross the meridian of 60 W or even 56 W, according to the season, before entering the tropics and steering to the S, always allowing for the current to leeward. If bound for Ant i g ua or Le e wa r d I s l ands it will not be necessary to go so far E as 60 W. For Mo n a Pas s age, 66 W will give enough casting. 55 If bound for J a ma i c a or Co l o n make good casting as for Barbados, and then take Turks Island Passage and Windward Passage, which is the shortest route. If bound for Puer t o La Guai r a (10 37" N, 66 56" W) or ports to the E, make good casting as for Tri ni dad, and use Mona Passage if required. A vessel making the South American coast W of her port will have considerable difficulty and lose much time working to windward to gain it. 60 If bound for the Gul f o f Me x i c o , proceed as above by Turks Island Passage and Windward Passage to pass S of Cuba and through Yucatan Channel. Furt her to the directions for approaching Mississippi River, given in Admiralty Sailing Directions, it may be said that the currents near the mout h of the river are uncertain, and fog and haze are prevalent, especially in summer and autumn. The mud banks are low, and the wind is generally from the E; soundings should therefore 6,5 be obtained well to windward. If approaching from S or SW great attention should be paid to checking the latitude, for the bank is steep-to. If bound for the S shores of the Gul f of Mexico, a vessel should strike the E edge of Banco de Campeche between the parallels of 22 N and 22 N, and a knowledge of the exact point made is of great importance to cheek the longitude, especially during the rainy season, March to September, when observations can seldom be 70 10 150 S. z l I LI NG VESSEL ROUTES obtained. Soundi ng therefore must be used early and constantly. I n this season it is best to take the inshore track across the bank as regular land and sea breezes t hen prevail; but if bound to Vera Cruz i n the "Nort her" season it is best to pursue the outer track, which runs between Arrecife Sisal and the outer eays, and into the open between the Trinagulo Oeste and Cayo Nuevo. 9. 45. Ne w Or l e ans t o eas t coas t o f No r t h Ame r i c a , or En g l i s h Cha nne l 9.45.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Pass through Florida Strait, taking full advantage of the Gul f Stream, proceeding i n it up the coast of the Uni t ed States, if N- bound; but if for the English Channel standing NE for 40 N, 60 W, and thence continue as directly as possible, with a favourable current and with prevailing W' l y winds, to destination. 15 9. 46. Ne w Or l e ans t o Co l o n or Mo s q u i t o coas t 20 9.46.01. For Col on, pass between 5 and 10 miles off Cabo San Antonio, to a position 25 miles ENE of Farrall rock, and from thence pass between 5 and 10 miles W of Isla de Providencia, and direct to Colon. 9.46.02. For Mo s q u i t o coast , after passing Cabo San Antonio steer to pass W of Swan Islands and Vivario Cays and thence through Mosquito Channel (14 21" N, 83 10" W). 25 30 9. 47. So ut h- we s t part o f Gu l f of Me x i c o t o At l ant i c Oc e an 9.47.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . From the SW ports in the Gul f of Mexico take the passage inshore along the coast of Yucatan, where the adverse current is weak. Bound E, pass over Banco de Campeche within the shoals, but the passage between Arrecife Sisal and the coast should only be taken by daylight. I n passing through Florida Strait from any part of the Gulf, and in proceeding N offthe Atlantic coast of the Uni t ed States, take all possible advantage of the Gul f Stream. For English Channel, stand NE for 40 N, 60 W, and then proceed direct, see 9.45.01. 35 40 45 50 55 60 9. 48. Be l i z e t o En g l i s h Cha nne l or coas t o f No r t h Ame r i c a 9.48.01. For t he En g l i s h Channel , proceed via Yucatan Channel, thence through Florida Strait with the Gul f Stream to a position midway between Bermuda and Halifax; thence after crossing the meridian of 40 W i n about 45 N, continue direct to destination. 9.48.02. For eas t coas t o f No r t h Ame r i c a , proceed as directed i n 9.45.01. 9.48.03. For t he no r t h coas t of t he Gul f o f Me x i c o , pass 35 miles E of Isla Mujeres (21 12' N, 86 d3' W), and thence continue as directly as possible to destination. 9. 49. Co l o n or Co l o mb i a n port s t o En g l i s h Cha nne l , Ne w Yo r k or Ne w Or l e ans 9.49.01. For En g l i s h Cha nne l , steer to pass through Wi ndward Passage, between Haiti and Cuba, and thence make nort hi ng on the starboard tack. When in the westerlies, steer to cross the meridian of 40 W i n about 44 N i n summer, and about 40 N i n winter. Thence continue as directly as possible. 9.49.02. For east coas t o f Un i t e d States, pass through Wi ndward Passage as i n 9.49.01 and, having cleared Turks Island, stand NW i n the Antilles Current, unt i l picking up the Gul f Stream N of the Bahamas, and thence proceed as directly as possible along the Atlantic coast of the Uni t ed States. 9. 49. 03. For nor t h s ho r e o f t he Gul f of Me x i c o , take the reverse of the New Orleans to Colon route (9.46.01) as far as the position off Farrall Rock, after which a course can be shaped to pass 30 to 40 miles W of Cabo San Antonio. 9. 50. F r o m t he s o ut he r n s ho r e s o f t he Car i bbe an Sea no r t hwa r d 9.50.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . From any of the ports along the Venezuelan coast and along the S shores of the 65 Caribbean Sea, work E coastwise in the eddies or counter current, unt i l able to fetch the desired port on the starboard tack. At times, however, off Venezuela, the W' l y current is so far inshore, that vessels have to cross it and work up to the N of it, as mentioned for Curasao i n 9.52.01. I n winter, when the wi nd is well NE, it is necessary to make more easting than in summer, when the wind is i n places E of S. From any of the Venezuelan ports, Mona Passage gives the best route for sailing vessels bound to any Uni t ed 70 States Atlantic port, or to English Channel. ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 151 9. 51. J a ma i c a t o N e w Yo r k , Ha l i f a x , o r E n g l i s h Channel 9.51.01. Gener al d i r e c t i o n s . From April to September, run to leeward round the W end of Cuba, and then through Florida Strait, thus getting full benefit of the Gul f Stream. Thence proceed as described i n article 9.45.01. From October to March, N' l y winds prevail i n Florida Strait, and Wi ndward Passage should be preferred, although ships are frequently opposed there by contrary winds and currents. These may to some extent be overcome by keeping nearer the coast of Santo Domingo, Haiti, as there a windward current is frequently found. When through Wi ndward Passage, use either Crooked Island, Mayaguana, or Caicos Passages according as the wi nd may favour, and from thence proceed direct to New York or Halifax. If bound to the English Channel, see 9.49.01 onward from Wi ndward Passage. 10 9. 52. J a ma i c a t o C u r a f a o a n d s o u t h e r n s h o r e s o f Ca r i b b e a n Se a 9.52.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Work to windward along the S coast of Haiti, where at full and change of the moon, and also near the time of the aut umnal equinox, there is often a counter or E' l y set, unt i l on, or to windward of, the meridian of Curagao; t hen stand across for that port when certain of fetching well to windward to allow for the prevailing W' l y current. I n summer more casting is necessary than i n winter, as the wi nd has more southing i n it and the current i n the summer is stronger. A vessel which makes a landfall to leeward of her port will usually find a counter or E' l y set near the shore i n which she can work up; failing to do this, if E of the meridian of 70 W, she may possibly have again to cross the prevailing W' l y set, and work up to the N of 14 N or 15 N. 1,5 20 25 9. 53. We s t I n d i e s t o U n i t e d S t a t e s p o r t s , t o Ca n a d i a n p o r t s o r t o E n g l i s h C h a n n e l 9.53.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . The great object for sailing vessels is to get N into the W' l y winds as speedily as possible, and Bermuda lies i n the track (or near the best track) for this purpose, though a course E or W of it may 30 be taken according to the direction of the wi nd met with and the season. A more N' l y route is followed in summer than i n winter. From Barbados, fetch to windward of all the islands, but from the other Wi ndward Islands pass close to leeward of Antigua, taking care not to come within a depth of 20 m. Having cleared the other islands, and when steering directly for Bermuda, vessels sometimes fall to the E 35 of the course, and find it very difficult to make the latter island when W' l y winds prevail; i n this case take advantage of the Trade Wi nd to reach the meridians of 68 or 70 W before going N of the parallel of 25 N. When bound to the English Channel, or to Western Europe, it is seldom advisable to pass E of Arquip~lago dos A~6res but a passage between Ilha do Corvo and Ilha das Flores and the other islands of the Arquip~lago 40 is recommended by some navigators. If E' l y winds are met with after passing Arquip~lago d6s A~6res, still keep on the starboard tack, as by so doing W' l y winds will probably be sooner found. 9. 50. B a r b a d o s t o n o r t h - e a s t c o a s t o f S o u t h A m e r i c a 9.54.01. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . Work SE unt i l abreast the destination before attempting to cross the prevailing W' l y current, particularly during and near the months of August and September when the current is strong and the wi nd well to the S of E. It has been recommended at this season that sailing vessels should not come S of 8 N unt i l they are certain of fetching their destination on the port tack. 45 50 9. 55. R i o A m a z o n a s t o R e c i f e 9.55.01. T h e n o r m a l r o u t e is close inshore out of the influence of the W' l y current, and by taking advantage 55 of the current, tidal stream, and every slant of wind, a sailing vessel will generally perform the voyage from Rio Amazonas to Recife i n about 30 days. Duri ng the prevalence of ENE' l y and NE' Iy winds a current sets ESE along and near the coast; this fact is well known to the masters of the coasting craft and is taken advantage of by them. When the weather will permit, a vessel may anchor off any part of the coast without danger. I n working along 60 shore, the dry season (July to December) is considered preferable, as the winds are then fresh and steady. Stand off duri ng the day, and in towards the land at night, so as to be near the coast i n the morni ng to take advantage of the land breeze, by which a good sailing vessel will make from 40 to 50 miles a day. I n the rainy season (January to June), working to windward is more tedious, as calms, light variable winds, squalls and rain prevail. In this case stand on the tack that is most favourable, and, as a general rule, do not 65 go outside a depth of 55 m. If the wind is steady, tack as i n the dry season, but do not lose sight of the coast. 9.55.02. Al t e r n a t i v e r o u t e . Stand directly N across the equator into about 10 N, and t hen tack. Thi s will save wear of sails and rigging, and will probably take no longer than working along the inshore route. 152 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 9.56. Ri o Ama z o n a s t o Ne w Yo r k or En g l i s h Channel 9.56.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . After getting a good offing, stand N, so as to pick up the main Atlantic routes to the N; that to New York (9.41.02) in about 10 N to 15 N, and that to the English Channel (9.40.01) between 25 and 30 N, passing W of Arquip61ago dos A~6res as directed in that article. 10 15 9. 57. Re c i f e and nort h- eas t coas t o f Sout h Ame r i c a t o En g l i s h Ch a n n e l or Ne w Yo r k 9.57.01. For En g l i s h Cha nne l , after obtaining a good offing, stand N, and after crossing the doldrums, stand through the Nort h-east Trade Wi nd into the Westerlies, passing W of Arquipdlago dos Aq6res as directed in article 9.40.01. 9.57.02. For Ne w Yor k and port s nor t hwar d, proceed as in 9.57.01, and when the doldrums are crossed, and the North-east Trade Wi nd is reached, stand direct for the required destination by the main route from the Cape of Good Hope (9.41.02) from about 10 N. 20 9. 58. P~rt o do Sal vador t o Eur ope or No r t h Ame r i c a 9.58.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . In leaving the ports immediately S of Recife for Europe, the NE winds sometimes compel sailing vessels to keep on the port tack for 10 or 15 days, and to stand SSE or even SE to the parallels of 28 S or 32 S; and as far E as the meridian of Ilha da Trindade. Then on the starboard tack it should be possible to weather the E part of the coast, and also Arquip61ago de Fernando de Noronha. As northing is made the wind will veer from E to SE, and the equator should be crossed in 27W to 29 W. 30 9. 59. Ri o de Janei ro t o PSrt o do Sal vador or Re c i f e 9.59.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . N- bound along the E coast of Brazil, it is preferable first to make a stretch to the SE. Working along the coast, bordered by reefs, subject to currents, and light winds at night, is not recom- mended. The Brazil Monsoons do not extend more than 120 or 150 miles out to sea. Beyond this limit the Trade Wi nd 35 is found, generally blowing from between SE and E. From November to February, while fresh NE winds and a S' l y current of 1 or 1 knots extend along the coast, especially in the vicinity of Cabo de S~o Tom6, the wind being also more N' l y than in the offing, it is necessary to stand for 450 to 600 miles to the ESE before tacking. Thi s season, particularly December and January, is the most unfavourable time of year for the N-bound passage. In October and March, do not stand farther E 40 than actually necessary for weathering Arquip61ago dos Abrolhos, as N of their latitude the winds will be about E or E by S. Fr om March to September, close the coast as near as possible, taking advantage of the land and sea breezes, and making short tacks to the E on meeting the fresh NE winds which are common off Cabo Frio and Cabo $5o Tom6. Then continue along the coast at distances of from 30 to 90 miles. A more 45 E' Iy route is generally used, but if bound for P6rto do Salvador it does not appear advantageous to stand too far off the land. 50 55 9. 60. Ri o de Jane i r o t o Eur ope or No r t h Ame r i c a 9.60.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Make first a stretch to the SE to about 35 W, and then stand N, in the South-east Trade, crossing the equator between 27 W and 32 W; and after passing through the doldrums, steer direct for American ports, or to the NW and W of Arquip61ago dos Aq6res, as directed in article 9.40.01, if bound to European ports. 9. 61. Ri o de Janei ro t o Cape of Go o d Ho pe 9.61.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Stand to the SE to about 32 S, 30 W; thence through 35 S, 20 W; 37 S, 10 W; 37 S, 0; and 37 S, 10 E; making the Cape of Good Hope from SW. If bound to the Indian Ocean, without calling at Cape Town, cross the meridian of Greenwich in about 40 S, and run E on that parallel, or, from November to March, on 45 S, see 9.70.01. 65 9. 62. Ri o de La Pl ata t o Eur ope or No r t h Ame r i c a 70 9.62.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . From May to September proceed direct to Cabo Frio, and thence across the equator in 27 W to 29 W, as from Rio de Janeiro (9.60.01). From October to April stand E to beyond 30 W, and thence N into and through the South-east Trade Wind, as from Rio de Janeiro (9.10.01). ATLANTI C OCEAN AND MEDI TERRANEAN SEA 153 9. 63. Ri o de La Pl ata t o Cape of Go o d Ho p e 9.63.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Pick up the parallel of 40 S in 30 W. Thence, keep along that parallel as far as the meridian of Greenwich, whence steer directly for Cape Town, or, if bound to the Indian Ocean without calling at that port, continue E along, or, in the summer, a few degrees S of, the parallel of 40 S. See 9.70.01. 9. 64. Ri o de La Pl ata t o Fa l kl a nd I s l ands 9.64.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Keep well W of the direct route until nearing the islands. 9. 65. Ri o de La Pl ata t o r o und Cabo de Ho r no s 9.65.01. Rout es. Two routes are recommended, either to steer SE and pick up the route from Rio de Janeiro (9.08.02) or to sail coastwise (9.07.07). In either case Estrecho de le Maire offers the alternative to passage E of lsla de los Estados (9.08.02). 5 10 15 9. 66. Cabo de Ho r no s to En g l i s h Cha nne l 9. 66. 01. Roundi ng t he Hor n from W to E is a comparatively easy matter, for the prevailing winds are favourable and the current near Cabo de Hornos sets strongly E. The passage is usually made between 56 S and 57 30' S, to the N of the W-bound route. December and January are the most favourable months; June and July, when E' l y winds are not unusual, are the least favourable. Heavy W' l y gales, with snow and hail, may be expected in August and Sept ember; in winter, a track about 80 miles S of Cabo de Hornos is recommended. 9.66.02. Th e be s t l andf al l after rounding Cabo de Hornos is W of Estrecho de le Maire, where the coast is free of outlying dangers. The islands make a lee during SW' Iy and W' l y winds. Keep in mid-channel in Estrecho de le Maire, avoiding the overfalls off Cabo San Diego. A vessel in trouble should run boldly through Estrecho de le Maire and round up under the land if necessary. 9.66.03. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Equat or. The usual route is about 80 miles S of Falkland Islands and to a position in about 35 S, 30 W; making W of that position between April and August, and E of it from September to March. Continue, according to season, from April to August standing N as far as 10 S, 25 W, keeping as much as possible to the W of 25 W throughout, and cross the equator between 25 W and 28 W. It might even be possible to pass W of Ilha de Tri ni dade at this time of year. Fr om September to March, stand NNE from 35 S, 30 V~ r to about 25 S, 20 W, and then run N with the South-east Trade Wind, to cross the equator between 22 W and 25 W. " 9.66.04. Al t e r nat i ve r out e s t o t he equat or. If ice is prevalent, particularly between October and February, steer so as to cross 50 S in about 51 W and 40 S in about 45 W. Then make northing until the South-east Trade Wi nd is met, joining the route from Rio de La Plata (9.62.01) in about 35 S. Alternatively, some navigators recommend passage W of Falkland Islands from October to February on account of the greater freedom from ice in that region, after which a NE' I y course should be steered to join the N- bound route in about 35 S, 41 W. If unable to pass W of Falkland Islands, pass as close E as the wind will allow. Caution: If meeting with a foul wind whilst S of 40 S, it would be better to stand NW than to the E, as ice is likely not far E of Falkland Islands. 9.66.05. F r o m Equat or t o En g l i s h Channe l , join the route from Cape Town (9.40.01) on meeting the Nort h- east Trade Wind. 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 9. 67. Cabo de Ho r no s t o eas t coas t o f No r t h Ame r i c a 9.67.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . From April to August, follow the directions in 9.66.03 to 10 S, 25 W, where the track from the Cape of Good Hope to Nort h America crosses that from Cabo de Homos; follow it to destina- tion. From September to March, follow the directions in 9.66.03 for these months to 15 S, 20 W, where the route meets the track from the Cape of Good Hope to Nort h America (9.41.01); follow this route to destination. 9. 68. Cabo de Ho r no s t o eas t coas t of Sout h Ame r i c a 9.68.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . At all times of the year, after rounding Cabo de Hornos, stand N with the Falkland Current between Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego, and carry it up the coast, with the prevailing W' l y winds, to Bahia Blanca or Rio de La Plata. From Rio de La Plata onwards to Cabo Frio or Rio de Janeiro, see 9.62.01, and from Rio de Janeiro to P6rto do Salvador, or Recife, see 9.59.01. 55 60 65 70 154 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 9. 69. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Cape T o wn 9.69.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Follow the directions given i n articles 9.66.03 and 9.66.04 taking particular notice of the remarks as to ice, as far as about 50 S, 45 W, and from this position, at all seasons steer a direct course with the prevailing W' l y wind, and a favouring current to 40 S, on the meridian of Greenwich; thence steer i n a NE' l y direction for Cape Town. See the relevant part of article 9.10.01 on the route from the English Channel; the portions dealing with the voyage after passing the meridian of Greenwich are equally applicable to the route from Cabo de Hornos, as regards winds, currents, and the making of Cape Town itself. 10 9. 70. Cabo de Ho r no s e as t war d t o I ndi a n Oc e an and Aus t r al i an port s 15 9.70.01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . Follow the directions given in article 9.69.01 as far as 40 S, on the meridian of Greenwich, and from this position continue due E along that parallel, but from November to March a quicker passage will probably be made i n about 45 S, though better weather will be found i n 40 S. For continuation onward through the Indi an Ocean see the appropriate routes from Cape Town, articles 10.01--10.08. CHAPTER 10 INDIAN OCEAN, RED SEA, AND EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO SAILING ROUTES CONTENTS Page 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town Cape Town ROUTES FROM CAPE T OWN OR CAPE OF GOOD HOPE or Cape of Good Hope to Australia and New Zealand. or Cape of Good Hope to Singapore or China Sea or Cape of Good Hope to Bay of Bengal . or Cape of Good Hope to Colombo or Cape of Good Hope to Bombay . or Cape of Good Hope to Mauritius or Cape of Good Hope to Aden o or Cape of Good Hope to Mombasa and adjacent ports 157 159 161 162 162 163 163 163 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 ROUTES FROM EAS T COAST OF AFRI CA . AND MAURI TI US Durban to Australia, New Zealand, India, Singapore and China Sea Durban to Mauritius, East Africa, and Aden Durban to Cape Town Mauritius to Australia and Ne~ Zeal'and . Mauritius to Singapore or China Sea Mauritius to Indi an ports Mauritius to Aden Mauritius to Mombasa and adiacent 'ports" Mauritius to Durban or Cape Town Mombasa and adjacent ports to Aden Mombasa and adjacent ports to Bombay Mombasa and adjacent ports to Colombo ~r Calcutta Mombasa and adjacent ports to Mauritius and Australia Mombasa and adjacent ports to Durban or Cape Town 163 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 165 10.30 10.31 10.32 10.33 10.34 10.35 10.36 10.37 10.38 10.39 10.40 10.41 10.42 10.43 10.44 10.45 10.46 10.47 10.48 10.49 10.50 10.51 ROUTES NORT HWARD OR S OUT HWARD T HROUGH EAS TERN ARCHI PELAGO General notes on presentation Alphabetical list of seas and straits . Routes through Eastern Archipelago , . . Approaches to, and nort hbound passage through, Sunda Strait Sunda Strait to Selat Bangka Approaches to, and nort hbound passage through, Selat Bangka Selat Bangka to Riouw Strait . . . . Passage through Riouw Strait to Singapore Strait Inner Route from Selat Bangka to Singapore Strait Singapore Strait . Sunda Strait to, and through, Selat Gelasa Selat Gelasa to Riouw Strait Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa to Singapore Strait, passing eastward of Bintan Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa to China Sea, May to September Sunda Strait to Karimata Strait and China Sea . . Sunda Strait eastward to Banda Sea and Second Eastern Passage Second Eastern Passage . First Eastern Passage . . . . . Routes sout hbound through Eastern Archipelago Western Route southbound from China Sea Eastern Route southbound from China Sea Central Route southbound from China Sea 166 166 166 167 168 169 169 170 171 172 173 175 175 176 176 177 177 179 180 180 182 183 156 10.55 10.56 10.57 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES ROUTES T HROUGH RED SEA General note Sout hbound through Red Sea Nort hbound through Red Sea 184 184 184 10.60 10.61 10.62 10.63 10.64 10.65 10.66 10.67 ROUTES F ROM ADE N Aden to Bombay . . Aden to Ceylon and Bay of Bengal Aden to Malacca Strait . Eight Degree Channel and Nine Degree Channel Aden to Fremantle, Cape Leeuwin, and southern Australia or New Zealand Aden to Mauritius Aden to Cape of Good Hope Aden to Mombasa or Seychelles Group 185 185 185 185 185 186 186 186 10.70 10.71 10.72 10.73 10.74 10.57 10.76 10.77 10.78 10.79 10.80 10.81 10.82 10.83 ROUTES FROM WES T COAS T OF I NDI A AND CEYLON Karfichi to Bombay Bombay to Karfichi . . . . . . Bombay or Cochin, Calicut and Malabar Coast to Aden Caution when approaching Ras Asir Bombay to Cape of Good Hope Bombay to Colombo . . Land and sea breezes off west coast of India Bombay to Bay of Bengal o Colombo to Bombay and west coast of India Colombo to Aden . , Colombo to Cape of Good Hope . . Colombo to Fremantle and south and south-eas Australia, or to New Zealand Colombo to Malacca Strait Malacca Strait 186 186 186 187 187 188 188 188 189 189 189 189 189 189 10.90 10.91 10.92 10.93 10.94 10.95 10.96 10.97 10.98 10.99 ROUTES F ROM PORTS I N BAY OF B E NGAL Notes on navigation under sail in Bay of Bengal Madras to Calcutta . , . Madras to Rangoon, Moul mei n or Mergui Bay of Bengal to Bombay Bay of Bengal to Aden . . Bay of Bengal to Cape of Good Hope Bay of Bengal to Fremantle, Cape Leeuwin and south and south-east Australia, and to New Zealand . . Calcutta to Madras or Ceylon Calcutta to Moulmein, or Mergui Calcutta to Singapore 190 190 190 190 190 190 191 191 191 191 ROUTES F ROM PORTS I N BURMA 10.105 Rangoon or Moul mei n to Calcutta 10.106 Rangoon or Moul mei n to Madras 10.107 Rangoon or Moul mei n to Malacca Strait and Singapore 10.108 Rangoon or NIoulmein to Cape of Good Hope 10.109 Mergui to Calcutta 10.110 Mergui to Madras 191 191 191 192 192 192 ROUT E S S OUT HWARD OR WES TWARD F ROM S I NGAPORE OR EAS TERN ARCHI P ELAGO 10.115 Singapore to Madras 10.116 Singapore to Colombo 10.117 Singapore to Calcutta 10.118 Singapore to Rangoon or 1V[oulmein " 10.119 Singapore to Port Darwin 10.120 Singapore to Tort es Strait 10.121 Singapore to Fremantle or southern ~kustralia 10.122 Singapore to Sunda Strait and Cape of Good Ho ) e 192 192 192 192 192 192 192 192 10.123 10.124 10.125 I N DI A N OC E A N A N D R E D S E A Singapore or Sunda Strait to Aden .
Sunda Strait northward along west coast of Sumatra
Bali Strait, Lombok Strait, Alas Strait, or Ombai Strait to Cape of Good Hope 157 193 193 193 10.130 10.131 10.132 10.133 10.134 10.135 10.136 N O R T H E R N A U S T R A L I A T O S Y D N E Y , I N D I A N OCE AN, A N D C H I N A SEA Nort hern Australia to Sydney Northern Australia to Fremantle Nort hern Australia to Cape of Good Hope Nort hern Australia to Colombo Nort hern Australia to Calcutta Nort hern Australia to Singapore Nort hern Australia to Hong Kong 193 193 193 193 193 194 194 10.140 10.141 10.142 10.143 10.144 10.145 10.146 10.147 10.148 10.149 10.150 10.151 10.152 R O U T E S F R O M S O U T H - WE S T A N D S O U T H A U S T R A L I A Fremantle to Mauritius Fremantle to Cape of Good H; pe Fremantle to Aden Fremantle to Colombo . Fremantle to Calcutta Fremantle to Singapore Fremantle to Hong Kong - - Zealand Fremantle to south-east Australia, or to New South-east Australia to Cape of Good Hope South-east Australia to Aden South-east Australia to Colombo South-east Australia to Bay of Bengal South-east Australia to Singapore 194 194 194 194 194 194 195 195 195 195 195 195 195 R O U T E S F R O M S Y D N E Y T O P ORTS I N I N D I A N O C E A N 10.160 Sydney to and through Bass Strait 10.161 Sydney to Melbourne 10.162 Bass Strait to Adelaide . 10.163 Bass Strait to Spencer Gul f 10.164 Sydney to Cape of Good Hope and to all ports in Indi an Ocean 196 196 196 196 196 R O U T E S F R O M CAPE T O WN OR CAPE OF G O O D HOP E 10. 01. Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e t o Au s t r a l i a a n d N e w Z e a l a n d 45 10.01.01. I ceber gs are most numerous SE of the Cape of Good Hope and midway between Kerguelen Island and the meridian of Cape Leeuwin. The periods of frequency vary greatly. It may happen that while ships are passing ice in lower latitudes, others, in higher latitudes, find the ocean free of it. The lengths of many of the Southern Ocean icebergs are remarkable; bergs of 5 to 20 miles in length are frequently sighted S of the 40th parallel, and bergs of from 20 to 50 miles in length are far from uncommon 50 It may be gathered from numerous observations that bergs may be found anywhere S of the 30th parallel, that as many as 4500 bergs have been observed in a run of 2000 miles, that estimated heights of from 240 m to 520 m are not uncommon, and that bergs of from 6 to 82 miles in length are numerous. 10. 01. 02. R o u n d i n g Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e . From Cape Town, vessels are recommended to pick up the E-bound 55 track from Cab o de Hornos (9.70) at the point where it is met by the track from the Nort h Atlantic (9.10) bound to the Indi an ocean, namely in about 40 S, 20 E. There is but little difficulty in passing the Cape of Good Hope E-bound at any time, though a greater proportion of gales will be met with from April to September, the winter season. From October to April, E' l y winds prevail as far S as the tail of Agulhas Bank (about 37 S), with variable 60 but chiefly W' l y winds beyond it. I n May and September, at the tail of the bank, E' l y and W' l y winds are in equal proportion, hut between these mont hs W' l y winds prevail, extending sometimes close in to the coast. Should a SE' ly wind be blowing on leaving Tabl e Bay or Simons Bay, stand boldly to the SW until the W' l y winds are reached or the wind changes to a more favourahle direction In all cases when making for the 40th parallel S of the Cape of Good Hope, steer nothing E of S, so as to avoid the area SE of the tail of Agulhas 65 Bank, where gales are frequent, and heavy and dangerous breaking cross seas prevail. 10. 01. 03. C r o s s i n g t h e I n d i a n Oc e a n . Having crossed to the S of the (W-going) Agulhas current, and picked up the W' l y winds, the best latitude in which to cross the ocean must to some extent depend on circum- stances. 70 158 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10 Vessels bound to Australian ports would make the passage at about the parallel of 39 or 40 S, but those bound to Tasmania or New Zealand, would do so at between 42 or 43 S, especially from October to March. Between 39 S and 43 S the winds generally blow from a W' l y direction, and seldom with more strength than will admit of carrying sail. In a higher latitude the weather is frequently more boisterous and stormy; sudden changes of wind with squally wet weather are almost constantly to be expected, especially in winter. ~le Amsterdam may be seen from a distance of 60 miles in clear weather. In summer, many vessels take a more S' ly route, some going as far S as 52 S, but the steadiness and comparatively moderate strength of the winds, with the smoother seas and more genial climate north of 40 S, compensate by comfort and security for the time presumed to be saved by taking a shorter route. Tempest uous gales, sudden violent and fitful shifts of ~vind, accompanied by hail or snow, and terrific and irregular seas are often encountered in the higher latitudes; moreover the islands in the higher latitudes are so frequently shrouded in fog that often the first sign of their vicinity is the sound of the surf beating against them. 15 10.01.04. Appr o a c hi ng Bass Strait, passage N of King Island is recommended. In this approach, when making the land at Moonlight Head or Cape Otway, the currents must be carefully watched, particularly during SW~ly or S' ly winds; vessels have been wrecked on King Islands by not steering for Cape Otway. In normal weather, it is desirable to round Cape Otway at a distance of not less than 3 or 4 miles. When approaching Bass Strait in thick weather, or when uncertain of the vessel' s position, do not reduce the soundings to less than 70 m. Soundings 20 of 110 m to 130 m will be found 25 or 30 miles W of King Island. Outside this limit the soundings deepen rapidly to over 180 m. Caution: In approaching King Island from the W, especially during thick or hazy weather, caution is required on account of the variable strength of the current, which sets SE at a rate which varies from knot to 2{ knots, according to the strength and duration of the W' l y winds, and sounding is recommended. 25 The entranc~ to Bass Strait between King Island and Hunt er Group is not recommended on account of Bell Reef and Reid Rocks which lie in it. If, from necessity or choice, entering Bass Strait by this passage, keep S of Reid Rocks and Bell Reef, the latter being passed at a distance of 2 miles S of it by steering for Black Pyramid on a bearing of 098 . With a commanding breeze the passage between Ki ng Island and Reid Rocks may be taken without danger by paying attention to the tidal streams, which set somewhat across the channel at times. 30 Fr om Black Pyramid pass about one mile N of Albatross Islet, whence, if bound to Port Dalrymple, round the sunken danger Mermai d rock, off Three Hummock island, and then make a direct course. 35 10.01.05. Pas s age t o Fr e ma nt l e . Leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.03) in about 90 E, and thence make direct for destination. Some navigators, however, recommend continuing eastward as far as 100 E before turning NE. Duri ng summer, from October to March, to avoid being set to the N of Rottnest Island, it is advisable to make the land about Cape Naturaliste, see 6.131. 10. 01. 06. Pas s age t o Ade l ai de . Leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.03) on the meridian of Cape Leeuwin, or 40 about 115 E. Thence proceed direct for Cape Borda. 45 10.01.07. Pas s age t o Me l bo ur ne . Leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.02) in 135 E and proceed direct for Bass Strait (10.01.03). If Cape Otway is rounded early in the evening, with a fresh S' ly wind, beware of over-running the distance, as a strong current after a prevalence of S' l y gales, often sets NE along the land; bearings of Split Point light give a good check. When abreast of Split Point, if there is not enough daylight to get into pilot waters, stand off and on shore till daylight, keeping in more than 35 m of water. Do not heave to. 10. 01. 08. Pas s age t o Sy dne y . In summer, leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.03) in about 120 E, and steer to pass S of Tasmania. 50 After rounding South Cape, give a berth of 20 or 30 miles to Cape Pillar and the E coast of Tasmania, to escape the baffling winds and calms which frequently perplex vessels inshore, while a steady breeze is blowing in the offing. Thi s is ~nore desirable from December to March, when E' l y winds prevail, and a current is said to be experienced off the SE coast at 20 to 60 miles from the shore, running N at the rate of ~ knot, while inshore it is running in the opposite direction, with nearly double that rate. From a position about 30 miles E of Cape 55 Pillar, proceed on a course of about 012 for about 350 miles to a position 15 miles E of Cape Howe, whence continue as directly as possible to make Sydney, but keeping at first at a distance from the coast, in order to lessen the strength of the S-going Australian Coast Current, not closing the land till N of South head, Port Jackson. Some navigators prefer to stand E as far as 155 E before turning N for Port Jackson, and thus escape almost 60 altogether the S' ly set. In winter follow the route for Mel bourne (10.01.07) as far as Cape Otway and t hen steer to pass t hrough Bass Strait about 2 miles S of Anser Group, 3 miles N of Rodondo Island and 2 miles S of Sout h East Point Wilson Promontory. Then steer to pass about 5 miles SE of Rame Head and Gabo Island. Occasionally and especially during and after E' l y gales the current sets strongly towards the land; in thick weather sounding must 65 not be neglected. See Navigational Notes on Bass Strait in 10.01.04. and 10.160. From Rame Head stand on to the E to about 154 E, before turning to the N in order to escape from the S' ly set of current along the coast of New South Wales, and approach Port Jackson from a point slightly to the N. Duri ng E' l y gales (June to August), an offing may be maintained by watching the shifts of wind, and keeping on the starboard tack as long as prudent, thus bringing the prevailing S-going current on the lee 70 bow. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 159 10.01.09. Passage to Hobar t . Leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.03) in about 120 E; then steer for a position 10 miles S of South West Cape, Tasmani a; or in any case far enough to the S to ensure avoiding the rocky W coast at night through any error in the reckoning, or being caught on a lee shore by a SW gale. In fine weather, from 10 miles S of South West Cape, pass between Maatsuyker Group and Mewstone Islet, then steer to pass 3 miles S of South Cape. When blowing heavily from SW or S, especially if unable to obtain observations before 5 making the land, it is desirable to keep more to the S, passing S of Mewstone Islet and on either side of Pedra Blanca and Eddystone, taking care to avoid Sidmouth Rock. Proceed to Hobart through Storm Bay. 10.01.10. Passage W of Ta s ma ni a and to New Zeal and port s. It is often necessary, and in heavy W' l y weather desirable, to make the passage down the W coast of Tasmania at from 120 to 250 miles from the coast, I0 and often at the same distance round the S end of the island. From the Indi an Ocean, for New Zealand ports, it is normal in summer to leave the trans-ocean route (10.01.03) in about 110 E and to proceed S of Tasmani a in 45 S to 47 S, whence the mai n route is also taken across the Pacific Ocean (11.02). In winter, take the winter route for Sydney (10.01.08) through Bass Strait. Both in summer and winter, if bound to Auckland proceed round the N point of New Zealand; if for 15 Wellington, through Cook Strait, and if for Otago or Lyttleton, S of New Zealand through Foveaux Strait or S of Stewart Island. See also 11.03.04, 11.03.05. 10. 02. Ca p e T o w n o r Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e t o S i n g a p o r e o r Ch i n a S e a 20 10.02.01. Ge n e r a l n o t e s . Although this voyage takes a vessel out of Indi an Ocean waters, properly so termed, into the Eastern Archipelago and China Sea (which should be considered as "Pacific Ocean" waters), it is treated 25 more conveniently as a continuous voyage, and will so be considered. As the voyage is complicated not only by different routes due to monsoons, but also by several alternative channels and straits among the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. the following procedure has been adopted. The routes below give, in detail, the passage from the Cape of Good Hope as far as the S entrances to the Eastern Archipelago, and thence a summary of the various straits and passages to be navigated on the 30 continuation of the voyage to Singapore or the China Sea. Directions for passages through the Eastern Archipelago are given in articles 10.30 to 10.51. Vessels passing the Cape of Good Hope in September have taken, with great success, a route passing S and E of Australia, W of New Caledonia, through Pioneer Channel (5 S. 15,I E), across the equator in about 156 E, and thence direct. Thi s route is known as the Gr e a t Ea s t e r n l~oute. 35 The monsoon periods, on which these routes depend are from May to September, when a SE' Iy or E' l y Monsoon prevails in the Eastern Archipelago, and a SW' l y Monsoon (usually not strong) in the China Sea; and from October to March, when a NW.' ly or W' l y Monsoon prevails in the Eastern Archipelago, and a NE' Iy Monsoon (the latter usually strong) in the China Sea. The object of a vessel bound to the China Sea being to get as far to windward as possible in the Indi an Ocean 40 before arriving in the monsoon area, she would make for the W end of the island chain during the SW' l y Monsoon period of the China Sea (May to September) ; and for the more E' l y passages of the chain during the NE' Iy Monsoon period of the China Sea (October to March). The alternative route to the China Sea, above referred to, is suitable only in October and November, and passes through the' central part of the island chain. The following variations to the above are not infrequently taken though they do not appear to possess any 45 particular advantage. Though the October to March route to the China Sea is usually made by the more E' l y passages through the islands, it is possible to make it by passing through Sunda Strait; and then proceeding N through the China Sea along the N coast of Borneo by Palawan Passage (11.33) ; or else, after passing Sunda Strait, to stand E through the Java Sea to the E passages. 50 Vessels bound only to Singapore use Sunda Strait at all times. Vessels bound to ports on the E coast of Borneo, or i n Makassar Strait, etc., use either Sunda Strait, Bali Strait, Lombok Strait or Alas Strait. These straits could also be used, during the local North-west Monsoon period, instead of the passage through the islands farther E; and then standing E to pick up the regular Eastern route. 55 10.02.02. F o r S i n g a p o r e , from May to September take route across the Indi an Ocean described in 10.01.02, along the parallel of 39 S or 40 S, as far as about 75 E. From thence edge away to the NE crossing 30 S in about 100 E ; and 20 S in 105 o E, passing close W of Christmas Island, and up to Tandj ung Gedeh (the E entrance point of Sunda Strait from the Indi an Ocean). Care must be taken to keep well to the E, especially in June, July, and 60 August, when the South-east Monsoon and the W-going current are at their strongest, or the vessel may fall to leeward of Tandj ung Gedeh and find great difficulty in recovering it against wind and current. From October to March, take the trans-ocean route, as above, as far as about 75 o E ; thence steer to pass through 25 S, 98 E and thence directly N for Sunda Strait, passing midway between Christmas Island and Cocos or Keeling Islands, and steering for Balimbing Pamantjasa on the W side of Sunda Strait, as in this season the E- 65 going current is strong, and W' l y winds blow at times with considerable strength. If contary winds are met with after passing ~le Saint-Paul (38 `13' S, 77 33" E), stand N, through the South-east Trade, into the North-west Monsoon, and from thence direct to Sunda Strait. Duri ng the changes of monsoon, March, April, and September-October, it is advisable to make casting until due S of the entrance to Sunda Strait, and then steer directly for it. 70 160 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES I n continuation of the route for Singapore there are three alternatives from Sunda Strait, as summarised below. For directions see 10.32-10.42. The usual route is through Selat Bangka and Riouw Strait (10.34-10.37). The first alternative route is through Selat Gelasa and then either by Riouw Strait to Singapore; or else from 5 Selat Gelasa continue N to the E of Bintan Island and through Singapore Strait, from the E entrance to Singapore road. See 10.39-10.42. The second alternative route, known as the Inner Route, should be taken between October and March only, when the North-east Monsoon is blowing strong in the China Sea, when, having passed either through Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa a vessel is confronted by a head wind, a heavy sea, and an adverse current i n attempting 10 to make the southern entrance to Riouw Strait. Thi s route is described in article 10.38. 10.02.03. For Chi na Sea, f rom May to Sept ember, proceed to Sunda Strait as directed i n 10.02.02 for that season, and thence by one of the three alternative routes which follow. The most direct route from Sunda Strait is to pass through Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa and thence between 15 Anambas Kepul auan and Nat una Kepulauan into the China Sea; thence between Paracel Islands and Macclesfield Bank to Hong Kong. Selat Gelasa offers a more direct route than Selat Bangka, but in thick weather Selat Bangka can be navigated without risk, and should be taken rather than Selat Gelasa, which cannot then be approached with safety. The first alternative, by Palawan Passage, should be taken when the North-east Monsoon is likely to begin 20 before reaching Hong Kong. The route passes through Selat Gelasa and Palawan Passage; thence along the coast of Luzon as far as Cape Bolinao ; thence to Hong Kong. The second alternative route passes through Karimata Strait into the China Sea direct. Although much broader than Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa, Karimata Strait is not much frequented except by sailing vessels returning from China, or by vessels making E through the Java Sea, as, from the effects of 25 winds or currents, it is difficult to get through it to the W. The great breadth of Karimata Strait in comparison with the others is of advantage to vessels working to windward; but this is partly counterbalanced by the several shoals which lie in or near the fairway and out of sight of land, as well as irregular currents, necessitating a dependence being placed on the reckoning. If having passed through Sunda Strait into the Java sea, the North-east Monsoon in the China Sea has already 30 begun to blow, do not attempt to make farther to the N, but at once t urn E and pass through the Java Sea S of Borneo to Saleier Strait (between the S point of Sulawesi and Saleier Island) ; and thence by the passage between Buton Island, off the SE point of Sulawesi and the islands S of it, into the Banda Sea; and thence through the Ceram Sea into the open Pacific Ocean either by Djailolo Passage or Dampier Strait (between Halmahera Island and the W extreme of New Guinea). 35 When in the Pacific pass E of Palau Islands and into the China Sea through one of the channels between Luzon and T' ai -wan. 40 10.02.04. For Chi na Sea, l eavi ng Cape of Good Hope i n Sept ember, proceed as directed for Sydney in 10.01.07 and pass S of Australia or Tasmania. Thence continue by the Great Eastern Route (10.02.01). 10.02.05. For Chi na Sea, f rom October to March, the route is taken via Ombai Strait and the Second Eastern Passage, as directed below. Cross the Indi an Ocean as directed in 10.01.03 as far as 75 E and then steer for 20 S, 110 E. (Some navigators recommend making casting to the 90th meridian instead of the 75th before t urni ng N to make for the above 45 position). From 20 S course may be directed to Ombai Strait. The usual and the best recommended passage through the islands, after crossing the Indi an Ocean, is through Ombai Strait, between the NW point of Ti mor and Alor Islands; thence either W of Buru Island into the Ceram Sea or (more usually) through Manipa Strait, between Buru Island and Mani pa Island (passing near Ambon) and into the Ceram Sea. Thence through Djailolo Passage or Dampier Strait into the open Pacific Ocean. Thi s 50 route is known as the Second Eastern Passage. When in the Pacific Ocean, make easting between 1 30' N and 3 00' N, till able to pass E of Palau Islands; but after February pass W of this group. Having passed Palau Islands make to the NW to pass through Surigao Strai~ (N of Mindanao, in the Philippine Islands) into the Sulu Sea, and having passed through those waters, W into the China Sea by Mindoro Strait, or Verde Island Passage (S of Luzon Island), and on to Manila or to Hong Kong. 55 A more usual route, however, after passing Palau Islands, is to proceed NNW, keeping E of the Philippine Islands, and then pass N of Luzon, through Balintang Channel to Hong Kong or, if bound to Shang-hai, to continue N to pass between Okinawa Gunt 6 and Sakishima Gunt 6 towards the mout h of the Ch' ang Chiang; or to proceed NNE in the full strength of the NE-goi ng Kuro Shio to Yokohama and Japan. For directions, see 10.46. 60 I n October and November (only) the passage from the Indi an Ocean to the China Sea may be made via the central passages of the Eastern Archipelago by a route known as the First Eastern Passage, as follows. From 20 S, 110 E make Bali Strait, Lombok Strait, or Alas Strait. Thence pass through Makassar Strait into the Sulawesi Sea and through Basilan Strait into the Sulu Sea at its SE end. Pass then along the W coasts of Mindanao, Negros, and Panay Islands in the Philippine Islands, and enter the China Sea by Mindoro Strait, 65 or Verde Island Passage. Thence, work along the coast of Luzon to Cape Bojeador, before crossing the China Sea to Hong Kong. Thi s route to China, though often used in former days, has little to recommend it, on account of the adverse current, setting to the S through Makassar Strait, often strongly, at all seasons. The winds are boisterous and uncertain at the S end of Makassar strait, and light and variable at the N end, while the navigation is anxious 70 throughout almost the whole voyage to the open China Sea. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 161 The First Eastern Passage, described in detail in article 10.47 is more suitable for S-bound traffic, but in the case of vessels from the Cape of Good Hope wishing to reach ports on either side of Makassar Strait, it is mentioned here. 10.03. Cape To wn or Cape of Good Hope to Bay of Bengal 10.03.01. General not es. There are three principal routes, two of which are appropriate to the South-west Monsoon and one to the Nort h-east Monsoon. The choice of route rests, not so much on the mont h in which departure is made from the Cape of Good Hope, as on the mont h in which a vessel may be expected to arrive in the region affected by monsoons, (6.02-6.05), comprising the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean N of the equator. The mont h references given below for the varying routes refer, therefore, to the months of a vessel' s arrival in Indian waters. 10 10.03.02. Fr o m May to Se pt e mbe r by the Inner Route. Thi s route via NIogambique Channel is the most 15 direct for vessels to any port of India during the South-west Monsoon, but it must not be taken unless there is a certainty of reaching the port before the close of the monsoon. On leaving the Cape of Good Hope, if with SE' l y winds, stand S and run down the easting in 39 to 40 S to about 30 E; if with W' l y winds, run along the coast, guarding against any indraught, keeping S of 35 S until in 37 E; then steer for Mozambi que Channel, passing E of ~le Europa and on either side of ~le Juan de 20 Nova; pass through ~les Comores, cross the equator in about 54 E, thence steer direct for Ei ght Degree Channel, and pass S of Ceylon into the Bay of Bengal, see 10.03.05 and 10.05.02. 10.03.03. Fr o m May to Se pt e mbe r by the Fi rst Outer Route, which is more usually preferred to the Inner Route on account of ease of navigation, but it must only be used if certain of reaching port before the end of the 25 South-west Monsoon. From the Cape of Good Hope cross the Indian Ocean as directed in 10.01.03, between the parallels of 39 and 40 S, as far as about 60 E. From this position proceed NE to cross 30 S in about 80 E, and then stand N as directly as possible for destination, as summarised below. Bound for Madras, or adjacent ports, cross the equator in 82 E. 30 Bound for Calcutta, cross the equator in 88 E. Bound for Rangoon, cross the equator as for Calcutta, but leave that route at 10 N, and steer for Rangoon N of Andaman Islands in about 15 N. See 10.03.05. Note: On the voyage N from 30 S, it is advisable to gain easting, to counteract the W' l y current, and to be 35 prepared for the wind shifting to the N, for in the South-east Trade it often happens, particularly in April and May, that the wind is more from E and ENE than from SE. The South-east Trade at this season extends to the equator; and from 1 N to 2 N the South-west Monsoon, between May and September, is a fair wind to Calcutta or any part of the Bay of Bengal. 40 10.03.04. Fr o m Oct ober to March by the Second Outer Rout e, which is taken when it is likely that the Bay of Bengal will not be reached before the South-west Monsoon is over (September) or when expecting to arrive in the Bay of Bengal in November, when the North-east Monsoon has set in. From the Cape of Good Hope, cross the Indian Ocean as directed in 10.01.03, between the parallels of 39 and 40 S, as far as about 70 E. From this position, steer ENE, so as to cross 35 S in about 82 E, and thence 45 proceed NNE through the Trade Winds, to cross the equator in 92 E. From this position, steer to pass 150 miles W of the NW extreme of Sumatra, and about 60 miles W of Nicobar Islands and Andaman Islands, and thence as directed below. If the wind is W' ly, give the islands a good berth, but if NW' Iy, steer up the Bay close-hauled. In about 16 N to 17 N the wind often shifts to the N, when favourable tacks may be made to the E. 50 I f bound to Calcutta do not approach either shore, but work to windward in the middle of the Bay of Bengal, where there is smooth water and moderate wind; from close W of Nicobar Islands, the entrance to Hooghly River has often been reached without tacking. If the equator is crossed late in February or in March, keep well to the W side of the Bay of Bengal. I f bound to Madras, shape direct course from the position off Nicobar Islands. 55 I f bound to Rangoon, leave the route at about 3 N, and steer to the NE, passing between Pulau W6 and Nicobar Islands as directly as possible to destination, keeping midway between the coast of the Malay Peninsula and Andaman Islands. 10.03.05. General di rect i ons for ve s s e l s nort hbound or s out hbound i n Bay of Bengal . From 15th january to 31st May, N- bound keep to the W side of the bay; S-bound keep to the E side. In June, July, and August, N-bound keep in the middle of the bay; S-bound keep in the middle, or E of Andaman Islands. In September, October, and November, N-bound and S. bound take the E side and the W side respectively. From 1st December to 14th January, all ships keep in the middle of the bay. 10.03.06. General r e ma r ks as to c yc l one s i n Bay of Bengal . When in the Bay of Bengal with a strong SW wind, occasional squalls and rain, and a slowly-falling barometer, bad weather prevails somewhere to the N. Between early June and the middle of September the storm centre is probably N of 16 N, and in Jul y or August still farther to the N, and a sailing vessel should steer to the E to take advantage of the S' l y and SE' l y winds on the E side of the storm as it moves NW. But should the weather get rapidly bad, and the 60 162 SAI LI NG VESSEL . ROUTES barometer continue to fall, then heave-to, and determine the position ~vith regard to the movement of the storm before proceeding. In May, October, or November the storm travels in some direction from W, through N, to NE; and its course should be definitely ascertained before any attempt is made to round its E side, as if it is moving NE such a proceeding would be attended with danger. See also 6.16 and 10.90. 10 I0. 04. Cape T o wn or Cape of Good Ho pe t o Co l o mb o 15 20 25 10.04.01. F r o m Ma y t o Se pt e mbe r by t he I nne r Rout e, proceed as directed for the Bay of Bengal in 10.03.02, and after passing through Eight Degree Channel steer as directly as possible for Colombo. Notes on Mozambi que Channel are given in 10.05.02. 10.04.02. Fr om May t o Se pt e mbe r , eas t of Madagascar , there are t~vo alternatives. Firstly, follow the directions given for passage to Bombay in 10.05.03 until across the equator in about 62 E, after which steer direct for Colombo. Secondly, in April and October only, ~ake the route for Bombay given in 10.05.04 until the equator is crossed, and steer thence direct to Colombo. 10.04.03. Fr om No v e mb e r t o Mar ch, proceed as far as the equator as directed for the Bombay route in 10.05.05, thence steering direct. Alternatively take the Second Outer Route for the Bay of Bengal (10.03.02) as far as 20 S ; after that parallel is crossed steer direct for Colombo. 30 I0. 05. Cape T o wn or Cape of Go o d Ho p e t o Bo mb a y 10.05.01. Ge ne r al not es . There are six routes; three are available during the South-west Monsoon, two of t hem during the North-east Monsoon and one in the periods between the Monsoons. The mont h references given below for the different periods refer to the expected time of arrival in Indian wat er , and not necessarily to the months in which the Cape of Good Hope is left. 35 10.05.02. Fr om May t o Se pt e mbe r , t he I nne r Ro ut e through Mogambi que Channel is the most direct route for vessels bound to any part of India but it must not be taken unless there is certainty of reaching India before the close of the Monsoon (September). On leaving Cape of Good Hope, if a SE' Iy wind prevail, stand S and run down the easting in 39 to 40 S to about 30 E; if a W' l y wind prevail, run along the coast, guarding against any indraught, and keep S of about 40 35 S until in 37 E; when, in either case, a course may be shaped for Mozambi que Channel, passing E of $1e Europa and on either side of Tie Juan de Nova. From thence pass through Tles Comores, cross the equator in 53 or 54 E, and steer direct for Bombay. In the height of the South-west Monsoon, June, July and August, when the weather is thick and heavy, and observations very uncertain, vessels should sound frequently when making the land. 45 By using this track through Mogambi que Channel, vessels will avoid the strongest part of the SW' l y current, and will be nearly sure of a fair wind until about half-way through the channel, when adverse winds may be expected; should such occur, it is better to make easting on the port tack rather than westing; thus avoiding the African coast with its prevailing S' ly current. The passage on the E side of Tie Europa is recommended, but vessels should not approach that island nor Bassas da India at night, the currents in their vicinity being very 50 strong and uncertain. The winds in Moqambi que Channel do not blow wi t h the same regularity that is found farther N, and are generally stronger in the middle of the channel. The North-east Monsoon sets in between mi d-Sept ember and mid-October, and the change is usually accompanied by squally weather. When near the Madagascar coast, advantage may be taken of the alternating land and sea breezes. 55 10. 05. 03. F r o m May t o Se pt e mbe r , pas s age eas t o f Madagas c ar is often preferred to the Mozambi que Channel route, as it is less dangerous and the winds are more steady, particularly in August and September, when light variable winds are found in Moqambique Channel. Thi s passage also must only be used when there is a certainty of reaching port before the Sout h-west Monsoon is over (September). 60 On leaving the Cape of Good Hope, make easting in 39 S to 40 S until in about 45 E, and thence stand to the NE, crossing 30 o S in about 53 E. From thence run through the South-east Trade, passing W of $1e de la R6union, Farquhar Islands, and Amirante Islands; then cross the equator in 53 E or 54 E, and steer direct for Bombay. If arrival at Bombay before the start of the North-east Monsoon is uncertain, make easting, as before directed, 65 in 39 S to 40 S but stand NE on reaching 40 E. Cross 30 S in about 59 E, and then run N, passing between Mauritius and $1e de la R6union. After passing these islands, there are two courses; one being to join xvith the route from Mozambi que Channel, described above, at about 15 o S and to continue on it to destination; the other is to stand on directly N, through the Trade Wind, passing W of Saya de Malha Bank. Cross the equator in about. 62 E and steer direct for Bombay. 70 In case the North-east Monsoon has started, keep towards the coast of India after passing Maldive Islands. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 163 10. 05. 04. I n Apr i l and Oct ober, a W' l y wi n d i s of t e n e x p e r i e n c e d o n l e a vi ng t he Ca p e of Go o d Ho p e . I f t h i s h a p p e n s , d u r i n g t he s e mo n t h s , r u n a l ong t h e coas t as di r e c t e d f or a W' l y wi n d i n 10. 05. 02, b u t s t a n d o n t o t h e E NE pa s t Ma d a g a s c a r i nt o t h e I n d i a n Oc e a n, ma k i n g di r e c t l y f or a pos i t i on i n a b o u t 15 S, 70 E, passi ng e i t h e r b e t we e n t h e i s l a nds of Ma u r i t i u s a n d Rodr i gue z , or E of t h e l at t er . F r o m t hi s poi nt , s t e e r t o cr os s t he e q u a t o r i n 75 E, pa s s i ng E of Ch a g o s Ar c hi pe l a go, a n d t h e n c e o n a N' l y t r ack, t o t he E of Ma l d i v e I s l a n d s a n d La c c a d i v e I s l a nds , par al l el wi t h t h e coas t of I n d i a , t o Bo mb a y , wo r k i n g t he l a n d a n d sea br e e z e s . 10. 05. 05. Fr o m No v e mb e r t o March, t wo r o u t e s f r o m Ca pe T o wn t o Bo mb a y ar e avai l abl e, b o t h ma k i n g us e of t h e W p o r t i o n of t h e r o u t e f or Au s t r a l i a d e s c r i b e d i n 10. 01. 03, a n d ma k i n g e a s t i ng b e t we e n t h e par al l el s of 39 S a n d 40 S. T h e mo r e W' l y of t he t wo r out e s l eaves t h a t l a t i t ude i n 60 E, a n d a ves s el u s i n g i t s h o u l d s t a n d NE t o 35 S, 70 E, a n d t h e n s t a n d d u e N t h r o u g h t h e S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s t o 10 S. Sh e s h o u l d t h e n ma k e NNE so as t o cr oss t h e e q u a t o r i n 80 E, a n d ma k e n o r t h i n g i nt o t he No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , s t a n d i n g f or Ca pe Co mo r i n a n d f i nal l y wo r k i n g t h e l a n d a n d sea br e e z e s a l ong t h e Ma l a b a r coast . Al t e r na t i ve l y, f or t h e mo r e E' l y r out e, p r o c e e d as a bove t o 35 S, 70 E, a f t e r wh i c h s o me a ut hor i t i e s c o n s i d e r i t mo r e p r u d e n t t o ma k e f u r t h e r cas t i ng, so as t o b e wel l t o ~vi ndwar d o n r e a c h i n g t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , a n d ma k e f i r s t f or a pos i t i on i n a b o u t 2~ S, 80 E. F r o m t hi s p o i n t t u r n N, r u n t h r o u g h t he T r a d e a n d t he No r t h - we s t Mo n s o o n , cr os s t h e e q u a t o r i n 82 E t o 85 E a n d t he t r a c k o n wa r d is as above, ma k i n g n o r t h i n g i nt o t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n . T h e n s t a n d f or Ca p e Co mo r i n , a n d wo r k u p t he Ma l a b a r coas t wi t h t h e l a n d a n d sea br eezes . 10.06. Cape T o wn or Cape o f Go o d Ho p e t o Maur i t i us 10. 06. 01. Ge ne r al di r e c t i ons . At al l t i me s of t he year , ma k e e a s t i ng i n 39 S t o 40 S as f ar as 40 E. T h e n s t a n d NE, c r os s i ng 30 S i n a b o u t 59 E, as f ar as 25 S, a n d t h e n s t e e r d i r e c t f or d e s t i n a t i o n i n t h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e wi n d . Note: Ves s el s f r o m t hi s d i r e c t i o n b o u n d f or P o r t Lo u i s s h o u l d pas s E of i Vi aur i t i us a n d r o u n d i t s N e nd, i n o r d e r t o a voi d t he c a l ms c a u s e d b y t h e h i g h l a n d n e a r t he S W e x t r e me of t h e i s l and. I t ma y s o me t i me s b e pos s i bl e t o f ol l ow t h e r out e gi ve n i n 10. 05. 04, l e a vi ng i t wh e n a b r e a s t Ma u r i t i u s , wh i c h i t pas s es at a b o u t 100 mi l e s t o t h e S. 10 15 20 25 30 10.07. Cape T o wn or Cape of Go o d Ho pe to Ad e n 10. 07. 01. Ge ne r al not e s . T h e r e ar e t h r e e r out e s avai l abl e f r o m Apr i l t o Se p t e mb e r , a n d one f r o m No v e mb e r t o ~, ~arch. I n Oc t o b e r e i t h e r r o u t e ma y b e t a ke n. 10. 07. 02. F r o m Ap r i l t o Se pt e mbe r or Oct ober, t ake t he I n n e r r out e f or Bo mb a y , as di r e c t e d i n 10. 05. 02, as f~r as t h e e qua t or , c r os s i ng i t i n 53 E; a n d t h e n c e c o n t i n u e t o de s t i na t i on, pa s s i ng b e t we e n Ras As i r a n d Socot r a. Wo r k a l ong t h e Af r i c a n coas t as f ar as Ma l t I s l a n d be f or e s t a n d i n g acr os s t h e Gu l f of Ad e n . Al t e r na t i ve l y, pas s E of Ma d a g a s c a r as d i r e c t e d i n 10. 05. 03, s t a n d i n g d i r e c t f or Ras As i r a f t e r p a s s i n g Ami r a n t e I s l a nds a n d Se yc he l l e s Gr o u p . Ro u n d Ras As i r cl osel y a n d t h e n p r o c e e d as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e. Al t e r - nat i vel y, pa s s b e t we e n ~vl aur i t i us a n d ~le de l a Rg u n i o n t o j o i n t hi s r out e i n a b o u t 15 S. 10. 07. 03. F r o m Oc t o b e r o r No v e mb e r t o Ma r c h , f ol l ow t he di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 10. 01. 02 a n d 10. 01. 03 f r o m t he Ca pe of Go o d Ho p e , c o n t i n u i n g t he r out e , b e t we e n t h e par al l el s of 39 S a n d 40 S, as f ar as 60 E. F r o m t hi s pos i t i on, s t a n d N t o pa s s a b o u t 200 mi l e s E of Ro d r i g u e z I s l a nd, a n d t o cr os s t h e e q u a t o r i n 68 E. At t hi s poi nt , t u r n t o t h e NW, s t e e r i ng so as t o cr oss t he me r i d i a n of 60 E at 10 N a n d t he nc e , N of Socot r a, wh i c h s h o u l d be g i v e n a b e r t h of f r o m 40 t o 60 mi l es , t o de s t i na t i on. 10.08. Cape T o wn or Cape o f Go o d Ho p e t o Mo mb a s a and adj acent port s 10. 08. 01. R o u t e s . T h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e i s t h r o u g h Mo z a mb i q u e Ch a n n e l , as di r e c t e d i n 10. 05. 02 b u t pa s s i ng W of l i e s Comor e s , a n d s~eer i ng t h e n c e as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e. T h e pr e f e r a bl e r out e, f or al l s eas ons , i s E of Ma d a g a s c a r . Fol l ow t h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 10. 05. 03 as f ar as t h e N e n d of Ma d a g a s c a r , f r o m wh i c h p o i n t b o t h wi n d a n d c u r r e n t ar e f a vour a bl e f or Mo mb a s a a n d a dj a c e nt por t s . 35 40 45 50 55 60 ROUTES FROM EAST COAST OF AFRI CA AND MAURI TI US 10.09. Du r b a n t o Aus t ral i a, Ne w Ze al and, I ndi a, Si ngapor e , and Chi na Sea 10. 09. 01. Du r b a n t o Aus t ral i a, and Ne w Zeal and. S t a n d SE, a n d pi c k u p t h e ma i n r o u t e acr os s t he I n d i a n 65 Oc e a n ( 10. 01. 02) i n 50 E, a n d f r o m t h a t pos i t i on f ol l ow t h e di r e c t i ons i n 10. 01. 03 t o 10. Ol . 10. 10. 09. 02. Du r b a n t o I ndi a, Si ngapor e , and Chi na Sea. Stand SE, a n d ma k e c a s t i ng i n a h o u t 35 S u n t i l pi c ki ng u p t h e r o u t e t o pa s s t h r o u g h the Eastern Ar c hi pe l a go, t o t he Ba y of Bengal , or t o Bo mb a y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s eas on, as d i r e c t e d i n 10. 02 t o 10. 05. 70 164 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10 15 20 10. 10. Du r b a n t o Maur i t i us , East Af ri ca, and Ade n 10.10.01. Du r b a n t o Maur i t i us . Stand SE, and make easting in about 35 S. From about 50 E, keep gradually more to the N, crossing the parallel of 30 S in 58 E or 59 E, and then steer direct through the Trade Winds to Mauritius. 10.10.02. Du r b a n t o Mo mb a s a and adj acent port s. The shortest route is by Moqambique Channel, steering first to the SE across the Mo9ambique Current until picking up the route from Cape Town to Bombay (10.05.02), and passing W of ~les Comores; but the preferable route is to proceed as directed in 10.10.01 to Mauritius, and taking the route either W or E of $1e de la R6union, around the N end of Madagascar to destination, with a favourable wind and current. 10.10.03. Du r b a n t o Ade n. The routes are the same as from Cape Town (10.07) according to season, making easting to pick up those routes that pass E of Madagascar on about the parallel of 35 S. 10. 11. Du r b a n t o Cape To wn Proceed as directly as possible, at 20 miles or more from the coast. A favourable current will be carried throughout the passage. See note under 10.17.02 and relevant part of 10.54.05. 25 30 10. 12. Ma ur i t i us t o Aus t r al i a and Ne w Ze al and 10.12.01. Ma ur i t i us to Fr e ma nt l e , s o ut he r n Aus t ral i a, and Ne w Zeal and. Make southing to pick up the main track across the Indian Ocean (10.01.03). Follow the appropriate part of that route to destination. 10.12.02. Ma ur i t i us t o no r t he r n Aus t ral i a. From April to October, during the South-east Monsoon on the N coast of Australia, stand S, as in 10.12.01, and proceed by Bass Strait, and to destination via the E coast of Australia and Torres Strait. See directions from Sydney to Torres Strait (11.09). From November to April, during the Nort h-west Monsoon, stand N into that Monsoon and then proceed as directly as possible. 35 10.13. Ma ur i t i us t o Si ngapor e or Chi na Sea 10.13.01. Stand SE or E to pick up the route from Cape Town (10.02) according to destination and season. 40 45 10.14. Ma ur i t i us t o I ndi a n port s 10.14.01. Fr om April to October, the route given in 10.05.03 passes Mauritius closely, and may be followed to Bombay. For the Bay of Bengal, leave that route in 5 N and pass through Eight Degree Channel and round the S end of Ceylon. For Colombo, steer direct from Eight Degree Channel. From November to March, stand E or SE to pick up the routes given in 10.03.04 for Bay of Bengal, 10.04.03 for Colombo, or 10.05.05 for Bombay. 50 55 60 70 10.15. Ma ur i t i us t o Ad e n 10.15.01. Fr om April to October, join the route from Cape Town in about 15 S (10.07.02), which passes E of Madagascar. From November to March, run N through the South-east Trade and the Nort h-west Monsoon, to pick up the route described in 10.07.03, crossing the equator in about 68 E. 10.16. Ma ur i t i us t o Mo mb a s a and adj acent port s 10.16.01. Proceed as directly as possible, passing N of Madagascar. 10.17. Ma ur i t i us t o Du r b a n or Cape T o wn 10.17.01. Ma ur i t i us t o Dur ba n. Proceed as directly as possible, passing about 100 miles S of Madagascar, and making the African coast well N of Durban. 10.17.02. Ma ur i t i us t o Cape To wn . Pass about 200 miles S of Madagascar and make the African coast about 200 miles SW of Durban, afterwards keeping in the strength of the Agulhas Current until abreast Mossel Bay; from thence, steer direct to round Cape Agulhas at a prudent distance. Note: When nearing the Cape of Good Hope with strong W' l y winds, keep on Agulhas Bank, not more than 40 or 50 miles from the coast, where will be found smoother water than elsewhere. See 10.74. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 165 10.18. Mombas a and adjacent port s to Aden 10.18.01. Fr o m Apri l to Oct ober, keep coastwise in the strength of the current and pick up the route from Cape Town or Cape of Good Hope to Aden, as described in 10.07.02, in about 10 N. 10.18.02. Fr o m No v e mb e r to March, work to the E into the Nort h-west Monsoon keeping as far N as the wind will permit until that Monsoon is reached; then run E, edging to the N at the latter part, as far as about 68 E, when stand N into the North-east Monsoon, and from thence direct for the Gul f of Aden. The same route may be taken from Seychelles Group. Socotra should be weathered if possible. If efforts are only made to pass S of it, and the monsoon happens to be fresh, there is a great chance of being swept to leeward of Ras Asir. If leaving Mombasa in March, do not go E of Seychelles Group before standing N, as S' ly winds might be expected before reaching Ras Asir. 10.19. Mo mba s a and adjacent port s to Bo mba y 10.19.01. Fr o m Apri l to Oct ober, keep coastwise in the strength of the current to about 5 N and then steer directly as possible to Bombay, making the landfall on the parallel of Khanderi Island if the weather is thick, see 10.05.02. 10.19.02. Fr o m No v e mb e r to March, work E into the Nort h-west Monsoon, then run E on about the parallel of 5 S until in 82 E or 84 E, when stand N across the equator into the North-east Monsoon, and make the S end of Ceylon, and then Cape Comorin; thence work up the Malabar coast with the land and sea breezes. In March it would perhaps be better to go direct when the Nort h-west Monsoon is met with as NW' l y winds are prevalent in the Arabian Sea at the end of the North-east Monsoon. 10 15 20 25 10.20. Mombas a and adjacent ports to Co l o mbo or Cal cutta 10.20.01. Fr o m May to Sept ember, stand E on the starboard tack, and make for Eight Degree Channel if bound to Colombo, or pass through the more direct route offered by Kardiva Channel; but not at night, unless the entrance has been made before dark, or the latitude of the vessel is accurately known. If bound to Calcutta, pass S of Ceylon and pick up the Bay of Bengal route from the Cape of Good Hope (10.03.03). See also 10.03.05. 10.20.02. Fr o m Oct ober to Apri l , the route passes close S of Seychelles Group. On leaving Mombasa, keep N of the direct route to Seychelles Group, while working to the E until the Nort h-west Monsoon is picked up, which may be expected after passing the meridian of 45 E, although this is very uncertain. Light winds and calms render this generally a tedious passage. After passing Seychelles Group, and if bound to Colombo, run E in about 5 S, cross the equator in from 82 E to 84 E, and stand N into the North-east Monsoon, then making for the SW end of Ceylon; then work up the coast, taking advantage of the land and sea breezes. If bound to Calcutta, continue to make casting until the route from the Cape of Good Hope to Calcutta (10.03.04, 10.03.05, and 10.03.06) is picked up in about 92 E, and follow it to destination. 10.21. Mombas a and adjacent port s to Mauri t i us and Austral i a 10.21.01. General not es. In all seasons the route to Australia is taken via, or passing close to, Mauritius. 10.21.02. For Mauri t i us, f r om Apri l to October, stand E, regardless of crossing the equator in so doing, until E of Chagos Archipelago, when southing should be made into the Trade Wind, and then a direct course should be steered for Mauritius. 30 35 40 45 50 10.21.03. For Mauri t i us, f r om No v e mb e r to March, the recommended route is to make casting with the 55 North-east and Nort h-west Monsoons and cross 10 S in about 70 E, and from thence steer direct through the Trade Wi nd for Mauritius. Vessels should keep N of a line drawn from Zanzibar to Seychelles Group until in the Nort h-west Monsoon. The alternative route from November to March is to stand down through Mozambi que Channel, taking advantage of the current on the African coast. Then, from the S end of the channel, stand SE into the W' l y 60 winds and make easting S of the 35th parallel. Recross 30 S in about 58 or 59 E, andt hen make direct for Mauritius through the Trade. Caution: The cyclone season is from November to March, and the first route is therefore the safer as the path of these cyclones is then more easily avoided. 10.21.04. For Austral i a, follow the directions given in 10.12 after calling at, or passing close to Mauritius as described in 10.21.03. 65 10.22. Mo mba s a and adjacent ports to Durban or Cape To wn 70 166 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10.22.01. At all seasons proceed as directly as possible, keeping in the strength of the Moqambique and Agulhas Currents. See 10.54.05. 10 15 20 25 ROUTES NORTHWARD AND S OUTHWARD THROUGH EASTERN ARCHI PELAGO 10.30. Ge ne r al not e s o n pr e s e nt at i on Thi s section (10.30--10.51) contains directions for the routes through the Eastern Archipelago, which constitute an important linking system between the Indi an Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Since each particular route passes through a number of straits or channels, a list of the seas and straits of the Archipelago is given i n 10.31, where the directions are indexed. The routes themselves are outlined in 10.32, and references are given to the paragraphs which contain the relevant directions. 10.31. Al pha be t i c a l l l s t o f s eas and st rai t s Name Directions N- bound Directions S-bound Selat Abang Alas Strait Bali Strait Balintang Channel Selat Bangka Balabac Strait Bashi Channel Basilan Strait 30 Selat Baur Berhala Strait Buton Passage Ceram Sea Dampier Strait 35 Djailolo Passage Duri an Strait Selat Gelasa Karimata Strait Selat Leplia 40 Selat Limendo Lombok Strait Makassar Strait Mani pa Strait Mindoro Strait 45 Molukka Sea Ombai Strait Selat Pengelap Riouw Strait Saleier Strait 50 San Bernardino Strait Sapudi Strait Si but u Passage Singapore Strait Sunda Strait 55 Sulu Sea Surigao Strait Verdc Island Passage 10.36.03 10.47.04 10.47.02 10.46.06 10.35.04 Admiralty Sailing Directions m 10.50.04 10.50.04 10.50.02 10.49.03 Admiralty Sailing Directions 10.46.06 10.47.06 10.40.03 10.36.03, 10.38.02 - - 10.46.03 10.46.03 10.46.03 10.38.04 10.40.01, 10.41.01 10.44.03, 10.44.04 10.40.02 10.40.04 10.47.03 10.47.05 10.46.02 10.51.02 10.46.03 10.46.02 10.36.03 10.37 - - 10.46.05 - - - - 10.39 10.33 10.47.06 10.46.04 10.46.05 10.50.02 10.47.06 10.49.06 10.49.01 - - - - 10.50.03 10.50.03 10.49.01 10.49.04 10.49.07 10.49.05 10.49.06 10.50.04 10.51.01 10.50.04 10.51.02 10.50.03 10.50.04 - - 10.4.9.02 - - - - - - 10.51.03 10.39 10.49.09 10.47.06 - - - - 60 10.32. Ro ut e s t h r o u g h Eas t e r n Ar c hi pe l a g o 65 70 10. 32. 01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . The following paragraphs are intended as a guide to the selection of the best route through the Eastern Archipelago and the season for which it is recommended. Articles 10.02.01 10.30, and 10.48 are also relevant. 10. 32. 02. Sunda St rai t t o Si ngapor e . There are six possible routes. The usual route, though principally for the period May to September, is via Selat Bangka and Riouw Strait. References for this passage are 10.33, 10.34, 10.35, 10.36, 10.37, 10.39. From October to March, a route known as the Inner Route, via Selat Bangka, Berhala Strait and Duri an Strait, may be used. References are 10.33, 10.34, 10.35, 10.38, 10.39. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 167 I n December , Januar y, and Febr uar y, a r out e vi a Sel at Bangka, Ber hal a St r ai t , Sel at Pengel ap or Sel at Abeng, and Ri ouw St r ai t , is r ecommended. References ar e 10.33, 10.34, 10.35, 10.36, 10.38, 10.39. As an al t ernat i ve, f r om Ma y t o Sept ember , pr oceed vi a Se]at Bangka and E of Bi nt an. References are 10.33, 10.34~ 10.35, 10.39, 10.42. A second al t er nat i ve f r om Ma y t o Sept ember is vi a Sel at Gel asa and Ri ouw St r ai t . A vessel whi ch, havi ng chosen t hi s rout e, fi nds t hat t he Nor t h- e a s t Mons oon is bl owi ng st r ongl y i n the Chi na Sea, shoul d st eer for Ber hal a St r ai t and cont i nue t hr ough Dur i a n St r ai t . References are 10.33, 10.40, 10.41. A t hi r d al t er nat i ve f r om Ma y t o Sept ember is vi a Sel at Gel asa and E of Bi nt an. References are 10.33, 10.34, 10.40, 10.42. 10.32.03. Sunda Strai t t o Chi na Sea. Fr o m Ma y t o Sept ember , pr oceed ei t her vi a Sel at Bangka (10.33, 10.34, 10.43); or vi a Sel at Gel asa (10.33, 10.40, 10.43); or vi a Kar i mat a St r ai t (10.33, 10.44). Fr o m Nove mbe r t o Febr uar y, or, i f on ent er i ng t he Java Sea i t is f ound t hat t he Nor t h- wes t Mons oon of t he Java Sea or t he Nor t h- eas t Mons oon i n t he Chi na Sea have begun, pr oceed E t hr ough t he Java Sea and j oi n t he Second East er n Passage (10.33, 10.45, 10.46). Al t er nat i vel y, j oi n t he Fi r s t East er n Passage (10.33, 10.45, 10.46.05, 10.51.02) i n Makassar St r ai t . 10.32.04. Omb a i St r a i t t o Chi na Sea. Thi s rout e, known as t he Second East er n Passage, is for use f r om Oct ober t o Mar ch. Ma i n references for t he r out e are i n 10.46. Th e Second East er n Passage passes t hr ough Ombai St rai t , Banda Sea, and Mani pa St r ai t (10.46.02), Cer am Sea, Dj ai l ol o Passage, Da mpi e r St r ai t or t he Mol ukka Sea t o t he Pacific Ocean (10.46.03), and t o t he Chi na Sea vi a Sur i gao St r ai t (10.46.04) or by San Ber nar di no St r ai t and Ver de I sl and Passage (10.46.05) or E of t he Phi l i ppi ne I sl ands and t hr ough Bal i nt ang Channel or Bashi Channel (10.46.06) t o t he Chi na Sea. 10. 32. 05. Bal i Strai t, L o mb o k Strai t, or Al as St rai t t o Chi na Sea. Thi s rout e, known as t he Fi r s t East er n Passage, is for use i n Oct ober and Nove mbe r onl y. Fr o m t he appr oach St r ai t (10.47.02) i t passes t hr ough t he Java Sea, and Makassar St r ai t t o t he Sul awesi Sea (10.47.05). I t cont i nues t hr ough Basi l an St r ai t , t he Sul u Sea, and Mi ndor o St r ai t (10.47.06) t o t he Chi na Sea. 10.32.06. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Si ngapor e . Ei t her N of Ti mo r and t hr ough t he Java Sea or S of all t he i sl ands and t hr ough Sunda St r ai t . See 10.135. 10 15 20 25 30 10.32.07. Si ngapor e t o Sunda Strait. Fr om November t o Apr i l , pr oceed vi a Ri ouw St r ai t and Sel at Bangka (10.49.02, 10.49.03, 10.49.08), or, f r om Oct ober to Apr i l , Sel at Gel asa (10.49.04) may be used i nst ead of Sel at Bangka. 35 Al so f r om Oct ober to Apr i l , passage ma y be made t hr ough Dur i an St r ai t , Berhal a St rai t , and Bangka St r ai t . Thi s is luaown as t he I nner Rout e (10.39.03, 10.38.04, 10.38.03, 10.38.02, reversed, and 10.49.03, 10.49.08, 10.49.09). Fr o m Ma y t o Sept ember a r out e known as t he Out er Rout e shoul d be t aken, passi ng E of Bi nt an and t hr ough ei t her Kar i mat a St r ai t or Sel at Gel asa (10.39.02, reversed, 10.49.07 or 10.49.04, 10.49.08, 10.49.09). 40 10.32.08. Chi na Sea t o Sunda Strai t. Thi s r out e bet ween t he Chi na Sea and t he I ndi an Ocean is known as t he Wes t er n Rout e. Fr o m Oct ober t o Apr i l , shi ps havi ng used t he Nor t h- eas t Mons oon r out e t hr ough t he Chi na Sea, whi ch passes bet ween Anambas Kepul auan and Nat una Kepul auan (11.42) shoul d use Sel at Gel asa (10.49.04) or, f r om Nove mbe r t o Apr i l , Sel at Bangka (10.49.03). Fr o m Ma y t o Sept ember , Pal awan Passage and t he coastwise r out e off Borneo are used i n t he Chi na Sea, and ei t her Sel at Gel asa or Kar i mat a St r ai t shoul d be t aken i n cont i nui ng for Sunda St r ai t . See 10.49 and 11.04.03. 45 10.32.09. Ch i n a Sea t o I n d i a n Oc e a n. Fr o m mi d - Ma y t i l l t he end of J ul y t he I ndi an Ocean shoul d be appr oach. ed t hr ough Ombai St r ai t , or by ei t her Al as St r ai t , Lombok St rai t , or Bal i St r ai t . Th e East er n Rout e f r om t he .50 Chi na Sea is used, passi ng t hr ough ei t her Bal i nt ang Channel or Bashi Channel i nt o t he Pacific Ocean and t hence t hr ough t he Ar chi pel ago vi a Dj ai l ol o Passage, Da mpi e r St rai t , or t he Mol ucea Sea t o t he Cer am Sea, and t hence t hr ough Mani pa St r ai t and t he chosen ent r ance channel to t he I ndi an Ocean. See 10.50. I n Ma y onl y t he Cent r al Rout e f r om t he Chi na Sea ma y be used: i t ent er s t he Sul u Sea vi a Mi ndor o St r ai t or Ver de I sl and Passage, and l eads t hence t hr ough ei t her Basi l an St r ai t or Si but u Passage to t he Sul awesi Sea and 55 Makassar St r ai t . Ei t her Al as St r ai t , Lombok St r ai t , or Bal i St r ai t are t hen used i n t he appr oach t o t he I ndi an Ocean, or a r out e t hr ough t he Java Sea and Sunda St r ai t may be t aken. See 10.51. 10.33. Appr o a c he s to, and n o r t h b o u n d pas s age t hr o ug h Sunda St rai t 10.33.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . Sunda St r ai t and i t s appr oaches are descr i bed in Admi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons, whi ch shoul d be r ead in conj unct i on wi t h t he fol l owi ng remarks. 60 10.33.02. La n d f a l l . Comi ng f r om t he S i n t he Sout h- east Monsoon, keep wel l t o t he E, especi al l y i n June, Jul y 65 and August , when t he Mons oon and t he W- goi ng cur r ent are at t hei r st rongest , or t he vessel may fall t o l eewar d of Ta ndj ung Ge de h and f i nd gr eat di ffi cul t y i n recoveri ng i t agai nst wi nd and cur r ent . I n December , J anuar y and Febr uar y, consi der abl e swel l rol l s i nt o t he st rai t , and t he sea is heavi est when t he t i dal st r eam, combi ni ng wi t h t he pr evai l i ng SW- goi ng cur r ent , r uns cont r ar y to t he wi nd. Th e sea is sai d t o be cal mest i n Mar ch, J ul y and November . 70 168 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Having made a landfall, shape course to pass between Rakata Island and the Java shore, or between Sebesi Island and Sebuku Island; the former is recommended except for those with local knowledge, and then only in daylight. 5 10.33.03. Sel at Panaltan, between the NW side of Udj ung Kul on and Panaitan Island, possesses the great advantage of affording anchorage to sailing vessels becalmed, which the channel N of that island does not ; light baffling winds and calms are experienced about the entrances to Sunda Strait, occurring even in the strength of the East Monsoon, and sailing vessels when unable to anchor are liable to be set back by adverse currents. Selat Panaitan is entirely clear, but the Panaitan Island side must not be approached within one mile on account 10 of Karang Djadjar and the coastal reef which extends from the S side of Legon Semadang; these dangers are always marked by surf. Working through the passage keep nearer to the Java coast than to Panaitan Island, especially in the South-east Monsoon. 15 10.33.04. Channel N of Panaitan Isl and. Thi s channel, sometimes known as "Great Channel, " although the widest into Sunda Strait, and much frequented, being considered free from dangers, has the disadvantage of being too deep for anchoring if becalmed; in which case a vessel may drift out of the strait with the W-going stream. Entering Sunda Strait by this channel, keep nearer Panaitan Island, and when farther in, borrow on the same, 20 or Java, side. The channel is recommended for the later part of the West Monsoon period, and for the transition period. 25 10.33.05. Passage t hrough Sunda Strait. I n this note it is presumed that a sailing-vessel will make her way through Sunda Strait along the Java side, whether she has approached from the Indi an Ocean to make Tandj ung Gedeh, or Balimbing Pamantjasa, or half way between the two; in the two latter cases a vessel is presumed to have passed S of Rakata Island. 30 10.33.06. Passage wi t h a f avour abl e wi nd. There is not much difficulty in proceeding through the strait i n the North-west Monsoon period; the Java side of the strait and the channel S of Sangian Island being recommen- ded. Pass about 2 miles off Karang Tjikoneng and between Pulau Tempurang and Palau Merak Besar. Facilities for anchoring, if becalmed, are available on this route, while the channel N of Sangian Island is not favourable for this purpose, due to the deeper water; the two dangers, Ter umbu Kalihat and Ter umbu Gosal, also lie in or near the most N' ly, or W' l y channel. 35 10.33.07. Passage dur i ng the South-east Mons oon. Duri ng the South-east Monsoon the winds may be E' l y and variable, and sometimes strong from the NE towards midday. This, combined with the adverse current, possibly from 2 to 3 knots i n mid-stream, renders the passage more tedious, and it may become necessary to anchor to avoid losing ground; and therefore the coast of Java should be kept, where anchorage may be had i n many places, and where the current is much weaker, and at times nil, when the S-going tidal stream is at its 40 strongest. A vessel having to work up may stand into Tel uk Miskam, when N of Pasir Gundul , to a depth of about 15 m but when near Popol6 Island into not less than 18 m to avoid Gosong Panjang, and into not less t han 27 m or 2 miles off Tj ari ngi n to avoid Karang Kebua. To the N of it the shore may be approached closer, by sounding. Approaching Pasang Tenang, stand into not less than 22 m, or one mile from the shore. Karang 45 Tj i koneng and the coast E is fringed by reef to the distance of 1 to 2 cables, but is steep-to. There is good anchor- age S of Karang Tjikoneng i n about 11 m, and also off Anjer Lor, to the E of the point, but it is not so good off Karang Tjikoneng itself. Passing between Sangian Island and Java it is advisable to keep outside a depth of 36 m unless seeking anchorage. 50 10.34. Sunda Strait to Selat Bangka 10.34.01. Di rect i ons. From a position to the N of Pulau Tempurang and with a favourable wind, steer direct 55 for Kepul auan Segama, keeping the S islet bearing less than 010 to lead E of Djankat Lajang; the islets can be passed on either side, during daylight, W of Lynn reef, and Brouwers Banks. Sjahbandar Bank must not be approached into depths of less than 13 m. Working to the N, it will be prudent to keep on the Sumatra side and when N of Sybrandi Reef, and standing towards the shore, to tack when in a depth of between 11 m and 15 m; the directions for clearing Djankat Lajang, 60 described in the preceding paragraph must be noted. After passing Kepulauan Segama, a safe guide is to keep in depths of about 18 m; approaching the coast when the depths increase to between 22 m and 24 m, and holding out when they decrease to 17 m. Vessels working up must give the Sumatra coast a wide berth when N of Kepulauan Segama. While power vessels are advised to pass to the E of Five Fathom Banks (7.111), some authorities consider that a 65 sailing vessel, working up the coast, may pass between those banks and Arend Shoal and, after passing the latter, may stand on the inshore tack to a depth of 9 m. It should be noted, however, that the 5 m line is some 14 to 15 miles from the coast in places. If making for Stanton Passage a vessels should always pass E of Five Fat hom Banks. Note: The trees between Tandj ung Bungin and Tandj ung Serdang and the groups of trees NW of Tandj ung Mendj angan are the highest landmarks on this coast, but they should not be in sight from the deck, as abreast 70 both points the banks extend about 14 miles offshore. These trees afford some guide from aloft during the I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 169 North-west Monsoon, which is the clear season, but would not be visible during the South-east Monsoon, except on rare occasions; if this land is sighted from on deck it is a definite warning that a vessel is too far W of her safe course. 10.35. Approaches to, and nort hbound passage through Selat Bangka 10.35.01. Wi nds. The winds i n Selat Bangka follow the direction of the coast, though with slight variations from the influence of the land and sea breezes; and fresh breezes may always be expected when working against the Monsoon. Duri ng the latter part of the South-east Monsoon, it frequently blows hard from SW. Land breezes occur at night. 10.35.02. Ti dal streams. A full description is given in Admiralty Sailing Directions, but it can be noted here that, due to the variations in the predominant streams in the two monsoonal seasons, it is preferable to work N on the Bangka side of the strait during the North-west Monsoon, and on the Sumatra side during the South-east Monsoon. S 10 15 10.35.03. Di rect i ons for Maspari Passage and Stanton Passage. The navigation of Stanton Passage is difficult for sailing vessels working N at night; there are not enough marks for fixing the vessel's position, sounding is not a trustworthy guide, and the usually strong tidal streams make the position uncertain. Maspari 20 Passage should never be attempted at night, except in clear weather and with local knowledge, and it is not possible with adverse winds; if Maspari Island is not visible at a distance of 4 miles it is advisable to anchor. Sailing vessels working N through Maspari Passage by day can safely approach the bank extending from the Sumatra coast by sounding, but they must not stand into a depth of less than 11 m when 5 miles southward of 25 Tandj ung Djati, and must keep in depths of 18 m or more when off that point. Maspari Island (3 13" S, 106 13" E) can be approached to within 3 miles on the S side, about 4 miles on the SE side, and to within 1 mile on the W side. Sounding generally gives enough warning when standing towards the banks on the E side of the channel. In Stanton Passage, sailing vessels with a fair wind can follow the directions given for power vessels i n 30' Admiralty Sailing Directions. Working N through Starrton Passage by day, they can approach Dapur Islands within about mile. The summi t of Permisan range bearing about 323 and open NE of Besar light-structure leads NE of Melvill Bank. As soon as Tandj ung Labu bears more than 035 , vessels will remain clear of the banks on either side of the channel by keeping in depths of not less than 20 m. 35 10.35.04. Di rect i ons nort hbound i n Selat Bangka. After roundi ng Tandj ung Panggung, work up under the Bangka side of the strait; the landmarks here are more conspicuous, and vessels can derive more advantage from the land winds, which are somewhat stronger and more regular under the Bangka shore than in the middle of the strait. Some sailing vessels, and even power vessels, make use of the narrow channel between Karang Tembaga dO and the Bangka coast, when this is feasible, as the tidal streams are more favourable there. Farther N, the coastal bank extending from Bangka is fairly steep-to, and nearing Nangka Islands vessels must keep in depths of not less than 13 m in order to clear the bank which surrounds these islands. Standing over to the Sumatra side, the bights i n the coast may be approached by sounding, but the points must never be approached in depths of less than 20 m, as within this the depths decrease very suddenly. From 45 about 5 miles E to 6 miles W of Tandj ung Katima Bongko, the coastal bank is steep-to and is very hard W of this point. Farther W, the depths decrease regularly towards the shore, and vessels can approach it into depths of 9 m. The passage between the Sumatra coast and Kolepon Rocks can be easily negotiated by sounding; the coast there can be approached into depths of 8 m, but vessels should tack away from the E side of the passage immedi- 50 ately the depths increase to more than 16 m. If taking the channel E of Kolepon Rocks, vessels must not stand over too far towards the Bangka shore, on account of the reefs lying as much as 2 miles offshore between Tandj ung Kelian and Tandj ung Ular. 10.36. Selat Bangka to Ri ouw Strait 55 10.36.01. General notes. There are two routes, one direct and the other via Berhala Strait and Selat Pengelap or Selat Abang. The latter is recommended for the months of December, January and February; see also 10.38, Selat Bangka to Singapore Strait via Berhala Strait and Duri an Strait. 60 The route from Selat Bangka to Singapore, E of Kepulauan Lingga and through Riouw Strait, is the one com- monly adopted by vessels proceeding either way between Sunda Strait and Singapore, as being safe, sheltered, and easily navigable; whereas the route E of Bintan Island is exposed in both monsoons, and the fairway is encumbered with many dangers, which render it necessary for vessels to keep at a considerable distance from the land. Riouw Strait is suitable for all classes of vessels, both by day and by night. The swept channels and 65 their depths are detailed in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 10.36.02. The direct route, ordinarily used by sailing vessels N- bound from Selat Bangka. is between Tudj u Islands and Saja; they may, however, pass on either side of Saja, which, being high and bold, is very convenient to make in thick weather or at night. 70 170 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES At night, or in thick weather, sounding may be very useful i n detecting the drift caused by cross currents between Tudj u Islands and the coast of Sumatra, for the depth decreases generally towards Sumatra, and increases towards those islands, but care should be taken in approaching them, as the remarkable irregularities of the currents have brought many vessels into danger. Near Sumatra a mud bottom, mixed with sand, prevails, and 5 near the islands mud only. From Saja keep NE to a position some 12 or 13 miles NE of Tandj ung Djang, the SE extreme of Lingga, and from thence as follows: By day, with a fair wind, steer directly for the fairway into Riouw Strait, taking particular note of the tidal stream, especially when setting strongly to the SE. 10 At ni ght , steer a little more to the N to give more clearance to the shoals, and haul in for Riouw Strait when the bank extending NE from Mesanak has been crossed. Whe n worki ng northward, it is seldom necessary to work along near the islands from Mesanak to Korek Rapat; it is generally found advantageous to stand to the N, in case of meeting with a NW' l y wind. But it may occasionally happen that advantage will be derived by standing towards them; in which case, when standing 15 towards the N side of Mesanak, keep the summi t of Benan bearing less than 275 , which will lead N of the extensive shoal with a least depth of 4 m 6, NE of the E point of Mesanak. To clear Rifleman Reef, E of Benan, keep the E extreme of ~esanak bearing more than 133 , and the N extreme of Katang Lingga Island less than 285 . If working in towards Selat Dempo, do not get S of lines joining the N point of Katang Lingga Island and 20 Selanga Islets, and the latter and Udiep. When standi ng to the west ward towards Pulau Galang Baru, tack before Karas Ketjil is shut in by Korek Rapat; or, farther N, to clear the shoal water between Tandj ung Tjakang and Korek Rapat, when reaching a depth of 18 m; Dempo bearing 214 is a safe t urni ng mark. Between Korek Rapat and Karas Ketjil it is possible to stand into depths of 15 m before tacking, but care must be taken to give Karang Segutji a good berth. Karas 25 Ketjil and Karas Besar should be given a berth of mile. From this point continue as directed in 10.37.02. When standi ng to the eastward towards Tel ang Ketjil, at the S entrance to Riouw Strait, be careful to give the SE side of that island a berth of 2 miles, and to keep the conspicuous hill on Tandj ung Punggung, the SW extremity of Pulau Mantang, well open of Telang Ketjil, bearing 304 , to avoid Karang Sandara. Tandj ung 30 Punggung Islet and Ranggas may be approached to a prudent distance. For continuation through Riouw Strait, see 10.37.02. For passage to Singapore Strait from Selat Bangka passing E of Bintan, see 10.42. For passage from Selat Bangka to China Sea, see 10.43. 35 10.36.03. The alternative route, via Berhala Strait and Selat Pengelap or Selat Abang, is in fact an alternative to the "I nner route" from Selat Bangka to Singapore Strait, via Berhala Strait and Duri an Strait, described in article 10.38, but it is described briefly here as it is also an alternative route to Riouw Strait. The passage through Berhala Strait ~vhich is given in article 10.38, is usually taken in December, January and February, when strong N' l y winds prevail; there is then smooth water, good anchorage, and but little tidal stream. 40 To either Selat Pengelap or Selat Abang follow the directions given in 10.38.04 towards Duri an Strait, as far as necessary. Selat Pengelap is the wider of the two straits mentioned above. Owing to the uneven nature of the bottom the tidal streams, near spring tides, cause whirls and overfalls which are somewhat alarming to strangers; the strait is, however, clear except for the sand patch and rock on the W side of the fairway, and is easy to navigate. 45 Approaching the strait, steer to pass about one mile or less from Alor Islets, passing preferably N of Batu Belajar. Batu Belajar bearing 224 , and well open SE of Alor Islets, leads through Selat Pengelap. Selat Abang, between Dedap Island and Pengelap Island on the SE side, and Abang Ketjil on the NW side, is reduced to a breadth of about mile by the reefs on either side, but is clear and deep in the fairway. Having passed through either of the above straits, the directions for approaching Riouw Strait are the same as 50 those given in the relative part of 10.36.02. 55 10.37. Passage t hrough Ri ouw Strait to Si ngapore Strait 10.37.01. Wi t h a fair wi nd, Riouw Strait offers no difficulties, and no directions are necessary other than to keep in the mai n fairway. 10.37.02. When worki ng through Ri ouw Strait f rom southward, continuing the directions given in 10.36.02 for standing to the W towards Pualu Galang Baru, when between Pulau Karas Besar and Pulau Mubut 60 Laut, stand in to a depth of 15 m; Pulau Karas Ketjil well open of Pulau Karas Besar is a good t urni ng point to avoid the bank off the latter; Pulau Lobam Ketjil to the N, open E of Pulau Mubut Laut, leads E of the bank extending S of the latter island. The mai n channel passes E of a 7 m patch lying 2 miles E of Tandj ung Sembulang, and when working N keep the E extreme of Mubut Laut beating more than 163 , in order that the bank which extends NV~ r from 65 the island may be cleared; if intending to pass W of the 7 m patch do not cross this W limit until Tandj ung Sembulang bears 287 . N of Tandj ung Sembulang, stand farther W, but keep the W extreme of Mubut Laut well open of Tandj ung Sembutang, to clear Gosong Tjemara. Give Pulau Tundj uk a berth of about mile, and, when to the N, keep Tandj ung Sembulang well open of it, to avoid the bank E of Pulau Subang Mas, and the reef E of 70 Pentjaras. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 171 To avoid the reef about mite E of the S extremity of Pulau Nginang, keep Tandj ung Sau light-structure well open of Nginang; and to clear the reef fringing that island, keep the E point of Pulau Sau well open of the point under the light-structure. After passing Sau, in standing to the W, keep Tandj ung Sau light-structure open of Pulau Sau; this wilt clear Pulau Tubu and shoals, as well as the 7 m patch about mile SE of Karang Malang Orang. 5 Vessels are recommended to pass out of Riouw Strait into Singapore Strait E of Karang Galang. If, however, it is decided to pass W of this reef, keep Kalang Malang Orang bearing more than 180 until able to pass between Ter ambu Betata and Karang Galang. Continuing the directions given in 10.36.02 for standing to the E towards Kelang Ketjil, when nearing Tapai Islands, the hill on Tandj ung Punggung kept open of the S point of Ranggas, bearing 098 , leads S 10 of them in a depth of about 8 m and of Karang Kata in about 7 m; the SW extreme of Pangkil kept bearing more than 325 leads W of Karang Kata and other shoals SE of Pangkil. To clear the 7 m bank extending 2 miles S of Tapai Islands keep the promi nent hill on Pulau Siulung open of the hill on Tandj ung Punggung bearing less than 077 , until the summi t of Lobam Island is open W of Pangkil, bearing 327 , or more. The SW end of Pangkil Island should not be approached nearer than mile, as its reef is steep-to; the W 15 side may be approached to a depth of 13 m, but off its N end keep Karas Ketjil light-structure open of Pangkil Island, bearing 167 , or less, to avoid the fringing reefs. Between Pangkil Island and Gosong Tulo, stand to the E into depths of 15 m, or until Terkulai light-structure bears 000 , but do not bring the NE extreme of Pangkil Island to bear more than 158 , or Terkulai light-structure less than 355 , to avoid Soreh reefs. Terkulai light-structure bearing 087 leads S of Gosong Tulo, and the light- 20 structure on the E point of Tandj uhg Sau in line with the W side of Lobam Ketjil bearing 329 , leads W of it; the SE extreme of the Lobam group, bearing less than 090 u~til Tandj ung Sau light-structure bears more than 338 , leads W of Karang Lolo. When N of Karang Lolo do not bring the W extreme of Lobam Ketjil to bear more than 160 until Tandj ung Taloh bears 090 , which will avoid the dangers near Karang Plasit. Tandj ung Taloh is steep-to, and both it and Buau Island may be approached to about 3 cables, except near the extremes of that 25 island. Tandj ung Uban is bold, but do not approach the shore N of it, to Malang Djarum, nearer than mile. The rocks above water on the edge of the shore reef are useful guides. To the N of Malang Dj arum there are depths of 7 m close to the edge of the shallow bank which fronts this part of the coast to the distance of nearly 1 mile. Thi s bank, as well as Netscher Shoal and Crocodile Shoal, and the shoal between them, will be avoided by keeping Tandj ung Sau light-structure beating less than 205 . 30 If the weather is hazy and Tandj ung San light-structure cannot be made out at this distance, Malang Djaru Islet, which will be seen well clear of the extreme of the land as Netscher Shoal is neared, must be kept bearing less than 200 unt i l Karang Galang light-structure bears 248 or Tandj ung Sebung north extreme bears 095; a vessel will then be N of those dangers and in Singapore Strait. 35 10.38. I nne r Rout e f r o m Sel at Bangka to Si ngapor e Strai t 10.38.01. Ge ne r al not es . The Inner Route is suitable between October and March. Berhala Strait forms the S part of the Inner Route to Singapore, and Duri an Strait the N part; the intermediate 40 part, between the W side of Kepulauan Lingga and the E side of Sumatra, has no specific denomination. The total distance from Berhala Island to Singapore is about 120 miles. The Inner Route is lighted and buoyed, and is suitable for all classes of vessels. The least depth in the fairway, from 10 m to 11 m, is in the S part, SW of Mutji. Sailing vessets, bound from Selat Bangka to Singpore during the strength of the North-east Monsoon, fre- 45 quently adopt this i nner route. Duri ng the prevalence of strong N' l y winds in December, January and February, they will save much time doing so, for these straits have smooth water, good anchorage, and but little tidal stream, whereas on the E side of Lingga, at this season, there is generally a heavy sea and a S' ly current sometimes r unni ng at the rate of 3 knots. In Berhala Strait, sailing vessels will also be greatly assisted by the squalls from the Sumatra coast. 50 In order to avoid the difficulty and delay sometimes experienced in getting from the N part of Duri an Strait to Singapore Strait, many sailing vessels have preferred the alternative of passing from the Inner Route by Selat Abang or Selat Pengelap into Riouv Strait. It seems probable that the best passages might be made in this way, for the great depth of water in the W part of Singapore Strait is often embarrassing in light winds, as there is no anchorage ground on which to bring up in case of the wind failing. See 10.36.04. 55 10.38.02. Selat Bangka t o Berhal a Strai t. Having passed Kolepon Rocks (10.35.04), shape course for the light-structure on Berhala, distant about 74 miles, avoiding the shoal area extending SE from Tandj ung Djabung. The bank along the Sumatra coast being shelving, sounding ~vill be the best guide, and the rule is to keep i n depths of from 10 m to 13 m. I n working, the coast may be approached with care to a depth of 9 m, 60 observing that the bank with less depths than 9 m extends nearly 13 miles SE of Tandj ung Djabung. Pass through Berhala Strait, using the passage S of Berhala Island; the channel between Berhala and Singkep Laut is not safe as there are several rocks in it, and uncharted dangers may exist. In Berhala Strait keep in depths of from 18 m to 22 m, to be well clear of the bank projecting from the shore W of Tandj ung Dj abung; thence, in working along the coast to the W the bank is steep-to, and may only be approached occasionally, with care, 65 to a least depth of 13 m. 10.38.03. Berhal a Strai t t o Dt~ri an Strai t. From abreast Berhala Island with a favourable wind, shape course to pass 2 to 3 nfiles W of Mutji Islet light-structure. Wi t h a working breeze, the Sumatra coast may be approached to depths of from 11 m to 13 m, but the vessel's position must be fixed frequently, as the tidal streams are very 172 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES irregular off Sungai Djambi. The mudbank W of Tandj ung Dj abung for a distance of 14 to 15 miles, is nearly dry at low water, spring tides, and extends 4 to 5 miles seaward. There is no difficulty in standing E in the vicinity of Speke Reef and Mutji, both of which are lighted, but, when nearing Mutji, tack when it bears 000 , to avoid Atkin Reef; it is best, however, to pass Mut j i at a distance 5 of about 2 miles, as mentioned above. Wi t h a fair wind, having passed Mut j i steer for Padri Selatan Island, passing either side of it, but preferably to the E, which is the mai n channel; Djora, the summi t of Moro Besar, which is visible from a considerable dis- tance, bearing 344 , is a good mark for making towards Padri Selatan. In working, be careful not to stand nearer to Tandj ung Bakau or Tandj ung Dato, the entrance points of 10 Tel uk Kuala Tjenaku, than 2 miles; and when between them, off that bay, remember that the bank, which extends beyond a line joining these points, is steep-to, and sounding will give no warning. Excepting abreast the S part of Kat eman Island, at about 12 miles N of Tandj ung Dato, the depths decrease more regularly towards the bank, which may from thence be approached by sounding into depths of 13 m towards Dural and the other near- by islands. In standing to the E, when abreast Tandj ung Dato, do not deepen above 35 m, for the ground on that 15 side is foul and unsuitable for anchorage. Cameleon Rock is out of the fairway track, but if standing over so far to the E, Petong Island summi t bearing 350 or more leads well W of it. 10.38.04. Duri an Strait and to Si ngapore Strait. The initial part of this passage may be taken either E or 20 W of Rukan Islands. If taking the E side, having passed E of Rukan Tengah, and standing towards Eastern Banks, tack while Djora, the summi t of Moro Besar, still bears more than 308 , to avoid the banks. Having passed Rukan Utara, steer to pass between Perasi Besar Islet and Pelangkat Island; in working, by keeping Perasi Island openW ofPul au Duri an Ketjil, bearing more than 318 , Carnbee Reef, 1 mile S of Moro Besar, will be avoided. 25 If taking the route W of Rukan Islands, pass about 1 miles W of these islands in depths of from 18 m to 25 m, but do not enter Duri an Strait until Perasi is well open E of Perasi Besar, bearing 322 , to avoid Richardson Reef. When in the strait, steer to pass between Perasi Besar and Pelangkat, as above. Cont i nui ng N, the peak of Sanglang Besar Island, astern, in line with the apex of Perasi Island, bearing 159 , leads between Melvill Reef and Middleburg Reef. Thence steer to pass through Phillip Channel if bound to 30 Singapore, or to the N and NW if bound into Malacca Strait. If the channel W of Middelburg Reef is taken, the water will be found to shoal gradually towards the W shore over a bottom of soft mud, suitable for anchorage. The E point of Degong Island bearing 180 leads E of the dangers extending off Buru Island and the islands N of it. Little Kari mun Island bearing less than 325 also leads E of the dangers which project 3 miles from Great Kari mun Island. .35 When working to the N after passing Perasi Island, and standing E, keep W of the alignment of Manjilang, the summi t of Sanglang Besar, with the NW extremity of Pulau Duri an Ketjil bearing about 168; this will avoid the reef about 1 miles W of the southern extremity of Belukar Island. 40 10.39. Si ngapore Strait 10.39.01. General r e mar ks . Heavy rain squalls, during which visibility is moderate or poor, are frequently experienced in Singapore Strait; the colours and topmarks of the various beacons are then useful guides. I n the following directions, the Strait is considered in two parts, the E part for vessels coming from, or going 45 to, the China Sea or the Eastern Archipelago via Riouw Strait or E of Bintan; the W part for vessels coming from, or going to, Malacca Strait or Duri an Strait. Of the three channels into which the E entrance to Singapore Strait is divided, Middle Channel is recommended. Nort h Channel has no advantage except perhaps to vessels bound N along the coast; it should be used only by those possessing local knowledge. South Channel is not recommended for vessels of deep 50 draught; the bottom is generally rocky and uneven, and the channel is encumbered with shoals. 10.39.02. Passage we s t war d t hrough the eastern part of Si ngapore Strait. If approaching from E of Bintan Island, South Channel may be used, but, in view of the remarks in 10.39.01, vessels are recommended to stand on and pass through Middle Channel. .55 There is no difficulty in identifying Singapore Strait when coming from the E, in clear weather; both Groote Bintanberg and Gunong Pelali are good marks and Horsburgh Light marks the S side of Middle Channel. Sailing vessels will experience no difficulty in working in either direction through Middle Channel and the E part of the strait. The best plan is to keep towards the N shore, i n case of having to anchor, as the depths are more convenient on that side. The shore may be approached to depths of 20 m; Pulau Mungging, kept open of 60 Tanj ong Ayam, bearing 075 , leads S of Johore Shoal and, when standing towards this danger, if these objects cannot be seen, preserve the depths mentioned, for the shoal is steep-to. When E of Tanj ong Ayam keep Tanj ong Stapa in line with, or open of Tanj ong Ayam, bearing 274 , unt i l Pulau Munggi ng bears less t han 360; and, when standing towards Falloden Hall Shoal, keep Tanj ong Ayam bearing more than 266 , and when standing towards Congalton Skar and the shoals N of it, keep Tanj ong "65 Punggai bearing less than 337 . A vessel may stand towards Remunia Shoals unt i l the S extremity of Pulau Munggi ng bears 255 . There are no dangers on the S side of the strait, excepting those fronting the coast of Pulau Bintan and Crocodile Shoal, Ter umbu Betata, and Karang Galang, in the entrance to Riouw Strait. But do not stand so far over as to get near these dangers, for no advantage will be gained by doing so, and the depths there are incon- 70 veniently great for anchorage. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 173 Small vessels bound to Singapore Road from the E will have no difficulty, as they have merely to proceed to a convenient anchorage. Vessels of less than 4 m 6 draught may pass within the banks off Tangj ong Katong, by keeping in the run of deep water, fairly close to the end of the lines of fishing stakes which extend from that point. It is the usual custom for sailing vessels belonging to the port, to keep these banks well aboard when proceeding to the anchorage from the E, when the wind is off the land and the tidal stream setting to the W. 10.39.03. Pa s s a g e e a s t wa r d t h r o u g h Ma i n Strai t. Owing to the strong tidal streams in the W part of Singapore Strait, sailing vessels are frequently obliged to anchor, for which purpose the N side of the channel is to be pre- ferred. Between Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouse on that side, there is convenient anchorage in depths from 11 m to 22m, while to the S the water is deep, and the bottom rocky; the S side of this part of the strait is, 10 therefore, unsuitable for anchorage, especially as violent squalls are common. Abreast the S end of St. John' s Islands, vessels ought not to anchor if it can be avoided, for the water is deep, and the tidal streams and eddies run with greater strength than in any other part of the strait. There is fair anchorage between Buffalo Rock and Helen Mar Reef, as well as about 1 mile to the N and W of the latter dangers; also from 1 mile to 2 miles E of Buffalo Rock, in depths of from 22 m to 27 m, or between 15 it and Pulau Subar. Vessels may stand closer inshore and anchor near the edge of the charted 10 fm (18 m 3) line, SW and NE of Pulau Subar; it is inadvisable to go closer in, on account of the strong tidal streams, sometimes rendering it difficult to get underway again, especially in the light winds which prevail here. When worldng to the E between St. John' s Islands and Raffles lighthouse, it is usual to keep on the N side of the channel, making short tacks if necessary, as that part of the strait affords tolerably convenient anchorage 20 along the greater portion of it, and vessels are liable to meet with light baffling airs which would render it necessary to anchor. It is important to remember this when E of Buffalo Rock, for on that part of the S side of the strait the water is deep, and the bottom rocky and unsafe for anchoring, the danger being much increased by rapid tidal streams with eddies and overfalls. There is also much power vessel traffic in both directions, including many long vessels of very deep draught. 25 Cont i nui ng E towards the China Sea, follow generally the directions in 10.39.02, in reverse. 10.40. S u n d a St rai t t o, a n d t h r o u g h Se l at Ge l a s a 10.40.01. Ge n e r a l r e ma r k s . Of the three principal passages through Selat Gelasa, namely from W to E, Selat Leplia, Selat Limendo, and Selat Baur, the latter is preferable for sailing vessels N' bound with a fair wind, being the broadest and having no dangers in the fairway. Sailing vessels working through, and vessels of low power, should use Selat Leplia during the North-west Monsoon (but see 10.40.02,) and Selat Baur during the South-east Monsoon, the currents thus being less unfavourable. Selat Limendo is seldom used. 30 35 10.40.02. S u n d a St rai t t o, a n d t h r o u g h , Sel at Le pl i a . After leaving Sunda Strait, pass between Djankat Lajang and Jason Rock. Thereafter, with a fair wind, steer to sight and pass Djaga Utara and then make for a position about 4 miles W of Hippogriffe Reefs; then steer to make good 005 , passing W of Kait Rock and NIedang, when land will soon be sighted; Pulau Simedang should on no account be sighted by day. When past dO Medang steer to pass midway between Karang Baginda and Drievadems Bank, taking care to avoid the shoals lying about 6 miles S of the former, and thence N between Discovery Rocks and Tjelaka, giving the latter a berth of about 2 miles; care must be taken to avoid the 8 m 8 patch lying 2 miles E of Tandj ung Labu, and the other dangers in this vicinity. When the N extremity of Liar bears 090 steer to pass E of Pulau Gelasa, or E of Tandj ung Berikat, according to destination, d5 Note: In thick weather it is advisable to anchor on the bank, around Hippogriffe Reefs, in depths of from 12 m to 18 m, and await more favourable conditions. Vessels coming from the Java sea, and uncertain of their position, can approach the coast of Sumatra to a depth of 17 m. Vessels proceeding through Selat Leplia at night should take care that they sight Tandj ung Mur ung during daylight, if coming from the S ; if approaching from the N, Tandj ung Berikat should be sighted during daylight. 50 Wo r k i n g t h r o u g h Se l at Le p l i a f r o m t he s o u t h wa r d . Duri ng the strength of the North-west Monsoon it is almost impossible to work through Setat Gelasa; even in the latter part of the monsoon, about March, when the winds are light, sailing vessels often are obliged to anchor on account of the strength of the S-going current. In the South-east Monsoon also, vessels will often meet with light variable winds, rendering it impossible for them to preserve a direct course. 55 The approach to Selat Leplia does not afford convenient clearing marks, but the following directions are given as being, so far as can be judged, the best for that purpose. As, however, some of the objects are at a ,considerable distance from the dangers, navigators are cautioned not to depend too implicitly upon being able to recognise such distant objects. Particular attention should be paid to the set of the tidal streams and currents, and to sounding. 60 Coming from Sunda Strait a sailing vessel is advised to work up the coast of Sumatra, see 10.34.01. Approach- i ng Selat Leplia proceed as follows. If standing E, to the N of Hippogriffe Reefs, stand towards Karang Pasir, which does not quite cover at high water, until it is but 4 miles distant, or within half a mile of Haaien Reef, giving Medang and Kait Rock a wide berth. Pulau Simedang bearing 028 leads 1 mile W of Branding Reefs. Thi s island should not be approached 65 nearer than 3 miles, on account of the dangers lying W of it. Tandj ung Mur ung kept bearing more than 318 leads SW of Karang Baginda, and Kalangbahu summit, bearing 054 , leads NW of the S and central portions of those reefs; Keladi, on Pulau Liar, which is not easily recognised, kept bearing more than 005 , leads W of the most W' l y shoal, which is awash at low water, and the iN end of Aur Island open N of Bakau Islet, bearing 064 , leads N of the reefs. 70 174 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S When N of Karang Baginda, keep Bakau Islet bearing less than 108 , and Selemar Islet more than 360 , to avoid the shoals between them; and to clear the reef extending 3 miles S of Pulau Liar, keep Kue~l Islet bearing less than 108 if Keladi bears less than 349 . To clear the reefs and shoals lying SW and W of Pulau Liar, Bakau Islet must be kept bearing less than 134 ~ 5 until Tjelaka Islet bears 090; and to clear Discovery Rocks, keep Tandj ung Labu bearing more than 220 unt i l Tjeiaka bears 090 , which bearing also clears the rocks to the N. To clear the reefs extending off the NW side of Pulau Liat, keep Tandj ung Labu bearing less than 215 until the S extreme of Kelapan Island bears 247 . When standing to the W, to clear the banks between Medang and Tandj ung Mur ung keep Bakung, a hill 2 10 miles W of Tandj ung Labu, open E of Tandj ung Murung, bearing 344 until Baginda, a hill 167 m high, about one mile NW of Tanj ong Baginda (Besar), bears 276; after which it is possible to stand W until Tandj ung Mur ung bears 017 . To clear the shoals off the E side of Pulau Lepar, Tandj ung Murung must be kept bearing more than 219 until the NE extreme of Kelapan bears 308 . To clear Discovery Rocks, see above. 15 To avoid Wilson Bank, Bakung must be kept bearing more than 186 , or Tandj ung Labu less than 180 , until Tandj ung Berikat bears less than 322 . 10.40.03. Nort hbound t hrough Selat Baur. For sailing vessels with a fair wind, Selat Baur is preferable to the others, and should present no difficulties; the land is, in the fine weather of the North-west Monsoon, 20 visible from the outer dangers. The greater breadth of Selat Baur enables sailing vessels to make longer boards, and as most of the islands can be seen at night the vessel's position is more easily fixed. The shoals that lie within the strait appear to form the only drawback to the adoption of this channel, and i n clear ~veather even this drawback would almost disappear, for good hill peaks, by which to fix the ship' s position, are visible on all sides, distant from 20 to 35 miles. 25 Wi t h a fair wi nd, making for Selat Baur from the S, from Djaga Utara shape course for Larabe Shoal duri ng the North-west Monsoon, and for Carnbee Reefs in the South-east Monsoon. In clear weather the mount ai ns in the SW part of Belitung will be sighted some distance S of these dangers ; Ludai, which may be visible from about 12 miles S of Carnbee Reefs, first comes into sight, and shortly afterwards Beluru (3 10' S, 107 40' E) will be sighted. When near Larabe Shoal other mountains on Belitung as well as Pulau Simedang should be 30 sighted, so that in clear weather there is no difficulty in making the strait. If a vessel is far to the E of the track, Kebatu, about 25 miles SE of Carnbee Reefs, will be a useful mark for fixing the position. When the landfall has been made, steer a N' l y course, passing about 6 miles E of Pulau Simedang, midway between Kasenga and Geresik and not less than 2 miles W of Tandj ung Ajer Lantjur. Wi t h bad visibility or in thick weather, sounding must be depended upon entirely; in such cases it is advisable 35 to make the S edge of the bank, with depths of from 13 m, to 18 m, clay with sand, which extends about 25 miles S from Pulau Simedang, by sounding, and then immediately steer E until in depths of more than 18 m; then steer N, taking care to keep in depths of more than 18 m, and when passing E of Pulau Simedang, keeping in depths of not less than 29 m. If however, depths of over 36 m have been obtained when making for the S entrance, it may be presumed that the vessel is well over on the E side of the channel, and a NW' l y course may then be 40 steered, taking care to keep in these depths. In unfavourable conditions, or if any doubt as to which side of the strait the vessel may be, it is advisable to anchor; bad visibility does not usually last for any length of time. At night, Selat Baur can be approached from S without danger in clear weather, as the light on Pulau Simedang is visible up to 3 miles S of Hancock Shoal, the most S' ly danger on the W side of the approach. When this light is sighted steer to pass about 2 miles E of Pulau Simedang, and thence proceed N until in the arc of visibility 4~; of the light on Tandj ung Ajer Lantjur, which must be kept between the bearings of 003 and 022 . When Geresik Island is sighted, the position can be fixed by bearings of this island and Tandj ung Ajer Lant j ur light, and course may be shaped to poss either E or W of Akbar Shoal, according to destination; vessels passing F~ of this shoal have the advantage of being able to fix their position by bearings of Langkuas Island light in addition to Tandj ung Ajer Lant j ur light; passing W, vessels make for Pulau Gelasa. 50 Worki ng through Selat Baur, and standing E towards Carnbee Reef, keep Beluru, a mount ai n 360 m high, 6 miles NE of Tandj ung Genting, bearing more than 011 o; and to clear Naga reef, Gosong Awal, and Cooper Reef, keep Marang Bolo, a hillock on the S point of Seliu, bearing more than 350 . To avoid the dangers N of Cooper Reef, keep farther W, Marang Bolo bearing more than 010 . Pass Batu Malang at a distance of at least 1 mile, the approach from S being on a bearing of more than 001 , 55 but to the N it should not bear more than 112 , until the N point of Seliu bears 073 , to clear Karang Ti ga; after passing which, Barn Malang must not bear more than 146 , or Marang Bolo more than 124 , unt i l Karang Njera and the 11 m patch NW of it are cleared. After passing these dangers, Marang Bolo bearing less than 132 will lead S and SW, and Tandj ung Ajer- Lant j ur bearing more than 003 to the W, of all dangers until N of Lima Islands. After Geresik bears 270 60 stand a little farther to the E but keeping Tandj ung Ajer Lant j ur bearing more thin1 355 until within about 2 miles. Give the lighthouse on Tandj ung Ajer Lant j ur a berth of about 1 miles, and keep it bearing less than 158 until Langir bears 046 to clear the reef round Pulau Kembung; to the N, the latter in line with the lighthouse bearing about 180 leads a full mile W of Malang Wankang and will clear all the reefs between Pulau Kembung 65 and Langir. Give the coast between Mendanau and Langkuas a berth of 6 to 7 miles keeping Langir bearing less than 214 and Langkuas bearing more than 046 . When standi ng to the westward, Pulau Simedang, if not brought to bear more than 000 , will lead E of all the shoals S of it, and sounding will also give good warning when standing towards them, as they lie some 4- 70 or 5 miles within the charted 10 fm (18 m 3) line. Pulau Simedang and Pulau Simedang Ketjil must be approache& I N DI A N OC E A N A N D R E D S E A 175 with caution, as sounding does not give much warning when nearing their outlying reefs; they should on no account be approached within a distance of 2 miles. Pulau Simedang Ketjil bearing 183 , astern, leads E of Bliss Reef, between which and Aur Island a vessel may stand to the W until the summit of that island bears 023 , which will lead E of Karang Baginda. Kalangbahu bearing 265 leads S of the dangers extending from Aur and Geresik. The E side of Geresik may be approached to a distance of 1 mile; but the E side of Kelemar has a rock 5 lying 1 mile off, which wi l l be avoided if Geresik is not brought to bear less than 160 . The summi t of Aur, in line with the E extreme of Kelemar, bearing 180 , leads 1 miles E of Hewitt Reef. Havi ng passed Hewitt Reef, stand farther W towards Liar, but the SE extreme of that island must bear more than 200 to clear the reefs off its NE side. When N of all the reefs off the N side of Liar (at night the light on Tandj ung Ajer Lantjur or, by day, the rounded summit of Sagoweel, about 2 miles SE, bearing more than 111 ) 10 stand W towards Bangka. 10.40.04. S e l a t L i m e n d o , E of Liat, is narrower and more encumbered with dangers than either Selat Leplia or Selat Baur, between which it lies, but it is easily navigable by sailing vessels with a fair wind, during daylight. No vessel would from choice attempt to work through Selat Limendo, as Selat Leplia and Selat Baur are much bet t er adapted for that purpose; but it is possible that a vessel, embarrassed by light baffling winds, may find it convenient to proceed through some part of it. The numerous islets afford every facility for fixing the position of the vessel from time to time. 10. 41. S e l a t Ge l a s a t o R i o u w St r ai t 10.41.01. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s . Most vessels, N-bound from Selat Gelasa, prefer passing E of Gelasa, which is t he safer route; but some, especially when bound to Singapore by Riouw Strait, prefer the less safe, but more direct, route between the shoals W of that island, or as an alternative to pass between Tandj ung Betikat and Pulau Berikat. Duri ng the strength of the Nort h-west Monsoon, N' l y winds will be met along the coast of Bangka and the adverse current off and W of Tandj ung Berikat will make it difficult to beat up. 15 20 25 10.41.02. P a s s a g e e a s t o f Ge l a s a . With a fair wind, pass about 3 miles E of Gelasa. Continue N, keeping Gelasa beat i ng more than 180 to clear Belvedere Rock, Magdalena Reef and Lanrick Reef. As the summit of Gelasa is 30 visible from a distance of 30 miles in clear weather, a vessel should be nearly abreast of Lanrick Reef before losing it. After clearing Lanrick Reef pass E of Severn Reef and between that reef and the group of reefs about 27 miles to the NNE. Soundings give no ~varning of the approach to any of the above, as they are steep-to, but in the vicinity of Severn Reef, in fine weather, the highest hill on Tandj ung Tui ng and Radja, a hill close W of 35 Tandj ung Radja, are visible. If the wind should prevent a direct course from being steered from abreast Pulau Liar, Gelasa should be kept bearing more than 338 until the vessel is N of Akbar Shoal. After passing about 3 miles E of Gelasa proceed as above. Having passed Severn Reef steer E of Tot y (0 55" S, 105 46' E) and continue NW to join the route described 40 in 10.36.02 NE of Tandj ung Djang. 10.41.03. P a s s a g e w e s t o f Ge l a s a . Proceed N, as in 10.41.02, to clear Akbar Shoal, but noting that the direct course required passes about 1 mile W of Gelasa Rock. After passing Gelasa Rock steer 000 until the summit of Gelasa bears 135 , which bearing if retained, leads about 4 miles NE of Van Sittard Reefs, passing between Warren Hastings Reefs and Ti ung Reef; Gelasa bearing 135 will also assist in passing E of Keuchenius Reef, although it will be lost to sight a few miles before reaching the reef. There should be no difficulty in avoiding Iwan Reef and Severn Reef as the Bangka Island coast can generally be seen from the former, and mountains from the latter as described in 10.41.02, the directions in which can be followed from this point. If circumstances prevent a straight course from being steered when N of Gelasa, keep its summit bearing between 130 and 146 until Tandj ung Berikat bears 195 to clear Warren Hastings Reef and Ti ung Reef; thence keep the summi t between the bearings of 135 and 157 to pass between Van Sittard Reef and Keuchenius Reef to the W and Magdalena Reef and Lanrick Reef to the E. Thence as before. 10.41.04. P a s s a g e b e t w e e n T a n d j u n g B e r i k a t a n d P u l a u Be r i k a t . Having passed about 1 mile off either and proceeding to the NNW, keep Pulau Berikat bearing less than 146 to clear the SW extreme of Warren Hastings Reefs; thence keep Tandj ung Berikat bearing between 175 and 195 to lead W of Warren Hastings Reefs and Ti ung Reef, and E of Van Sittard Reefs. After Gelasa bears more than 135 proceed as in the last paragraph of 10.41.03. d5 50 55 60 10. 42. S e l a t B a n g k a o r S e l a t Ge l a s a t o S i n g a p o r e St rai t , p a s s i n g e a s t w a r d o f Bi n t a n 10.42.01. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s . These routes are alternative to those described in 10.36 to 10.41. They are not recommended for use during the season of N' l y and NW' l y winds, from November to March. 10. 42. 02. S e l a t B a n g k a t o S i n g a p o r e St r ai t . Having passed E of Saja as described in 10.36, a vessel should steer a N' l y course so as to pass E of Admiral Stellingwerf Reef, crossing the equator in depths of about 37 m. .At night it is advisable to keep in depths of not less than 43 m when between the parallels of 0 30' N and 65 70 176 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 0 50' N. Merapas bearing 315 or less leads NE of Admiral Stellingwerf Reef and Gosong Ara. Having rounded the NE point of Bintan, proceed as directed in 10.39.02, preferably using Middle Channel. 10.42.03. S e l a t Ge l a s a t o S i n g a p o r e St rai t . First proceed as directed in paragraph 10.41.02 as far as Lanrick Reef. Then continue on a course 000 until Pedjantan is sighted. Thence shape course for Singapore Strait. See 10.39.02. 10. 43. S e l a t B a n g k a o r S e l a t Ge l a s a t o Ch i n a Se a, Ma y t o S e p t e m b e r 10 10. 43. 01. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s . I n either case the route N into the China Sea is as direct as possible. When the North-east Monsoon is likely to develop before Hong Kong is reached, pass through Api Passage and Palawan Passage. See 11.32, 11.33, 15 10.43.02. F r o m S e l a t B a n g k a (10.36), after clearing Saja, steer to pass between Anambas Kepulauan and Nat una Kepulauan, but see 11.32, 11.33, 11.38. 10.43.03. F r o m S e l a t Ge l a s a , either proceed N as directed in 10.42.03 to sight Pedjantan, and thence E of Tambel an Kepulauan, and between those islands and the coast of Borneo ; or steer directly to pass W of Pengibt~ 20 Kepulauan. I n either case continue N between Anambas Kepulauan and Nat una Kepulauan (10.43.01). 10. 44. S u n d a St r ai t t o Ka r i ma t a St r ai t a n d Ch i n a S e a 25 10.44.01. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s . Karimata Strait is the passage between Belitung and Momparang Islands on the W side, and Karimata Island and the Borneo coast on the E side. It is the customary route taken by vessels bound for Singapore or China from the E part of the Java Sea. Such vessels pass well outside all the dangers lying off the E side of Belitung, and hardly ever sight either Belitung or the Borneo coast; the direct route to Pontianak from the Java Sea is E of Karimata Island. 30 The mai n route lies E of Discovery East Bank (3 35" S, 109 11" E) and Cirencester Shoal. The lines j oi ni ng Discovery East Bank, a position 20 miles E of Cirencester Shoal, Catherine Reef, and Ontario Reef must be considered as the W limit of safe navigation for large vessels passing through Karimata Strait. Besides the mai n channel, there are several other channels between the numerous islands lying E and NE of Karimata Island, and between it and the Borneo coast. The most E' l y of these, known as Greig Channel and 35 the Inner Route, have a regular tide, and convenient depths for anchoring, and are therefore much frequented by vessels working through the strait; it being quite impossible to work through the mai n channel against a strong monsoon, and a continuous current setting to leeward. 40 10.44.02. S u n d a St r ai t t o Ka r i ma t a St rai t . Pass E of Djangkat Lajang and W of Jason Rock. Thence, having passed within sight of Djaga Utara, shape course to pass S of Discovery East Bank. 10.44.03. P a s s a g e n o r t h b o u n d t h r o u g h Ka r i ma t a St rai t . Wi t h a fair ~vind, having passed E of Discovery East Bank, steer N approximately on its meridian unt i l past Momparang Islands; then alter course to the NW so as to pass between Ontario Reef and Serutu Island, steering so as to pass the light-structure near the W end 45 of Serutu at a distance of about 5 miles. Proceeding N to the China Sea, after passing bctween Ontario Reef and Serutu, keep approximately on the meridian of 108 E, taking care to avoid the 5 m reef, lying about 28 miles. NW of Nort h Grieg Shoal, and then pass E of Pengiki Besar. A vessel may pass through Greig Channel as ar~ alternative to the mai n strait, see 10.44.04. If making for Karimata Strait from East Java make for the E side of the S entrance to the strait, passing W 50 of Fox Banks, Aruba Bank and Clemencia Bank, and then steer NW so as to pass between Ontario Reef and Serutu Island. 10.44.04. Wo r k i n g t h r o u g h I n n e r Ro u t e a n d Gr e i g Ch a n n e l . Vessels working through Karimata Strait have to take either the Inner Route, which is suitable for small vessels only, or Greig Channel (10.44.01). In, 55 these channels the sea is smoother and the current not so strong, it being wholly or in part overcome by the tidal stream and the indraught into the rivers on the W coast of Borneo; vessels also have the advantage of the change- of wi nd at night and in the morni ng caused by the land breeze, and which often brings it several points more t o the E in both Monsoons. These channels have a convenient depth for anchoring, with a bottom of soft mud, but working t hrough 60 them is slow and tedious. Sounding gives good warning when approaching the Borneo side; vessels can pass. fairly close to Karimata Islands. Less water than charted has been reported between Aur and the SE coast of Panebangan. Coming from SW, note the W limit of safe navigation described in 10.44.01. When N of the dangers off Mangkut and off Tandj ung Pagar Ant i mun, the Borneo coast may be approached to a depth of 15 m, 65 and to 11 m in Van Sukadana Bight. The S group of Kepul auan Lajah should not be approached nearer than 1 mile. Pass on either side of the N group of Kepulauan Lajah, observing that the depth quickly shoals to, 9 m at 3 miles NE of Meledang, the most E' l y of this group, and at less t han 2 miles N of Bulat, the most NE' l y. Between Krawang and the N group of Kepulauan Lajah the depths are from 22 m to 27 m, decreasing fairly" 70 regularly towards the Borneo coast. Greig channel is deep and bold towards either side. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 177 10.44.05. Pas s age n o r t h b o u n d f r o m Ka r i ma t a Strait. Between Panebangan and Masa Tiga the Borneo coast may be approached to a depth of 11 m, but when about 8 miles NW of Masa Tiga do not bri ng it to bear more than 135 , or stand into depths of less than 15 m, until off Sungai Padang Tikar, N of which the coast may be approached to within 4 miles. Masa Tiga can usually be seen from a distance of 20 miles. A vessel may stand off to, or W of, Leman Islands, observing that those islands (in sight from aloft) kept bearing more than 140 lead E of Twilight Reef, China Reef, and Greig Shoals. Having cleared dangers as above, make good a course towards Dat u or Pengiki Besar. 10. 45. Sunda Strai t e as t war d t o Banda Sea and Se c o nd Eas t ern Pas s age 10.45.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . From November to February, vessels which have passed through Sunda Strait into the Java Sea, and find that the North-west Monsoon in those waters, and the North-east Monsoon in the Chi na Sea, have already set in, are advised to make E at once, and to pick up the Second Eastern Passage in the Ceram Sea N of the South Molukka Archipelago. Alternatively, a vessel can join the First Eastern Passage off the entrance to Makassar Strait in November, but there is no advantage in so doing. 10 15 10.45.02. Di rect i ons. To join the Second Eastern Passage, the better recommended and more usual route is to stand NE from Sunda Strait and, having passed through the Java Sea, to pass through Saleier Strait and 20 Buton Passage into the Banda Sea. Wi t h W' l y winds, when coming from Saleier Strait, close Tandj ung Batu Toro, the SE point of Buton, to about 3 miles, and keep along the coast as far as Tandj ung Kassolanatumbi to prevent being set over towards Wakatohi Kepulauan, in the light airs and S' ly currents which frequently prevail in the offing. Alternatively, passage may be made N of Java, through Sapudi Strait, N of Bali, Lombok, and Sumbawa, 25 and through the Flores Sea and Banda Sea to the Ceram Sea. Directions for Ceram Sea, Manipa Strait, Djailolo Passage, and Dampier Strait are given in 10.46.02, 10.46.03. 30 10. 46. Se c o nd Eas t ern Pas s age 10.46.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . See 10.32.04. The passage from the South Indi an Ocean to the China Sea through Ombai Strait is usually made during the season October to March. When proceeding to Singapore, the routes via Sunda Strait, previously described, should be taken. 35 An alternative route i n October and November is to pass through one of the central passages, Bali Strait, Lombok Strait or Alas Strait, joining the route from Ombai Strait in the Ceram Sea. See 10.47. December to April is the season of the tropical storms known as Willy-Willies. They may occur occasionally in November. See 6.16. From Ombai Strait, the route is either W of Buru or more usually, through Manipa Strait between Buru and 40 Manipa into the Ceram Sea. Thence pass through Djailolo Passage or Dampier Strait into the open Pacific Ocean. When in the Pacific Ocean, make easting between the parallels of 1 o 30' N and 3 00' N until able to pass E of Palau Islands; but between March and September pass W of these islands. Having passed Palau Islands, a variety of routes is available, either through Surigao Strait and to the China Sea via Mindoro Strait or Verde Island Passage, or through San Bernardino Strait and Verde Island Passage, or, 45 perhaps more usually, to keep E of the Philippine Islands and to Hong Kong via Balintang Channel or Bashi Channel; to Shang-hai between Sakishima Gunt 6 and Okinawa Gunt 6 and to Japan by a more N' l y route i n the full strength of Kuro Shlo. For the sake of convenience in directions, the Second Eastern Passage may be divided into three parts; firstly from Ombai Strait to the Ceram Sea (10.46.02); secondly from the Ceram Sea through Djailolo Passage or 50 Dampier Strait (10.45.03); and, thirdly, the continuation to the China Sea (10.46.04). 10.46.02. Omba i St rai t and t o Ce r a m Sea. Ombai Strait is the broad deep passage separating the NW coast of Ti mor from Alor Islands; from October to March it was frequently used by sailing vessels proceeding from Europe to China and Japan, and it was also used by sailing vessels bound for East Java from the China Sea from 55 the middle of May to the end of June. In the partially enclosed region N of Sawu Islands and Timor, kno~vn as the Sawu Sea, especially in the E portion, where it is continued E by Ombai Strait, the percentage of bright sky is greater than in any other part of the archipelago, and the haziness is equally great whenever E' ly winds blow; the rainfall is heaviest in December and January, but showers may fall with all W' l y winds. 60 The South-east Monsoon blows steadily between the middle of April and the end of September, from ESE to SE, the land breezes from Ti mor increasing the force of the wind at night, and the sea breezes diminishing it by day, similarly in the other season the wind will be most steady by day and unreliable at night. I n October and November the winds are from SE to SSW, and in December from the SW quarter, accom- panied by thunderstorms, but the North-west Monsoon does not reach its full development, from W to WNW, 65 until January, and begins to abate in February. Variable winds will then blow until April. Proceeding NE through Ombai Strait, make the E point of Sumba (10 08" S, 120 51" E) and pass between it and Sawu Islands or between Sawu Islands and Roti, if falling to leeward with NW' l y wind. Under the exceptional conditions of a strong NW wind and lee current, it may be desirable to pass W of Sumba and S of Flores. 178 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Passage from Ombai Strait to the Ceram Sea may be made either W of Buru or through Mani pa Strait, which is the more usual route. If attempting to weather the W side of Buru, and falling to leeward, it is better to abandon the attempt and pass through Manipa Strait. Manipa Strait is a good and safe channel, conveniently situated for a call at Ambon. Duri ng the North-west Monsoon vessels making N should do so along the E coast of Buru, where the adverse tidal stream is not so strong, and the favourable tidal stream runs strongly. In the strength of the monsoons, there may be a high sea r unni ng in Manipa Strait; if so, consideration must be given to the use of Kelang Strait, between Mani pa and Kelang, but an adverse current prevails here during the North-west Monsoon season. 10 10. 46. 03. T h r o u g h C e r a m Se a t o , a n d t h r o u g h D j a i l o l o P a s s a g e o r D a m p i e r St r ai t , o r t h r o u g h M o l u k k a S e a t o Pa c i f i c Oc e a n . Having entered the Ceram Sea as in 10.46.02, steer as directly as possible to pass through one of the channels between the chain of islands between Obi Major and Kofiau into the Halmahera Sea. The channel between Tobalai and Kekek is recommended in the North-west Monsoon so as to keep well to windward, Continue N through the Halmahera Sea and pass into the Pacific Ocean through Djailolo Passage or Dampier 15 Strait. Sagewin Strait, between Batanta and Salawati, should not be taken by sailing vessels, as there are frequent calms on account of the high land on either side, and the rapid tidal streams with strong eddies are liable to make the vessel unmanageable. The only difficulty in Djailolo Passage arises from the strong tidal streams which cause whirlpools and tide rips. The general directions for the passage of a sailing vessel through Dampier Strait are the same as those for a power vessel, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. If the wind is from the N, a sailing vessel, 20 having passed through the narrows, should keep over to~vards Waigeo rather than Irian Barat, to avoid being driven on to the Irish Barat coast by the swell from the N. Great attention must be paid to the set of the currents. Although the Molukka Sea is the principal passage for power vessels proceeding between the Sulawesi, Ceram, Banda and Arafura Seas, it is not recommended for a sailing vessel working through to the N duri ng 25 the North-west Monsoon season, the period dealt with in this article, as the current sets with the wind at a rate of 16 to 24 miles a day. If obliged to pass through it, a sailing vessel would find it best to enter through Peleng Strait, keeping along the Sula~vesi coast. 10.46.04. Pa c i f i c Oc e a n t o Ch i n a Se a b y S u r i g a o St rai t . Surigao Strait is less frequented by sailing vessels 30 than is San Bernardino Strait, which is more to windward in the North-east Monsoon. It is, however, more direct and safer than San Bernadino Strait, but it obliges sailing vessels that take it, if they are making for Manila, to work up the W coast of Negros and Panay and the E coast of Mindoro. It is of advantage to vessels going to the more S' ly parts of the Philippine Islands or to the Sulu Sea. Surigao Strait is safe and deep throughout i t s length, and the shores of the islands that border it are steep-to. 35 At the entrance to Surigao Strait the North-east Monsoon sets in towards the end of September, and blows throughout October and November; in December NE winds alternate with N' Iy gales. In January, winds blow from NE to ENE accompanied by heavy rain. In February and March, E' l y winds prevail. In April, May and June, the prevailing wind is SE, with occasional gales called "collas" from the S. I n July, August and Septem- ber, collas from SW are frequent. 40 The NE winds, though strong, cease during the night; but winds from SE, S, and SW will continue to blow. It generally rains with NNE and ENE winds ; the rain ceases and the weather clears with E winds, and more so with SE winds. Wi t h SW winds it remains clear unless a gale arises, which sometimes brings rain. In general there is no very bad weather in this part of the archipelago, except when a typhoon occurs. The season when a typhoon might occur is from the end of October to the beginning of January. They begin to blow 45 from the NW, and finish from the SE, having passed through either NE or SW; when they shift through NE they blow the stronger, and more rain falls. 10. 46. 05. Pa c i f i c Oc e a n t o Ch i n a Se a b y Sa n B e r n a r d i n o St r ai t a n d V e r d e I s l a n d P a s s a g e . When entering San Bernardino Strait from the E in the South-west Monsoon, work to windward with the flood stream, and 50 when this loses its strength, make for the banks NW or W of Biri Island, where anchorage can be had on a sandy bottom until the tide makes again. On weighing, work according to the direction of the stream, so as to pass through Kapul Pass, between Kapul and Dalupiri or through Dalupiri Pass, between Dalupiri and Samar. The latter is probably the safer, especially coming from a S' ly direction. If the tide should t urn before a vessel has entered these passages, make for the 55 open bay off Quinaguitman, S of Lipata point, in Samar Island. Anchorage can also be had, if necessary, in the channel on either side of Dalupiri Island, on a sandy bottom strewn with big stones. The only danger to guard against at this part is Diamante Rock; this once passed, take either the passage between Naranjo Islands and Kapul orbet weenNaranj o Islands and Destacado. Thi s latter route is the better; shaping the course then to pass round the N end of Wicao. 60 For information respecting winds, currents, and passages ~vith a fair wind through the strait (which is the same as for power vessels, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Verde Island Passage lies between the SW part of Luzon and the N coast of Mindoro. Verde Island divides the channel into N and S passages. Both are safe, but the more N' ly, or Nort h Pass, is preferred, as the more S' ly, or South Pass, is interfered with by Bako Islands. It is a favourite route during the North-east Monsoon for 65 vessels coming from a S' ly direction. Get to the N under the lee of Negros and Panay and from the 1NW point of Panay proceed between Mindoro and Tablas to Dumali Point, and then on through Verde Island Passage and up the W coast of Luzon, thus ecsaping the strong monsoon that is generally felt on clearing Lubang Islands. 10.46.06. Pa c i f i c Oc e a n t o Ch i n a Se a, p a s s i n g n o r t h o f P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s . Referring to 10.46.01, a vessel on passage from Djailolo Passage or Dampier Strait will have benefited by the gradually increasing effect of Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 179 l~uro Shio as far as Balintang Channel or Bashi Channel, one of which must be used. These channels are described i n Admiralty Sailing Directions. 10. 47. Fi rs t Eas t ern Pas s age 10.47.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . As outlined in 10.32.05, the First Eastern Passage should be taken N- bound in October and November only. It is more suitable for S-bound vessels, but then only in May and from the China Sea. It has little to recommend it on account of the adverse current setting to the S through Makassar Strait, often strongly, at all seasons. The winds are boisterous and uncertain at the S end of Makassar Strait, and light 10 and variable at the N end, while the navigation is difficult throughout almost the whole voyage to the open China Sea. The route runs from either Bali Strait, Lombok Strait, or Alas Strait across the Java Sea into, then through Makassar Strait into the Sulawesi Sea, and thence to the Sulu Sea through Basilan Strait. It then passes up the W coast of Mindanao, Negros, and Panay, and enters the China Sea through Mindoro Strait or Verde Island 15 Passage. 10.47.02. Not es on Bali Strait, Lombok Strait, and Alas Strait. Of these three straits, Bali Strait is the narrow. est and most difficult for sailing vessels. It was formerly preferred by them, due to the anchoring facilities it offered. Lombok Strait is the widest, but Alas Strait is probably preferable as there are no dangers and anchorage 20 can be obtained if necessary during the calms to which all these straits are more or less subject. In Bali Strait, which is only one mile wide at its N end, the chief difficulty lies in the currents, and sailing vessels should only navigate the strait by day. Duri ng the South-east Monsoon, N of the area of the Trade Winds, the wind is mostly SSW and SSE to SE, with a W-going stream; from July to September the ~vind can be very strong. I n the North-west Monsoon, a 25 vessel N of the Trade ~Vind area may be set strongly to the E, both by ~vind and stream. Lombok Strait is the most important passage between the Indi an Ocean and Makassar Strait, mainly on account of its width and the ease with which it can be navigated. Duri ng the North-west Monsoon sailing vessels average one day to make the N- bound passage; during the South-east Monsoon the time taken on the passage usually varies from one to three days. Making the S-bound passage during the North-west Monsoon takes at 30 least one day, but usually more; in the South-east Monsoon this passage is quick, averaging 16 or 17 hours, but in April and October sailing vessels have experienced great difficulty in getting through the strait S-bound. February and March are the best months for navigating the strait. In Lombok Strait, during the South-east Monsoon, calms are frequent from sunrise to noon, when a fresh S' l y wind arises, t urni ng to SE on the Bali side, and to SSW on the Lombok side, blowing strong during the 35 night. I n the North-west Monsoon the winds are generally from NW, sometimes with violent squalls, and a high sea in the N approach. 10.47.03. Di r e c t i o ns f or L o mb o k Strait. Duri ng the South-east Monsoon the South-east Trade Wi nd continues through the strait. When nearing the strait, keep E of the entrance and sight Lombok Island, taking 40 into consideration that the vessel may be set W by the monsoon drift. Sail into the entrance close along the SW point of Lombok, and then hold the Lombok side. At this season Nusa Besar must never be approached, as in the event of calms, especially with a S-going stream, there is danger of being set on to it. In the transition months (March, and the end of October and beginning of November), if W' l ywi nds predomi- nate hold the Bali side, passing through Badung Strait; if E' ly winds predominate hold the Lombok side. 45 Badung Strait is always preferable, as anchorage may be obtained there. Duri ng the North-west Monsoon, make for Bukit Badung and proceed through Badung Strait under the Bali shore. 10.47.04. Di r e c t i o ns f or Al as Strait. In the South-east Monsoon the wind blows strongly from S during the 50 greater part of the day, but subsides towards evening, when the land breeze from Lombok Island begins. In the North-west Monsoon variable and baffling S' ly winds are often experienced in Alas Strait. Approaching from the S, Alas Strait may be identified by the high, rugged land of the SW part of Sumbawa, and the plateau forming the SE part of Lombok. From the N, ~Mount Rindjani and the high NW part of Sumbawa are conspicuous, and the islands lying under the coasts of Lombok and Sumbawa will also be visible. 55 As all the straits E of Java are more or less subject to calms, sailing vessels proceeding through Alas Strait may find it necessary to anchor; it is therefore, advisable to hold the Lombok side of the strait, where conditions for anchoring are more favourable. 10.47.05. No t e s on pas s age t hr o ug h Java Sea and Makas s ar Strai t to Sul a we s i Sea. Having passed through 60 Bali Strait, Alas Strait, or Lombok Strait as directed, steer to pass between Kepulauan Kangean and Kepul auan Tengah, and thence to enter Makassar Strait by one of the three channels into which the S entrance is divided. The middle one of these three channels is to be preferred for entering the strait, though the most E' l y channel is also frequently used, especially by vessels bound for Makassar. In the latter case Spermonde Kepulauan and its associated bank rises so steeply from depths greater than 180 m that sounding will give no indication of a 65 vessel's approach. The most W' l y of these three channels is seldom used, partly owing to the fact that no land is visible, which makes it difficult for a vessel to determine its position, and partly because no saving of distance is effected. Some 150 miles to the N of the above channels the strait is again divided into two channels by Balabalagan Island and Little Paternoster Islands. The width of the W channel is 20 miles, and of that on the E side of the 70 180 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES islands 45 miles. There are some dangers in the W channel, but it is nevertheless much frequented, and for some reasons preferred to the E, on account of the more moderate depths off the coast of Borneo, which permit anchoring in case of necessity, xvhile the Sulawesi coast is steep-to in many places, and destitute of anchorage. Having passed N of Little Paternoster Islands there is no difficulty in navigating through the remainder of Makassar strait into the Sulawesi Sea. 10 10.47.06. Sul awes i Sea to Chi na Sea. Thi s section of the First Eastern Passage passes frrom the Sulawesi Sea, through Basilan Strait into the Sulu Sea, and thence by Mindoro Strait or Verde Island Passage to the China Sea. Verde Island Passage, see 10.46.05, is a favourite N- bound route during the North-east Monsoon. In Basilan Strait, the channel N of Santa Cruz Islands, although narrower than that on the S side of them, is generally preferred by sailing vessels for its better anchorage facilities. The Sulu Sea is of great depth and offers no particular problems. For winds and currents in this sea area and its vicinity, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 10.48. Rout es s out hbound t hrough Eastern Archi pel ago 20 25 30 10.48.01. General r e mar ks . There are three principal routes for vessels S-bound from the China Sea through the Eastern Archipelago. The Western route (10.49) passes through the China Sea W of the Philippine Islands and Borneo to Sunda Strait, either direct or via Singapore. The Eastern route (10.50) passes through the China Sea, E of the Philippine Islands to Djailolo Passage, and thence to Ombai Strait or to one of the central passages (Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait). The Central route (10.51) passes W of the Philippine Islands and E of Borneo, through Makassar Strait to one of the central passages. Of these three routes the Western and Central are those used by vessels from ports in S China; the Central Route is also used from Manila and ports in the S parts of the Philippine Islands or on the E side of Borneo; the Eastern Route is used by vessels from ports in N China or from Japan. In the strength of the South-west Monsoon vessels from ports in S China sometimes use the Eastern Route. 10.49. Wes t ern Rout e s out hbound f r om Chi na Sea 10.49.01. General r e mar ks . Passage may be taken either direct or via Singapore, the latter being best made 35 duri ng the North-west Monsoon period (October to April), and there are then two principal passages, one by Riouw Strait and Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa, but in October by Selat Gelasa only, because light and baffling winds prevail in that mont h between Riouw Strait and Selat Bangka; and the other, known as the Inner Route, by Duri an Strait, Berhala Strait, and Selat Bangka. Riouw Strait and Berhala Strait are particularly convenient for sailing vessels leaving Singapore for Europe in the North-west Monsoon (North-east Monsoon of the China 40 Sea). By using these routes, the difficulties of beating E out of Singapore Strait into the North-east Monsoon of the China Sea are avoided. Duri ng the South-east Monsoon, the ordinary route would be to beat out through Singapore Strait to the E, and work S by Karimata Strait or Selat Gelasa to Sunda Strait. At the same time, vessels are frequently able to proceed much more quickly to the S by the Inner Routes than by the outer one. Convenient anchorage is always 45 available in the straits for sailing vessels held up by wind, or tidal streams. To make the passage from the China Sea to Sunda Strait during the North-east Monsoon of the China Sea, a vessel having passed either E or W of Anambas Kepulauan would proceed S through Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa; but during October the former should not be attempted, owing to the calms and barfing winds which occur during that mont h in its N approaches. 50 Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, a vessel from Palawan Passage or one that has crossed to the Borneo coast from Mui Di nh should proceed by Karimata Strait or Selat Gelasa. Directions for vessels S-bound through Duri an Strait and Berhala Strait are the reverse of those given for the N- bound passage by the Inner Route in paragraphs 10.38.04 and 10.38.02. Directions for the other straits and channels follow. 55 10.49.02. Passage s out hward t hrough Ri o uw Strait. Vessels having a fair wind leaving Singapore at high water, or about the first quarter of the ebb or E-going stream, and taking about 4 hours to reach the entrance to Riouw Strait, will probably carry a fair tidal stream through both straits, but no dependence can be placed on it. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 60 The directions given in paragraph 10.37.02 for coming N through Riouw Strait, if reversed, will suffice for proceeding S. Vessels of deep draught should pass E of Karang Galang. At night, steer to pass mile E of the light on Karang Galang, from which position Tundj uk leading lights will be in line bearing 180 . When Terkulai light is open S of Lobam Island bearing 100 , and the vessel is S of Karang Lolo, shape course about 135 , allowing for tide, until the light on Karas Ketjil bears 154 , when it may 65 be steered for on that bearing. Pass about half a mile or more E of it, and then keep it astern, bearing about 320 or less, as long as it is in sight, to lead in the fairway S of the strait. 10.49.03. Approach to, and passage s out hward t hrough Sel at Bangka. Wi t h a fair wind, when coming from the N, and having passed Tudj u Islands and steering to the S to pass through Selat Bangka, there will be no difficulty in clear weather in determining a position; in such circumstances enter the strait E of Kolepon Rocks. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 181 In thick weather it often happens that no land can be seen until the vessel has arrived very near to the entrance to the strait, and at such times it is important to get hold of the bank extending from the Sumatra coast, and then proceed along its edge in low water depths of from 15 m to 11 m, carefully attending to sounding. Sometimes Menumbi ng will be seen, but no other land, and in such case it will be prudent to proceed as before, keeping along the edge of the bank. When working through Selat Bangka from the N, the passage W of Kolepon Rocks is much to be preferred when the land is obscured and reliable bearings cannot be obtained; at other times the E channel is preferable. By reversing the directions given in 10.35.03 and 10.35.04 for working through from the southward, no difficulty will be experienced in navigating Selat Bangka. 5 10 10.49.04. Ap p r o a c h t o, a n d p a s s a g e s o u t h wa r d t h r o u g h Sel at Ge l as a. Although the navigation of this strait is complicated by the many dangers in it, yet, as, the course by it is more direct, and the prevailing winds are more favourable, and the distance less than by perhaps the safer route through Selat Bangka, many seamen prefer it, especially when S-bound from China late in the North-east Monsoon. I n consequence of the N entrance to Selat Gelasa being so near the equator, the winds, even in the strength 15 of the monsoons, are very uncertain, producing a corresponding uncertainty in the direction and force of the tidal streams and currents. A sailing vessel approaching the strait from N will, therefore, have to be principally guided by the winds and currents which may have been encountered rather than by relying upon those which are mentioned to have been experienced at certain seasons and described in Admiralty Sailing Directions. 20 In thick weather the greatest caution is necessary when approaching Selat Gelasa, for unless good observations can be obtained there is no means of ascertaining an exact position, and, in such circumstances, it is advisable to steer for Selat Bangka, ~vhere the soundings, on the edge of the bank extending from the Sumatra coast, may be a useful guide, although the land may not be distinguished. See 10.49.03. When approaching the NE coast of Bangka use every precaution not to get entangled among the outlying 25 dangers when runni ng S for Selat Gelasa in thick weather. Some of these dangers are over 40 miles from the shore, between Tandj ung Berikat and Tandj ung Tui ng, which are about 75 miles apart. Early in the North-east Monsoon, when the wind is generally from N or NW, and intending to go through Selat Gelasa, pass between Tot y and Dokan, which lie off the N coast of Bangka; a little later in the monsoon the wind is more E' ly, and it is then better to pass from 10 to 20 miles E of Toty. 30 Cross bearings of the mountains on Bangka, in clear weather, will enable a vessel to clear Iwan Reef and Severn Reef, which lie in the track to Selat Gelasa. If passing N of Severn Reef, steer so as to get on the meridian of Pulau Gelasa before reaching the parallel of 1 50' S. Pulau Gelasa is visible i n clear weather at a distance of over 30 miles, but it is not visible from Lanrick Reef, the most N' l y danger, for which a careful lookout is neces- sary. When Pulau Gelasa comes in sight, bring it to bear 180 which leads clear of all dangers lying to the W. 35 Then pass E of Pulau Gelasa and shape course for Selat Leplia, which is the passage usually taken. The above directions apply only to sailing vessels coming from China early in the North-east Monsoon. Late in the monsoon, SE' ly and E' l y winds are often met with between Bangka and Belitung, and it will be better to pass from 10 to 12 miles W of Pedjantan (0 08"N, 107 12" E), and try as soon as possible to get on the meridian of Pulau Gelasa. When that island is seen, bring it to bear 180 , and proceed as above. 40 Late in the North-east Monsoon also, SSW winds are often met in the S part of the China Sea, obliging vessels to keep farther E towards the islands off Borneo. If this should happen in May or June, it would be tedious work getting to Selat Leplia, and therefore steer for Langkuas Island off the NW point of Belitung, and pass through Selat Baur. Selat Gelasa can only be approached from the N at night by passing E of all the dangers lying N of it. Having 45 passed well to the W of Florence Adelaide Reef, shape course for the light on Langkuas, and when it comes in sight, alter course to pass about 4 miles W of Langir Islet. 10.49.05. Pa s s a g e s o u t h wa r d t h r o u g h Sel at Le pl i a . In the early part of the North-east Monsoon, N' l y and NW' Iy winds prevail about the N entrance to Selat Gelasa, and strong SE' ly currents will generallybe experienced 50 between Pulau Gelasa and Pulau Liar, especially near the N extremity of Pulau Liat. Neglect to guard against the effect of this current has been a frequent cause of accidents. Vessels intending to proceed S-bound through Selat Leplia by night should take care to sight Tandj ung Berikat during daylight. Having passed from 1 mile to 2 miles E of Pulau Gelasa, steer to the SW unt i l that island bears 014 , and then 55 keep it on that bearing, astern, until the SE extreme of Pulau Kelapan bears 236 and the N point of Pulau Liar bears 125 . From this position keep in the fairway of the channel, steering about 185 to pass between the dangers off Tjelaka and Discovery Rocks. carefully guarding against the effects of tidal streams or currents by frequently fixing the position. 10.49.06. F o r p a s s a g e s o u t h wa r d t h r o u g h Sel at Baur a n d Sel at L i me n d o , the directions given in 10.40.03 and 10.40.04 should be applied in reverse. Selat Baur is the best channel to use for working through against the South-east Monsoon, since the currents in it are weaker than elsewhere. 10.49.07. Ap p r o a c h t o, a n d p a s s a g e s o u t h wa r d t hr o ug h, Ka r i ma t a Strai t. If using the Mai n Channel during the North-west ~onsoon, take the channel E of Ontario Reef. Approach Serutu with its summi t bearing less than 152 , and thence pass 4 or 5 miles W of the lighthouse, observing that the W extreme of the island kept bearing less than 354 leads E of Ontario Reef. Thence gradually bring the summit of Serutu to bear 335 astern, until lost sight of, which direction being preserved leads well to the E of Catherine Reef. From a position 10 miles 60 182 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES E of Catherine Reef, steer 170 through the fairway, and about 5 miles E of Discovery East Bank lighthouse, cl ear of all dangers. If using Greig Channel or Inner Channel, the directions given in 10.44.04 are generally applicable. When the South-east Monsoon is strong, smoother water, with less current, will be found in these channels than in the main part of the strait. 10. 49. 08. Ge n e r a l d i r e c t i o n s f o r p a s s a g e s f r o m S e l a t Ba n g k a , Se l a t Ge l a s a , o r Ka r i ma t a St r ai t t o S u n d a St r ai t . Da ng e r o us shoals extend for about 35 miles to the S of Selat Gelasa rendering great caution necessary when leaving it and making for Sunda Strait. 10 Having cleared the shoals S of Selat Gelasa and Karimata Strait, the route to Sunda Strait is the same as that from Selat Bangka, described below. Wi t h a fair wind, after passing E of Five Fathom Banks, in depths of from 18 m to 22 m, steer to pass a prudent distance W of Djaga Utara and E of Brouwers Banks and Lynn Reef; from thence reverse the directions given in 10.34.01 for proceeding N. 15 When working S from a position W of Five Fathom Banks, reverse the directions for ~vorking N as given in 10.34.01, and observe the caution for anchoring at night when the position is at all doubtful. Clifton Bank, with a least depth of 5 m, E of Tandj ung Sekopong, will be avoided by keeping Kepulauan Segama bearing more than 180 , and when S of them, the islands bearing less than 360 will lead E of Djangkat Lajang, which has a depth of 8 m over it. 20 In the South-east Monsoon, when the atmosphere is hazy and the coast rarely visible, great care is necessary in passing Kepulauan Segama, which from N appear as one. 10.49.09. P a s s a g e s o u t h w a r d t h r o u g h S u n d a St rai t . T h e g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of Sunda Strait, together with the winds, sea and tidal streams to be expected therein, is given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. See also 25 10.33.01. Dur i ng t h e S o u t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , from April to September, keep in the main fairway when the wind is favourable ; but if proceeding through Selat Panaitan keep closer to the Java coast than to Panaitan. Thi s route may be taken also at the beginning of the North-west Monsoon, up to about the end of December if conditions are favourable. 30 The monsoon is generally supposed to shift at about the beginning of October, but often is delayed for a mont h; the interval being filled with calms, light S' ly winds, and frequent heavy Sumatra squalls, or south-westers. These squalls at this season generally take place at night, accompanied by heavy rain, t hunder and lightning, and are of short duration. D u r i n g t h e N o r t h - w e s t Mo n s o o n , from October to April, the alternative is offered between routes on the 35 N and S sides of Sunda Strait. By the N o r t h e r n Ro u t e , during the strength of the North-west Monsoon in January and February, the W channel, between Sangian and Kepulauan Sumur is recommended, giving the latter a berth of 1 miles and thence working NW when winds are from W. If it is late in the day when Kepulauan Sumur are sighted, with strong SW wi nds and an adverse stream, a 40 vessel will do well to seek anchoarge off the Sumatra coast or Tandj ung Sumur Batu at the N end of the islands, or off Si ndu Islet, inshore of Kandang Balak, the SW island of Kepulauan Sumur. The vessel should be got aweigh immediately the stream turns, to take advantage of the morni ng land breeze. Working through the passage between Sebuku and Sumatra, pass on whichever side of Pulau Tiga the strong currents and hard squalls will allow, and thence N of Serdang, and between it and Siuntjal; or, alternatively, pass 45 N of Legundi and out through Selat Legundi avoiding Medusa Reef, which lies NE of Seserot, passing on either side of that island in mid-channel. In this manner a quick passage may be made through the strait if the wind be not too variable, besides having the advantage of anchorage being available on the E side of Sebuku or on the W side of Lampung Bay if the current or wind prove too strong. Note : Legundi Strait, between the Sumatra coast and Legundi, is 2 miles wide, and is recommended to sailing 50 vessels working out of Lampung Bay in the North-west Monsoon. The passages on either side of Seserot are equally good, and, with contrary winds or current, there is anchorage on the E side of the island in depths of from 18 m to 22 m, sand. Vessels drifting through the strait in a calm will be carried past the island by the off-set of the current. To the W of Legundi Strait is Tel uk Kiluan, where safe anchorage may be found, if required, by vessels with local knowledge only. Sailing vessels may run out ~vith the land wind, which blows here from the 55 N, but it is recommended to have a boat in attendance to tow, lest they should get becalmed under the high land ; it is advisable to pass close W of Tandj ung Tuntungkalik. The S o u t h e r n R o u t e through Sunda Strait takes a vessel to the Indi an Ocean along the Java coast and through Selat Panaitan. There are on record many instances of vessels having worked out of the strait during the Nort h- west Monsoon by taking this course, with more ease and celerity than could have been effected by stretching 60 into Lampung Bay, in consequence of the SW' ly current from the Java sea having then developed its chief strength along the E side of the strait. Thi s is, however, a lee shore and therefore dangerous, at this season. I n spite of this, cases are on record in which vessels have worked through Selat Panaitan i n a remarkably short time during a W' l y gale, by carrying a heavy press of sail and tacking between the squalls, when it was impossible for any vessel in Great Channel to beat against the current and heavy sea. In this monsoon, particularly when 65 working out, it is advisable to keep nearer the island shore, to obtain the help of a current sometimes runni ng to the W, and to avoid being set upon the rocks about Tandj ung Gedeh by the heavy swell. Near the Java shore, when outside anchorage depths in a calm, vessels would be in considerable danger. 70 10. 50. Ea s t e r n R o u t e s o u t h - b o u n d f r o m Ch i n a Se a I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 183 10.50.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . The Eastern Route passes from the China Sea to Ombai Strait, or to Alas Strait, Lombok Strait or Bali Strait. It is useful from the middle of May to the end of July. Duri ng the strength of the South-west Monsoon, the best route from Hong Kong and adjacent coast ports is to pass N of the Philippine Islands, through Bashi Channel or Balintang Channel, and then steer, either along the E side of the Philippines, or to the SE towards Palau Islands. 5 When the E' ly monsoon is encountered, shape course to pass E of Halmahera Island, through Djailolo Passage or Dampier Strait to the Halmahera Sea and thence to the Ceram Sea; alternatively a vessel may pass to the Ceram Sea from the Pacific Ocean through the Molukka Sea. From the Ceram Sea pass to the Banda Sea either through Mani pa Strait, E of Buru Island, or by passing W of Buru; then continue through the Banda Sea to Ombai Strait, or through the Flores Sea to Alas Strait, Lombok 10 Strait, or Bali Strait; if bound to Bali Strait, the usual route is via Sapudi Strait. 10. 50. 02. Chi na Sea t o Paci f i c Oc e an vi a Bal i nt ang Cha nne l or Bas hi Cha nne l . Balintang Channel is reputed to be free of danger, and is frequently used by sailing vessels S-bound from ports in China. Bashi Channel is also used. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 15 10.50.03. Paci f i c Oc e an t o Ce r a m Sea. As mentioned i n 10.50.01, this part of the Eastern Route can be taken via Djailolo Passage, or Dampier Strait, or through the Molukka Sea. In Djailolo passage, the deep channel lying between Pulau Muor and Pulau G6b6 presents no difficulty except from the strong tidal streams, often accompanied by whirlpools and tide rips, particularly off the NW extremity 20 of Pulau G6b6. Having passed through Djailolo Passage steer through the Halmahera Sea to enter the Ceram Sea through one of the channels between the chain of islands about 70 miles S of Djailolo Passage. The channel between Pisang Island and Boo Islands is recommended for sailing vessels during the South-east Monsoon. When approaching Dampier Strait from an E' l y direction, Tandj ung Momfafa should be made out, a good 25 berth being given to the shoals, which extend about 7 miles ENE, and which may be avoided by keeping Wajam Island bearing more than 245; then proceed, reversing the directions given in 10.46.03 and in Admiralty Sailing Directions. Having passed through Dampier Strait proceed direct to the Ceram Sea. As for N- bound vessels (10.46.03), the Moluldia Sea cannot be strongly recommended S-bound between the .30 Pacific Ocean and Ceram Sea. It is sometimes used by sailing vessels S-bound from China, and, after September, with advantage: but it is a tedious passage to beat throug-h, as the currents set ~vith the xvind at the rate of fi'om 16 to 24 miles a day. When it is difficult to get to the S by the channel between Sula Islands and Obi Major, sailing vessels might try to do so, by keeping near the W coast of Halmahera and passing through Patientie Strait, between Halmahera and Batjan, and thence through Obi Strait and Tobalai Strait to the Ceram 35 Sea. 10. 50. 04. Ce r a m Sea t o I ndi a n Oc e an vi a Omb a i Strai t, Al as Strai t, L o mb o k Strai t, or Bal i Strai t. The recommended route is to pass through Manipa Strait into the Banda Sea and thence proceed as directly as possible to Ombai Strait or to Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait. 40 In passing through Mani pa Strait, S-bound in the South-east Monsoon, keep towards the W side of Manipa Island, where the N-going current will not be so strongly felt. See 10.46.02 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. Approaching Alas Strait from the N, Mount Rindjani and the high NW part of Sumbawa are conspicuous. The 180 m depth contour line from the S terminates about a mile from Tandj ung Ringgit; from the N it penetrates as far as a line runni ng W from Belang Island. The soundings between are deep but irregular. Alas Strait, as are 45 all straits E of Java, is more or tess subject to calms; it is therefore advisable i n a sailing vessel to keep within soundings on the Lombok side, the more so as the currents are not so strong there as in the middle and on the E side. When S-bound, it is advisable to get under weigh very early in the morning, in order to dear the strait, if possible, before the sea breeze sets in. 50 In Lombok Strait, S-bound during the South-east Monsoon, with predominating SE winds, it is advisable to work up under the Bali shore with a N-going stream unt i l Mount Agung bears 270; under these conditions, working to the S under the NW coast of Lombok is difficult, and the same applies to the Bali shore S of the parallel of Mount Agung. Duri ng the North-west Monsoon and in the transition months, Lombok Strait from the N affords no particular 55 di~cultles; the remarks on the tidal streams in Admiralty Sailing Directions should be studied. Bali Strait (10.47.02) offers a safe passage to S-bound vessels during the North-west Monsoon, and with the exception of Alas Strait, E of Lombok Island, is to be preferred to all the passages E of Java, as there is anchorage on both sides of the narrows in case they should not be passed through in a single tide. For vessels coming from the N, the chief difficulty to contend with is the great strength of the currents. Sailing vessels should only navigate 60 this strait by day. Duri ng the North-west Monsoon, the water in the Strait is smooth, and the passage easy. It is well to have boats ready for towing the vessel, when near the shore, in calms. 10.51. Cent ral Rout e s o u t h - b o u n d f r o m Chi na Sea 10.51.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . The Central Route runs from the China Sea, through Makassar Strait, to Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait. It is, in fact, the reverse of the First Eastern Passage (10.47). It is intended for vessels leaving China at the end of April or the beginning of May. 184 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Summarising the route, a vessel should steer from the vicinity of Macclesfield Bank, to pass through Mindoro Strait, and thence across the Sulu Sea to the Sulawesi Sea via Basilan Strait or Sibutu Passage; Basilan Strait is recommended for sailing vessels, though Sibutu Passage is sometimes used. The voyage now continues through the Sulawesi Sea and Makassar Strait into the Java Sea, through which either of two rout es may be taken, namely to Sunda Strait or to one of the central passages, Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait. Vessels bound to the last named usually pass through Sapudi Strait. If an alternative to Makassar Strait is desired, a vessel may pass from the Sulawesi Sea to the Banda Sea via the Molukka Sea, Ceram Sea and Manipa Strait. 10 10.51.02. Passage t hrough Mi ndoro Strait i nt o Sul u Sea. The ~vide Mindoro strait, separating the Calamian Islands from Mindoro Island, is one of the most frequented channels for sailing vessels which leave Manila for the Indian Ocean towards the end of April, and throughout the South-west Monsoon period ; and by other vessels at all times of the year from the ports of China to Australia. Land and sea breezes are felt on the coasts of the larger islands in Mi ndoro Strait, mostly during the South-west Monsoon and in the periods between 15 the monsoons; they are not so regular during the North-east Monsoon. For further information, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 20 10.51.03. Passage t hrough Sul u Sea to Makassar Strait. Making to the S through the Sulu Sea, it is best to keep on the E side along the coast of Panay Island, and through Basilan Strait. The more direct route from Niindoro Strait S through Sibutu Passage is not recommended and no special directions are available for it. For the Sulu Sea and Basilan Strait, see 10.47.06. The passage from Basilan Strait or Sibutu Passage, across the Sulawesi Sea to Makassar Strait, is as direct as possible. 25 10.51.04. Passage s out hbound t hrough Makassar Strait and Java Sea. In Makassar Strait, the Borneo side provides anchorage in case of need; the coast of Sulawesi is steep-to. Although there are some dangers in the channel W of Little Paternoster Islands, it is nevertheless much frequented for the same reason. On leaving Makassar Strait, and entering the Java Sea, course must be shaped for Sunda Strait or for the N entrance to one of the three passages between the islands immediately E of Java, namely Alas Strait, Lombok 30 Strait, and Bali Strait. See 10.47.02. If bound for Alas Strait or Lombok Strait, steer to pass about 20 miles E of the dangers on that side of Kangean Kepulauan. If bound for Bali Strait the usual route is through Sapudi Strait, which is a good and safe channel with no dangers other than Tembaga Reefs, which dry, and Jacoba Elizabeth Rock, with a depth of 11 m 9, lying on the W side; it is preferable to both the channels W of Gili Jang and the channel E of Sapudi. 35 In Sapudi Strait and the passages farther E, including Kangean Kepulauan, the South-east Monsoon prevails from April to October, and the Nort h-west Monsoon from November to March. In April and May all winds are southerly, in June the monsoon becomes dominant from SSE to SE, and blows with greatest strength during July, August and September. In November winds are N' l y, alternating with rain squalls from all points; in December N and NW winds last longer and squalls come from NW or WNW; January and February are marked 40 by very squally weather from NW to N, and in March it often continues to blow stiffly from W to WNW. ,15 50 ROUTES THROUGH RED SEA 10.55. General note. Sailing vessels, whether N-bound or S-bound, at times experience great difficulties when working against the strong winds, which, in the winter season, blowing from either end of the Red Sea towards its centre, produce a short hollow sea, and, combined with the strong current that often runs with the wind, renders the progress of such vessels very slow. In working to windward in the central channel, a vessel cannot do wrong by keeping towards the Arabian shore, but should not stand close in with a light wind or heavy swell. After dark she ought only to stand towards the shore half the distance she stands out, and should never come nearer than 10 miles to the reefs at night, to guard against the possibility of mischance from the unexpected existence of a cross current. 55 10.56. Sout hbound t hrough Red Sea. For sailing vessels, the most favourable part of the year for the S- bound passage is from June to September, or the period of the South-west Monsoon in the Arabian Sea, as N' l y winds of variable strength then prevail throughout the whole length of the Red Sea. Particular attention should be paid to the description of the currents in the Red Sea; this is especially necessary for the narrower portions of the passage, and the approaches thereto. See 6.51-6.53 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. 60 On approaching the Straits of B~b-al Mandab, choice must be made between using Large Strait, or Small Strait. For ease of navigation the former is recommended, numerous accidents having occurred in the latter; at the same time consideration must be given to the fact that anchorage, in case of need, is possible in any part of Small Strait. The circumstances prevailing at the time must determine the course to be followed. 65 10.57. Nort hbound t hrough Red Sea. For the N-bound voyage by the same route as the S-bound (10.56), December, January and February are the best months, as the S' ly winds often carry a vessel as far as the parallel of Jiddah, and sometimes as far as that of Quseir, or even, at times, to Suez itself. After losing the S' l y wind, a vessel will have the N' l y wind to beat against. If as far N as Quseir, and bound for Suez, and a strong N' l y wind is encountered, a vessel in the central channel 70 of the Red Sea, or even on the W shore, ought to stand over to the Arabian coast, where she vill probably fetch I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 185 A1 Muwailih (27 40" N, 35 27" E). Having worked up 30 miles N of that place, she may stand over to Ras Muhammad, leaving the Arabian coast at night. As she proceeds, the N' l y winds will veer to NNE out of t he Gul f of ' Aqaba; by sailing as close as possible, these will enable her to fetch Ras Muhammad. R O U T E S F R O M A D E N 10.60. A d e n t o B o m b a y . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon from April to September, take as direct a route as possible. Keep in the centre, or rather towards the Arabian shore of the Gul f of Aden, to avoid the W' l y current on the African coast. Duri ng the strength of the South-west ~vlonsoon, in June, July and August, when the 10 weather is thick and heavy, and observations very uncertain, steer direct for Kh~nderi Island, and watch t he soundings carefully. When steering for Bombay Harbour, from the middle of May till August, steady gales and clear weather will be experienced at times, until within 70 or 90 miles of the coast, but cloudy weather with rain and squalls may be expected on the bank of soundings, as the land is approached. 15 If not certain of the latitude it will be prudent to keep between the parallels of 18 15' N and 18 25' N, and endeavour to get soundings on Direction Bank, after passing over Fifty Fathoms Flat. Duri ng the early part and strength of the South-west Monsoon, great care must be observed not to get N of the entrance to the harbour, for then the N-going tidal stream, as well as the heave of the S' ly swell, frequently sets vessels along the bank towards the Gul f of Cambay, and late in May, June and July it would be found difficult 20 at times to work round Prongs Reef. Therefore, in these months a vessel should steer direct for Kh~nderi Island, allowing for a N' l y set of the tidal st ream--t hough the prevailing current outside the depth of 55 m off the harbour, after the burst of the monsoon, is S-goi ng--and endeavour should be made to make the island bearing between 090 and 135 , borrowing a little either way, as circumstances require, to carry a fair wi nd in entering the harbour. 25 If the wind is inclined to blow in squalls from W to WNW, a vessel should not run too close inshore S of Kh~nderi Island, not even approaching that island very close, as there might be difficulty i n weathering it with these winds, which are sometimes experienced in June and July, but are more frequent in August. Duri ng the interval between the land and sea breezes in the forenoon, a heavy smoky haze frequently hangs over the land, obscuring everything from view, so that great care should be exercised when approaching the land 30 shortly after daylight between May and August. Occasionally this also occurs during the calm hours of the evening. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, from October to March, the passage from the Red Sea to India or the Persian Gul f is very tedious for sailing vessels, and is seldom attempted. In former times, the passage between Aden and Bombay, when unavoidably taken at this season, frequently occupied from 60 to 90 days. 35 If it is necessary to make the passage, work along the coast of Arabia, taking advantage of every shift of wind. Should the W-going current be strong inshore, stand out 60 or 80 miles from the land; if the wind be light, take advantage of the tides and land winds inshore, anchoring when requisite. When off Kuria Muria Islands, stretch over for Bombay, and as easting is made, the wind will draw to N or even W of N. 4O 10.61. A d e n t o C e y l o n a n d Ba y o f B e n g a l . From April to October, during the South-west Monsoon, invariably pass N of Socotra to avoid the heavy cross seas S of that island. It is at all rimes desirable to avoid passing S of Socotra if this means making Abd-al -Kuri at night, as the currents often set strongly N. For Ceylon, proceed direct and thence to the Bay of Bengal, see 10.03, where directions for the Bay of Bengal will be found. 45 From October to March, keep along the coast of Arabia to about 52 E; pass through Eight Degree Channel or Ni ne Degree Channel ; then steer to round Ceylon, and having cleared that island, make casting on the parallel of 5 N as far as the middle of the Bay of Bengal, and then work N. From the meridian of 87 E, a vessel will probably fetch Madras. After mid-February, round Ceylon at a distance of about 50 miles and then proceed direct. 50 The currents off the coast of Ceylon are strong and variable, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 10.62. A d e n t o Ma l a c c a St r ai t . From April to October, pass N of Socotra, and thence direct round the S end of Ceylon and across the Bay of Bengal, entering Malacca Strait S of Great Nicobar Island. From October to March, work along the Arabian coast as far as Ras Fartak, or just beyond it, and thence stand 55 across the Arabian Sea, passing S of Minicoy Island, and round the S end of Ceylon, and across the Bay of Bengal. Pass close S of Great Nicobar Island, if the wind permit, and thence keep on the Malay side of Malacca Strait, see 10.83. 10.63. E i g h t D e g r e e C h a n n e l a n d N i n e D e g r e e C h a n n e l are separated by the island of Minicoy. I n Nine Degree Channel, the practice of steering to pass a few miles N of Minicoy, especially by night, is a dangerous one, because the island is over 4 miles long i n a N and S direction, the light is on the SW side, and the current at times sets strongly to the S. On the other hand, in Eight Degree Channel, a vessel should keep i n the N part of the channel, nearer to Minicoy than to the Maldive Islands. 10. 64. A d e n t o F r e m a n t l e , Ca p e L e e u w i n , a n d s o u t h e r n Au s t r a l i a o r N e w Ze a l a n d . Du r i n g t he South-west Monsoon, from April to October, when W' l y winds prevail in the Gul f of Aden, proceed to the S of Ceylon, as directed in 10.62. After roundi ng the S extreme of Ceylon steer to the SE t o cros s t he equat or i n about 95 E; thence continue S across the South-east Trade into the W' l y winds and round Cape Leeuwin if, not bound to Fremantle. 60 10 15 186 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES From November to March, proceed towards Ceylon, as directed for that season in 10.62; and thence, with the North-east Monsoon, cross the equator i n about 90 E into the North-west Monsoon. Then make easting in that monsoon as far as the E end of Java; thence stand S across the South-east Trade into the westerlies, and thence continue to Cape Leeuwin and Fremantle. At all seasons, if bound to ports on the S or SE side of Australia, to Tasmania, or to New Zealand, continue S and SE i n the westerlies to join the appropriate part of the route from the Cape of Good Hope, see 10.01.03. 10.65. Ad e n t o Maur i t i us. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, from April to October, pass N of Socotra, r un through the South-west Monsoon; cross the equator in about 72 E or even run through One and half degree Channel, and make southing into the South-east Trade, passing E of Chagos Archipelago. From thence proceed direct to Mauritius. From November to March, work along the Arabian coast until able to weather Ras Asir, run through the North-east and North-west Monsoons, crossing the equator in about 64 E, and the parallel of 10 S in about 70 E; when i n the South-east Trade steer direct for Mauritius. 10.66. Ad e n t o Cape of Go o d Ho pe . From April to October, pass N of Socotra, run through the South-west Monsoon, cross the equator i n about 72 E, or even r un through One and half degree Channel and then cross the equator; thence making southing into the South-east Trade Wind, passing E of Chagos Archipelago. Run through the South-east Trade, passing S of Mauritius and about 100 miles S of Madagascar, and make the 20 African coast about 200 miles S of Durban. From thence keep in the strength of the Agulhas Current until abreast of Mossel Bay, and thence proceed direct round Cape Agulhas. Wi t h W' l y winds after passing Algoa Bay, keep within 40 or 50 miles of the shore. See 10.74. From November to March, work along the Arabian coast until able to weather Ras Asir, then run down the coast of Africa and through Mozambique Channel, taking advantage of the full strength of the Mozambique and 25 Agulhas Currents as before. See 10.05.02 and 10.74. 10.67. Ad e n t o Mo mb a s a or Se y c he l l e s Group. From April to October the route is via Seychelles Group. Having passed N of Socotra, stand away to the SE on the starboard tack and cross the equator in about 70 E, 30 or as far W as the monsoon permits. The South-east Trade will be met with, after crossing the doldrums, in from 2 S to 40 S, and having picked it up, steer direct for Seychelles, if calling there, or towards Mombasa; but allowance must be made for the probability of the wi nd heading, and for the strong N-going current which will be entered on nearing the African coast. 35 From November to March, proceed as directed in 10.66 for that season, but heading for the desired port when it can be reached in the South-east Trade wind. 40 45 ROUTES FROM WEST COAST OF I NDI A AND CEYLON 10.70. Kar~hi t o Bo mb a y . Proceed direct, but in June, July and August first get an offing into depths of from 27 m to 36 m before standing S ; Bombay should be made on the parallel of Kh~nderi Island, and the sound- ings should be carefully attended to. There is considerable indraught into the Gul f of Kut ch from March to Sep- tember. 10.71 Bo mb a y t o Kar~chi . In May and early in June, on leaving Bombay, make westing so as to be able to weather Di u Head by 100 miles if bound into Gul f of Kutch, or by 200 miles if for Kar~chi. Duri ng June, July and August when bound for KarAchi be careful not to make the coasts of Sind and Kut ch before sighting Manora Lighthouse, as there is a SE' ly set, and the wind is liable to lull occasionally inshore, leaving the vessel 50 with a heavy swell and lee current. I n the first part of the South-west Monsoon (May and June), the stream during the flood, setting into the Gul f of Kutch, is greatly accelerated. I n September and October, also i n March and April, when NW' l y winds are general, work direct for Di u Head, and thence along the coast. In November, December, January and February work along the coast with 55 the land and sea breezes, making due allowance for the tides, sighting High Land of Saint John (20 03" N, 72 49" W), or reaching the parallel of 20 N, before crossing to Di u Head, as the wind hangs much to N and NNE across the Gul f of Cambay. November is a calm mont h along the S coast of K~thiAwar, and it is frequently necessary to anchor on the flood to avoid being swept into Gul f of Cambay. 60 From November to January, when fresh NE' l y winds blow outside the Gul f of Kutch, and when working into it, anchor during the ebb off DwArka or Kachigadh, and start with the flood across the mout h of the gulf to make the Kut ch coast, where the water is smoother and a vessel can work to the E. 10.72. Bo mb a y , or Co c hi n, Cal i c ut and Mal abar Coas t t o Ade n. From May to September, duri ng the 65 South-west Monsoon, this passage is seldom taken; but in case of necessity it is given as follows, by what is known as the "Sout hern Passage". After gaining an offing from the Indi an coast into depths between 27 m and 36 m (or even to 75 m i n the first part of the South-west Monsoon, as the wi nd then hangs much in a S' ly quarter) steer down the coast, keeping in soundings of from 73 m to 91 m; this is advisable to keep clear of Laccadive Islands in the thick overcast 70 rainy weather that may be expected, when observations may not be obtainable for days together. After passing I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 187 these islands make as little casting as possible. The wi nd will be from SW to WSW with hard W' l y squalls; a SSE' l y current of 20 to 30 miles a day will be experienced. Cross the equator, and when fairly in the South-east Trade run to the W, passing S of Chagos Archipelago and NE of Seychelles Group; recross the equator in 53 E or 54 E. Run through the South-west Monsoon, and make the African coast between Ras Hafun and Ras Asir, due consideration being given to the strong NE' Iy 5 current which will be experienced on nearing the land. Pass close round Ras Asir, and keep along the African coast up to Malt Island, and then stand across the Gul f of Aden. The utmost caution is necessary when roundi ng Ras Asir from S or SE during the South-west Monsoon, see 10.73. From October to April, during the North-east Monsoon, proceed direct, but towards the end of the Nort h- east Monsoon, in March and April, the winds are less constant in the Arabian Sea than in the four preceding 10 months, and there are calms at times. I n these months, steer to pass S of Socotra; for, early i n April, the Nort h- east Monsoon is nearly expended about this island and on the coast of Arabia, and is succeeded by light breezes from SW and W, with frequent calms. The current also begins to set strongly to the N about Socotra, and between it and the coast of Africa. About and from the latter end of March, therefore, it is advisable to pass about 50 miles S of that island, in order to fetch Ras Asir with the SW' l y winds which may then be expected. 15 Leaving Bombay late in April, shape a course to pass well S of Socotra, i n order to make the coast of Africa S of Ras Asir with the SW' Iy wind, which will probably be met with long before that shore is approached. The land may then be made anywhere between Ras Hafun and Ras Asir, and the remainder of the passage may be made as directed above for the South-west Monsoon. In November, December, January or February, sailing vessels bound to the Red Sea from Cochin, Calicut, 20 or other ports on the S part of the Malabar coast, may steer directly W through the most convenient channel through Laccadive Islands. Those from Cochin should pass through Ni ne Degree Channel, but vessels from Mangalore or Cannanore should pass N of all the islands. In March and April, the prevailing winds between the Malabar coast and the African coast being from N to NW, it is better to keep near the Malabar coast unt i l N of Mount Delly and to pass N of the islands; or if Ni ne Degree Channel is adopted, vessels should pass near 25 Kalpeni and Suheli Par as the current sets S towards Maldive Islands in these months. When W of Laccadive Islands in November, December, January or February, a course may be shaped to pass N of Socotra; but late in March or early i n April, it is prudent to keep farther S, in 9 N or 10 N as the wind may admit; and, in May, when the South-west Monsoon may be expected, it is advisable to keep well to the S. 30 10.73. Cauti on whe n approachi ng Ras Asir. As many yessels have been wrecked on the coast to the S of Ras Asir, the utmost caution is necessary when roundi ng this headland from the S or SE, during the South-west Monsoon, when the weather is stormy, accompanied by a heavy sea and strong current, and the land is generally obscured by a thick haze. By day there is usually a gradual change in the colour of the water from blue to dark 35 green as the land is approached; the sea decreases and the swell alters its direction to the E of S when Nand W of Ras Hafun. When the land cannot be clearly seen and recognised, extreme caution is necessary. After roundi ng Ras Asir keep towards the African shore unt i l Malt Island is reached, then steer for Aden. Beating along the African shore against strong W' l y and WSW' l y winds is sometimes tedious, but perseverance is more likely to succeed here than i n the middle of the gulf or on the Arabian shore. 40 Good sails and rigging are essential, for the wind frequently blows in severe gusts along the African coast. 10.74. Bombay to Cape of Good Hope. From May to September, stand down the coast of India (see 10.54.06, 10.54.07) and across the equator into the South-east Trades; then steer to pass S of Mauritius and about 100 miles S of Madagascar, and make the African coast about 200 miles SW of Durban. From thence, keep 45 in the strength of the Agulhas Current until abreast of Mossel Bay, and then proceed direct round Cape Agulhas. I n the early part of the monsoon (June and July) when the wind is more S' ly t han later on, get an offing from Bombay into about 90 m of water before standing down the coast, and then keep i n a depth of between 73 m and 90 m to ensure being well inshore of Laccadive Islands. I n April and October the route is similar but somewhat to the W, and in April a considerable shortening can 50 usually be effected by making a direct course from 15 S, 70 E to 30 S, 40 E, where the former route is again picked up. From November to March, there are two routes for the first part of this passage, one leading E, and one W, of ~les Comores; the two routes rejoin i n about 20 S and thence continue to the Cape of Good Hope. To follow the route E of Tles Comores, proceed direct from Bombay, W of Seychelles Group and Amirante 55 Islands, and between Madagascar and ~les Comores, on a t humb line towards the African coast at Durban. Thence keep in the strength of the Mogambique Current and Agulhas Current. I n roundi ng the Cape of Good Hope if W' l y winds prevail, keep over Agulhas Bank not more than 40 or 50 miles from the coast; here the sea ~vill be smoother than elsewhere. A route passing W of Ties Comores is recommended by some navigators on account of the rather better current 60 on the African side of Mogambique Channel. A vessel using this route would sail direct from Bombay as above and, keeping on the African side of the channel, proceed S as directed above. When approaching Moqambique Channel from N, keep well off the land unt i l up to Cabo Delgado, as the wind sometimes hangs to the E and even S of E; from thence, stand down the coast, inside Saint Lazarus Bank, keeping in the strength of the Mozambique Current and the Agulhas Current and making Cape Agulhas. 65 A vessel will probably have to work to windward in the S part of Mozambique Channel, the prevailing winds there being S' ly. June, July and August are the worst months, and January and February the best mont hs for sailing vessels proceeding W- bound round the Cape of Good Hope, and it should be borne in mi nd that there is much less sea over Agulhas Bank in depths of from 110 m to 130 m, or less, during heavy gales, than there is near its edge and 70 1 8 8 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 5 10 15 S of it. If it is found necessary to heave-to, the port tack should be chosen, as, with the exception of SE' ly gales beginning with SE' l y winds, the shift of wind is almost invariably against the hands of a watch, and the vessel will come up to the sea. From October to April, E' l y winds prevail as far S as the tail of Agulhas Bank, in about 37 S, with variable, but chiefly W' l y winds beyond. Mariners should remember that off all parts of the S coast of Africa, and especially off salient points, sunken wrecks or uncharted dangers may lie close inshore; and that it is not adviable to approach this surf-beaten coast, even i n full-powered steam-vessels, within a distance of 3 or 4 miles; sailing vessels should give Cape Agulhas a berth of 7 or 8 miles. 10.75. Bombay to Col ombo. At the onset of the South-west Monsoon, when the wind hangs to the SW, first get a good offing into depths of from 70 m to 90 m off Bombay, and keep on the edge of the bank in those depths to keep clear of Laccadive Islands. On proceeding S the wind will generally become more favourable, veering to W and WNW. Between Cochin and Cape Comorin S' ly currents and WNW' I y winds prevail from mi d-Jul y to mid-October. October to May is the period of the North-east Monsoon and of the land and sea breezes along the W coast of India. A summary of the weather that may be expected, and advice to sailing vessels desirous of making full use of the land and sea breezes is given i n 10.76. 20 10.76. Land a n d s e a b r e e z e s o f f w e s t c o a s t o f I n d i a . Except during the South-west Monsoon, land and sea breeze effects are usually well developed near the coast, but the strength and duration of the land winds may be modified by the mountainous nature of the hinterland. Off the Konkan coast, the South-west Monsoon fails after the middle of September, and is followed by light variable breezes, frequent calms, cloudy weather, and occasional showers. Thi s unsettled weather lasts for 6 25 or 8 weeks, with prevailing winds from the NW; but occasionally from SW and S. On the Kanara, Malabar and Travancore coast there are occasional off-shore squalls. Late i n October, or early in November, a breaking-up storm may take place, with a high wind suddenly coming up from the S and blowing hard for several hours, accompanied by t hunder and lightning. After this, the Nort h- east Monsoon sets in, with fine weather; and land and sea breezes are experienced within 10 or 20 miles of the 30 coast, which continue unt i l March or April. The sea breezes of the Malabar coast are fairly established throughout October, while as yet the land winds are only occasional, light and uncertain; the former seldom fail, till they are merged in the South-west Monsoon. Thus the navigator may calculate on sea breezes for eight months of the year, but on regular land winds for only half that period. 35 When the land and sea breezes are regular, the sea breeze fails in the evening about sunset, and is generally followed by a calm which continues until the land wind comes off at between 2000 and 2200; at first, it comes in fluctuating gentle breezes, but it soon steadies from between NE and ESE, continuing so till 0900 or 1000; it then begins to fail, decreasing to a calm about mid-day. About this time, or soon after, the sea breeze sets in from WSW, W, or NW, and generally veers towards N i n the evening, decreasing in strength. 40 I n March and April, off the coast of Maharashtra, the land breezes are very light and uncertain, seldom coming off till morning, and continuing so short a time that little advantage is gained by them; it is therefore necessary to keep an offing, to be ready for the sea breeze, which may at this time, between Bombay and Cape Comorin, be termed NW winds; they usually set in about noon at WNW veering gradually to NW and NNW, in the evening, from which direction they continue during the first part of the night, declining afterwards to a calm about mi d- 45 night, or early i n the morning. A faint land breeze sometimes follows; but more frequently light airs from N or calms may be expected, nearly from mi dni ght until the NW wind sets in about noon on the following day. I n April the weather is mostly hazy, and at times cloudy over the Ghats in the evenings, with light showers. In May the prevailing winds along the coast S of Bombay are from NW and W, but often variable and uncertain, with cloudy threatening weather and light showers at times, accompanied by lightning from SE. A gale from 50 SW or S is liable to occur in this month, and several ships have speedily run along the coast to Bombay; but it is prudent to keep well out from the land, and to be prepared for bad weather, in order to avoid being driven on a lee shore if a storm should set i n from W. When NW winds prevail, the weather is settled and clear of clouds, though a little hazy; but it is cloudy and threatening when they blow between SE and SW. It sometimes happens that heavy clouds collect over the land in the evenings, producing a hard squall with rain about mi d-ni ght ; this 55 has frequently been experienced between Mangalore and Hog island in May and early in June, when these land squalls blow in sudden gusts through the gaps between the mountains. The land and sea breezes described above require attention for sailing vessels to benefit by them to the full extent. Duri ng the night, with the land breeze, it is prudent to keep well inshore, if the wi nd admit, without tacking, for there it is strong and steadier than farther out; but in the morni ng it is advisable to edge more out, 60 to get an offing of 15 or 20 miles, or soundings of from 50 m to 55 m, before noon, ready for the sea breeze. I n the evening it is desirable to be near the shore, before the land breeze comes off; the coast may be approached to a depth of 18 m in most places from Bombay to Quilon, and if close inshore before the land breeze starts, short tack should be made near the shore until it comes off; when calm, its approach is frequently indicated by the noise of the surf on the beach, which is heard at a considerable distance. 65 Duri ng the period of change, before the South-west Monsoon has set in, the small coasting vessels run into the nearest river or place of shelter S of Bombay in the afternoon, but large vessels should have sea-room. 70 10.77. Bombay to Bay of Bengal . Proceed first as for Colombo, but so as to round the S side of Ceylon. From June to mid-January, make casting to the middle of the Bay of Bengal, but during the other half of the year keep on the W side, to destination. See 10.03.05, 10.03.06. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 189 10.78. Co l o mb o t o B o mb a y a nd we s t coas t o f I ndi a. Duri ng the height of the South-west Monsoon, do not attempt to work N along this coast. At other times between May and September, opportunities may present themselves, see 10.76 and Admiralty Sailing Directions. In Sept ember and October, the N- bound passage is very tedious; on the S part of the coast a strong current sets constantly to the S, and the wind is NW and variable, with frequent light airs; vessels often anchor to avoid 5 being drifted back. The weather is threatening at times, with heavy showers. The land winds begin to blow about the beginning of October, S of Calicut, but do not extend far off-shore until November. In December, January, and February regular land and sea breezes render the navigation N- bound near the coast easy, as the sea is remarkably smooth and the sea breeze is at its strongest. Where there are gaps in the mountain chain, as at P~lghfit, on the parallel of 10 45' N, the land winds in 10 December and January continue sometimes to blow for more than a day without any intervening sea breeze. This occurs, also, but in a rather less degree, off Kfirwfir Head, where the valley of Kfilinadi River assumes a straight funnel shape in an E- W direction. In these months a sailing passage may sometimes be made from Cape Comorin to Bombay in six to eight days, and the return voyage in four or five days. In November and early in December the sea breezes are weak, but become stronger afterwards. As February advances, the land breezes 15 decrease in strength and duration, and are not always regular. In March and April, the land breezes will generally fail in strength and duration N of Mount Delly; make certain, therefore, particularly in April, of being well to seaward, in depths of from 65 m to 75 m, about noon, so that a long stretch to the NNE or NE with the NW' l y winds may be made. If near the shore early in the evening, with the wind at NW, make short tacks, until the breeze veers to the N, which may be 20 expected early in the night; then stretch off to the NW or WNW to be ready for the sea breeze of the following day. When a strong NW' l y wind sets in, it is liable to continue for two or three days, or longer, rendering it imprac- ticable to gain any ground when working near the coast. At such times keep about 60 miles or more from the land, where the winds are generally moderate and the sea smooth. 25 Late in April, or during May, keep a good offing towards Laccadive Islands, and when to the N of those islands keep a greater offing still, in case of a gale coming on. On the S part of the coast, S of Mount Delly and meeting with NW winds in this month, stretch off to the W of the islands, passing between Suheli Par and Minicoy or between any of the Laccadive Islands, to benefit by the approaching W' l y winds. 30 10.79. Co l o mb o t o Ade n. The passage is hardly ever undertaken against the South-~vest Monsoon, from April to September. In case of necessity, however, the directions are to stand at once across the equator into the South-east Trade, thence run W passing S of the Chagos Archipelago, and NE of Seychelles Group ; recross the equator in about 53 E or 54 E, and shape course to make the African coast at Ras Hafun; round Ras Asir and work along the African coast as far as Mal t Island, before standing across the Gul f of Aden. Caution is necessary when making the African coast, see 10.73. From October to March, pass through Nine Degree Channel, and then proceed direct for Aden. After the middle of March, pass S of Socotra, as light SW' l y and W' l y breezes may then be expected near this island. See 6.59. 35 40 10.80. Co l o mb o to Cape o f Go o d Hope. Pick up the route from Bombay described in 10.74, according to time of year, at the nearest available point, passing through Ni ne Degree Channel from November to March (North-east Monsoon), but directly to meet the May-t o-Sept ember route at about the equator, during the South- west Monsoon. 45 10. 81. Co l o mb o t o Fr e ma n t l e a nd s o ut h a nd s out h- e as t Aus t ral i a, or t o Ne w Ze al and. From April to October, having rounded the S extreme of Ceylon steer to the SE to cross the equator in about 95 E; thence proceed S across the South-east Trade into the W' l y winds for a direct passage to Fremantle or round Cape Leeuwin. To the E of Cape Leeuwin, proceed as directed in 10.64. From November to March, make as much easting as possible in the Nort h-west Monsoon, and then proceed S across the Trades as above. 50 10.82. Co l o mb o t o Ma l a c c a Strai t. In the South-west Monsoon proceed direct to pass S of Great Nicobar Island. In the North-east Monsoon, stand S as far as about 3 N, and then work NE towards the NW end of Sumatra, entering Malacca Strait S of Great Nicobar Island. 55 10.83. Ma l a c c a Strai t. Directions are as given in Admiralty Sailing Directions. From April to October, after 60 passing the NW end of Sumatra the South-west Monsoon will probably fail and it is advisable then to keep to the Malay side of the channel for better breeze and tidal streams. Sometimes a brisk W' l y wind will be carried as far as Pulau Penang, and, once the islands off the Malay coast are sighted, there will be no difficulty in making to the S. The winds on the E side of the Strait tend to be more favourable for a S-bound passage from October to March 65 also. From October to March, during the North-east Monsoon, a sailing vessel N- bound should, after passing Pulau Pangkor, keep near the edge of the mud flat that fronts the coast in order to avoid the strong wind and short sea likely in the offing near Pulau Penang. Directions for making Singapore are given in 10.39.03. 70 190 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S ROUTES FROMPORTS IN BAYOF BENGAL ( e x c e p t f r o m R a n g o o n s o u t h w a r d ) 10. 90. N o t e s o n n a v i g a t i o n u n d e r s a i l i n Ba y o f B e n g a l Th e r e i s no difficulty in proceeding from S to N 5 or from W to E in the Bay of Bengal during the South-west Monsoon, nor from N to S or from E to W during the North-east Monsoon. See 10.03.05. When the monsoon is contrary, a sailing vessel must work as necessary for the passage. At the change of the monsoon, voyages are usually tedious, for the light and variable winds, then prevalent, are as often adverse as favourable, every slant should be taken advantage of, and the NE part of the bay avoided, unless bound to, or 10 from, one of the ports on that side of the bay. As stated in 6.16, cycl ones occur from May to November, with November as the mont h of greatest frequency. They occur very occasionally in March, April, and December, and are almost unknown in January and entirely so in February. See The Mar i ne r ' s Handbook and Admiralty Sailing Directions. If warning of a storm in the N part of the bay is given by E' l y winds and a falling barometer between June and 15 September, or by a squally E' l y or NE' l y wind driving low, long-drawn masses of cloud before it, or a strong W' l y current at the head of the bay, in May, October, or November, a vessel in Hooghly River or a port at the head of the bay should remain in harbour till the weather moderates. I f at sea in the right-hand semicircle, the vessel should be hove-to on the starboard tack until the storm has passed, and if undoubtedly in the left-hand semicircle she should heave-to on the port tack if the wind is E of N, 20 or run to the S, keeping the wind on the starboard quarter, when the wind is N, or W of N. Vessels lying in the roadsteads of the Coromandel coast on the approach of a cyclonic storm usually run in a S' ly direction round the SW quadrant, and this is probably the only course open to sailing vessels. 10.91. Madr as t o Ca l c u t t a . From April to August, proceed as directly as possible, making the land about 25 Bavanapfidu (18 34' N , 82l 21" E) . In Sept ember and October, stretch over to Nort h Andaman Island or Cape Negrais; when 100 miles W of either tack to the NW. Fr om November to January, make easting across the bay, and then northing on the E side or in the middle. In February and March, steer direct, if possible ; otherwise stand to the E across the bay as from November to 30 January. 10.92. Ma d r a s t o R a n g o o n , M o u l m e i n o r Me r g u i . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, sight Landfall Island of the Andaman Islands if with S' ly wind, or Great Coco Island with W' l y wind. Pass through Coco Channel, and thence to the E, sighting Narcondam Island; then as directed by Admiralty Sailing Directions for 35 Rangoon or Moulmein. If bound for Mergui, pass S of Little Andaman Island, and thence steer for Tenasseri m Island. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, make northing in the middle of the Bay, pass through Preparis Nort h Channel or Preparis South Channel, and then as directed by Admiralty Sailing Directions for Rangoon or Moulmein, sounding continuously and allowing for tidal streams. If bound for Mergui, pass N of Andaman 40 Islands, and thence work to the E and pass Tavoy Island on either side. See 10.03.04, 10.03.05. 10.93. Ba y o f B e n g a l t o Bombay. Thi s passage is seldom undertaken in the South-west Monsoon. A vessel should first stand S across the equator into the South-east Trade and then run W between 8 S and 9 S, passing S of Chagos Archipelago. Fr om 70 E, steer to re-cross the equator in 62 E or 63 E, and sail thence 45 direct. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, steer as directed in 10.03.05 and round Ceylon at a convenient distance. After passing Cape Comorin keep the W coast of India in sight, so as to profit from the sea breezes (10.76). 10.94. Ba y o f B e n g a l t o Ad e n . Thi s passage is seldom undertaken during the South-west Monsoon. A 50 vessel should run S across the equator into the South-east Trades. Then run W, passing S of Chagos Archipelago and NE of Seychelles Group; cross the equator in about 53 o E or 54 E, and make the African coast at Ras Hafun; great caution is necessary in making the land. Round Ras Asir and work along the African coast as far as Mal t Island before standing across for Aden. In the North-east Monsoon, pass round Ceylon and through Ni ne Degree Channel; thence steer to pass N 55 of Socotra. After the middle of March keep S of Socotra. For crossing the Arabian Sea and landfall, see 10.72, 10.73. 10.95. Ba y o f B e n g a l t o Ca p e o f G o o d H o p e . From May to September, vessels from Sandheads should make for the Orissa coast, sighting the land south of False Point (20 20" N, 86 44" E) and working to the SW 60 along the shore; make short tacks during the day and long boards off-shore during the night, bringing Kalinga- patam ( 18 19" N, 84 08" E) abeam before leaving the coast and standing down the bay. A comparatively smooth sea and a favourable current will be found near the shore, and advantage may be taken of a veering wind in the squalls off the land. When standing down the Bay of Bengal in the South-west Monsoon, keep well W of the Andaman Islands,. 65 in order not to be on a lee shore should a strong W' l y gale set in; or, which is better, pass through Preparis Nort h Channel or Preparis South Channel, and then work S in the comparatively smooth water E (or to leeward) of Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. No t e : Fast sailing vessels from Calcutta, in the South-west Monsoon, do beat down the Bay of Bengal, reaching 100 miles W of Andaman Islands; but the wear and tear is great and the saving in time slight. 70 From Madras or the Coromandel coast, stand at once across the equator into the South-east Trade. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 191 In either of the above cases, and from all parts of the Bay, stand S so as to cross the equator in about 95 E, keeping on the tack which makes most southing into the South-east Trade. Cross the meridian of 90 E in 10 S, and from this position, steer a direct course for Cape Agulhas, passing about 200 miles S of Rodriguez Island, and the same distance S of Madagascar. Make the African coast i n about 33 S, and keep in the strength of the Agulhas Current to abreast Mossel Bay, and then round Cape Agulhas. 5 See 10.74. From November to March, run straight down the Bay of Bengal, cross the equator in 86 E to 87 E, and pick up the May to September route at about 15 S, and run thence direct to Cape Agulhas, as described above. Duri ng October and April, run down the bay on a line j ust E of the 90th meridian; cross the equator at 90 E, and pick up the May to September route at 15 S, continuing to destination thence, as described above. 10 10.96. Bay o f Be ngal t o Fr e ma nt l e , Cape Le e u wi n and s o ut h and s out h- e as t Aus t ral i a, and t o Ne w Zeal and. From March to October, having worked along the W shore of the Bay of Bengal, see 10.95, far enough to weather Nicobar Islands and the islands fronting the SW coast of Sumatra, stand out of the Bay on the starboard tack, cross the South-east Monsoon and South-east Trade ; and having got into the prevailing 15 W' l y winds S of the Trades, proceed E for Fremantle or Cape Leeuwin. The doldrum belt will be found to extend to about 4 S. From November to April, stand down the middle of the Bay of Bengal, and across the equator into the North- west Monsoon. Thence make easting in the North-west Monsoon as far as Christmas Island; then stand S across the South-east Trade into the westerlies, and so to Fremantle or Cape Leeuwin. 20 To the E of Cape Leeuwin, proceed as directed in 10.64. 10.97. Cal cut t a t o Madras or Ce yl on. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, make southing without closing the E side of the Bay, as directed in 10.95. Steer for port when 60 miles S of it. If unable to work S, pass E of Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands and through Selat Bengalla. Thence 25 work across the Bay of Bengal; but in June, July and August, stand across the equator into the South-east Trade, make westing, and recross the equator in about 83 E, if bound for Madras; then proceed direct. Bound for Colombo, recross the equator in about 77 E. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, steer direct. In September, with light S winds, work SW, keeping in soundings, or stand out to sea. Give the coast a berth in February and March as the current then runs to the N. 30 10.98. Cal cut t a t o Ra ng o o n, Mo u l me i n , or Me r gui . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, steer to pass through Preparis South Channel, and thence as directed in Admiralty Sailing Directions, for Rangoon or Moulmein. If bound for Mergui, pass on either side of Coco Islands. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, steer to pass round Alguada Reef and then work E, sounding frequently and making full allowance for tidal streams. 10.99. Cal cut t a t o Si ngapor e . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, proceed direct through Preparis South Channel and Malacca Strait. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, proceed through one of the Preparis Channels, and thence direct through Malacca Strait. See 10.39 for directions for Singapore Strait. 35 ,10 ROUTES FROM PORTS I N BURMA ,15 10.105. Ra n g o o n or Mo u l me i n t o Cal cut t a. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, pass through one of the Preparis Channels, and then proceed as directly as possible. 50 Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, pass S of Alguada Reef, and thence proceed N, about 30 miles offthe Burma coast before stretching across; but after January, from Alguada Reef stand first into the middle of the Bay of Bengal before working N. Vessels i nt endi ng to leave Rangoon or Moul mei n in periods of strong NE' l y winds, with a falling barometer, denoting the existence of a cyclonic storm E of Andaman Islands, should wait until the storm has passed. Thi s 55 is indicated by a rising barometer, and the wind shifting to E or S of E. See 10.90. 10.106. Ra n g o o n or Mo u l r n e i n t o Madras . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, keep well out to sea if the wind becomes W' l y and endeavour to sight Narcondam Island. In working S, keep W of and at a moderate distance from the Mergui Archipelago. Pass S of Great Nicobar Island and thence work W to destination. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, pass through Preparis Nort h Channel and thence proceed as directly as possible. After January, however, make the land S of destination on account of the N' l y sets which occur off this coast after that month. 10.107. Ra n g o o n or Mo u l me i n t o Mal ac c a Strai t and Si ngapor e . In the South-west Monsoon, proceed as directed in 10.106, passing the S point of Salang Island; thence proceed direct through Malacca Strait. I n the North-east Monsoon, keep outside Mergui Archipelago, sight the S point of Salang Island and proceed thence direct through Malacca Strait. Directions for passage through Singapore Strait to Singapore will be found in 10.39.03. 60 65 70 10 192 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10.108. Ra n g o o n or Mo u l me i n t o Cape of Go o d Ho pe . In both monsoons, stand S, to the E of Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands, and pick up the May to September route from the Bay of Bengal given in 10.95 at 15 S, continuing to destination as described in that article. 10.109. Me r g ui t o Cal cut t a. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, work to the W and pass through Coco Channel or one of the Preparis Channels. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, pass through any channel N of Andaman Islands and then proceed direct. 10.110. Me r g u i t o Madras . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, after clearing the islands, work S to the N end of Sumatra; pass through Selat Benggala or S of Great Nicobar Island and proceed thence direct. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, unt i l the end of January, pass through any channel N of Andaman Islands; after that date, steer to pass S of Little Andaman Island. 15 ROUTES S OUTHWARD OR WES TWARD FROM SI NGAPORE OR EASTERN ARCHI PELAGO 20 10.115. Si ngapor e t o Madras . Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, keep along the N coast of Sumatra, pass through Selat Benggala, and work across the Bay of Bengal; but in the height of the South-west Monsoon (in June, July and August), from off Udj ung Masam Muka cross the equator, and make westing in the South-east Trade, recrossing the equator in about 83 E. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, keep on the Malay coast until Salang Island is reached; thence pass through either Ten Degrees Channel or Sombrero Channel. I n December and January make the land N of destination on account of the S' ly set on the Coromandel and Ceylon coasts. 25 10.116. Si ngapor e t o Col ombo. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, keep along the N coast of Sumatra and pass through Selat Benggala; from off Udj ung Masam Muka cross the equator and make westing in the South-east Trade. Recross the equator in 77 E, and proceed as directly as possible to Colombo. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, pass on either side of Pulau Perak and between Pulau Rondo and Great Nicobar Island; thence proceed direct, but if W' l y winds are experienced near the N end of Sumatra, which is 30 probable in October and November, keep to the N before altering course. 35 40 45 50 55 60 10.117. Si ngapor e t o Cal cut t a. Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, pass to the S of Nicobar Islands, and thence steer direct for the Orissa coast. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, up to mid-January pass E of Andaman Islands. After mi d-January pass S of those islands, or through Duncan Passage, and work to the N in the middle of the Bay of Bengal, as NW' l y and W' l y winds are then found N of Andaman Islands. 10.118. Si ngapor e t o Ra n g o o n or Mo u l me i n , Duri ng the South-west Monsoon, sight Narcondam Island. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, sight Great Western Torres islands, and thence proceed as directed by Admiralty Sailing Directions. 10.119. Si ng a po r e t o Port Da r wi n. From April to October, in the South-west Monsoon in the China Sea, and the E' l y monsoon on the N coast of Australia, when bound from Singapore to Port Darwin, proceed through Balabac Strait across Sulu Sea, through Basilan Strait and Bangka Strait, and thence through Mani pa Strait for Port Darwin. From November to April, during the North-east Monsoon of the China Sea, proceed through Sunda Strait and thence for Port Darwin with the North-west Monsoon. Alternatively, go through Karimata Strait and Sapudi Strait, and into the Indi an Ocean by Lombok Strait or Alas Strait. 10.120. Si ng a po r e t o Tor r e s Strait. From April to October, follow the route given above for that season for Port Darwin, as far as the Ceram Sea, to join the route from Hong Kong to Tort es Strait described in 11.4~.01, or its alternative. From November to April, proceed via Karimata Strait and thence to the Arafura Sea either via Lombok Strait or Alas Strait, or through the Java Sea and Flores Sea to join the April-October route, described above. 10.121. Si ngapor e t o Fr e ma n t l e or s o ut he r n Aus t ral i a. From April to October, proceed S through Selat Bangka and Sunda Strait, and thence across the South-east Trade until in the region of W' l y winds, whence a course may be shaped for Fremantle or Cape Leeuwin. See also 11.30.01. From November to April, if bound to one of the W or S ports of Australia proceed through Selat Bangka, N of Java, and through Bali Strait or Lombok Strait, and thence steer to the S into the South-east Trade. Keep the ship close hauled on the port tack in the Trade Wind, and on losing the Trade steer to the S and SE into the W' l y winds, whence proceed as directed in paragraph 10.01, Cape of Good Hope to Australia. 10.122. Si ngapor e t o Sunda Strai t and Cape o f Go o d Ho pe . First proceed to the Indi an Ocean via Sunda 65 Strait by one of the routes in 10.49. From April to September, having cleared Sunda Strait, steer directly for a position 200 miles S of Rodriguez Island, in about 23 o S, 63 E; thence pass 200 miles S of Madagascar and as directed in 10.17.02. From October to April, after clearing Sunda Strait, stand S into the South-east Trade Wi nd, passing through 16 S, 90 E; steer thence for a position 200 miles S of Rodriguez Island and as above. Thi s period is the cyclone 70 season of the South Indi an Ocean. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 193 10.123. Si ngapor e or Sunda St rai t t o Ade n. The route from Singapore may be taken either via Malacca Strait or via Sunda Strait. Having passed through Malacca Strait and taken departure as directed in 10.57.02, from April to September follow that route into the South-east Trade and then make westing to pass S of Chagos Archipelago, there to join the Col ombo-Aden route (10.79). 5 From October to March proceed S of Ceylon and through Nine Degree Channel (10,79). If the route is taken via Sunda Strait a similar procedure should be adopted, namely to join the Col ombo- Aden route S of Chago Archipelago or in Ni ne Degree Channel, according to season. 10.124. Sunda Strai t no r t hwa r d a l o ng we s t coas t o f Sumat r a. The three routes, Outer, Middle, and Inner, 10 are described in detail in Admiralty Sailing Directions. For a sailing vessel, the voyage in either direction and at all seasons is long and wearisome on account of frequent calms, but it is generally more difficult to work N than S, owing to the prevalence of SE' ly currents, which continue to set even with and after a S' ly wind. January and February are the best months for going N, while in September, October and November vessels will often be compelled to keep far out to sea in order 15 to make even a little northing; working in-shore during these months is almost impracticable. The Outer Route, to the W of all the islands, is the best of the three, more especially for sailing vessels. SW' l y and S' ly winds often prevail here, when NW' l y squalls, variable baffling winds, calms and S' ly currents, may be experienced close to the land. The Middle Route, between the chain of large islands, in the o~fing, and those small islands adjacent to, and 20 interspersed along the coast, should not be followed by a sailing vessel when N-bound, nor at any time, if it can be avoided without inconvenience. Although it is wide, and may be adopted by night or day in vessels of light draught when the weather is clear and favourable, vessels are more at the mercy of the currents when the winds are light and baffling, and there is no anchorage ; in some parts there are dangerous coral shoals, of the approach to which sounding will give no warning. 25 The Inner Route, close along the coast, and between some of the islands and dangers off it, like the Middle Route, should seldom be chosen by N- bound sailing vessels in either monsoon; but as there are, in many places, moderate depths for anchoring, it is preferable in that respect to the Middle Route. 10.125. Bali Strait, Lombok Strait, Al as Strai t, or Omb a i St rai t t o Cape o f Go o d Ho pe . From Bali 30 Strait, Lombok Strait, or Alas Strait, stand to the SW, during the South-east Monsoon, or direct to the S during the North-west Monsoon, to pick up the South-east Trade Wi nd at the nearest point, then make to cross the meridian of 90 E, at 22 S to 23 S. From this position stand W along the parallel to j oi n the route from Singapore to the Cape of Good Hope (10.122) i n about 23 S, 63 E. From Ombai Strait, pass through the Sawu Sea and into the Indi an Ocean between Ti mor and Sumba. 35 Thence steer to join the above route at the most convenient point, having regard to the prevailing wind at the time. NORTHERN AUS TRALI A TO SYDNEY, I NDI AN OCEAN AND CHI NA SEA 10.130. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Sy dne y . From April to October, i n the South-east Monsoon, stand W to make North West Cape (21 47" S, 114 10" E) and beat S to round Cape Leeuwin and proceed by Bass Strait to Sydney. See 10.01.04, 10.01.08. From November to April, in the North-west Monsoon, proceed through Tortes Strait and stand into the Pacific Ocean unt i l enough easfing has been made to enable the port to be reached with the South-east Trade. See 11.29, Thursday Island to Sydney. 10.131. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Fr e ma nt l e . From November to April, in the North-west Monsoon period, short boards along the coast S of North-west Cape will enable advantage to be taken of the land breezes. Only during the strength of the North-west Monsoon should a sailing vessel proceed E-about via Torres Strait, Bass Strait, and Cape Leeuwin. 10.132. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Cape of Go o d Hope . From April to October, during the South-east Monsoon, shape course through the Arafura Sea to j oi n the route from the S part of the Eastern Archipelago (10.125). Duri ng the strength of the North-west Monsoon proceed via Torres Strait and Bass Strait. See 11.29, Torres Strait to Sydney and 10.164, Sydney to Cape of Good Hope. 40 45 50 55 10.133. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Co l o mb o . From April to October, proceed W with the Monsoon, crossing 60 the equator in about 75 E, and thence steer as directly as possible to Colombo i n the South-west Monsoon. From November to April, make to the N through Banda Sea and Molukka Sea, see 10.46.03, and round the N of Sulawesi, through Basilan Strait into the Sulu Sea; cross it and pass into the China Sea through Balabac Strait, and thence to Singapore. Thence proceed through Malacca Strait, and S of Great Nicobar Island to destination, in the North-east Monsoon, see 10.116. 65 For passages through the Eastern Archipelago and the approach to Singapore, see 10.30. 10.134. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Cal cut t a. From April to October, during the South-east Monsoon on the N coast of Australia and South-west Monsoon i n the Bay of Bengal, proceed as i n 10.133 for Colombo, but crossing the equator in about 82 E; thence steer E of Ceylon for the mout h of Hooghly River. 70 10 194 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Enough westing should be made in the South-east Monsoon before proceeding N to enter the limits of the South-west Monsoon of the Indian seas. From November to April, during the Nort h-west Monsoon, follow the directions in 10.133 as far as Singapore, then 10.117 to Calcutta. 10.135. No r t he r n Aus t r al i a t o Si ngapor e . From April to October, two routes are recommended, the usual route passing N of Ti mor, through Wbtar Strait and W~tar Passage into the Flores Sea, continuing W along the N side of all the islands and through Sapudi Strait to Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa (10.35-10.42). An alternative route passes either N or S of Ti mor and along the S side of all the islands, entering the Java Sea through Sunda Strait (10.33); thence as directed in 10.32.02. From November to April take the Colombo route for that season, see 10.133. 10.136. No r t h e r n Aus t r al i a t o Ho n g Kong. From April to October, proceed as directed for Singapore for that season, see 10.135, but pass through Selat Gelasa or Karimata Strait and thence between Anambas 15 Kepulauan and Nat una Kepulauan into the China Sea; thence steer between Paracel Group and Macclesfield Bank to Hong Kong. In thick weather proceed through Selat Bangka in preference to Karimata Strait or Selat Gelasa. Fr om November to April, the route is either by Bougainville Strait or by the Second Eastern Passage (10.46). For the Bougainville Strait route, proceed E through Torres Strait, thence E of Treasury Islands, through 20 Bougainville Strait and N of Philippine Islands. ROUTES FROM SOUTH- WEST AND S OUTH AUS TRALI A 25 10.140. Fr e ma n t l e t o Maur i t i us . In all seasons, steer NW from Fremantle into the strength of the South-east Trade Wind, which is generally found between the parallels of 15 and 20 S, and where the Equatorial Current sets to the W. Having reached the parallel of 20 S, and the meridian of 90 E, in summer, and two or three degrees nearer the equator in the winter of the S hemisphere, continue W for Mauritius, passing about 50 miles S of Rodriguez; though from November until April it is advisable to keep at a greater distance, as cyclones some- 30 times occur at this season, not only in this locality, but also in the space between these islands and the NW coast of Australia. After passing Rodrlguez steer as directly as possible for Mauritius. 10.141. Fr e ma n t l e t o Cape o f Go o d Ho pe . There are two routes to the Cape of Good Hope, Nort hern and Southern; of which the Nort hern is available all the year round, and the Southern only during the summer, from 35 December to March; the Southern Route is rather more direct. For the Nort hern Route, proceed as for Mauritius (10.140), but pass 100 to 200 miles S of Rodriguez, and thence about the same distance S of Madagascar, to make the African coast about 200 miles S of Durban. Fr om thence, keep in the strength of the Agulhas Current until abreast Mossel Bay, and then proceed direct round Cape Agulhas. See 10.74. 40 For the Southern Route, steer for 30 S, 100 E, and thenceforward make a nearly W' l y course across the ocean to the meridian of 40 E, keeping between the parallels of 27 S and 29 S ; being farthest to the S in December, and to the N in March. From the meridian of 40 E, steer towards the African coast to join the Nort hern Route E of Algoa Bay. See notes on rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 10.17.01 and 10.74. 45 10.142. Fr e ma n t l e t o Ade n. From April to October, proceed direct to pass S of Chagos Archipelago to join the route from the Indian coast as directed in 10.72 and 10.73. Fr om November to April, follow a great circle track to 4 00' S, 73 30' E; then proceed by t humb line to round Ras Asir. 50 10.143. Fr e ma n t l e t o Co l o mb o . From April to October, with the South-east Trade in the South Indian Ocean and the South-west Monsoon N of the equator, cross the equator in 80 E, and thence proceed to Colombo. Fr om November to April, with the Nort h-west Monsoon in the South Indian Ocean and the Nort h-east Monsoon in the Bay of Bengal, steer across the South-east Trade to enter the Nort h-west Monsoon in about 10 S, 90 E. Thence continue N with the Nort h-west Monsoon across the equator in about 87 E, and with the 55 Nort h-east Monsoon to Colombo. 10.144. Fr e ma n t l e t o Cal cut t a. From April to October, with the South-east Trade in the Sout h Indian Ocean, and the South-west Monsoon in the Bay of Bengal, proceed direct for the E-coast of Ceylon, and thence for Hooghly river. See 10.03.06 and 10.90. .60 Fr om November to April, during the Nort h-west Monsoon in the South Indian Ocean, proceed direct to the equator, crossing it in about 93 E; and thence to make the land about Udj ung Masam Muka, the NW point of Sumatra. From Udj ung Masam Muka steer to pass to the W of Nicobar Islands, and thence to the N, close- hauled, and W of all the islands. If the equator is crossed as late as March, keep well to the W in the Bay of Bengal, as the current at that time ~65 runs N along the E coast of India, and the winds will be found between SW and SE. In the middle of the Bay they are light and variable from NW to NE. 70 10.145. Fr e ma n t l e t o Si ngapor e . Fr om April to October, steer on a direct course for Sunda Strait, taking care to make the land to the E of the strait as the W-goi ng current is often strong near the S coast of Java. Continue from Sunda Strait as indicated in 10.32.02. I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 195 From November to April, steer for 12 S, 102 E, and then pass midway between Christmas Island and Cocos or Keeling Island, there j oi ni ng the route from Cape Town to Singapore via Sunda Strait (10.02.02). Alternatively, cross 20 S in about 110 E and then follow the Second Eastern Passage (10.46) as far as NIanipa Strait. From this point pass through Molukka Sea, Bangka Strait, Sulawesi Sea, Basilan Strait, Sulu Sea and Balabac Strait into the China Sea. Thence proceed to Singapore in the North-east Monsoon. Thi s alternative route, though longer, will probably give a better passage. 10.146. Fr e ma n t l e t o Ho n g Kong. From April to October, proceed to Sunda Strait as directed in 10.145 and continue to the China Sea as indicated in 10.32.03. From November to April a vessel may either follow the seasonal directions in 10.145 and pick up the Second 10 Eastern Passage, or proceed to Singapore via Sunda Strait as directed in that article and thence through Palawan Passage and along the coast of Luzon until able to stand across to Hong Kong. A vessel which, having passed through Sunda Strait, finds that the North-west Monsoon in the Java Sea and the North-east Monsoon in the China Sea have already begun, is advised to make to the E to pick up the Second Eastern Passage, a route which is available only from November to February, see 10.45. 15 10.147. Fr e ma n t l e t o s out h- e as t Aus t ral i a, or t o Ne w Zeal and. Stand S, and act as directed in 10.01.06- 10.01.10, for the voyage from the Cape of Good Hope. 10.148. Sout h- e as t Aus t r al i a t o Cape of Go o d Ho pe . There are two routes according to season. 20 The Nort hern Route is available from April to October, at the time of year when the South-east Monsoon of the Arafura Sea connects with the South-east Trade of the Pacific Ocean, and with the South-east Trade of the Indi an Ocean. Vessels using it should proceed first to the N, along the E coast of Australia, and through Tort es Strait (10.164), and from thence through the Arafura Sea into the Indi an Ocean and to the Cape of Good Hope as directed in 10.132. 25 Note: Directions for the passage through Bass Strait are given in 11.03.07. The Southern Route should be used from December to April, when E' l y winds are prevalent off the S coast of Australia. First proceed as directly as possible to round Cape Leeuwin at a safe distance, having regard to the weather prevailing at the time and the danger of being caught on a lee shore. From Cape Leeuwin stand to the NW into the South-east Trades and j oi n the route from Fremantle as directed in 30 10.141. Note: It is reported that masters of vessels bound for European ports from Adelaide would often defer decision whether to make the passage E-about or W-about until they had ascertained the wind direction in the Australian Bight. Thus, with a W' l y wind, they would sail E-about (11.03), and with an E' ly wind they would take the Southern Route, as above, for the Cape of Good Hope. 35 10.149. Sout h- e as t Aus t r al i a t o Ade n. From April to October, proceed as directed for the Northern Route (10.148) to Tort es Strait, and thence through the Arafura Sea, see 10.132. Having cleared all dangers in the Arafura Sea, steer to pass S of Chagos Archipelago and as directed in 10.72. From November to April, pass round Cape Leeuwin as directed for the Southern Route in 10.59.09 and t hen steer NW to join the route from Fremantle to Aden (10.142). See 6.167. 40 10.150. Sout h- e as t Aus t r al i a t o Co l o mb o . From April to November, take the Nort hern Route as for Cape of Good Hope (10.148) to Torres Strait and the Arafura Sea, whence departure should be taken for Colombo (10.132). From December to April, when E' l y winds are prevalent off the S coast of Australia, the Southern Route, round Cape Leeuwin, is taken. When round Cape Leeuwin stand to the NW into the South-east Trade and enter the North-west Monsoon i n about 10 S, 90 E. Thence steer a N' l y course with the North-west Monsoon across the equator in about 87 E, and with the North-east Monsoon to Colombo, remembering that this is the cyclone season in the South Indi an Ocean. 45 50 10.151. Sout h- e as t Aus t r al i a t o Bay o f Bengal . From April to November, proceed through Torres Strait as directed in 10.148 and thence through the Arafura Sea. Keep in the South-east Trade unt i l the meridian of 85 E is reached, and then stand NW to cross the equator in about 80 E. From this point proceed direct allowing for the strong E' l y current. From December to April, pass round Cape Leeuwin, and steer NW through the South-east Trade so as to enter the North-west Monsoon i n about 85 E; then shape course towards Udj ung Masam Muka, and proceed W of Nicobar and Andaman Islands to destination. 55 10.152. Sout h- e as t Aus t ral i a t o Si ngapor e . From April to November, three routes are available; 60 N-about through Tortes Strait, thence N of Ti mor and through the Java Sea; or S of the islands and through Sunda Strait (10.135); or S-about round Cape Leeuwin. The N-about routes are probably the best. From December to April, in spite of the prevailing E' l y winds to the S of Australia, a route S-about round Cape Leeuwin is not recommended for Singapore on account of the N' l y winds and S-going currents prevalent 65 between November and March in Sunda Strait, Selat Bangka, Selat Gelasa, and Karimata Strait. A vessel has been known to take 30 days from Sunda Strait to Singapore, at this time of year, a distance of 500 miles. It is there- fore advisable to proceed by the Outer Route (11.09.03), to the E of Australia and through Tort es Strait, and as directed i n 10.133, or to take the route E of New Gui nea through Bougainville Strait, and through Surigao Strait into the China Sea. 70 196 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES ROUTES FROM SYDNEY TO PORTS I N I NDI AN OCEAN 10.160. F r o m S y d n e y t o and t hr o ug h Bass Strai t, there are two main routes, direct, and through Banks Strait. By the direct route, in order to take advantage of the current as far as Cape Howe, which appears to run 5 strongest from November to March, keep along the outer edge of the charted 100 fm (182 m 9) line of soundings, or at a distance of 15 to 18 miles from the coast, where the current runs stronger and with more regularity than elsewhere. From about 15 miles E of Cape Howe, if the wind is S' ly, do not steer a more W' l y course than 212 until in 39 30' S on account of the danger to be apprehended from SE' l y or S' ly gales upon Ni net y NIile Beach between I 0 Cape Howe and Corner Inlet. On reaching the parallel of 39 30' S, steer to pass about 3 miles N of Wri ght Rock, and the same distance S of the S point of Deal Island, the SE of Kent Group. Having passed Kent Group, steer to pass 2 or 3 miles S of Sugarloaf Rock, and S of Judgment Rocks. Fr om Sugarloaf Rock steer 15 or 20 miles to the N of King Island, if the wind permits; but should the wi nd hang to the W of N, a course may be safely directed for the N extreme of Three Hummock Island, taking care 15 to avoid Mermai d Rock and Taniwha Rock, passing afterwards N or S of King Island, as may be most favourable; the former is preferable. Navigational Notes: Local experience has shown that with W' l y and SW' l y winds smoother water is found inshore off Ninety Mile Beach; and as SW' Iy winds are the prevailing ones, mariners bound to the W may often take advantage of the smoother water and an absence of danger to approach the beach, instead of avoiding it. 20 A vessel inshore when an easterly gale is threatened should at once get an offing; these gales give signs of warning. Between December and March, as W' l y gales veer to the S, it is advisable to stand to,yard the Tasmani an coast, and so be ready to take advantage of the shift of wind. Between April and November, and more particularly in September, October and November, the same course cannot be recommended, as in these months the wind tends to back to WNW. 25 The alternative route is via Banks Strait, which lies between Cape Barren Island and the N coast of Tasmania, and offers an alternative entrance to Bass Strait. The chief dangers to be avoided on the S shore are the reef and rocks off Swan Island, and the foul ground and rocks N of Foster Islets. When working through to the W in the summer, when W' l y gales are of short duration, it is advisable to stand towards the Tasmani an coast, to take advantage of the shift of wind. 30 10.161. S y d n e y t o Me l bo ur ne . Proceed as directed in 10.160 as far as Sugarloaf Rock, and then to Port Phillip as directly as circumstances permit. 10.162. Fr ? m Bass St rai t t o Ade l ai de , in fine weather, from off Cape Otway steer to pass about 5 miles S 35 of Cape Nelson, 10 miles SW of Cape Nort humberl and and Cape Banks, thence make a direct course to Cape Willoughby. Care must at all times be taken to guard against a set towards the land, but with S' l y and W' l y winds the coast should be given a much greater berth, as a current of 1 knot sometimes sets towards it between Cape Otway and Cape Willoughby. In entering the Gul f of St. Vincent by Backstairs Passage, Young Rocks must be given a wide berth at night, 40 but, since they are above-water, they are not dangerous by day in clear weather. At times the sea breaks heavily in the offing S of Cape Willoughby, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 45 10.163. F r o m Bass Strai t t o Spe nc e r Gul f, proceed as directed in 10.162 to Cape Nort humberl and. Thence to Spencer Gulf, give a good berth to South-west Young Rock, which is only 1 m 5 high; and except with strong SE' l y winds, make allowance for the E' l y set which usually prevails. Fr om December to March, with SE' l y winds, a current runs at about 1 knot to the NW. In the event of threatening weather from the S and W, care must be taken to secure a good offing. 10.164. S y d n e y t o Cape of Go o d Ho p e and t o al l port s i n I ndi a n Ocean. October and November are 50 unsuitable months in which to start a passage from Sydney to the W, either by Tort es Strait or to the S of Australia. Fr om March to September, a route to the N of Australia should be taken, since the prevalence of strong W' l y gales renders the S-about route very difficult, indeed, generally impracticable, for sailing vessels during the whole period from April to November. The worst months for making this W-bound passage N of Australia are Sept em- 55 her, October and November, for W' l y gales are then of frequent occurrence, the wind sometimes being from WSW to WNW for more than a week at a time, and blowing very strong. From December to August, N' l y winds are very common. In these circumstances, the best W-bound route is via Tort es Strait and the Arafura Sea, taking (by preference) the Outer Route (11.09.03) from Sydney through the Coral Sea to Tort es Strait. 60 From Tort es Strait, directions are given as follows: To Calcutta 10.134 To Cape of Good Hope 10.132 To Colombo 10.133 To Fremantle 10.131 65 To Hong Kong 10.136 To Singapore 10.135 Fr om December to March, a route S of Australia may be taken. Duri ng these months, proceed through Bass Strait, or round Tasmania; E' l y winds prevail in the strait and along the S coast of Australia at that season, and 70 good passages have been made by keeping N of 40 S, and passing round Cape Leeuwin into the South-east I NDI AN OCEAN AND RED SEA 197 Trade Wind, which then extends well to the S. A vessel from Bass Strait bound round Cape Leeuwin is recom- mended, with a favourable wind, to shape a course which will lead about 150 miles S of that cape. In adopting this route advantage must be taken of every favourable change of wind, in order to make westing; and it is advisable not to approach too near the land, as it would become with SW gales, which are often experi- enced, even from December to March, a most dangerous lee shore, and the contrary currents run strongest near the land. After rounding Cape Leeuwin, stand to the NW into the South-east Trades, and follow the directions given below: To Aden 10.142 To Calcutta 10.144 To Cape of Good Hope 10.141 To Colombo 10.143 To Mauritius 10.140 10 15 CHAPTER 11 PACIFIC OCEAN SAILING ROUTES 11.01 CONTENTS NAVI GATI ONAL NOTES FOR PACIFIC OCEAN Page 200 11.02 11.03 S OUTH AFRI CA AND S OUTHERN AUSTRALI A TO PACIFIC OCEAN PORTS South Africa to Cabo de Hornos South-east Australia to Pacific Ocean 201 201 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 ROUTES FROM S YDNEY Sydney to southern Australia and New Zealand Sydney to west coasts of the Americas . Sydney to, and among, South Pacific islands Sydney to Yokohama Sydney to Hong Kong Sydney to Tort es Strait . Sydney to Singapore 202 202 203 203 204 204 205 ROUTES FROM NEW ZEALAND 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 New Zealand to Australia, general directions New Zealand to Sydney and ports northward New Zealand to Mel bourne or Adelaide New Zealand to Cabo de Hornos New Zealand to South America . . New Zealand to San Francisco or British Columbia New Zealand to South Pacific Islands New Zealand to China Sea or Japan. 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 ROUTES FROM I S LAND GROUPS BETWEEN NEW CALEDONI A AND i LES DE LA SOCI]~T]~ 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.22 11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 11.27 11.28 11.29 Islands to Sydney or southern Australia Islands to New Zealand . . Islands to Cabo de Hornos or Estrecho de Magallanes Islands to ports between Talcahuano and Panama Islands to San Francisco and British Columbia Fiji to Honol ul u . Fiji to Tahi t i Samoa eastward Tahi t i to Honolulu Tahi t i to Australia and I~ew Zaland Thursday Island to Sydney 205 205 206 206 206 206 206 206 206 206 206 11.30 11.31 11.32 11.33 11.34 11.35 11.36 11.37 11.38 ROUTES FROM SI NGAPORE AND EASTERN ARCHI PELAGO Singapore to Sydney . . Singapore to Molukka Archipelago . Singapore to Sulu Sea Singapore to Manila Singapore to Hong Kong Singapore to ports north of Hong Kong Singapore to Saigon Singapore to Bangkok . Eastern Archipelago to China 206 207 207 208 209 209 209 210 210 P A CI F I C OCE A N 199 11.39 11.40 11.41 11. 42 11. 43 11.44 11.45 11. 46 11. 47 11. 48 11.49 11.50 11.51 11.52 11.53 11.54 11.55 11.56 11.57 11.58 11.59 11.60 11.61 11.62 11. 63 11. 64 11.65 11. 66 11.67 11.68 11.69 11.70 11.71 11.72 11.73 11.74 11,75 11. 76 11.77 11.78 11. 79 11. 80 11.81 11.82 11.83 11.84 11.85 R O U T E S F R O M B A N G K O K OR S A I G O N Bangkok or Sai gon t o Hong Kong or por t s nor t hwar d Bangkok to Si ngapor e Sai gon t o Si ngapor e R O U T E S F R O M P ORTS I N C H I N A Chi na or J apan t o I ndi an Ocean Hong Kong t o Si ngapor e Hong Kong to Tor t e s St r ai t Hong Kong t o Por t Dar wi n Hong Kong t o Sydney Hong Kong to Mani l a Hong Kong to Yokoham~ Hong Kong t o Nagasaki Hong Kong nor t hwar d, t o por t s on t he coast of Chi na Hong Kong or Mani l a t o No r t h Amer i ca and Panama Hong Kong or Mani l a t o west coast of Sout h Amer i ca Shang- hai to t he sout hwar d Shang- hai to Cape of Good H~pe an~ I ndi an O~ean . Shang- hai to Nagasaki Shang- hai t o Yokohama " Shang- hai t o por t s in Nor t h A~eri ca" R O U T E S F R O M MA N I L A Mani l a to Si ngapor e Mani l a t o Sai gon . Mani l a t o Hong Kong Mani l a t o Il oi l o Mani l a t o Cebu Mani l a t o I ndi an (~cean ~nd A~st ral i ' a R O U T E S F R O M J AP AN Yokohama t o Col umbi a Ri ver, Vancouver, or Pr i nce Ruper t Yokohama to San Fr anci sco Yokohama to Honol ul u . Yokohama to Si ngapor e . Yokohama to I ndi an Ocean Yokohama t o Sydney Yokohama t o Hong Kon~, Hsi~-men~ etc. Yokohama to Shang- hai Yokohama t o Hakodat e . Nagasaki to Chi na Coast R O U T E S F R O M I S L A N D S I N N O R T H P ACI F I C O C E A N Gener al not es and caut i ons Nor t h Pacific i sl ands (except Hawai i i to A~ia or Nor t h' a nd Sout h ~kmeri'ca Nor t h Pacific i sl ands (except Hawai i ) t o ot her Nor t h Pacific i sl ands Nor t h Pacific i sl ands t o Sout h Pacific i sl ands Nor t h Pacific i sl ands to Tor r es St r ai t Gener al r emar ks on wi nds, cur r ent s, and s~iling ~assages ar ound Hawai i an I sl ands " Honol ul u t o Tahi t i Honol ul u to Fi j i , Aust r al i a, and New Zeal and Honol ul u to Chi na, Japan, or Phi l i ppi ne Isl ands" Honol ul u t o San Fr anci sco Honol ul u t o Nor t h and Cent r ai Amer i ca b~twee~ San ~r anci sco a~d Pa~ama Honol ul u to west coast of Sout h Amer i ca or t o Cabo de Hor nos 210 211 211 211 212 213 213 213 214 214 214 214 215 216 216 216 216 217 217 217 217 217 217 218 218 218 218 218 218 219 219 219 219 220 220 220 221 221 221 221 221 221 222 222 222 222 222 11.86 11.87 11.88 R O U T E S F R O M P R I N C E R U P E R T , V A N C O U V E R , OR C O L U MB I A RI VE R Pr i nce Ruper t , Vancouver, or Col umbi a Ri ver t o Honol ul u and Yokohama Pr i nce Ruper t , Vancouver, or Col umbi a Ri ver to Sydney . . . . . Pr i nce Ruper t , Vancouver, or Col umbi a Ri ver t o San Fr anci sco and Sout h Amer i ca 222 222 223 200 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 11. 89 11. 90 11. 91 11. 92 11. 93 11. 94 11. 95 11. 96 11. 97 11. 98 11. 99 11. 100 11. 101 Sa n Fr a n c i s c o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o S a n Fr a n c i s c o ROUTES FROM SAN FRANCI SCO t o Pr i n c e Ru p e r t , J u a n de F u c a St r ai t , or Co l u mb i a Ri v e r t o Un i ma k Pass, Al e u t i a n I s l a nds , a n d r e ve r s e t o Ho n o l u l u t o Yo k o h a ma t o n o r t h p a r t of Ch i n a Sea . t o S h a n g - h a i or Na ga s a ki t o Ma n i l a or S o u t h Ch i n a Sea t o Au s t r a l i a n p o r t s s o u t h of Br i s b a n e t o Paci f i c I s l a nds t o P a n a ma t o Cal l ao or I q u i q u e . . . t o Co q u i mb o , Va l pa r a i s o, a n d Co r o n e l t o r o u n d Ca b o de Ho r n o s 223 223 223 224 224 224 224 224 224 225 225 225 225 11. 102 11. 103 11. 104 11. 105 11. 106 11. 107 11. 108 11. 109 11. 110 11. 111 11. 112 ROUTES FROM LOWER CALI FORNI A AND PANAMA Lo we r Ca l i f or ni a n o r t h wa r d t o No r t h Ame r i c a n p o r t s Louver Ca l i f or ni a t o Paci f i c Oc e a n p o r t s No t e s o n pas s age o u t of Gu l f of P a n a ma P a n a ma t o Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a . . P a n a ma t o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o or J u a n de F u c a St r a i t P a n a ma t o Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a n d Pa s s a ge s f r o m P a n a ma t o t h e s o u t h wa r d P a n a ma t o Gol f o de Gu a y a q u i l P a n a ma t o Cal l ao . o P a n a ma t o p o r t s b e t we e n Mo l l e n d o a n d Va l pa r a i s o P a n a ma t o Ca b o de Ho r n o s 225 226 226 226 226 226 226 226 226 227 227 11. 113 11. 114 11. 115 11. 116 11. 117 11. 118 11, 119 11. 120 11. 121 11. 122 11. 123 11. 124 11. 125 ROUTES FROM S OUTH AMERI CAN PORTS Cal l ao t o P a n a ma , Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a a n d Me x i c o Cal l ao t o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o or J u a n de F u c a St r a i t . Cal l ao t o Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a n d Cal l ao t o Ch i n a , Ph i l i p p i n e I s l a nds , J a p a n , e t c . . Cal l ao t o p o r t s as f a r s o u t h wa r d as 27 S Cal l ao t o p o r t s s o u t h of 30 S Cal l ao t o Ca b o de Ho r n o s . . Va l pa r a i s o n o r t h wa r d t o p o r t s i n S o u t h Ame r i c a Va l pa r a i s o t o P a n a ma , Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a , a n d Me x i c o Val par axs o t o S a n Fr a nc i s c o, Va n c o u v e r , or Pr i n c e R u Val par axs o t o Ph i l i p p i n e I s l a nds , Ch i n a or J a p a n Va l pa r a i s o t o Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a n d . Va l p a r ms o s o u t h wa r d , a n d r o u n d Ca b o de Ho r n o s ) er t 227 227 227 227 227 227 228 228 228 228 228 228 228 ROUTES FROM CABO DE HORNOS 11. 126 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o Va l pa r a i s o . . . . . 11. 127 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o p o r t s i n S o u t h Ame r i c a n o r t h wa r d of Va l pa r a i s o 11. 128 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o P a n a ma , Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a , a n d Me x i c o . 11. 129 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o S a n Fr a n c i s c o a n d n o r t h wa r d 11. 130 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o Ho n o l u l u . . . 11. 131 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o P h i l i p p i n e I s l a nds , Ch i n a , J a p a n , Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a n d 11. 132 Ca b o de Ho r n o s t o Paci f i c i s l ands 229 229 229 229 229 229 230 NAVI GATI ONAL NOTES FOR PACIFIC OCEAN 11. 01. 01. S o u n d i n g s and dangers . Ve r y l ar ge ar eas of t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n ar e i mp e r f e c t l y s u r v e y e d a n d ma n y 65 d a n g e r s ar e s t e e p- t o f r o m t h e oc e a n be d. See 7. 48. 11. 01. 02. C u r r e n t s cal l f or l ~ar t i cul ar a t t e n t i o n wh e n n a v i g a t i n g a mo n g s t t h e i s l ands . See 7. 49. 11. 01. 03. Na v i g a t i o n b e t we e n t he i s l ands . Wi t h i n t he r e gi on of t h e T r a d e Wi n d s , t h e r e i s n o di f f i cul t y i n 70 t r a ve l l i ng f r o m E t o W, t h e wi n d s b e i n g f ai r . PACI FI C OCEAN 201 F r o m W t o E f or s h o r t di s t a nc e s , a ves s el ma y be a t , b u t f or l o n g di s t a nc e s , as f or i n s t a n c e f r o m Fi j i t o Ta h i t i , or f r o m T a h i t i t o Pi t c a i r n I s l a nd, a ves s el s h o u l d s t a n d S t h r o u g h t h e T r a d e Wi n d s i n t o t h e W' l y wi n d s ; t h e n r u n d o wn h e r c a s t i ng a n d r e - e n t e r t h e T r a d e Wi n d s i n a b o u t t h e me r i d i a n of h e r de s t i na t i on. S OUT H AF R I C A AND S OUT HE R N AUS T R AL I A T O P AC I F I C OC E AN P OR T S 11. 02. So ut h Af ri ca t o Cabo de Ho r n o s 11. 02. 01. I n t he I n d i a n Oc e an, t h e r o u t e ( 10. 01. 03) pas s es S of T a s ma n i a b e t we e n t he par al l el s of 45 S a n d 10 47 S. 10. 02. 02. I c e be r g s ar e mo s t n u me r o u s n e a r t hi s r out e mi d wa y b e t we e n Ne w Ze a l a n d a n d Ca b o de Ho r n o s , b u t t h e p e r i o d s of f r e q u e n c y v a r y gr eat l y, a n d i t ma y h a p p e n t h a t whi l e s hi ps ar e me e t i n g i ce i n l owe r l a t i t ude s , h i g h e r l a t i t ude s wi l l b e f r ee of i t . See 10. 01. 11. 02. 03. Th e us ua l r out e i n t he Pac i f i c Oc e a n , al l t h e y e a r r o u n d , pas s es S of Ne w Ze a l a n d i n a b o u t 48 30' S, or a b o u t 30 mi l e s S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d (48 01' S, 166 36" E). F r o m t hi s pos i t i on a ves s el s h o u l d s t e e r t o t h e E b e t we e n Bo u n t y I s l a n d s (470 41' S, 179 03" E) a n d An t i p o d e s I s l a nds , wh e n c e , i n c l i n i n g s l i ght l y t o t he S, t h e r o u t e a s s ume s , as a me a n t r ack, t h e par al l el of 51 S f r o m t he me r i d i a n of 150 W, acr os s t h e oc e a n t o 120 W; k e e p i n g a t a b o u t 60 mi l e s N of t hi s par al l el f r o m De c e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y (so as t o b e mo r e cl ear of i ce), a n d at 60 mi l e s S of i t f r o m J u n e t o Au g u s t ; b u t i n t hi s case, al so, d e p e n d e n t on i ce c ondi t i ons . F r o m t he me r i d i a n of 115 W, i nc l i ne g r a d u a l l y t o t h e S, t o r o u n d I s l as Di e go Ra mi r e z a n d Ca b o de Ho r n o s , see 11. 101, 11. 125. 15 20 11. 02. 04. Th e al t e r nat i ve rout e, wh i c h i s onl y r e c o mme n d e d f r o m De c e mb e r t o Fe b r u a r y , r u n s o n a mo r e 25 S' l y t r a c k f r o m t h e p o s i t i o n S of T a s ma n i a ( 11. 02. 01) t o pa s s b e t we e n Au c k l a n d I s l a n d s a n d Ca mp b e l l I s l a n d i n a b o u t 52 S, a n d t o cr os s t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n b e t we e n 54 S a n d 55 S. T h i s c our s e woul d, cl ear of i ce, a n d wi t h f a vour a bl e we a t h e r , d o u b t l e s s e n s u r e t he qui c ke s t pas s age, as b e i n g t he s h o r t e r di s t a nc e , b u t e x p e r i e n c e ha s p r o v e d t h a t a t n e a r l y al l t i me s of y e a r so mu c h t i me i s l os t at n i g h t a n d i n t hi c k we a t he r , a n d e v e n s e r i ous d a n g e r is i n c u r r e d o n a c c o u n t of t h e gr e a t q u a n t i t i e s of i ce n o r ma l l y me t 30 wi t h i n t he s e h i g h e r l a t i t ude s , t h a t a par al l el e v e n as f ar N as 47 S ha s b e e n a d o p t e d wi t h a dva nt a ge . I t i s be l i e ve d t h a t a pa s s a ge ma d e b e t we e n 47 S a n d 50 S wi l l p r o v i d e s t e a di e r wi n d s , s mo o t h e r wa t e r , a n d l ess i ce; a n d t h a t a q u i c k e r pa s s a ge ma y b e e xpe c t e d i n b e t t e r we a t he r , a n d wi t h mo r e s e c ur i t y t h a n i n a h i g h e r l a t i t ude . 11. 03. Sout h- e as t Aus t r al i a t o Pac i f i c Oc e a n 35 11. 03. 01. Ad e l a i d e t o Cabo de Ho r no s . St e e r SE t o j o i n t h e ma i n r o u t e ( 11. 02) i n a b o u t 46 S, 146 E. 40 11. 03. 02. Me l b o u r n e t o Cabo de Ho r n o s . I n s u mme r ( De c e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y ) s h a p e c our s e t o pa s s a b o u t 60 mi l e s W of Ki n g I s l a n d a n d t h e n c e W of T a s ma n i a t o j o i n t h e ma i n r out e ( 11. 02) i n a b o u t 46 S, 146 E I t i s of t e n ne c e s s a r y, a n d i n h e a v y we a t h e r des i r abl e, t o ma k e t hi s pa s s a ge at a c o n s i d e r a b l e di s t a nc e f r o m t h e coas t of T a s ma n i a ; n a me l y at f r o m 120 t o 250 mi l e s f r o m t he W coast , a n d r o u n d t he S e n d of t h e i s l and. F o r t h e r e s t of t h e year , a n d as a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s u mme r r out e , pa s s t h r o u g h Bas s St r a i t a n d s t e e r t o j o i n 45 t h e ma i n r o u t e S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d ( 11. 02. 03) . 11. 03. 03. Hobar t t o Ca bo de Ho r n o s . Ei t h e r j o i n t h e ma i n r o u t e S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d s ( 11. 02. 03) or t h e a l t e r - n a t i v e r o u t e ( 11. 02. 04) b e t we e n Au c k l a n d I s l a n d s a n d Ca mp b e l l I s l a nd. 50 11. 03. 04. Ade l a i de , Me l b o u r n e or Ho ba r t t o Ch i l e a n port s . Pr o c e e d t o 48 30' S, 166 30' E, S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d s as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 02. 02, 11. 02. 03, 11. 03. 01, 11. 03. 02, or 11. 03. 03, a n d t h e n c e ma k e c a s t i ng acr os s t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n b e t we e n t h e par al l el s of 46 S a n d 48 S, b e i n g t o wa r d s t h e mo r e S' l y of t he s e l a t i t ude s i n Ma r c h , a n d t o wa r d s t h e mo r e N' l y i n Au g u s t , as f ar as 112 W; f r o m wh i c h p o s i t i o n s t e e r as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e f or de s t i na t i on, b e a r i n g i n mi n d t h e N- g o i n g c u r r e n t r u n n i n g u p t he wh o l e W coas t of S o u t h Ame r i c a . 55 11. 03. 05. Ade l a i de , Me l b o u r n e or Ho ba r t t o San Fr a nc i s c o or Br i t i s h Co l u mb i a . Pr o c e e d t o 48 30' S, 166 30' E, S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d s ( 11. 03. 04) a n d t h e n c e ma k e f or 41 S, 138 W, k e e p i n g a b o u t 60 mi l e s N of t h e d i r e c t l i ne t o t hi s pos i t i on i n S e p t e mb e r , a n d 60 mi l e s S of i t i n Ma r c h . F r o m 41 S, 138 W, p r o c e e d t o 30 S, 124 W, a n d f r o m t hi s pos i t i on ma k e n e a r l y N t h r o u g h t he S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s , c r os s i ng t he e q u a t o r i n 116 W. 60 Af t e r p i c k i n g u p t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e s i n a b o u t 10 N, s t e e r f or 30 N, 131 o W, i n No v e mb e r a n d De c e mb e r , a n d i n J u n e a n d J u l y f or 30 N, 136 W. At o t h e r t i mes , cr os s 30 N b e t we e n t he s e pos i t i ons . F r o m t h e par al l el of 30 N, p r o c e e d as d i r e c t t o d e s t i n a t i o n as t h e pr e va i l i ng W' l y wi n d s a n d t h e SE- g o i n g c u r r e n t , wh i c h cr os s es t h e t r a c k at a r a t e of 20 t o 30 mi l e s a day, wi l l al l ow. See al so 11. 129, wh i c h j o i n s t hi s r o u t e s oon a f t e r c r os s i ng t h e e qua t or . 65 11. 03. 06. Me l b o u r n e t o Ne w Ze a l a nd. I f t he wi n d i s W' l y o n d e p a r t u r e , s t e e r t o pa s s Ro d o n d o I s l a n d a n d t h e n N of Ke n t Gr o u p . T h e n , f or p o r t s o n t h e E s i de of S o u t h I s l a nd, s t e e r S of Sn a r e s I s l a n d s a n d t h e n c e t o de s t i na t i on. F o r We l l i n g t o n , s t eer , d i r e c t f or Co o k St r a i t . 70 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 202 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES For Auckland, steer for Three Kings Islands, and thence round the N point of New Zealand to Auckland. If, on leaving Port Philip, the wind should blow from the E it may be desirable to run to the S, passing W of Ki ng Island, and then proceed along the W coast of Tasmania, being prepared for the prevailing W' l y or SW' l y winds, when this coast becomes a dangerous lee shore, see 11.03.02. Having rounded the outlying dangers off the S coast of Tasmania, proceed to destination as above. 11.03.07. Ade l a i de or Me l b o u r n e t o Sy dne y . If the wind is favourable for Bass Strait, first steer for Rodondo Island, passing about 20 miles S of Cape Otway if bound from Adelaide. Havi ng passed Rodondo Island and Kent Group, steer for a position about 20 miles SE of Rame Head and make Gabo Island or the land in the vicinity of Cape Howe; but if it is blowing hard from the S, a more E' l y course should be steered to avoid Ni net y Mile Beach, from Corner Inlet for 150 miles, or nearly to Cape Howe, which would then be a dangerous lee shore. From a position E of Cape Howe, steer to the N along the E coast for Port Jackson at such distance from the land as the wind and weather would suggest, bearing in mi nd that the current generally sets to the S at a distance of 20 to 60 miles from the land. If on leaving Adelaide or Melbourne, there should be an E' l y wind, it might be desirable to run to the S, instead of taking Bass Strait; if from Melbourne, passing between Cape Otway and Ki ng Island. Thence proceed down the W coast of Tasmania, giving it a good berth, see 11.03.02. Havi ng rounded the outlying dangers S of Tasmania, steer a N' l y course, following the directions given above. ROUTES FROM S YDNEY 11.04. S y d n e y t o s o ut he r n Aus t ral i a and Ne w Ze al and 11.04.01. S y d n e y t o Me l b o u r n e or Ade l ai de . When proceeding S from Sydney, keep at between 20 and 60 miles from the coast, so as to derive the full benefit of the S-going current. To make the passage via Bass Strait, follow the directions in 10.160. if the wind permits. To make the passage S of Tasmania, reverse the directions for that route given in 11.03.07. 11.04.02. S y d n e y t o Hobart . On entering Storm Bay from the E, stand over towards Cape Frederick Hendrick, and steer thence along the NE coast of Bruny Island for the entrance to River Derwent. In working against a NW wind work up along the same coast, to avoid the strong outset from Frederick Henry Bay. If, when off Betsey Island, the wind should blow from the NW so as to prevent a vessel from working into River Derwent, good anchorage may be obtained either in Adventure Bay or Frederick Henry Bay. In calms or light winds vessels may, if necessary, anchor with a stream or kedge in Storm Bay until they get a breeze. 11.04.03. S y d n e y t o Auc kl a nd. There are two routes, according to time of year, though it is sometimes possible to make a direct course to sight and to pass 10 miles N of Three Kings Islands, and thence around Nort h Cape. Sailing ships not having a commanding breeze, should not attempt to pass S of Three Kings Islands. From Sept ember to April proceed to 30 S, 170 E and thence to Auckland. From May to August, take a more S' l y route, through 35 S, 170 E. 11.04.04. S y d n e y t o We l l i ng t o n. Take as direct a route as possible to Cook Strait, noting that the best time of year for this passage is October to February. 11.04.05. S y d n e y t o Port Ch a l me r s or adj acent port s. Steer S of Snares Islands, as described in 11.05.01, and then proceed as directly as possible to destination. The passage round the SW end of South Island and through Foveaux Strait is also possible, but it is not recommended. 11.05. S y d n e y to we s t coas t s of t he Ame r i c a s 55 11.05.01. S y d n e y t o Cabo de Hor nos . At all seasons and from whatever quarter the wind may blow, it is advis- able on leaving Port Jackson to proceed to the S rather than to the N of New Zealand. Advantage therefore should be taken of the most favourable winds for either passing S of Snares Islands and Auckland Islands, to join the route described in 11.02.03 or, if baffled by S' ly winds and favoured by fine weather, the passage through Cook Strait may be taken with advantage, especially from October to February, joining the route (11.14) from 60 Wellington off that port. See also 11.02.04 for an alternative route if passing S of New Zcaland. 70 11.05.02. S y d n e y t o port s o n we s t coas t of Sout h Ame r i c a . Follow the directions in 11.04.03 according to season as far as the meridian of 170 E, and from thence proceed to destination. 11.05.03. S y d n e y t o port s b e t we e n Ta l c a hua no and I qui que. After crossing 170 E (11.05.02), steer to cross the 180th meridian in about 35 S, and the meridian of 150 W between the parallels of 39 S and 43 S, being to the N in November and December, and to the S in April and May. Keep between these two parallels as far as 106 o W, and from that position curve the track gradually N for the port of destination, making due allowance for the N-goi ng current along the coast of South America. The winds will be usually from some S' l y direction. . PACI FI C OCEAN 203 11.05.04. Sydney to ports bet ween Iqul que and Panama. After crossing 170 E (11.05.02), steer to cross the 180th meridian between the parallels of 33 S and 34 S, and cross the ocean on a nearly E' l y course, not going S of 36 S. On reaching the meridian of 100 W, begin to make to the NE through the South-east Trades to destination, making allowance for the N-goi ng set along the coast as far as the equator. 5 11.05.05. Sydney to San Franci sco or British Col umbi a. There are two routes, via Tahiti and via Fiji. To make the passage via Tahiti, pass either N or S of New Zealand, or through Cook Strait, according to the direction of the wind on leaving; but preferably through Cook Strait. Thence make to the NE so as to cross 30 S in about 160 W, and then N through the South-east Trades, passing closely W of $1es de la Soci6t6. 10 In June, July and August, cross the equator in 148 W, but from October to February in 151 W, steering through the doldrums to 10 N, 143 W, where the North-east Trade Wind should be picked up. Stand through the Trade Wi nd towards 30 N, 152 W, and from this position, where the W' l y winds should begin to be felt, make as directly as possible for destination. From November to February, the turn to the E can usually be made in about 33 N, but in August stand N to 40 N before turning towards the land. Allowance must be 15 made for a current setting SE and S more and more strongly as the Uni t ed States coast is approached. It is also felt off the coast of British Columbia, but is there complicated by tidal streams. See 11.64. To make the passage via Fiji, take the Auckland route (11.04.03) as far as the meridian of 170 E; thence continue E (nothing to the N) as far as 176 E, when course may be altered towards Fiji Islands. If not calling at Fiji, pass E of the group and thence steer due N to cross the equator and the parallel of 18 N 20 on the 180th meridian; thence stand more to the E, to 30 N, 172 W, and then proceed as directly as possible to destination. 11.06. Sydney to, and among, South Pacific i sl ands 11.06.01. Sydney to Tahiti. Follow the directions for the Tahiti route in 11.05.05. 11.06.02. Sydney to Fiji. Follow the directions for the Fiji route in 11.05.05. 25 30 11.06.03. Sydney to other Pacific i sl ands, and amongs t t hem. When bound from the coasts of Australia to islands in the South Pacific Ocean, precise directions cannot be given on account of the irregularity of wind; but, as a general rule, casting must be made S of the Trade Wi nd limits, i.e., in about 32 S. Thi s is, however, liable to interruption, especially between January and April. When on the meridian of the island to which bound, 35 the trade wind may be entered, and the ship sailed well free, as the current will be found setting to windward until near the islands. For all practical purposes of navigation between the various groups of islands, it is important to draw attention to the fact that they lie within the limits of the South-east Trade Wi nd and of the Equatorial Current. For sailing vessels this means a favourable wind and current when proceeding from E to W, excepting with regard to currents dO when within the limits of the Equatorial Counter-current; and a beat to windward against the current and a choppy sea, when bound in the opposite direction. 11.06.04. Sydney to Noume a. Pass between Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef and thence direct. The passage in a sailing vessel varies from 5 to 28 days, and it is seldom made without encountering a gale. 45 11.07. Sydney to Yokohama 11.07.01. General notes. The route changes seasonally both N and S of the equator, the two seasonal routes, changing with the Monsoons, being preferred S of the equator, see 11.07.02 and 11.07.03. N of the equator, the route changes seasonally as directed in 11.07.04. Alternative routes known as the Eastern, Middle, and Western Routes may be taken, see 11.07.05. They do not differ greatly from the other routes. 11.07.02. Duri ng the Nort h- west Mons oon, S of the equator, from November to March, pass between Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef and thence to the N between Recifs d' Entrecasteaux on the E, and Bellona Reef and Chesterfield Reef on the W; thence between Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands, crossing the equator in about 166 E at about 60 miles W of Nauru. 11.07.03. Duri ng the South-east Mons oon, S of the equator, from April to October, on leaving Port Jackson, steer directly to the NE, as far as 157 E; then to the N, between Kenn Reef and Bellona Reef, E of Pocklington Reef, and either through Bougainville Strait or through Pioneer Channel, between Solomon Islands and New Ireland, crossing the equator in about 155 E. 11.07.04. Nor t h of t he equat or , from Januaryt o June steer direct for Yokohama, passing E of Caroline Islands. In July and August, take a more E' l y track, passing about 100 miles W of Marshall Islands, and crossing the meridian of 160 E in 18 N, and steering thence direct to destination. From September to December, a track midway between these two is recommended. 50 55 60 65 70 204 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 11.07.05. Al t e r nat i ve rout es . The Eastern Route is to Norfolk Island, thence to Matthew Island, and N along the meridian of 171 E to the parallel of 11 S, across the equator in 166 E and through the E part of Caroline Islands. The Middle Route is midway between Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef, W of New Caledonia, between Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands, across the equator in 159 E, and through the middle of Caroline Islands. The Western Route is along the meridian of 157 E, as far as 11 S; thence through Bougainville Strait, and across the equator in 153 E, when a direct course may be steered for Yokohama. 10 11.08. S y d n e y t o Ho n g Ko ng 11.08.01. Ge ne r al not es . There are three routes, appropriate to the monsoon periods. 15 20 25 11.08.02. Du r i n g t he No r t h- we s t Mo n s o o n , from October to March, steer midway between Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reel From this position pass N between Bellona Reefs and New Caledonia, and thence between Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands, to the equator in 159 E. Thence steer through the middle of Caroline Islands and pass N of Philippine Islands. The passage may be expected to be made in from 40 to 44 days. 11.08.03. Dur i ng t he first par t of t he Sout h-east Monsoon, from April to June, steer NE as far as the meridian of 157 E and then due N as far as the parallel of 11 S; thence continue through Pioneer Channel, between New Ireland and Bougainville Island, or through Bougainville Strait, crossing the equator in about 153 E. From this position steer to pass through the most W' l y Caroline Islands, and through Balintang Channel to the China Sea. 11.08.04. Th e Tor r e s Strai t Rout e, appropriate to the second part of the South-east Monsoon, and to the South-west Monsoon of the China Sea, may be taken provided the vessel is through Torres Strait before the end of September; if not follow the directions in 11.08.02 or 11.08.03. The Torres Strait Route may be expected 30 to occupy 40 days, and although not free from danger, may be navigated in safety by those with experience amongst coral reefs. The passage from Sydney to Torres Strait is described in 11.09. Directions for the straits and routes in the Eastern Archipelago are given in Chapter 9. In this area, there are several alternative routes between Tort es Strait and Hong Kong, the first being to pass through W&tar Strait and into the Flores Sea, and thence along the 35 N side of the islands and through Sapudi Strait. From Sapudi Strait stand N to pass through Karimata Strait and thence to Hong Kong. The second alternative is to pass round the N end of Ti mor, through Ombai Strait, Savu Sea and Sumba Strait to Alas Strait; thence steer N to pass through Karimata Strait and to the China Sea. Otherwise, a vessel may pass S of Ti mor and Sumba to Alas Strait, but this route leads through a part of the Arafura Sea in which 40 there are many known, and probably many undiscovered, dangers. The third alternative is to steer between Pulau-pulau Aru and Tani mbar Islands to Manipa Strait. Thence pass round the N end of Sulawesi and across the Sulawesi Sea, through Basilan Strait into the Sulu Sea. Pass through Mi ndoro Strait into the China Sea and Hong Kong. 45 11.09. S y d n e y t o Tor r e s Strai t 11.09.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . There are two routes; the Inner Route, which passes inshore of Great Barrier Reefs, and the Out er Route, to seaward of the reefs and through the Coral Sea. The proper time for making 50 either passage under sail is from March to September, during the South-east Monsoon. Large sailing vessels seldom take the Inner route, but small vessels can do so without difficulty. It is not desirable to reach the entrance to Tort es Strait before the beginning of April, in order to avoid the chance of an equinoctial gale, as well as to make sure that the South-east Monsoon has begun in the Arafura Sea. Vessels have left Sydney as late as October, and made their passages; yet, generally speaking, it is much too late; 55 for although the Nort h-west Monsoon does not blow until November, and sometimes later, the calms and light variable winds that precede it protract the passage very much. 11.09.02. I nne r Rout e. Proceed as directly as possible N along coast to Sandy Cape. The prevailing wind off the coast to Sandy Cape being NE' l y from October to April, and W' l y from May to 60 September, the seaman will use his own discretion in getting to the N against the strong S-going current generally running along the coast. The strength of this current is found on the edge of the charted 100 fm (182 m 9) line, from 10 to 30 miles from the coast, and will be avoided by keeping well outside this line. Curtis Channel and Capricorn Channel are the only entrances to the Inner Route from SE; the latter is recommended. For details of these channels and of the Inner Route, see Admiralty Sailing Di rec- 65 tions. 70 11.09.03. Out er Rout e. On leaving Port Jackson, avoid the S-going current by keeping within about 2 miles of the land until a direct course can reasonably be made to 24 S, 157 E. Thence, passing dear E of Cato Bank and Wreck Reef, proceed to 21 10' S, 156 35" E and continue on a NW' l y course, to pass NE of Eastern Fields and Portlock Reefs to Bligh Entrance. P A C I F I C OC E A N 205 11.10. S y d n e y t o Si ngapor e 11.10.01. Rout es. From March to September, the South-east Monsoon period, Torres Strait is used, see 11.09.03. After passing through the strait, proceed by one of the two routes given in 11.08.04 to Karimata Strait, and thence through Riouw Strait to Singapore. Thi s passage may also be made through Selat Gelasa or Selat Bangka instead of Karimata Strait. A third route for March to September, from Torres Strait, is by the third alternative mentioned in 11.08.04, to Basilan Strait and the Sulu Sea; thence through Balabac Strait to the China Sea and Singapore. From November to February, during the North-west Monsoon, steer to the N to pass E of New Guinea, and after meeting NE' l y winds in about 5 N, pass S of Mindanao, through Basilan Strait, Sulu Sea, and Balabac Strait to the China Sea and Singapore. For routes in the Eastern Archipelago, see Chapter 9. 10 ROUTES FROM NEW ZEALAND 11.11. Ne w Ze al and t o Aus t ral i a. In all cases steer to pass through Cook Strait or round the N end of Nort h Island. These passages are always more favourable than round the S end of South Island where W' l y winds prevail. 15 20 11.12. Ne w Ze al and to S y d n e y and port s nor t hwar d. Having cleared Cook Strait or the N end of Nort h Island, proceed as directly as possible if bound for Sydney or Brisbane; if bound for Tortes Strait join the Outer Route (11.09.03) in 24 S, 157 E. To ports N of Brisbane join the Inner Route (11.09.02) in Capricorn Channel. 25 11.13. New Zeal and to s o ut he r n Aus t ral i a. Pass through Bass Strait if wind permits; otherwise S of Tasmania. Then join the routes from Sydney (10.60.02, 10.60.03, 11.04.01). 11.14. Ne w Ze al and t o Cabo de Hor nos . From Auckland, j oi n the trans-ocean route (11.02.03) in about 51 S, 148 W. From Cook Strait, join it in 170 W; from South Island ports, join at the 180th meridian. 11.15. Ne w Ze al and to Sout h Ame r i c a . From Auckland, see 11.05.03 and 11.05.04; from other departures see 11.03.04. These trans-ocean routes should be joined at the nearest position. 30 35 11.16. Ne w Ze al and t o San Fr a nc i s c o or Bri t i s h Co l u mb i a . Steer N so as to get through the Equatorial Trough (7.02 and 7.15) as quickly as possible; this particularly applies in July, August, and September. At all times join the appropriate route from Sydney (11.05.05) as soon as possible. 40 11.17. New Zeal and to Sout h Pacific i sl ands. Make easting S of 40o S to about 165o W if bound for Rarotonga, or to 155 W if bound for Tahi t i ; haul gradually N into the South-east Trade, and then proceed direct. The South-east Trade is tolerably regular among the Samoan, Tonga, Fiji and New Caledonia Islands, from April to October, but from December to March it is very light and uncertain, and NW' l y winds are frequent. Cyclones sometimes pass over these localities from January to March, inclusive. 11.18. Ne w Ze al and t o Chi na Sea or Japan. Steer N to pick up, on the parallel of 30 S, the appropriate route from Sydney. References are for Yokohama, 11.07; for Hong Kong 11.08; for Torres Strait 11.09; for Singapore 11.10. 45 50 55 ROUTES FROM I S LAND GROUPS BETWEEN NEW CALEDONI A AND $LES DE LA SOCII~Tt~ 11.19. I s l ands (as above) t o S y d n e y or s o ut he r n Aus t ral i a. Proceed W on about the parallel of the islands, taking full advantage of the Trade Wi nd and the favourable current; pass about 150 miles S of New Caledonia and then proceed as directly as possible to port, or to Bass Strait if bound to South Australia. For passage through Bass Strait and to Melbourne and Adelaide, see 10.160-10.163; and for passage from Bass Strait to Cape Leeuwin, see 10.164. For route from Tahiti, see 11.28. 11.20. I sl ands (as above ) t o Ne w Ze al and. From islands E of the meridian of 170 W steer W in the Trade Wi nd unt i l that meridian is reached, and thence proceed as directly as possible to destination, bearing i n mi nd that approaching New Zealand a sailing vessel should, especially in winter, keep W, rather than E of the direct route; W' l y winds are likely to be experienced S of the Trade. 60 65 70 I0 206 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 11.21. I s l a n d s ( as a b o v e ) t o Ca b o d e H o r n o s o r E s t r e c h o d e Ma g a l l a n e s . From any of the Pacific islands stand through the Trades to the S and then into the W' l y winds of the S hemisphere; from thence, proceed by great circle to Estrecho de Magatlanes or to round Cabo de Hornos, but do not get to the S of the route from South Africa (11.02). 11.22. I s l a n d s ( as a b o v e ) t o p o r t s b e t w e e n T a l c a h u a n o a n d P a n a ma . Stand through the Trades into the westerlies to pick up the routes from Australia to the required destination in 160 W, or W of that meridian, according to starting point. See 11.03.04, 11.05.03, 11.05.04. From July to October, however, a direct passage S of Archipel des Tuamot u can usually be made, passing Pitcairn Island. 15 20 11.23. I s l a n d s ( as a b o v e ) t o Sa n F r a n c i s c o a n d Br i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Stand S (except from Tahiti) and pick up the route from Sydney via Tahi t i (11.05.05). 11.24. Fi j i t o H o n o l u l u . Stand N through both Trades and into the W' l y winds N of the North-east Trade, from thence making easting to about 155 W, thence proceeding direct. 11.25. Fi j i t o Ta h i t i . Stand through the South-east Trade Wi nd into the westerlies, then run down the easting, re-entering the Trade Wi nd in 150 W. 25 11.26. S a m o a e a s t wa r d . When sailing to the E it will be found an advantage to keep on the S side of the group, where there is not only a favourable current, but the winds will be found more regular and calms less frequent. 30 35 40 11.27. T a h i t i t o H o n o l u l u . Steer to the N to cross the equator in about 147 W, and thence to make the Hawaiian Islands from E, to ensure the breeze. The channel between Moorea and Tahiti should never be used by sailing ships except with steady winds from NE or SW, as these are the only winds that blow through the channel. When there is a fresh breeze from the E to the N of Tahi t i it is generally calm in this channel, and vessels have remained becalmed here for days, whilst a fresh breeze prevailed to seaward. 11.28. T a h i t i t o Au s t r a l i a a n d N e w Ze a l a n d . For Sydney, run with the Trade Wind, steering to pass about 150 miles S of New Caledonia; thence proceed as directly as possible to destination. See 11.19. For Wellington, run with the Trade Wi nd to about 170 W, and thence proceed as di re~l y as possible to destination. See 11.20. 11.29. T o r t e s St r ai t t o S y d n e y . The ocean passage appears not to have been made very often, and like that from Tort es Strait to Sydney by the Inner Route, was formerly considered only practicable i n the North-west 45 Monsoon--from November to February or March. The first object after clearing Tort es Strait, in the Nort h- west Monsoon, will be to take advantage of W' l y winds for making casting, looking upon immediate progress to the S as of secondary importance. I n the North-west Monsoon, leave Tort es Strait by Great Nort h East Channel, and having cleared Eastern Fields, take every advantage of W' l y breezes and try to reach a position in about 15 S, 156 E, keeping an especial 50 look-out when proceeding E of the route, into the unexplored area N of Mellish Reef (17 25" S, 155 51" E). Having attained the meridian of 156 E, and thus probably far enough to the E to take advantage of the South- east Trade, haul on a wind on the port tack and try to fetch Mellish Reef; great caution is necessary when in the neighbourhood of this reef, and there is generally a strong W-goi ng set to guard against. Pass, if the wind permit, between Kenn Reef and Wreck Reef on the E side, and Frederick Reef and Saumarez Reef on the W side. 55 If there is too much southing in the prevailing South-east Trade Wi nd to weather Frederick Reef, pass W of it, and between Saumarez Reef and Swain Reefs, when a S-going current will probably enable a vessel to weather Sandy Cape, care being taken to avoid Breaksea Spit and the shoal near its E edge. As a rule a vessel should be so sailed as to close the intermediate passage reefs in the day-time, to take a fresh departure, as the current between Saumarez Reef and Swain Reef may otherwise seriously affect the vessel's 60 reckoning. From Sandy Cape proceed for Sydney by keeping the mainland in sight, to take advantage of the S -going current. R O U T E S F R O M S I N GA P OR E A N D E A S T E R N A R C H I P E L A G O 65 11. 30. S i n g a p o r e t o S y d n e y 11.30.01. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s . From Singapore, near and during the period of change from the South-east Monsoon to the North-west Monsoon (about October), sailing vessels may be five and six weeks i n making the 70 passage from Singapore to Selat Bangka. PACI FI C OCEAN 207 11.30.02. Di rect i ons. From November to February the route is taken through Torres Strait. Leaving Singapore in the North-west Monsoon, between mi d-November and mid-February, proceed through Selat Bangka or Karimata Strait, and enter the Indi an Ocean by Lombok Strait or Alas Strait, after passing through Sapudi Strait. Having reached the Indi an Ocean, steer to pass N or S of Ti mor and thence to Torres Strait. See also 10.120. Continue as directed in 11.29. From April to October, follow the directions in 10.57.07 through Sunda Strait into the W' l y winds, and t hen pass S of Australia and through Bass Strait to Sydney. See 10.01.03, 10.01.07, 11.03.07. 11.31. Si ngapor e t o Mo l u k k a Ar c hi pe l a g o 11.31.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . The passage should be made S of Borneo in the North-east Monsoon and N of Borneo i n the South-west Monsoon. 10 11.31.02. F r o m Oc t obe r t o May, when the North-east Monsoon blows N of the equator, and the North-west 15 Monsoon S of it, proceed through Karimata Strait passing E of Ontario Reef (2 00" S, 108 39" E). On leaving the strait, steer to pass 10 to 15 miles S of Karang Mi an and about 10 miles S of Masalembo Besar; thence proceed to Saleier Strait as directly as possible. After clearing Saleier Strait, Ambon is easily reached by passing S of Batu Ata and Binongko; if bound to the Ceram Sea, first round the S point of Buton and then, after skirting the shore of that island, and having passed 20 Wangi Wangi Islands, steer N as far as Wowoni Island. Thence run for the S point of Sanana (2 28" S, 126 03" E) and thence into the Ceram Sea. The currents i n this locality set to the S and are very strong. If a vessel has been set to leeward of the N poi nt of Buru Island, it is best to pass to the S of that island, and then through Mani pa Strait to the Ceram Sea. 25 11.31.03. Fr om May to Sept ember , when the South-west Monsoon blows N ofthe equator, and the South-east Monsoon S of it, run S of Anambas Kepul auan and then between Royal Charlotte Reef and Louisa Reef, taking care to avoid the dangerous shoals bordering the Borneo coast, and also of being set to leeward of Pulau Balambangan by the N-going current which prevails in the South-west Monsoon. Having made Pulau Balam- bangan, haul round its N point, and steer through Balabac Strait into the Sulu Sea, then through Si but u Passage 30 or one of the passages of the Sulu Archipelago, cross the Sulawesi Sea for the N point of Sulawesi, and then work S through the Molukka Sea. For an alternative route as far as Balabac Strait during the South-west Monsoon, see 11.32.03. Directions for the straits and channels in the Eastern Archipelago are given in Chapter 10. See 7.113 for currents in Palawan Passage. 35 11. 32. Si ngapor e t o Sul u Sea 11.32.01. Ge ne r al r e ma r ks . I n Singapore Strait, E-bound, follow in reverse the directions given in 10.39. ' The main route is via Balabac Strait, to which the passage is varied according to season; the passage may also be made by proceeding S through Karimata Strait or Selat Gelasa, through the Java Sea, and to the N through Makassar Strait, but this is not recommended except in October and November. 40 11.32.02. Fr om Oct ober t oMay, during the North-east Monsoon, the rout ei svi a Balabac Strait. In December, 45 January, and February, do not leave Singapore Strait in strong NE winds, but anchor on the N shore, under Pulau Che Kamat. In those months gales often occur with thick weather, the rain lasting two or three days and the SSE-going current outside attains a rate of 2 or 3 knots. A vessel leaving the strait then, instead of fetching Pedjantan, would fall bodily to leeward, and have to work up the W coast of Borneo. Fi ne weather follows, with the wind backing round to N and NW; and the current in the offing decreases in strength to about 1 50 knots. Having obtained the fine weather, the first object should be to pass through the channel between Nat una Kepulauan and Subi Kepul auan (3 03" N, 108 5I" E) or, if this proves impossible or difficult, to use one of the passages to the S. To pass through the channel between Nat una Kepulauan and Subi Kepulauan a vessel should leave the 55 anchorage off Pulau Che Kamat with the first of the ebb, and keep clean full. She should then steer to the NE to go through the channel between Subi Ketjil, which is lighted, and Bunguran, passing S of Midai Island, a passage that may be made i n these months without much difficulty, especially at full and change, when, it is stated, the wind, after a few hours calm, frequently shifts to the W with squalls and rain, and then hauls round to SW and S, blowing moderately for 24 hours. By taking advantage of these changes Subi Kepul auan may be 60 easily weathered. If after arriving in the vicinity of Midai Island, nearly in the fairway SW of Bunguran, the wind continues E' ly, steer to the N on the starboard tack, passing W of Midai Island, and keeping not less than 3 miles from its SW side to avoid the shoal water extending 2 miles from it. Pass about 5 miles W of Ti mau (3 18' N, 107 34" E), as the coral reefs about that island extend fully 3 miles from its SW side, with least known depths of 7 m. Vessels 65 are not recommended to pass between Ti mau and Midai Island, on account of Diana Reefs, which extend some 14 miles N of Midai. There would be no danger, however if the wind permits of a vessel laying through, and passing 4 or 5 miles S of Ti mau and Karang Sedirnin (3 24" N, 107 50" E), thus giving a wide berth to Di ana Reefs, provided those objects are available for cross bearings. The channel S of Midai Island is preferable if ~ vessel can lay through. 70 208 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S If bearing up, after passing Ti mau there will be no difficulty in working towards the S point of Bunguran, as that island, when approached from the SW, shelters against the strong SW-going current of the Monsoon. Off its S coast at night, in fine weather, the wind is off the land, but the S and SE coasts should not be approached nearer than 6 or 7 miles, on account of the off-lying dangers. 5 If fetching to leeward of Subi Kepulauan with a N' l y wind take Koti Passage, between Pulau Pandjang and Serasan Group. Serasan Passage is also safe when either side is kept aboard, to avoid Haynes Shoal, the 6 m 4 patch in the fairway. The current among these islands is more regular than in Api Passage, where it sets in various directions, and with considerable velocity to the SW from 16 to 19 hours at a time; for large vessels any of the other passages are preferable to this, as great caution and perseverance are requisite in working through. When 10 using it, keep the Borneo coast aboard, in depths of from 18 m to 20 m, to avoid the current and to profit by the land winds. See directions for Api passage, below. I n taking Koti Passage give Pulau Pandjang a good berth to avoid the reef which surrounds it, and extending off its SW end. The winds amongst these islands and as far E as the meridian of Tanj ong Sirik are generally from N to NNW. The passage cleared, proceed to the NE; endeavouring, if not certain of the longitude, to make 15 Royal Charlotte Reef or Luisa Reef, whichever is the weathermost, by runni ng on its parallel of latitude; and as the currents appear to be influenced by the prevailing winds, a set in the direction in which it is blowing should be anticipated, the velocity of the current being proportionate to the force of the wind. Having made either Royal Charlotte Reef or Louisa Reef, or passing in mid-channel between them, steer to the E for about 100 miles towards Balabac Strait, and through it to the Sulu Sea. See Admiralty Sailing Directions for the W approaches to, 20 and passage through Balabac Strait. When approaching Api Passage from W, especially when working against the North-east Monsoon, a vessel may gain by keeping close to the Borneo coast, as favourable tidal streams may be found near the shore when a strong current is runni ng S in the offing. For directions, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Burung Kepulauan may be boldly approached from W; large sailing vessels had better pass outside them, but 25 smaller craft may often, with advantage, pass between them. 11.32.03. Fr om May to Sept ember , during the South-west Monsoon, first proceed to Api Passage as described below and thence, with a fair wind, parallel with the Borneo coast, as far as Balabac Strait, and thence into the Sulu Sea. 30 Directions from Singapore to Tandj ung Api are as follows: As far as the E entrance to Singapore Strait, the tidal streams are tolerably regular, but some miles off-shore a current will be found setting about NNW in the South-west Monsoon; its greatest strength will be experienced between Pulau Ti oman and Anambas Kepulauan. I n order to obviate the effect of this set or current, it is considered prudent to make good the course for Pulau 35 Mendarik (1 20" N, 107 02" E) from Singapore Strait, by which, should light airs prevail, the option will be afforded of steering either between Pengibu and Kaju Ara, or S of Kaju Ara, thus avoiding Acasta Rock. On leaving Kaju Ara, shape course, allowing for a N' l y set, to pass well S of Muri Islets and then keep Saint Pierre Light, whilst in sight, bearing 255 , which will lead about 2 miles S of Merundung Rock. Banggi South Channel and Malawali Channel between Banggi and Borneo are sometimes used by vessels 40 navigating to the ports on the NE coast of Borneo; they are somewhat intricate and demand careful navigation, being for the greater part bounded by dangers. Balabac Mai n Channel is recommended i n preference to either of these channels, being considered much safer. See Admiralty Sailing Directions for a description and directions for these channels. I n October and November, only, an alternative route via Makassar Strait may be taken. A vessel should proceed ,/5 S to pass through Selat Gelasa or Karimata Strait, and thence E through the Java Sea to Makassar Strait, there joining the "Fi rst Eastern Passage" (10.47) and following it to the Sulu Sea. 50 55 11. 33. Si ng a po r e t o Ma ni l a 11.33.01. F r o m Oc t obe r t o May, during the North-east Monsoon, follow the directions given in 11.32.02 as far as the entrance to Balabac Strait, and continue thence to the N by Palawan Passage, between the charted 100 fathom (182 m 9) line W of Palawan Island and that of the off-lying foul ground; a channel about 40 miles i n width, except towards the S end, where, between Royal Captain Shoal and the edge of Palawan Bank, it is 28 miles wide. Thi s is the most dangerous part of the channel. From the N end of Palawan Passage, in about 11 N, work to the N to Manila, hugging the coast by short boards when possible. See 7.113 for currents in Palawan Passage. 11.33.02. Fr om June to Oct ober, during the South-west Monsoon, follow the directions given in 11.32.03 60 to Tandj ung Api, and then proceed directly along the coast and through Palawan Passage ~vith a fair wind to destination. Or as an alternative route, pass S of Anambas Kepulauan and Bunguran and between Royal Charlotte Reef and Louisa Reef, to pick up the Palawan route off Balabac Strait. When working through Palawan Passage and having conformed with the directions given for making the SW end of Palawan, in fine weather try to make in-shore boards in the afternoon, for the sun then being astern 65 of the vessel, the patches lying near the edge of the bank will generally be distinguished from the masthead i n ample time to tack. I n squally weather, also during heavy rains, these patches have been observed imparting a very distinct yellowish hue to the surface of the water. It is most desirable to get soundings before dark in order that a good departure may be made for the night. On making the inshore board, be prepared to tack immediately on getting the first indication of the shore bank, on which a vessel is likely to come suddenly into soundings. 70 See 7.113 for currents in Palawan Passage. PACI FI C OCEAN 209 When approaching the islands in the vicinity of Balabac and Palawan, if the wind be well to the S and the weather thick, Balabac Island may be approached near enough to obtain a good observation of the land; but caution is necessary not to go within 12 miles of it, as soundings of 48 m and 37 m extend that distance off, in a W' l y direction from the peak, having shoal patches immediately inside them. If the wind be to the W, with thick cloudy weather, Balabac Island should not be approached nearer than 30 miles, as W' l y winds usually 5 force a strong E-going current through the passages. Off the SW end of Palawan, it is not unusual, particularly in squalls, for the wind to veer to WNW, and some- times NW, blowing with violence, and placing the vessel on a lee shore with respect to the shoals inside the edge of the bank. Thi s weather generally prevails off Palawan about September and October, rendering it uncertain and difficult to make the narrowest part of the channel, owing to the land being obscured. 10 11.34. Si ngapore to Hong Kong 11.34.01. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon, a route similar to the Main Route for powered vessels (7.113), 15 except that it passes initially between Anambas Kepulauan and Bunguran, may be used, although it i~ not strongly recommended. Duri ng the strength of the North-east Monsoon, use Palawan Passage (11.33.01 ) as far as the N end of Palawan Island; then work up the coast of Luzon as far as Cape Bolinao or even Cape Bojeador. Among t he island groups N of Luzon no continuous strong breezes will be experienced at all comparable, either in force or consequent 20 high seas, with those which prevail between Cape Bolinao and Hong Kong. But see notes on Pratas Reefs (11.47.01) and T' ai -wan Strait (11.50.01). A route through Selat Gelasa or Karimata Strait, the Java Sea, Saleier Strait, and the Banda Sea, to join the Second Eastern Passage (10.46), affords a leading or fair wind and favourable currents nearly throughout. 11.34.02. Bet ween the Monsoons, a route on the W side of the China Sea is recommended, passing along the Malay coast to Pulau Redang; thence along the coast of Vietnam to 16 N; coastwise off the E side of Hai-nan and inshore of Ch' i -chou tao (19 58" N, 111 16' E) to make the mainland coast about Ti en-pai (21 30' N, 111 14" E). Approaching Hong Kong, try to make Ta-wan shah bearing about 000 , then steer between it and W' en-wei chou, of Chia-peng ch' fin-tao ; thence between Wai-ling-ting and Li -ma ch' fm-tao, and through Lema Channel into West Lamma Channel. After the middle of August, when E' l y winds are likely to prevail for several days together (as also at other times of the year), it will be necessary to make the NE end of Li -ma ch' fin-tao and proceed in by Lema Channel to West Lamma Channel. East Lamma Channel is also safe in both monsoons. Note that NE'Iy and YV'ly gales blowing out of the Gulf of Tong King, with dark weather and rain, have been experienced on this route, causing danger of being driven among the Paraccl Islands, but such gales arc not frequent and the land should bc kept in sight, for smoothcr seas and the availability of anchorage. 25 30 35 40 11.34.03. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon (May to September) the Main Route for powered vessels (7.113) is appropriate except that the vessel should be taken between Anambas Kepulauan and Bunguran if the monsoon has not settled in. The route on the W side of the China Sea (11.34.02) may also be used during the earlier part of the South-west Monsoon. 45 Duri ng the latter part of the South-west Monsoon, a route through Palawan Passage is recommended, observ- ing that at this time of year a N-bound route in the W part of the China Sea is hampered by strong S-going currents in the vicinity of $1es Catwick (9 59" N, 109 05" E), with light N' l y winds, variable airs, or calms. Steer N of Pengibu (1 35" N, 106 35" E) and between Bunguran and Subi Kepulauan, and thence as directed for Palawan Passage in 11.33.01. 50 11.35. Si ngapore to ports nort h of Hong Kong 11.35.01. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon, proceed by the Palawan Passage Route (11.34.01) as far as Cape Bolinao; then continue to work up the coast of Luzon and through Balintang Channel. Proceed thence off the E coast of Tai -wan and to destination. The alternative route during the North-east Monsoon is via Karimata Strait and the Second Eastern Passage, as directed in 11.34.01. 11.35.02. Near the change of Mons oon, the inner route (11.34.02) may be taken as far as Hong Kong, except during the latter part of the South-west Monsoon; and thence along the coast of China to destination. 11.35.03. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon (except the latter part) take one of the routes advised in 11.34.03 as far as Hong Kong, and thence continue along the China coast to destination. In the latter part of this Monsoon, use the Palawan Passage route. 55 60 65 I 1.36. Si ngapore to Sai gon 210 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S 11.36.01. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon, the winds in Singapore Strait are between SE and W, and sailing vessels will have no difficulty in getting through to the E. Havi ng cleared the strait, steer to pass W of Archipel de Poulo Condore, and thence along the edge of the bank fronting the mouths of Le M6 Kong, extending to the mout h of Rivi~re de Sa'igon. 5 Strong freshets run out of these rivers during the South-west Monsoon, and join the NE-goi ng current, whereby vessels are obliged to keep the edge of the bank aboard to prevent being set to leeward of Mui Vung Tou ( 10 19" N, 107 05" E) . Keep sounding continuously while steering along the edge of the bank, so as to remain in depths of not less than 18 m. If the water begins to shoal, haul off to the E, when it will soon deepen, as the depths are fairly regular. Continue along the edge of the bank in these depths until Mui Vung Tou bears less than 030 , 10 when course may be steered as requisite for the Saigon pilot. 11.36.02. Duri ng the North-east Monsoon, steer as directed in 11.32.02 until clear of Natuna Kepulauan, and then steer NE until reaching the meridian of 112 E; after which stand across the China Sea to make Mui Vung Tou, or preferably the land to windward of that cape, to avoid being set to leeward by the prevailing 15 current. From 7 N until about 70 miles E of the mouths of Le M6 Kong, a strong current will be found setting to the SW governed considerably by the prevailing winds, for when strong gales blow in the early part of this monsoon, the SW-going current is stronger, and often runs at a rate of 3 knots. The tidal streams are regular, and set strong near the Vietnam coast during both monsoons. 20 In the latter part of March and April an E' l y wind is often found E of Anambas Kepulauan that will take a vessel to Archipel de Poulo Condore; thence work to Mui Vung Tou, W of that island, keeping towards the Vietnam coast, which is very low, and can seldom be seen at night. From abreast the mouths of Le M6 Kong, the ebb stream will be found setting to windward, greatly assisting vessels standing inshore; but they should not stand near these mouths during the flood stream, and on no account 25 shoal the water to less than 22 m in the night. Sounding should never be neglected when standing towards this low land, which may be seen from a distance of about 10 miles in clear weather. The Nort h-east Monsoon often blows very strong on the parallel of Iles Catwick, and between t hem and the Vietnam coast, in December, January, February and sometimes in March, continuing for two or three days with a heavy sea and strong current, the sky being generally thick and hazy throughout. A gradual rise in the barometer 30 is a sure indication of an increase in the strength of the monsoon. If the monsoon proves too strong to contend with bear up for Archipel de Poulo Condore, where good shelter will be found, and anchor. At about 90 miles from the coast, the wind in settled weather usually hauls to ENE and E at about 1600, continuing all night fresh and puffy. Thi s is the time to stand inshore, and although as far to leeward as the meridian of Mui Vung Tou, with the ebb tide under the lee, the vessel will be to windward of Muy Ky Van 35 ( I 0 22" N , 107 16" E) in the morning. 40 11.37. Si ngapore to Bangkok 11.37.01. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon, winds between SE and W prevail in Singapore Strait, and therefore sailing vessels will have no difficulty in making to the E. Having cleared the strait, shape course for Pulau Redang, and thence keep the W shore of the Gul f of Thai l and aboard, passing inside Ko Losin and Koh Krah. 45 11.37.02. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon, follow the directions given in 11.32.02 until clear of Nat una Kepulauan, and then proceed NE to the meridian of 111 or 112 E. Thi s can be done easily, as the wi nd is invariably from N to NNW as far as the meridian of Tanj ong Sirik, when it generally veers to the NE. Then stand across the China Sea to Hon Khoai. Little or no current will be experienced until the parallel of 6 N or 7 N is gained; then it will be found setting strongly to the SW, governed to a large extent by the prevailing winds. 50 In April and May the best passages to the Gul f of Thailand are made by keeping the Malay coast aboard; but expect squalls, calms and rain; a weak current begins to set to the NE about this period. 55 60 70 11.38. Eastern Archi pel ago to China. Generally, the various routes, according to season, are described in articles 10.30-10.51. Passing N, through the straits to the W of Borneo, usually May to September, take the Mai n Route, or the route on the W side of the China Sea (11.34.03). Between November and April, the Second Eastern Passage (10.46) is recommended. The First Eastern Passage (10.47) can be considered but the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. ROUTES FROM BANGKOK OR SAi GON 11.39. Bangkok or Sal gon to Hong Kong and northward 11.39.01. Dur i ng the North-east Mons oon (November to April), to attempt to work N, especially in the full strength of the monsoon, is so certain to be tedious that vessels are advised to stand S to Natuna Kepulauan to join the Palawan Passage route (11.35.01) ; or, near the change of monsoon, to take the coastwise route (11.34.02) if bound to Hong Kong; if bound to ports N of Hong Kong either of these routes is possible but consideration should be given to a route embodying the Second Eastern Passage, see 11.34.01. PACI FI C OCEAN 211 11.39.02. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon, if from Bangkok, follow generally the directions given in 11.34.03 or 11.35.03. 11.40. Bangkok to Si ngapore 11.40.01. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon (November to April), the passage from Bangkok S through the Gul f of Thai l and will often be shortened by sighting ~lot Kusrovie (11 07" N, 102 46" E) and passing inshore of Koh Tang. Thence keep well E of Poulo Panjang, and if bound to Singapore steer well out to sea for a quick passage. Pass about 20 miles E of Pulau Tenggol and E of Pulau Aur; see also 11.43.01. 11.40.02. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon (May to September), keep the W shore of the Gul f of Thai l and aboard, passing inside Perhentian Islands and Pulau Redang, Pulau Kapas and Pulau Tenggol. S of Pulau Kapas, keep inshore to avoid the current, passing inside Pulau Ti oman, Pulau Sribuat, and Pulau Sibu; thence proceed to Singapore Strait, taking advantage of the tidal streams and the land and sea breezes which prevail duri ng settled weather in this monsoon. The inshore channel extending from Pulau Sibu to Pulau Sribuat, and formed by a chain of islands and rocks parallel with the mainland, is a good and safe one, having but few hidden dangers, and good anchorage all the way through. 5 10 15 20 11.41. Sai gon to Si ngapore 11.41.01. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon, from a position off Mui Vung Tou, shape a course to pass E of Archipel de Poulo Condore, and thence direct to make Pulau Aur. From Pulau Aur to Singapore proceed accord- 25 ing to directions as from Hong Kong (11.43.01). 11.41.02. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon (May to September), either the direct route or a route E of Natunas Kepulauan may be taken. The latter is probably the better. On the direct route, many good passages have been made by keeping the Vietnam coast aboard as far as 30 Les Deux Fr~res, W of Archipel de Poulo Condore, or Hon Khoai, and then crossing the Gul f of Thai l and with a strong NW' Iy wind unt i l the Malay coast is reached. From Pulau Kapas (5 10" N) follow the directions given in 11.40.02, Bangkok to Singapore, in this monsoon. Alternatively, the passage E of Bunguran is considered, generally speaking, to be better, especially for large vesseJs. 35 After making departure from Mui Vung Tou, steer to the SW until the South-west Monsoon forces the vessel off to a more SE' ly course. Thi s may be accomplished by taking every advantage of the N and NE winds, which frequently blow at night, and in some parts of the day, within a short distance of the coast. These local winds often carry vessels 40 or 50 miles SW of Archipel de Poulo Condore without any interruption. While standing to the SE the full strength of the NE-going current will be met with in the neighbourhood of 40 Charlotte Bank; it gradually decreases and becomes slightly favourable when NE of Bunguran. I n this locality SE' ly and E' l y winds will generally be met with, and fast sailing vessels frequently pass through the channel between Subi Kepul auan and Midai Islands, and into Singapore Strait. There is a light on Subi Kechil, on the S side of the channel between Subi Kepulauan and Bunguran; this channel is safe for all classes of vessel. Strong W' l y winds, with rain, frequently blow during the early part of this monsoon, and may force vessels E 45 to about 111 30' E. When this is the case, make for Api Passage (11.32.02) keeping the NW coast of Borneo aboard from Tandj ung Api to the S unt i l Burung Kepulauan are reached. Thi s will be accomplished without difficulty, for strong land and sea breezes prevail, and the current is weaker near the coast. (Many vessels, through leaving the coast of Borneo too soon, have fetched no higher than Pulau Aur or Pulau Tioman). Leaving Burung Kepulauan, pass either N or S of Tambel an Kepulauan. If the wind is scant from the SW 50 after leaving these islands, try to make Mapor Island, off the E side of Bintan Island. The current in the offing runs strongly to the N and through Api Passage. Vessels coming through this passage should keep the N side, when possible, towards Merundung Island, and should keep in depths of more than 24 m on the S side between Tandj ung Datu and Tandj ung Api; the latter point has shoals steep-to at 1 miles off, but beyond that distance there is not less than 9 m between it and Tandj ung Datu. Vessels should be 55 ready to anchor in the passage or off any other part of the coast, as the tidal streams are greatly influenced by the current, which often changes without warning. ROUTES FROM PORTS IN CHINA 11.42. Chi na or Japan to Indi an Ocean 60 11.42.01. Summa r y. Directions for the principal passages most frequently used by sailing vessels are given elsewhere in this book. References are as follows : 68 Mai n route, 10.49, 10.50, 10.51. Eastern Archipelago to Indi an Ocean, 10.115-10.125. Hong Kong to Singapore, 11.42.06 and 11.43. Shang-hai to the S, 11.53. Manila to Sa'/gon, 11.59. 70 212 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES Manila to Hong Kong, 11.60. Manila to Indian Ocean and Australia, 11.63. 11.42.02. Th e We s t e r n Rout e (10.49) passes through the China Sea to the W of the Philippine Islands and of Borneo to Sunda Strait through the Eastern Archipelago either direct, or via Singapore; the selection of which alternative to follow depends to a great degree on the final destination to be reached. 10 11.42.03. Th e Eas t ern Rout e (10.50) passes E of the Philippine Islands, and then via Djailolo Passage, or the Molukka Sea into the Ceram Sea and the Banda Sea. Thence it continues to Ombai Strait, or to one of the central passages (Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait). If bound to Torres Strait the passage from the Banda Sea would be as described in 11.44, Hong Kong to Tort es Strait, and Port Darwin. 15 11.42.04. Th e Cent ral Rout e (10.51) passes W of the Philippine Islands through Sulu Sea and Basilan Strait, E of Borneo through Makassar Strait, and thence to one of the central passages (Alas Strait, Lombok Strait, or Bali Strait). Alternatively a vessel, after leaving Makassar Strait, may stand W through the Java Sea to enter the Indian Ocean through Sunda Strait. 20 11.42.05. Choi ce o f rout e. Of the three principal routes, Western, Eastern, and Central, the Western and Central are used by vessels from ports on the S coast of China; the Central Route also for vessels S-bound from Manila and the S part of the Philippine Islands, or the E part of Borneo. The Eastern Route is used by vessels from ports in the N part of China, or from Japan, also from ports in the S part of China during the South-west Monsoon. 11.42.06. Se as onal var i at i on of rout es f r o m port s i n s o ut he r n Chi na. From Sept ember to February, .25 during the Nort h-east Monsoon, pass between Macclesfield Bank and Paracel Islands, then about 60 miles E of ~les Catwick (borrowing to the E where the winds are more favourable), and between Anambas Kepulauan and Nat una Kepulauan to Selat Bangka or Selat Gelasa; thence continue to Sunda Strait. In March, April, and early May, after leaving the coast of China, stand over to the coast of Luzon and proceed through Palawan Passage, along the coast of Borneo, through Api Passage, past Pengiki Besar Island and through 30 Karimata Strait; then close round Djaga Utara and direct to Sunda Strait. On this route E' l y winds, without calms, but with fine weather, and a smooth sea are likely to be experienced. Alternatively, at the end of April or the beginning of May, stand towards Macclesfield Bank and then follow the Central Route (11.42.04) by standing SE to join it at Verde Island Passage or Mindoro Strait. From the middle of May till the end of July, cross the China Sea and pass through Balintang Channel to join 35 the Eastern Route (11.42.03). In August, stand towards Hai-nan tao, cross the Gul f of Tongking, and work down the coast of Vietnam with the land and sea breezes, as far as Cap Varella or Mui Dinh. Then cross to the coast of Borneo, tacking as necessary to clear any reefs, and work along that coast and through Karimata Strait or Selat Gelasa to Sunda Strait. 40 11. 43. Ho n g Ko ng t o Si ngapor e 11.43.01. I n t he Nor t h- e as t Mo ns o o n, from October to March, steer to pass between Macclesfield Bank and 45 Paracel Islands, and thence to pass E or W of Poulo Cecir de Met and ~les Catwick. Thence, passing W of Char- lotte Bank and Anambas Kepulauan, steer to make Pulau Aur. Departing from Pulau Aur, bring it to bear about 360 , and steer S until Horsburgh Li ght is sighted. When making the entrance to Singapore Strait, steer for Horsburgh Light, making allowance for the set of the stream, so as to pass from 1 to 2 miles N of it. 50 In slightly hazy weather, with Pulau Aur disappearing astern, bearing 360 or less, steer a course between 192 and 204 which may be requisite if the RE-goi ng stream is setting out of Singapore Strait. The depths will decrease regularly in steering to the S, and the low land will probably be seen to the W when in depths of from 33 m to 37 m; if so, coast along it at a distance of about 13 miles, until Bukit Taut au is sighted. If in any doubt about the position, or if a depth of from 18 m to 22 m is obtained, either haul off the land or anchor. 55 Having made the entrance to Singapore Strait, proceed as directed in 10.39.02. In March, during the latter part of this monsoon, the winds are steady from the E, the weather is settled and the current is weak. In April, the prevailing winds are also from the E, but are much lighter and accompanied by calms and squally weather; from the latter end of this mont h to about the middle of May the monsoon gradually breaks up. 60 Caution is necessary if the weather is thick, with a fresh breeze, when near Pulau Aur. In these circumstances, round to under its lee, and wait a convenient time to bear up for the strait. The current between this island and the E point of Bintan sets about SSE, by which it often happens that vessels leaving Pulau Aur steer too much to the S, and are swept with the current and the E-going stream coming out of Singapore Strait so far to the leeward of Bintan Island that they have been obliged to proceed round it, and come up through Riouw 65 Strait. See 10.37. 70 11.43.02. I n t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n , on leaving the S ports of China, or Manila, in March, April, and May, make for the passage between Palawan Island and the off-lying reefs, at a point in about 11 30' N, 118 30' E, and thence make SW through Palawan Passage, and then on a mean course roughly parallel with the coast of Borneo. P A C I F I C OC E A N 213 Pass through one of the passages through the S group of Natuna Kepulauan, and stand across to the entrance to Singapore Strait. Thence proceed as directed in 10.39.02. When approaching Singapore Strait make sure of the landfall. Keep well to the S before closing Bintan Island, so as to allow for the current which sometimes runs to the N at the rate of 2 knots. Duri ng the early part of the South-west Monsoon, if the wind is in the SW on leaving Hong Kong, a good 5 passage may occasionally be made by standing to the SE as far as 15 00' N, 115 30' E. Thence pass SW of Macclesfield Bank, to $1es Catwick or Mui Dinh, and cross the Gul f of Thailand to Pulau Aur and thence to Singapore, as above. Fr om August to October, after leaving Hong Kong stand toward Hal-nan tao, which will be often fetched without tacking, as the wind frequently blows for days together from SE or E in that part of the China Sea; 10 from thence cross the Gul f of Tongki ng to the Vietnam coast. Land and sea breezes and smooth water generally prevail close to that coast, for which reason work down as close to the shore as possible, taking advantage of every slant of wind, but being careful not to get too far off the land. It is sometimes possible to get as far to the S as Mui Dinh, in this way, but generally after passing Cap Varella the monsoon is found blowing very fresh, with frequent hard squalls out of the Gul f of Thailand rendering it impossible to work much to windward. 15 From Cap Varella, or from Mui Di nh if a vessel has been able to fetch it, stretch away to the S, making a tack if necessary, to weather West Reef (8 51" N, 112 13" E) of London Reefs or other shoals, till the coast of Borneo is reached; work along this coast and proceed W through the S group of Natuna Kepulauan and to Singapore as directed for March, April, and May. 11.44. Hong Kong to Torres Strait 20 11.44.01. The usual rout e passes across the China Sea to make Lubang Island or Cape Calavite, and enters the Sulu Sea through Mi ndoro Strait (11.42 and 10.51) or, by passing E of Lubang Island, through Verde 25 Island Passage (10.46.05) and Tablas Strait. In either case, having passed through Cuyo East Pass, E of Sombrero Rocks, proceed S through the Sulu Sea to and through Basilan Strait into the Sulawesi Sea (10.47.06). Cross the Sulawesi Sea to Bangka Strait off the NE point of Sulawesi, passing through it into the Molukka Sea, and continue S, to enter the Ceram Sea between Sula Islands and Obi Major Island. 30 Cross the Ceram Sea and pass through Manipa Strait (10.50.04), into the Banda Sea. Having cleared Manipa Strait, steer SE to pass between Pulau-pulau Ewab and Tani mbar Islands, leaving Pulau Manuk to N or S as convenient. Having passed Tani mbar Islands, the direct route to Tort es Strait passes S of Pulau-pulau Aru and past False Cape, but this is not recommended owing to the dangers SW and S of Pulau-pulau Aru, and to the chain 35 of known and unexamined dangers lying W from False Cape almost as far as 134 E. Instead, a vessel is recom- mended to keep to the SE from Tani mbar Islands to cross the meridian of 134 E in about 9 S, and proceed thence to Tort es Strait. In July and August, the alternative route for power vessels given in 7.161 may prove useful to sailing ships, after passing Obi Major. 40 11.44.02. An al t ernat i ve rout e for the whole passage, which can be used from April to October, is given in 11.45.02. 11.45. Hong Kong to Port Dar wi n 11.45.01. Fr o m No v e mb e r to Apri l , follow the directions given in 11.44.01 as far as Manipa Strait and then steer to the SSE to pass E of Pulau-pulau Penju (5 23" ,S, 127 47" E) and between Pulau Damar and Teun Island ; thence pass between Sermata Island and Babar into the Arafura Sea. Proceed across the Arafura Sea to make Cape Fourcroy, the SW extremity of Bathurst Island, avoiding Flinders and other shoals near the route; thence proceed to Port Darwin. See Admiralty Sailing Directions for a description of the dangers in the approaches. 45 50 11.45.02. Fr o m Apri l to Oct ober, steer across the China Sea and pass through Balintang Channel into the Pacific Ocean. Thence proceed SE to pass either side of Palau Islands, and make casting i n the Equatorial 55 Counter-current between 4 N, 8 N, until able to fetch through Solomon Islands with the South-east Trade, crossing the equator in about 158 E. After passing through Solomon Islands, steer to the W to Torres Strait via Great North-east Channel (11.09.03) and thence to Port Darwin. From Palau Islands some navigators take St. George' s Channel, between New Ireland and New Britain, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, instead of passing through Solomon Islands, or again, Pioneer Channel, between 60 New Ireland and Solomon Islands, may be used. 11.46. Hong Kong to Sydney 11.46.01. In the Sout h- wes t Mons oon, from April to September, four routes are available. Two pass into the Pacific Ocean and run E of Australia; the other two lead through the Eastern Archipelago and W and S of Australia. Directions for the route which passes into the Pacific Ocean N of the Philippine Islands are given in 11.45 as far as the Coral Sea. Thence, steer S to join the route from Thursday Island (11.29) in about 15 S, 156 E. 65 70 10 214 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S For the Pacific Ocean route which passes S of the Philippine Islands, follow the directions given in 11.45 as far as the Sulawesi Sea, and thence enter the Pacific Ocean S of Mindanao, between Sarangani Islands and Kawio Islands. Thence make easting in the Equatorial Counter-current as directed in 11.45.02, and j oi n the route, described above, S of Solomon Islands or St. George' s Channel. For the routes passing W and S of Australia, pass through the Eastern Archipelago either by the Eastern Route (10.50) or by the Central Route (10.51). On reaching the Indi an Ocean proceed as directed in 10.121 to round Cape Leeuwin, and then as directed in 10.01. 11.46.02. I n the North-east Mons oon, from October to February, proceed either via Torres Strait (11.44.01) or via Sunda Strait and a passage W and S of Australia (11.42.06 and 10.121). 15 20 25 11.47. Hong Kong to Mani l a 11.47.01. I n the North-east Mons oon (October to April), make for the coast of Luzon at about Piedra Point, Cape Bolinao. The current sets strongly to leeward, but decreases near Luzon. From the latitude of Piedra Point, steer S for Manila Bay, giving the coast dangers a wide berth. 11.47.02. I n the South-west Mons oon (May to September), take every advantage of the wind shifting to make southing towards Macclesfield Bank; then steer direct for Manila Bay. 11.47.03. Prat as Reef, lying in the route between Manila and Hong Kong, is a serious danger, especially in the North-east Monsoon, when strong gales and thick clouds are sometimes prevalent for weeks together; and as, in this monsoon, vessels generally approach the reef from SE, the greater number of wrecks have occurred on this side. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 11.48. Hong Kong to Yokohama 30 11.48.01. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon (October to April) work up the coast of China as far as Li en-hua- feng-chiao, taking advantage of the fact that the wind hauls to the N at night and to the E during the day. From Lien-hua-feng-chiao ( 22 56" N, 116 30" E) stand across for the S end of T' ai -wan and work up on the E side of that island; a S' ly set will be felt until reaching O' l uan pi, after passing which Kuro Shio will be experienced setting N. Continue N, to the W of Nansei Shot6 as described below. 35 Towards the end of the North-east Monsoon, stand across the China Sea until near the coast of Luzon, where the wi nd will be more E' ly or even SE' ly, when tack and stand NNE along the E coast of T' ai -wan, and W of all the groups of Nansei Shot6, with generally a favourable current. Thence pass through one of the channels S of 0sumi Kaiky6, and from 50 to 80 miles off the S coast of Japan in the strength of Kuro Shio, making the land about Omae Saki, to enter Uraga Suid6. 40 45 50 55 60 65 11.48.02. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon, run up the China coast as far as Tung- yi n Shan ( 26 23" N, 120 32" E) , thence steer to pass through Tokara Gunt 6 S of Akuseki Shima (in preference to Osumi Kaiky6, where dense fogs will probably be found, whilst farther seaward in the warm waters of Kuro Shio the atmosphere is bright and clear). The course along the S coast of Japan is the same as in the North-east Monsoon. 11.49. Hong Kong to Nagasaki 11.49.01. Dur i ng the North-east Mons oon, follow the directions for the Yokohama route (11.48.01) unt i l N of T' ai -wan, after which continue as direct as navigation permits. 11.49.02. Duri ng the South-west Mons oon, follow the directions in 11.48.02 as far as Tung- yi n Shan and thence take a direct course to Nagasaki. 11.50. Hong Kong northward, to ports on the coast of China 11.50.01. General remarks. Except in crossing T' ai -wan Strait, there is no difficulty in making this passage in the South-west Monsoon, but in the North-east Monsoon a sailing vessel should be i n good condition for meeting rough weather and for carrying sai l The crossing of T' ai -wan Strait is attended with considerable trouble at all times of the year, on account of the strong, variable, and sometimes opposite currents setting across the track. Thi s is particularly noticeable at the change of monsoons. In the S and W parts of the strait, a strong drift current setting to leeward (in both monsoons) must be allowed for. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 11.50.02. Duri ng the North-east Mons oon, make the passage either E of T' ai -wan so as to benefit from Kuro Shio and the diminished strength of the monsoon, and to avoid the heavy short sea of T' ai -wan Strait; or work up the coast of China taking advantage of every favourable change of wi nd and tidal stream, and anchor whenever possible, if conditions are unfavourable. For the route E of T' ai -wan, work along the China coast as far as Lien-hua-feng chiao ( 22 56" N, 116 30" E) PACI FI C OCEAN 215 to maintain as long as practicable the advantage of the land wind at night, of smoother water, and of the E-going tidal stream out of the deep bays, which will generally be under the lee when on the starboard tack. There are numerous convenient anchorages should the wind blow too hard to make way. Keep within 10 miles of the land, to avoid being carried S by the monsoon drift current whilst standing off-shore; but as this cannot be done at night without risk, anchor, if possible, in the evening, and weigh between midnight and 0400, when the wind, 5 generally being more off the land, allows a good board on the off-shore tack. From Lien-hua-feng chiao stand across to the S end of T' ai -wan, as by passing E of that island the heavy short sea of T' ai -wan Strait is avoided, as well as the constant S-going current. After rounding the S end of T' ai -wan, off which there is generally a troublesome sea, make short tacks, if requisite, and keep within the influence of Kuro Shio. 10 The North-east Monsoon does not blow with its full strength on the E coast of T' ai -wan, but strong gales are often experienced 20 miles to the E. If the wind declines in strength, with less sea on the W' l y board (parti- cularly between 0900 and 1S00 or up to sunset), it is advantageous to hug the coast as close as prudent ; but caution is requisite, for the coast is mountainous and steep-to, and sudden loss of wind accompanied by swell might be attended, if followed by calm, with i mmi nent danger, as there are no harbours. Stronger winds, with much rain, 15 are met as advance is made to the E duri ng the North-east Monsoon. If an off-shore course is maintained whilst E of T' ai -wan a constant succession of bad weather may be expected, with strong winds and a heavy sea. Towards the close of the North-east Monsoon, and still later, it is preferable to cross over towards Luzon than to beat up to Lien-hua-feng chiao (22 56" N, 116 30" E) against fresh NE breezes; therefore stand off on the port tack, clean full to the SE and pass through the SW-going current quickly, and on nearing Luzon, as 20 the wind becomes more E' l y (sometimes even from SE), tack NNE with a strong favourable current and arrive E of T' ai -wan i n less time than it would have taken to fetch Lien-hua-feng chiao by keeping along the coast of China. Having weathered the N end of T' ai -wan, it is still advisable to keep well to the E, and not approach the coast of China until the parallel of 30 30' N is gained. I n case of being driven to the W, take cautious advantage of 25 the tidal streams through the S part of Chou-shan chfin-tao. Bound for Shan-t ' ou chiang, Hsia-men, or the ports between that place and Mi n chiang, there is generally difficulty i n getting round Lien-hua-feng chiao, for the tidal stream there is of no assistance. Advantage must therefore be taken of the wind, which will probably draw off the land after midnight, when, by being inshore, a good board can be made, and possibly Hao-wang cbAao (23 14" N, 116 48" E) reached. For Hai -men wan and 30 Ch' i-wang wan anchorages, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Having reached Hao wang chiao, the NE-going stream assists a vessel to round it, and the ebb out of Han chiang is a weather tide; if not going inside Nan-ao tao (23 24" N, 117 07" E) try to get along the S side of the island, and anchor in Yiin-ao Wan, should the weather be too bad to proceed. Both streams are strong off Yen-t un yen, and also off Chou k' o-k' o Chiao (23 36" N, 117 27" E) in roundi ng which take the first of the 35 NE-going stream and the port tack. Farther N, about Li-shih liei-tao (23 46" N, 117 43" E), the NE-going stream with strong winds causes a very uneasy sea. Chiang chun-ao and Ti ng t' ai wan are good stopping places for small vessels; the latter should be preferred, though at the loss of 2 or 3 miles, to anchoring in an exposed position in Hsia-men harbour entrance, as when NE winds freshen there during the rising tide they are generally accompanied by a mist, which obscures 40 the entrance, and the tidal stream makes it difficult to get to sea. Wei -t ' ou ao (24 30" N, 118 34" E), N of Hsia-men, affords good shelter; Shen-hu-wan is not so good. The cur- rent in the monsoon overcomes the tidal streams; and advantage must be taken of every slant of wind, bearing i n mi nd that it is likely to draw off the land after midnight, and in the event of anchoring for shelter this is the time to start, should the wind moderate; by waiting for daylight vessels lose their offing, and have to make an off-shore 45 board at a loss. The fog is at times thick and soundings must be taken, the bottom generally changing from sand to mud as the shore is approached. There is fair anchorage under Ta-tso chiao (24 53" N, 118 59" E), but not so good as that under South Yit (25 09" N, 119 30" E), and if the vessel is heading N or anything E of it, the ebb from Mei-chow wan is of assistance. The most difficult part of the passage to Mi n Chiang is from Nan-j i h tao, or the S end of Hai -t ' an Hsia to 50 Pai chuan lieh tao (25 58" N, 119 59" E); sailing vessels should keep outside Hai -t ' an Hsia, and stretch over to the NW coast of T' ai -wan, where they have the advantage of a weather tidal stream. Off the coast of China N of Mi n Chlang, the indraught during the rising tide must be considered. There is good anchorage in a cove in the W island of Tung- yi n shah (26 22" N, 119 29' E) , but N of this sailing vessels (unless under 3 m 7 draught) must keep off the coast in deep water. The tidal streams afford 55 but little assistance unt i l Chuo-shan chtin-tao is reached; the NE going stream causes an uneasy sea in the shallow water, while the SW-going stream has too much southing, unless the wind is well from E. Nan-chi Shah (27 28" N, 121 04" E) , and Pei-chi-shan lieh-tao, about 10 miles to the NE, afford good shelter. The route through the more S' ly channels of Chou-shan ch/in-tao is not usually taken by sailing ships. I n worldng through the N part of this archipelago, advantage can be taken of the tidal streams. 60 The eddy tidal streams generally carry vessels clear of the large islands, but caution is required to prevent being set in amongst detached rocks. 11.50.03. Duri ng t he Sout h- west Mons oon, there is no difficulty in making the N- bound coastwise passage 65 from Hong Kong, but the currents may be variable, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. 11.51. Hong Kong or Mani l a to Nort h Ame r i c a and Panama 70 216 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 11.51.01. Rout es. In all cases follow the Yokohama route (11.48) and then take the routes given from Yokohama onwards. References are 11.64 for Columbia River, Vancouver, or Prince Rupert, 11.65 for San Francisco, and, for Panama, 11.65 as far as 150 W; thence direct. 11.52. Hong Kong or Mani l a to we s t coast of South Ame r i c a 11.52.01. Duri ng t he Sout h- wes t Mons oon, (May to September), the passage may be made either through Bashi Channel or San Bernardino Strait. 10 If proceeding via Bashi Channel, continue as directed in 11.48 past Yokohama and make easting thence before standing S, joining a suitable route from Sydney (11.05) as convenient. The Pacific Ocean may also be reached in the South-west Monsoon by San Bernardino Strait as described below. When clear of the strait, make easting to join the route from Bashi Channel as convenient; or steer to the NE until in the westerlies and then make easting as above. 15 A vessel intending the passage of San Bernardino Strait should approach it through Verde Island Passage and thence proceed to a position S of Mari nduque Island. From this position steer to make the NW point of Masbate Island, to avoid being embayed with a SW wind in Nabasagan Bay on the W coast of Burias Island. A mid-channel course should be steered between Burias and Masbate, and when the SE point of Burias Island is passed steer a NE' l y course to pass N of Tikao Island, giving San Miguel Island, off the N point of Tikao 20 a good berth on account of the strength of the tidal stream near it. If the wind is settled, steer for Naranjo Islands, and thence pass midway between Kapul Island and the islands off the SE point of Luzon, proceeding out of the strait by the channel S of San Bernardino Islets. If the SW wind is not settled, it is well to wait at anchor at San Jacinto, on the E side of Tikao, lest calms or light winds should leave the vessel at the mercy of the tides in the strait. The best time for leaving the port is 25 at half-flood, for then a vessel is likely to get the first of the ebb when she is near Naranjo Islands. If in danger of being carried near Kalantas Rock, it would be well to make for the coast of Luzon, where anchorage may be had, or to anchor on the bank in good time. The navigation of the strait requires great care, and an anchor should always be ready to let go. 30 11.52.02. Duri ng the Nort h- east Mons oon (October to April), proceed as directed in 11.44.01 as far as the Sulawesi Sea, and then either take a route direct to the Pacific Ocean or to the Coral Sea by Torres Strait. For the Pacific Ocean Route, cross the Sulawesi Sea to enter the Pacific S of Mindanao, and then steer to pass N of New Guinea and continue E between the parallels of 2 N and 4 N as far as Gilbert Islands. Thence steer SE into the westerlies to join a route from Sydney, see 11.05. 35 For the Torres Strait route, continue from the Sulawesi Sea as directed in 11.44.01, Hong Kong to Torres Strait. After clearing Tort es Strait continue along the S coast of New Guinea and Louisade Archipelago until far enough E to cross the Trades into the westerlies to join a route from Sydney, see 11.05. 40 11.53. Shang-hai coas t wi s e to the s out hward 45 50 11.53.01. Duri ng t he Nort h- east Mons oon (October to April) after passing Ma-an lieh-tao and Tung- f u shan (the most E' l y island of Chou-shan ch~n-tao), steer a good offshore course, passing outside the outer islands, giving t hem a good berth at night, and closing the land for a fix by day, if necessary; for thick, hazy or rainy weather may always be expected. 11.53.02. Dur i ng t he Sout h- west Mons oon, (May to September), although the constant adverse current makes this a tedious passage, a vessel of moderate sailing qualities can do it, as this monsoon is not steady in its direction, and land and sea breezes prevail. Fog is frequent in the early part of the season, and renders caution necessary; it sometimes lifts near the land. 11.54. Shang-hal to Indi an Ocean 55 11.54.01. Duri ng the Nort h- east Mons oon, take the coastwise route towards Hong Kong (11.53.01) and pick up a route to the Indian Ocean (11.42), proceeding either via Singapore or direct through the Eastern Archipelago. 11.54.02. Duri ng the Sout h- west Mons oon, steer direct for a position in 15 N, 132 ~E, to the E of the 60 Philippine Islands, to pick up the route described in 11.68.02, Yokohama to the Indian Ocean. 11.55. Shang-hai to Nagas aki 65 11.55.01. Caut i on is necessary in the vicinity of Socotra Rock (32 07" N, 125 11" E), which lies on the route. See Admiralty Sailing Directions. 11.55.02. Duri ng the Nort h- east Mons oon (October to March), with the wind E of N, make northing at once, taking advantage of the tidal streams. As advance is made to the N, the wind usually draws round t hrough N 70 to NW. Make allowance for the current, which then sets to the SE or E. P A C I F I C OC E A N 217 11.55.03. I n t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n (March to September), during the E' l y and SE' l y winds which prevail from March to June, make easting or southing, even when a fair wind occurs, for it is sure to be of short duration; and the tendency of the prevailing wind being to keep a vessel on the starboard tack, there is always a probability, during these months, when the current sets to the NE, of being set towards the Korean Archipelago. If uncertain of the position when near Me Shima, in Danjo Gunt6, Tori Shima, or Got6 Rett6, make these islands in daylight. 5 After June, with a steady South-west Monsoon and a fair wind, steer from the estuary of Ch' ang Chiang a course to pass between Danjo Gunt6 and Tori Shima. The direct course from Chiku Chiao leads midway between Tori Shima and Got6 RettS; but it should not be taken, as the branch of Kuro Shio, which sets through Korea Strait, has to be crossed, and vessels have been carried by it even N of the S end of Got6 Rett6. 10 11.56. Shang- hai t o Yo k o h a ma 11.56.01. Du r i n g t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n (October to March), if the wind on departure is to the E of N, as it frequently is in the monsoon, make northing; and when the wind draws round to the NW, steer as directly as possible round the S end of Japan; and thence in the strength of Kuro Shio. 11.56.02. I n t he So ut h- we s t Mo n s o o n (May to September), make easting or southing as directed in 11.55.02, and then proceed direct round the S end of Japan and in the strength of Kuro Shio. 15 20 11.57. Shang- hai t o port s i n No r t h Ame r i c a 11.57.01. Rout es. Proceed as directed in 11.56 to Yokohama, and then as directed in 11.64 to Columbia River, Vancouver, or Prince Rupert; or 11.65 to San Francisco. 25 ROUTES FROM MANI LA 30 For rout es f r o m Ma n i l a to por t s i n No r t h or S o u t h Amer i ca, see 11.51, 11.52. 11.58. Ma ni l a t o Si ngapor e 11.58.01. Rout e. In all seasons, steer to pass N of the central dangers of the China Sea for ~les Catwick, thence proceed direct to Pulau Aur and to Singapore. See directions for Hong Kong to Singapore, in 11.43.01. 11.59. Ma ni l a t o Sai gon 11.59.01 I n t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n (October to March) take a direct passage across the China Sea, allowing for the current which, sets with the wind. 11.59.02. I n t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n (April to September), sailing vessels will find the voyage long and trying whichever route they adopt. The following route has been recommended : - - On leaving Manila Bay take Verde Island Passage, pass down the E side of Mindoro Island and the W coast of Panay Island, cross the Sulu Sea passing out by Balabac Strait, and work down the NW coast of Borneo to make westing; then cross the China Sea passing E of Natuna Kepulauan. 35 40 45 50 11.60. Ma ni l a t o Ho n g Ko ng or Hs i a - me n 11.60.01. I n t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n , there is a choice between two routes, W or E of T' ai -wan, if bound for 55 Hsi a-men; to Hong Kong proceed as directed in 11.34.02. For the passage W of T' ai -wan, keep near the coast to Cape Bojeador, and then work N to O-l uan Pi (21 54" N, 120 ,51" E) , and thence along the SW and W coasts of T' ai -wan until able to stand across T' ai -wan Strait to Hsia-men. For the passage E of T' ai -wan, if the monsoon is well set in, it might be advisable to stand to the E, N of 60 Luzon, and work to the N with the benefit of Kuro Shio, passing E of, and round the N of, T' ai -wan. Thence, allowing for current, steer to make the China coast N of the destination. 11.60.02. In t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n , proceed direct, making allowance for a lee current. 11.61. Mani l a t o I l o i l o 11.61.01. I n t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n (October to March), pass through Verde Island Passage and Tablas Strait, and continue S along the W coast and round the S end of Panay Island to Iloilo. 70 10 218 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S 11. 61. 02. I n t he So ut h- we s t Mo n s o o n ( Apr i l t o Se pt e mbe r ) , pr oc e e d as above as f ar Du ma l i poi nt (13 0 7 " N, 121 34" E) , a nd t he n s t eer t o pass S of Si ma r a I s l and a nd be t we e n Ta bl a s I s l a nd and Ro mb l o n I s l and. Th e n c e pass t hr ough J i nt ot ol o Cha nne l be t we e n J i nt ot ol o I s l and a nd Zapat os I sl ands, and t hen, t u r n i n g S, pr oc e e d al ong t he E coast of Pa na y t o I l oi l o. 11. 62. Ma n i l a t o Ce b u 11. 62. 0I . Ro u t e . I n bot h mons oons , t ake t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n r out e f or I l oi l o (11. 61. 02) as f ar as J i nt ot ol o I sl and, and t hen pr oc e e d t o Mal apas cua I s l and and t he nc e S t o Ce bu. 15 20 11.63. Ma n i l a t o I ndi a n Oc e a n a nd Aus t r al i a 11. 63. 01. I n t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n ( Oc t obe r t o Mar ch) , f ol l ow t he di r ect i ons i n 11. 58 t o Si ngapor e, a nd t he n t ake t he a ppr opr i a t e r out e onwar d, see Cha pt e r 10. I f n o t cal l i ng at Si nga por e a nd b o u n d t o t he S t hr ough t he Eas t er n Ar chi pel ago, pr oceed, af t er pas s i ng $1es Ca t wi c k (11. 41. 01) be t we e n An a mb a s Ke p u l a u a n a nd Na t u n a Ke pul a ua n, a nd t he nc e as di r ect ed i n Ch a p t e r 10, j oi ni ng t he r out e f r om Si nga por e f or t he passage onwa r d t hr ough t he I ndi a n Ocean. 11. 63. 02. I n t he So ut h- we s t Mo n s o o n ( Apr i l t o Se pt e mbe r ) , pr oc e e d as di r ect ed i n 11.44.01 as f ar as t he Sul awes i Sea, a nd t he nc e e i t he r c ont i nue on t he Ce nt r a l Rout e f r om t he Chi na Sea t o t he I ndi a n Ocean, see 11. 42. 04, or cr oss t he Sul awes i Sea t o pass t hr ough Bangka St r ai t , of f t he NE e nd of Sul awesi , i nt o t he Mol ukka Sea. Th e n c e c ont i nue S t o t he Ce r a m Sea, Ma n i p a St r ai t and Banda Sea, t o Omb a i St r ai t a nd t he I n d i a n Ocean. 25 I n b o t h cases j oi n t he r out e des cr i bed i n 10.57.11 i f b o u n d t o t he Ca pe of Go o d Ho p e ; or i f b o u n d t o ot he r por t s j oi n, or st eer t o j oi n as di r ect l y as possi bl e t he a ppr opr i a t e r out e f r om Si ngapor e. T o To r t e s St r ai t f ol l ow t he di r ect i ons gi ven i n 11.44.01 f r om Ve r de I s l and Passage onwar ds . An al t er nat i ve r out e t o t he E coast of Aus t r al i a is t o pass i nt o t he Paci f i c Oc e a n t hr ough San Be r na r di no St r ai t (11. 52. 01). Th e n c e pr oc e e d SE, ma ki ng east i ng unt i l abl e t o cr oss t he e qua t or i n about 158 E, and pass t h r o u g h 30 So l o mo n I s l ands ; t he nc e cont i nue onwa r d t o t he S t o j oi n t he r out e f r om Th u r s d a y I s l and t o Sydne y (11. 29) i n about 15 S, 156 E. 35 ROUTES F ROM J APAN 40 45 50 11.64. Yo k o h a ma t o Co l u mb i a Ri ve r , Va nc o uv e r , or Pr i nc e Rupe r t 11. 64. 01. Ro u t e . Cr os s 167 E i n about 42 N, be i ng a bout 30 mi l es N of t hat pos i t i on i n Au g u s t a nd t he s ame di st ance S of i t i n J anuar y. F r o m t hi s posi t i on, st eer al mos t due E, wi t h a f ai r wi nd a nd f avour abl e cur r ent , so as t o cr oss t he me r i di a n of 150 W i n a bout 44 N, keepi ng a l i t t l e t o t he N t hr oughout t he voyage dur i ng t he s umme r , a nd t o t he S i n t he wi nt er . F r o m 150 W pr oc e e d di r ect t o dest i nat i on, st i l l wi t h a f ai r wi nd. 11. 64. 02. Th e t i dal s t r e a ms , on t he a ppr oa c h t o t he coast of Va nc ouve r I sl and, cause a gener al set t owar ds t he l and, a nd an i ndr a ught on t he f l ood i nt o al l s ounds . Sai l i ng vessel s, t her ef or e, wh e n ma ki ng J ua n de Fu c a St r a i t dur i ng t he wi n t e r especi al l y dur i ng No v e mb e r and De c e mb e r , a nd e xpe r i e nc i ng E' l y a nd S E' l y wi nds , wh i c h t he n pr evai l , s houl d t r y t o hol d a pos i t i on S W of Ta t o o s h I s l and, a nd on no a c c ount t o open u p t he e nt r a nc e t o t he st r ai t unt i l an o p p o r t u n i t y occur s of get t i ng wel l i nsi de. See Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons . 55 60 11. 65. Yo k o h a ma t o San Fr a nc i s c o 11. 65. 01. F r o m Apr i l t o S e p t e mb e r , f ol l ow t he di r ect i ons i n 11. 64 as f ar as 44 N, 150 W, a nd t he nc e pr oc e e d as di r ect l y as possi bl e t o Sa n Fr anci s co. 11. 65. 02. F r o m Oc t o be r t o Ma r c h , wi nt e r condi t i ons d e ma n d a mor e S' l y t hough r a t he r l onge r r out e. Fi r s t st eer t o cr oss t he me r i di a n of 165 E i n 40 N, and t he nc e al ong t hat par al l el as f ar as 140 W or 135 W; t he nc e pr oc e e d di r ect t o Sa n Fr anci s co. 11. 66. Yo k o h a ma t o Ho n o l u l u 11. 66. 01. Ro u t e . St e e r t o cr oss t he me r i di a n of 160 E i n 41 o 30' N, of 180 i n 43 30' N, a nd of 160 W i n 40 N; t he nc e keep t o t he SE t o a pos i t i on i n 35 N, 153 W, a nd t he nc e pr oc e e d di r ect t o Honol ul u, ma ki ng al l ow- ance, on a ppr oa c hi ng t he l and, f or a W- g o i n g c ur r e nt r unni ng at t he rat e of a bout 1 knot . 70 11. 67. Yo k o h a ma t o Si ng a po r e PACI FI C OCEAN 219 11.67.01. Fr o m Oc t obe r t o Apri l , proceed first to pass S of Tanega Shima and through Tokara Kaiky6, between the N end of Tokara Gunt6 and the S end of Osumi Gunt6 ; thence steer to the SW to join the coastwise route from Shang-hai to the S (11.53), in about 28 N. 11.67.02. Fr om May t o Se pt e mbe r , two routes are appropriate, W and E of the Philippine Islands. For the former, pass E of all the groups of Nansei Shot6, and thence through Bashi Channel. From Bashi Channel make for $1es Catwick and thence to Pulau Aur. The passage from Pulau Aur to Singapore is described in 11.43.01, Hong Kong to Singapore. For the passage E of the Philippine Islands, first steer to the S passing to the E of Nanp6 Shot6, the chain of islands lying S of the SE point of Honshfl. Thence make to the SSW for Djailolo Passage, passing about 300 miles E of the Philippine Islands. Then pass S through the Ceram Sea and Manipa Strait into the Banda Sea; thence W through the Flores Sea and the Java Sea; and finally N through one of the straits between Sumatra and Borneo to Singapore. Directions for the straits and seas of the Eastern Archipelago are given in Chapter 10. 11.68. Yo k o h a ma to I ndi an Oc e an 10 15 11.68.01. Fr o m Oct ober to Apri l , follow the directions in 11.67.01 to Singapore; then proceed to the Indian Ocean through either Malacca Strait or Sunda Strait. If not calling at Singapore, proceed as above, but after passing Tles Catwick, pass between Anambas Kepulauan 20 and Natuna Kepulauan to Selat Gelasa or Karimata Strait and thence to Sunda Strait. See Chapter 10. 11.68.02. Fr om May t o Se pt e mbe r , either take the route W of the Philippine Islands described in 11.67.01, calling at Singapore or otherwise, as for October to April; or follow the route E of the Philippine Islands (11.67.02), leaving it as necessary to enter the Indian Ocean through one of the straits between Ombai Strait and Sunda 25 Strait. See Chapter 10. 11.69. Yo k o h a ma t o S y d n e y 11.69.01. Di r e c t rout e i n Nor t h- e as t Mo ns o o n. Steer to cross 160 E in 20 N, and thence to cross the equator in 168 E. Thence steer to pass E of the New Hebrides and New Caledonia, and thence direct to Sydney, passing N of Middleton Reef. Alternatively, after crossing the equator, pass between the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands, and then W of Bampton Reefs ; and thence proceed to Sydney, making the Australian coast S of Sandy Cape and thence continue S along the coast. 11.69.02. Di r e c t rout e i n Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n . First make casting N of 35 N until in about 170 E; thence stand S through the North-east Trade to cross the equator in 173 E. Thence pass E of the New Hebrides and of New Caledonia, and thence to Sydney as in 11.69.01. 30 35 40 11.69.03. Rout e s vi a Gu a m. If intending to call at Guam, steer to the S, passing E of Nanp6 Shot6, and E or W of the Marianas, according to conditions prevailing at the time. From Guam proceed as follows according to Monsoon. In the North-east Monsoon, make southing with the North-east Trade, and pass through Bougainville Strait, 45 or between Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands. From Bougainville Strait proceed to a position in about 15 S, 156 E to join the route from Thursday Island to Sydney described in 11.29. From the position E of Solomon Islands, proceed as in the alternative route in 11.69.01. In the South-east Monsoon, pass Solomon Islands as above and make enough casting to ensure a long board 50 across the Coral Sea; make, and keep along the Australian coast S of Sandy Cape, where the prevailing wind will be found to be W' l y at this time of the year. 11.70. Yo k o h a ma t o Ho n g Kong, Hs i a - me n , etc. 55 11.70.01. Du r i n g t he Nor t h- e as t Mo n s o o n (October to March), stand to the SW across Kuro Shio as far as 28 N, 135 E, thence N of Tokuno Shima (27 45" N, 129 00" E), one of Amami Gunt6, and after passing Tori Shima (27 50" N, 128 15" E) steer for Tung-yi n Shan (26 22' N, 119 29" E) and down the coast of China. 11.70.02. Du r i n g t he Sout h- we s t Mo n s o o n (April to September), steer SE from Uraga Suid6 to cross the 60 parallel of 30 N in about 145 E. Thence passing E of Ogasawara Gunt6 and E and S of Kazan Rett6, cross the meridian of 140 E in 21 N. Thence shape a direct course to pass N of Luzon and straight to Hong Kong, making allowance for the NE-goi ng set in the China Sea. 11.71. Yo k o h a ma to Shang- hai 11.71.01. Rout es. It was formerly recommended that the best sailing route was through Naikai (Inland Sea), avoiding the strength of Kuro Shio by keeping near the coast between Yokohama and Kfi Suld6, and sailing as direct as possible after passing through Kanmon Kaiyk6 and Korea Strait. 70 10 220 S A I L I N G V E S S E L . R OUT E S Owing to traffic and other factors, the route through Naikai is probably no longer feasible without detailed local knowledge. Either a coastwise route S of Japan and through Osumi Kaiky6, taking advantage of local counter-currents, see Admiralty Sailing Directions, or an ocean route S of the strongest part Kuro Shio, seem preferable. 11.72. Yo k o h a ma t o Hakodat e 11.72.01. Wi nt e r rout e. In winter (November to March) make the passage as close inshore as safety will allow, as the wind is usually off the land and there is smooth water near the coast. In the event of encountering a NE gale, the best course is to make for the nearest sheltered anchorage, if any such is available. The frequent snow- storms often obscuring the land, and the irregularity of the currents, render it necessary to use every precaution when navigating this part of the coast. 15 11.72.02. S u mme r rout e. In summer (May to September) keep offshore and take advantage of Kuro Shio. Fogs will usually be met with when as far N as Kinkasan. Close the land to the S of Shiriya Saki and round that promont ory at a distance of not less than 2 miles to avoid ~ Ne. (41 26" N, 141 27" E) . In thick weather, when the land about Shiriya Said has not been seen, a rise in the temperature of the water, the presence of floating debris such as plants, trees and driftwood in the sea, or heavy tide rips, may assist in 20 determining that the vessel is to the N of Shiriya Saki and in the influence of the E-going current through Tsugaru Kaiky6. If proceeding direct for Hakodate from the E entrance to Tsugaru Kaiky6, a vessel may, after passing 5 miles off Shiriya Saki steer for Esan Misaki, so as to take advantage of the cold W-going stream along the S coast of Hokkaid6, rememberi ng that the NE-goi ng current is sometimes found close inshore near Shiokubi Saki. 25 11.72.03. Di r e c t i o ns f or Ts ug a r u Kai ky6. Approaching Tsugaru Kaiky6 from E, the adverse current will be avoided by keeping near the shore, giving 0 Ne and the dangers off Oma Saki a berth. Make Shiriya Saki bearing about 310 , and pass it at a distance of not less than 2 miles; when N of it, keep towards the S shore to avoid the current and to be in a position to anchor if becalmed. By keeping towards this 30 shore, a vessel may possibly be drifted for a considerable distance by the W-going stream, while the NE-goi ng . current is running strongly in the middle of the strait. Wait at anchor SE of ~)ma Saki for a favourable opportunity to cross the strait, and as the winds during summer are generally light from the SW for a considerable period, freshening a little when the W-goi ng stream makes, this is the proper time to weigh. 35 Proceeding from Hakodate to the W, against SW' l y winds, keep near the shore when N of Yagoshi Misaki, and if unable to round it, anchor with a kedge about 2 miles NE of it, weighing again when the next W-goi ng stream makes. Wi t h a light wind a sailing vessel might not clear the strait in one tide, in which case it would be better to wait at anchor, E of Shirakami Misaki, and take the whole of the following tide to get sufficiently to the W rather than 40 run any risk of being swept back through the strait by the current. Approaching Tsugaru Kaiky6 from SW during foggy weather, guard against being carried by the current to the N past the entrance; if the weather is clear when nearing Nyfad6 Said, it mi ght be as well to sight it. If the weather thickens when nearing Ny~d6 Said, good though open anchorage over a sandy bottom will be found to the S of it; but to the N the bottom is rocky though anchorage is still possible. 45 For currents, tidal streams, and ice, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. Sailing vessels, passing through Tsugaru Kaiky6, particularly to the W, should have a kedge anchor and 300 metres of hawser ready for immediate use, and keep the shore close aboard. 50 11.73. Na g a s a ki t o Chi na coas t 55 11.73.01. Rout es. For Shang-hai, steer as direct a course as circumstances will allow, keeping rather to windward of the course as, except near the coast of Japan, the drift of the current is usually to leeward. Give Socotra Rock (11.55.01) a good berth. For Hong Kong, Hsia-men, Swatow and ports in the vicinity, in the North-east Monsoon (October to April), steer to make the coast of China a little S of Chou-shan chfin-tao, and thence sail coastwise. In the South-west Monsoon (May to September), first stand across to the coast of China and thence make to the S, coastwise. ROUTES FROM I S LANDS I N NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN 11.74. Ge ne r al not e s and c aut i ons . When navigating in the Pacific Ocean, particularly amongst the islands, attention is directed to the notes and cautions in 11.01.01 and 11.01.02, as well as to the notes on navigation in coral waters in The Ma r i n e r ' s Handbook. 65 The notes on Winds, Weather, Currents, and Ice in Chapter 7 and in Admiralty Sailing Directions should be consulted. In this sub-section only the routes from Honolulu are given in detail. From other islands of the Nort h Pacific Ocean, the most favourable route to be taken can be ascertained by consulting Worl d Climatic Charts (5301, 5302); charts of Sailing Ship Routes (5308), and Tracks followed by sailing and auxiliary powered vessels 70 (5309); as well as the Routeing Charts (5127-5128). PACI FI C OCEAN 221 11.75. N o r t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s ( e x c e p t Ha w a i i ) , t o As i a o r N o r t h a n d S o u t h A me r i c a . Chart 5308 shows that little difficulty will be experienced in deciding on the most profitable route for a vessel W-bound to any port in Asia, the Eastern Archipelago, the Indian Ocean, or Japan; a number of routes from Nort h or South America and from Australia pass near the islands and can be joined at a convenient position. For a vessel bound to the E, the general principle is to stand N, or S, through the Trade Winds to reach the belt of W' l y winds as quickly as possible; a favourable current may be expected in the area of W' l y winds. E-bound passages across the Pacific Ocean that may conveniently be joined are given in 11.64 and 11.65 from Yokohama, and 11.05 from Sydney; or, by making to the S across the routes from Sydney, to join the route across the South Pacific described in 11.02. 10 11.76. N o r t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s ( e x c e p t Ha wa i i ) t o o t h e r N o r t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s . W-bound, no difficulty should be experienced as a fair wind should be carried and, except in the Equatorial Counter-current (4 N to 8 N) , a favourable current should assist the passage. Proceeding E-bound to Honolulu, stand N through the Trade Winds as far as about 40 N or until the W' l y 15 winds are met. Cross the 180th meridian in about 43 N, and 160 W in 40 N; thence keep SE to a position in about 35 N, 153 W, and thence proceed direct to Honolulu. See the directions from Yokohama given in 11.66. To other Nort h Pacific islands the direct mean course can be steered over short distances, but this usually means working E against the Nort h Equatorial Current. In most cases, it is probably best to stand S or SE into the Equatorial Counter-current, and thence work E until able to fetch the destination, making allowance for a W-going set as the vessel makes to the N. 20 11.77. N o r t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s t o S o u t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s o r t o S y d n e y . The longitude of most of the principal island groups of the South Pacific Ocean is E, or little or nothing to the W, of that of similar groups of the Nort h Pacific Ocean (except the Hawaii Islands). Therefore the first objective, in all passages, must be to make casting 25 while still N of the equator which is usually crossed between 168 E and 173 E. Probably the most advantageous passage to reach this objective is to stand S, or as much to the SE as can be made on the port tack, until the region of the Equatorial Counter-current is reached (between 4 N, and 8 N) ; then work E until able to stand across the equator as stated above. From the equator proceed S as follows : Bound to Solomon islands, New Hebrides or New Caledonia proceed direct. 30 Bound to Sydney, follow the relevant directions in 11.69 from Yokohama. Bound to Fiji, pass down the W side of Ellice Islands and then direct. Bound to Samoa, stand S as far as the latitude of the Fijian Islands if necessary, weathering them if possible until able to make Samoa on the starboard tack. Bound to islands E of Samoa, it is best to stand S through the Trade Winds into the westerlies; then run down 35 casting until the meridian of the island to which bound is reached. Then re-enter the Trades and proceed to destination. 11.78. N o r t h Pa c i f i c i s l a n d s t o T o r r e s St r ai t . At all times of the year the route E of New Guinea may be taken, following generally the directions in 11.45.02 modified as necessary, as far as the equator, in accordance with the position of the island of departure, e.g., from the E or W groups of islands. In the North-east Monsoon season (October to April) as good, or even a better passage may be made by steer- ing direct to pass through Djailolo Passage and joining the route from Hong Kong (11.44.01) in the Ceram Sea. 40 11.79. Ge n e r a l r e m a r k s o n w i n d s , c u r r e n t s , a n d s a i l i n g p a s s a g e s a r o u n d H a w a i i a n i s l a n d s . Wi t h regard to winds, the E' l y Trade Winds seem to divide at Cape Kumukahi, part following the coast to the NW around Upol u Point, where it loses its force, the other part following the SE coast around Cape Ka Lae, where it also loses its force. On the W coast of Hawaii the sea breeze sets in about 0900 and continues until after sunset, when the land 50 breeze springs up. Sailing vessels coming from the W, bound to ports on the windward or SE side of Hawaii, should pass close to Upol u Point and keep near the coast, as the wind is generally much lighter than offshore. Those from the W, bound to ports on the E side of Hawaii should keep well to the N until clear of Alenuihaha Channel. On account of the current, which nearly always sets to the N along the W coast of Hawaii, it is advisable for 55 sailing vessels to make the land S of their port, as during calms and light airs a vessel is liable to drift to the N. Wi t h regard to navigation, Alenuihaha Channel, between Hawaii and Maul and Kahoolawe Islands, is 26 miles wide and clear of dangers. The North-east Trade Wi nd ,which predominates throughout the year, frequent- ly blows through the channel with great strength, and there is also a strong current setting W; but, during calms, there is at times an E-going set of about 1 knot which during "kona" winds (reversals of the Trade Wind) 60 may increase to 2 or 3 knots. Vessels from any of the W' l y ports of Hawaii are therefore recommended to keep close in under the lee of the island until reaching Upol u Point, when they will be enabled to fetch across to Alalakeiki Channel on the W side of Maui. Those from the N, bound to Hilo, will probably find it impossible to weather Upol u Point from the W side of Maui, but on getting under the lee of Hawaii the Trade Wi nd fails until reaching the S point 65 of the island, when they will have to beat against wind and current along the SE coast. 11.80. Honol ul u t o Ta h i t i . Stand first to the N of the Hawaiian Islands, and then make casting in the Nort h- east Trade, cross the equator well to the E, and then proceed SW in the South-east Trade to Tahiti. 45 70 10 222 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S 11. 81. Ho n o l u l u to Fi j i , Aus t ral i a, a nd Ne w Ze al and. F o r Fi j i , p r o c e e d as di r e c t l y as n a v i g a t i o n p e r mi t s , wi t h a f ai r T r a d e Wi n d . F o r Au s t r a l i a a n d Ne w Ze a l a nd, t ake t he a bove r out e t o Fi j i , a n d t h e n f ol l ow t he di r e c t i ons i n 11. 19 a n d 11. 20 t o Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a nd, b u t l eave t he r out e t o Fi j i i n a b o u t 170 W t o 175 W, a n d p r o c e e d d i r e c t i n t h e l a t t e r case. Ex c e p t wh e n b o u n d t o Au c k l a n d , owi ng t o t he p r e v a l e n c e of W' l y wi n d s of f t he Ne w Ze a l a n d coast , i t i s b e s t t o pas s d o wn t he W coas t of Ne w Ze a l a n d , a n d t h r o u g h Co o k St r a i t f or por t s i n No r t h I s l a n d ( i f c o n d i t i o n s ar e f a vour a bl e ) or r o u n d S o u t h I s l a n d a n d N a l ong t he E coast . 11. 82. Ho n o l u l u t o Chi na, Japan, or P h i l i p p i n e I s l ands . T h e r out e s d e s c r i b e d i n ar t i cl es 11. 92 t o 11. 95, f r o m S a n Fr a n c i s c o t o t he s e de s t i na t i ons , pa s s cl ose S of Hawai i , a n d s h o u l d b e pi c ke d u p at a n y c o n v e n i e n t pos i t i on b e t we e n 160 W a n d 170 W. 15 11. 83. Ho n o l u l u t o San Fr anc i s c o. T h r o u g h o u t t he year , f i r st s t e e r due N be f or e t u r n i n g E o n r e a c h i n g t h e s t e a d y W' l y wi n d s . T h e t u r n i n g p o i n t var i es i n l at i t ude, b e i n g f a r t he s t N i n Au g u s t a n d f a r t h e s t S i n No v e mb e r a n d De c e mb e r . T h e e n s u i n g r o u t e s ar e r o u g h l y as f ol l ows : I n Au g u s t , t u r n E i n a p p r o x i ma t e l y 40 N, a n d s t e e r a l ong t h a t par al l el t o 150 W. T h e n c e p r o c e e d d i r e c t t o de s t i na t i on. 20 I n J u n e a n d J ul y, t u r n t o t he NE i n 35 N t o 36 N, a n d s t e e r on a s l i ght l y c u r v i n g c our s e t o cr os s 150 W i n a p p r o x i ma t e l y 39 N, a n d t h e n p r o c e e d di r ect . I n Ma y , S e p t e mb e r , a n d Oc t o b e r , t u r n t o t h e NE i n a b o u t 30 N, a n d s t e e r on a c u r v i n g c our s e t o cr os s 150 W i n 37{ N t o 38 N, a n d t h e n p r o c e e d di r ect . I n Ma r c h a n d Apr i l , t u r n t o t he NE i n 26 N t o 27 N, a n d s t e e r on a c u r v i n g c our s e t o cr os s 150 W i n a b o u t 25 36{ N, a n d t h e n p r o c e e d di r ect . I n J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y , t u r n t o t he NE i n 25 N t o 26 N, a n d s t e e r on a c u r v i n g c our s e t o cr os s 150 W i n a b o u t 33 N, a n d t h e n p r o c e e d di r ect . I n No v e mb e r a n d De c e mb e r , t u r n t o t he NE i n a b o u t 24 N, a n d s t e e r on a c u r v i n g c our s e t o cr os s 150 W i n 32 N t o 32{ N, a n d t h e n p r o c e e d di r ect . 30 No t e : T h e c u r v i n g c our s e r e f e r r e d t o a bove c a n b e s t be u n d e r s t o o d b y r e f e r r i n g t o Ch a r t 5308. 35 40 45 11. 84. Ho n o l u l u t o No r t h a nd Cent ral Ame r i c a b e t we e n San Fr a nc i s c o a nd Pa n a ma . Pr o c e e d N as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 83, b u t t u r n E i ns t e a d of NE. Ma k e e a s t i ng as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e, gr a dua l l y a l t e r i n g c our s e t o E S E a f t e r r e a c h i n g 150 W t o 140 W, d e p e n d i n g o n de s t i na t i on, t h e l a t t e r t o t h e mo r e S' l y por t s . J o i n t h e r o u t e f r o m Sa n Fr a n c i s c o ( 11. 98) at a c o n v e n i e n t pos i t i on. 11.85. Ho n o l u l u to we s t coas t o f So ut h Ame r i c a or t o Cabo de Hor nos . T h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t obj e c t i ve mu s t b e t o ma k e c a s t i ng as s o o n as pos s i bl e so as t o b e abl e t o s t a n d SE t o j oi n one of t h e r out e s f r o m Sa n Fr a n c i s c o t o S o u t h Ame r i c a n p o r t s ( 11. 99 or 11. 100) or t he r out e f r o m Sa n Fr a n c i s c o t o Ca b o de Ho r n o s ( 11. 101) . I n a n y case i t a p p e a r s a dvi s a bl e t o j o i n t he s e r out e s N of t he e qua t or , wh e r e t he Eq u a t o r i a l Co u n t e r - c u r r e n t i s a va i l a bl e i f g e t t i n g t oo f a r W o n t h e pa s s a ge S. ROUTES FROM PRI NCE RUPERT, VANCOUVER, OR COLUMBI A RI VER 11.86. Pr i nc e Rupe r t , Va n c o u v e r or Co l u mb i a Ri v e r t o Ho n o l u l u a nd Yo k o h a ma . F r o m Pr i n c e Ru p e r t , 50 s t a n d S t h r o u g h He c a t e St r ai t , a n d f r o m J u a n de F u c a St r a i t or As t or i a , Co l u mb i a Ri ver , s t a n d s e a wa r d t o ma k e a saf e of f i ng, b u t k e e p i n g as cl ose i n s h o r e as p r u d e n c e di ct at es , t o a voi d t he h e a v y seas e x p e r i e n c e d f a r t h e r out . Pr o c e e d S u n t i l wi t h i n a b o u t 300 mi l e s NW of Sa n Fr a nc i s c o, a n d t h e n c e p r o c e e d di r e c t t o Ho n o l u l u . W of Ho n o l u l u , t he r out e i s s eas onal . F r o m Ma y t o No v e mb e r , get o n t o t h e par al l el of 20 N, a n d r u n W o n i t as f ar as t h e me r i d i a n of 180% 55 T h e n c e s t e e r t o cr os s t h e me r i d i a n of 160 E i n 25 N, a n d t h e n c e f or Yo k o h a ma , a l l owi ng f or t h e NE - g o i n g s et of Ku r o Shi o. Du r i n g t h e wi nt e r , f r o m De c e mb e r t o Apr i l , a ves s el ma y h a v e t o ke e p f a r t h e r S t o get t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e T r a d e Wi n d f or t h e r u n t o t h e W a f t e r l e a vi ng Ho n o l u l u . T h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 11. 92, f r o m S a n Fr a nc i s c o, s h o u l d b e f ol l owed, a c c o r d i n g t o dat e, a f t e r r u n n i n g t o t he W. 60 An a l t e r na t i ve r o u t e f or al l s e a s ons i s t o ma k e S W f r o m Ho n o l u l u t o j o i n one of t h e s e a s ona l r o u t e s f r o m S a n Fr a n c i s c o t o Yo k o h a ma . See 11. 92. 11. 87. Pr i nc e Rupe r t , Va n c o u v e r or Co l u mb i a Ri v e r t o Sy dne y . F r o m Pr i n c e Ru p e r t , s t a n d S u n t i l r e a c h i n g 65 t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d , pa s s i ng o n e i t h e r s i de of Qu e e n Ch a r l o t t e Gr o u p . F r o m J u a n de F u c a St r a i t , or f r o m As t or i a , Co l u mb i a Ri ver , s t a n d S W at onc e t o pi c k u p t h e T r a d e Wi n d . T h e n p r o c e e d as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e, c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r i n a b o u t 170 V, a n d pa s s i ng W of t h e Fi j i I s l a n d s a n d SE of Ne w Ca l e doni a , f r o m J u n e t o Au g u s t , b u t at o t h e r t i me s of t h e year , c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 150 W a n d 155 W, a n d pa s s i ng S of t h e T o n g a n a n d Fi j i a n i s l a nd gr oups . Ma k e t h e Au s t r a l i a n coas t S of 70 S a n d y Ca pe . See 11. 69. P A C I F I C OC E A N 223 11.88. Pr i nc e Rupe r t , Va n c o u v e r or Co l u mb i a Ri v e r t o San Fr a nc i s c o a nd So ut h Ame r i c a . T h e f ol l owi ng r out e di f f er s i n s o me de gr e e f r o m t he r o u t e r e c o mme n d e d b y t he Un i t e d St a t e s Na v a l Oc e a n o g r a p h i c Offi ce, wh i c h wi l l b e f o u n d i n 11. 99 t o 11. 101, r out e s f r o m Sa n Fr a n c i s c o t o S o u t h Ame r i c a n por t s . F o r Sa n Fr a nc i s c o, at al l s e a s ons ke e p as n e a r t h e s h o r e as i s p r u d e n t , i n o r d e r t o a voi d t he h e a v y sea f el t f a r t h e r out . 5 F o r S o u t h Ame r i c a n por t s , f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ma r c h S W' l y wi n d s pr e va i l o n t h e coas t of Ca l i f or ni a as f a r S as a b o u t 25 N. I f b o u n d f r o m Va n c o u v e r t o Va l pa r a i s o i n t hi s s e a s on s t a n d d o wn t h e coast , k e e p i n g at a b o u t 100 mi l e s f r o m i t u n t i l n e a r t h e l a t i t ude of S a n Fr a nc i s c o, a n d f r o m t h e n c e pa s s W of, a n d i n s i ght of, I s l a Gu a d a l u p e (29 11' N, 118 17" W) , wh e r e i n al l p r o b a b i l i t y t he No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d wi l l b e me t wi t h ; t h e n s t e e r t o s i ght Cl i p p e r t o n I s l a n d ( 10 N, 109" W) , pa s s i ng W of i t ; i n a b o u t t hi s l a t i t ude t he No r t h - e a s t T r a d e 10 Wi n d wi l l b e l ost . T h e b e l t of va r i a bl e wi n d s a n d cal ms , wh i c h at t hi s season, o n t h e me r i d i a n of 120 W, i s 250 t o 350 mi l e s wi de, wi l l h e r e b e e n t e r e d , a n d i t ma y n o t b e pos s i bl e t o cr os s t h e e q u a t o r mu c h t o wi n d wa r d of 118 W. Ev e r y ef f or t s h o u l d b e ma d e n o t t o cr os s f a r t h e r t h a n t h a t t o t h e W, as t h e r e s ul t wo u l d b e t h a t t h e ves s el wo u l d n o t we a t h e r He n d e r s o n I s l a n d or Pi t c a i r n I s l a nd, i n t h e vi c i ni t y of wh i c h l i g h t baf f l i ng wi n d s f r o m S t o SE wo u l d b e 15 e xpe r i e nc e d. I n al l p r o b a b i l i t y at t hi s t i me of ye a r t he So u t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d wi l l be me t b e t we e n 5 N a n d 3 N; t h e h i g h e r l a t i t ude d u r i n g t h e e a r l y wi n t e r ( No v e mb e r a n d De c e mb e r ) , a n d t he l owe r l a t i t ude t o wa r d s Ma r c h , wh e n t h e s hi p s h o u l d b e k e p t ful l , ma k i n g , as n e a r l y as t h e wi n d wi l l p e r mi t , a c our s e of 180 . I n a b o u t 6 S t h e T r a d e Wi n d s ge ne r a l l y b e c o me mo r e E' l y i n di r e c t i on, s o me t i me s h a u l i n g N of E. Cr os s t he 20 par al l el of 20 S i n 124 W, a n d t he par al l el of 35 S o n t h e me r i d i a n of 120 W; t h e n c e cr os s t h e me r i d i a n s of 110 W i n 39 S, 100 W i n 40 S, 90 W i n 39 S a n d t h e n c e p r o c e e d di r ect , S of I s l a Ro b i n s o n Cr u s o e t o Va l p a r - ai so. F r o m Va l pa r a i s o t o Cal l ao s t e e r N a l ong t he coast . Ca l ms a n d va r i a bl e wi n d s wi l l b e e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e vi c i ni t y of 30 S, s e t t l i ng i n t o t h e NW q u a r t e r as t he ves s el get s mo r e t o t h e S. See al so 11. 99. F o r S o u t h Ame r i c a n p o r t s f r o m Ap r i l t o Se p t e mb e r , a c our s e f a r t h e r W ma y b e p u r s u e d , pa s s i ng t h e l a t i t ude 25 of Sa n Fr a n c i s c o i n a b o u t 129 W. T h e n c e ke e p f a r t h e r f r o m t h e l a n d t o a voi d t h e c a l ms a n d l i ght va r i a bl e wi n d s e x p e r i e n c e d at t hi s s e a s on a l ong t he coas t of l owe r Ca l i f or ni a a n d i n t h e Gu l f of P a n a ma . Af t e r me e t i n g t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d i n a b o u t 30 N, 127 W, s t a n d t o t h e S o n or n e a r t h e me r i d i a n of 125 W, n o t o n l y t o a voi d t h e c a l ms a bove me n t i o n e d , b u t al so t h e h u r r i c a n e s wh i c h d u r i n g Au g u s t a n d S e p t e mb e r ar e l i abl e t o b e me t wi t h E of t h a t me r i d i a n . Occas i onal l y, b u t r ar el y, t he s e s t o r ms ar e me t wi t h W of 125 W. 30 T h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d wi l l b e l os t at t hi s s e a s on i n 11 N or 12 N, a n d t h e b e l t of d o l d r u ms wi l l b e f o u n d t o b e n o t so wi de as d u r i n g t h e wi nt e r . T h e So u t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d wi l l , at t hi s season, b e me t wi t h i n a b o u t 8 N, a n d if, as i s mo s t l i kel y t o b e t h e case at f i r st , t he wi n d b e wel l t o t h e S, s t a n d t o t h e E i n o r d e r t o r e c ove r s o me of t he g r o u n d l os t b y k e e p i n g f a r t h e r W i n t h e No r t h - e a s t Tr a d e s . T r y t o cr os s t h e e q u a t o r i n b e t we e n 118 W a n d 120 W, a n d s o o n a f t e r cr os s i ng, t h e wi n d wi l l h a u l mo r e t o t h e E, wh e n s t a n d t o t h e S t o 35 we a t h e r Du c i e I s l a n d a n d r e a c h t h e par al l el of 40 S be f or e ma k i n g cas t i ng, so as t o f al l i n wi t h t h e NW' l y wi n d s , as c a l ms a n d va r i a bl e wi n d s ar e me t wi t h N of t h a t par al l el . Af t e r pa s s i ng t h e me r i d i a n of 90 W h a u l u p f or I s l a Ro b i n s o n Cr u s o e a n d t h e n c e f or Va l pa r a i s o. 40 ROUTES F ROM S AN FRANCI S CO 11. 89. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Pr i nc e Rupe r t , Juan de Fuc a St rai t or Co l u mb i a Ri ve r . F r o m No v e mb e r t o Ap r i l , 45 d u r i n g t h e b a d we a t h e r s eas on, t h e ves s el s h o u l d at onc e b e t a k e n wel l o u t t o sea. T h i s wi l l b e easy, as t h e wi n d c ome s mo s t of t e n f r o m NW. Wh e n f a r e n o u g h of f t o h a v e n o t h i n g t o f ear f r o m S W' l y or NW' I y wi n d s , ma k e as mu c h n o r t h i n g as pos s i bl e . T o t h e N of t h e par al l el of Ca p e Me n d o c i n o , S W' l y wi n d s pr evai l , e n a b l i n g ves s el s t o f i ni s h t h e voya ge wi t h o u t di f f i cul t y, b u t t h e l a n d s h o u l d b e ma d e 20 t o 30 mi l e s S of t h e por t . F r o m Ap r i l t o No v e mb e r , t h e f i ne we a t h e r s eas on, t he wi n d a l mo s t i n v a r i a b l y bl ows f r o m b e t we e n NW a n d 50 NE. Af t e r l e a vi ng S a n Fr a n c i s c o r u n a b o u t 200 mi l e s of f - s hor e, a n d t h e n ma k e t o t h e N, pr of i t i ng b y e v e r y s h i f t of wi nd, a n d al ways s t a n d i n g o n t h e mo s t f a vour a bl e t ack. I t wo u l d b e wel l n o t t o a p p r o a c h t he l a n d u n t i l u p t o t he par al l el of t h e p o r t unl e s s t he ves s el c a n f e t c h h e r por t , or n e a r l y so wi t h o u t t acki ng. I f b o u n d t o Pr i n c e Ru p e r t i t wo u l d b e wel l n o t t o a p p r o a c h t he l a n d u n t i l n e a r l y a b r e a s t La n g a r a I s l a nd, at t h e NW e x t r e me of Qu e e n Ch a r l o t t e I s l a nd. He c a t e St r a i t , b e t we e n Qu e e n Ch a r l o t t e i s l a nd a n d t h e ma i n l a n d , ma y al so b e t a ke n. 55 11. 90. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Un i ma k pas s , Al e ut i a n I s l ands , a nd r e ve r s e . F r o m Sa n Fr a n c i s c o t o Un i ma k Pas s , t h e t r a c ks f or s ai l i ng ves s el s r e c o mme n d e d b y t h e Un i t e d St a t e s Pi l ot c h a r t s f or Ma y u n t i l Oc t o b e r ar e as f ol l ows : I n Ma y a n d J u n e , ma k e W f r o m S a n Fr a n c i s c o t o 145 W, a n d t h e n c e p r o c e e d d i r e c t t o Un i ma k Pas s . I n J ul y, Au g u s t , a n d S e p t e mb e r , c o n t i n u e t o 155 W be f or e t u r n i n g t o t h e N. Si mi l a r l y, i n Oc t o b e r c o n t i n u e t o 158 W. F r o m Un i ma k Pa s s t o Sa n Fr a n c i s c o p r o c e e d as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e. 11. 91. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Ho n o l u l u . At al l t i me s of t he ye a r t h e r o u t e t o Ch i n a a n d J a p a n pa s s e s cl osel y S of t he Ha wa i i a n I s l a nds , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e n e a r l y di r e c t l y f or Ho n o l u l u . On l e a vi ng Sa n Fr a n c i s c o r u n t o t h e S W f or t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e s ; f r o m J u n e t o De c e mb e r cl ear t he coas t as s o o n as pos s i bl e, s t e e r i ng a b o u t 266 t o a voi d t h e c a l ms E of 128 W. Ne a r t h e Ha wa i i a n I s l a n d s t h e T r a d e s ma y pos s i bl y v e e r t o E or e v e n SE, p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ma y ; a p p r o a c h t h e l a n d f r o m E NE , wh e n al l l ocal wi n d s wi l l b e fai r. Wh e n ma k i n g a l a ndf a l l 60 70 5 10 15 20 224 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES r e me mb e r t h a t t h e c u r r e n t s o f t e n r u n a t t h e r a t e of 20 mi l e s p e r day, a n d t h a t c a l ms a n d baf f l i ng wi n d s ar e c o mmo n t o l e e wa r d of t h e i s l a nds . See Ge n e r a l r e ma r k s o n wi nds , c u r r e n t s a n d s ai l i ng pas s ages a r o u n d t h e Ha wa i i a n I s l a n d s i n 11. 79. 11. 92. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Yo k o h a ma . Pr o c e e d as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 91 b u t pa s s S of Ha wa i i . T h e n s t a n d t o t h e W b e t we e n t h e par al l el s of 15 N a n d 20 N, b e i n g t o t h e N i n t h e s u mme r , a n d t o t h e S i n t h e wi nt e r . On r e a c h i n g t h e me r i d i a n of 160 E, p r o c e e d as f ol l ows : F r o m J a n u a r y t o Apr i l , s t a n d o n t o t h e W o n t h e f o r me r cour s e, u n t i l r e a c h i n g t h e me r i d i a n of 150 E, a n d t h e n c u r v e g r a d u a l l y r o u n d t o t h e WNW, NW, a n d f i nal l y N; pa s s a b o u t 60 mi l e s t o t h e W of Og a s a wa r a Gu n t 6 a n d W of t h e o t h e r i s l a nds of Na n p 6 Sh o t 6 o n a N' l y c our s e t o de s t i na t i on. I n Ma y a n d J u n e , ma k e t o t h e WNW at once, so as t o cr os s t h e me r i d i a n of 150 E b e t we e n 23 N a n d 24 N; t h e n c e p r o c e e d di r e c t t o de s t i na t i on, pa s s i ng a b o u t 200 mi l e s E of Og a s a wa r a Gu n t 6 . F r o m J u l y t o De c e mb e r , l eave t h e t r a c k acr os s t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n i n 163 E i n s t e a d of 160 E, a n d s e t a c our s e as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e t o Yo k o h a ma . Al t e r n a t i v e l y , s o me na vi ga t or s r e c o mme n d s t a n d i n g f or Yo k o h a ma o n r e a c h i n g t h e 1 8 0 t h me r i d i a n ; b u t t h i s i s n o t a v e r y u s u a l pr a c t i c e . At al l t i me s of t h e year , a l l owa nc e mu s t b e ma d e f or Ku r o Shi o, s e t t i n g acr os s t h e t r a c k d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e voyage. 11. 93. San Fr a nc i s c o t o nor t h part o f C h i n a Se a . Fo l l o w t h e di r e c t i ons g i v e n i n 11. 92 as f a r as 160 E, a n d t h e n s t a n d s l i ght l y t o t h e N t o d e a r t h e mo s t N' l y of t h e Ma r i a n a or La d r o n e I s l a nds , a n d t h e n pa s s t h r o u g h Ba s hi Ch a n n e l t o de s t i na t i on. F o r a n a l t e r na t i ve r o u t e i n t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n see 11. 60. 01. See al so 11. 95 f or t h e pa s s a ge vi a Ma n i l a . 30 11. 94. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Sha ng - ha i or Na g a s a ki . Fol l ow t h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 11. 93 acr os s t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n , b u t o n a r r i v i n g i n a b o u t 135 E, ma k e as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e f or e i t h e r de s t i na t i on. 11. 95. S a n F r a n c i s c o t o So ut h Chi na Se a . F r o m Oc t o b e r t o Ma r c h , i n t h e No r t h - e a s t Mo n s o o n , f ol l ow t h e d i r e c t i o n s g i v e n i n 11. 93 as f ar as Ba s hi Ch a n n e l , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d S a l ong t h e W coas t of L u z o n i f b o u n d f or Ma n i l a . F o r Sa i gon, p r o c e e d d i r e c t acr os s t h e Ch i n a Sea a l l owi ng f or t h e c u r r e n t wh i c h s et s wi t h t h e wi n d . 35 F o r Si nga por e , p r o c e e d as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 67. 01. F r o m Ap r i l t o S e p t e mb e r , i n t h e S o u t h - we s t Mo n s o o n , l eave t h e W- b o u n d t r a c k ( 11. 92) acr os s t h e Paci f i c Oc e a n i n 160 E, a n d s t e e r t o cr os s t h e me r i d i a n of 150 E i n 15 o N. Th e n c e , p a s s i n g S of t h e Ma r i a n a or L a d r o n e I s l a nds , s t a n d di r e c t l y f or Sa n Be r n a r d i n o St r a i t or f or Sur i ga o St r a i t ; a n d t h e n c e t h r o u g h t h e P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s f or Ma n i l a , I l oi l o, et c. d0 F r o m Mi n d o r o St r a i t or Ve r d e I s l a n d Pas s age p r o c e e d as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 58 f or Si nga por e , 11. 59 f or Sa i gon, or 11. 60 f or Ho n g Ko n g or Hs i a - me n . 11. 96. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Aus t r al i an port s s o ut h o f Br i s bane . T h e r o u t e s us ua l l y f ol l owe d ar e s eas onal , a f t e r d5 t a k i n g a d i r e c t c our s e f r o m S a n Fr a n c i s c o t h r o u g h t h e No r t h - e a s t T r a d e t o a b o u t 10 N, 145 W. T h e n c e , i n J u n e , J ul y, a n d Au g u s t , s t e e r a d i r e c t c our s e pa s s i ng N of Fi j i I s l a n d s a n d S of Ne w Ca l e d o n i a t o Br i s b a n e or , ma k i n g t h e c oa s t S of S a n d y Ca pe , t o Sydne y. F r o m Sydne y, c o n t i n u e S as d i r e c t e d i n 10. 60, 11. 04. 01, a n d 11. 04. 02. F r o m S e p t e mb e r t o J u n e , s t e e r a d i r e c t c our s e f r o m 10 N, 145 W t o cr os s t he e q u a t o r i n 152 W i n De c e m- 50 b e t , J a n u a r y , a n d F e b r u a r y ; i n 150 W f r o m Ma r c h t o J u n e ; a n d i n 152 W or 153 W i n S e p t e mb e r , Oc t o b e r , a n d No v e mb e r . At wh a t e v e r p o i n t t h e e q u a t o r i s cr os s ed, cr os s t h e par al l el of 10 S n e a r 155 W, a n d t h e n c e pa s s S of T o n g a I s l a n d s ; c r os s t h e 1 8 0 t h me r i d i a n i n 24 S t o 25 o S, a n d 160 E i n 26 S t o 27 S. T h e n c e p r o c e e d t o d e s t i n a t i o n , pa s s i ng N of Mi d d l e t o n Reef , i f b o u n d t o S y d n e y ma k i n g t h e coas t S of S a n d y cape. See 11. 69. 55 Al t e r n a t i v e s e a s ona l r o u t e s we r e r e c o mme n d e d b y F r e n c h a ut hor i t i e s as f ol l ows : F r o m J a n u a r y t o J ul y, cr os s t h e par al l el of 10 N i n 143 W, a n d t h e e q u a t o r i n 148 W. I n J a n u a r y , F e b r u a r y a n d Ma r c h n o c a l ms wi l l b e f o u n d b e t we e n t h e No r t h - e a s t a n d S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s . I n Apr i l , Ma y a n d J u n e t h e r e wi l l b e o n l y a b o u t 2 p e r c e n t of c h a n c e s of c a l ms i n t h i s r e gi on. F r o m t h e e q u a t o r s t e e r f or a p o s i t i o n i n 10 S, 155 W, a n d c o n t i n u e t h e n c e as d i r e c t e d a b o v e f or S e p t e mb e r t o J u n e . 60 I n J ul y, Au g u s t , a n d S e p t e mb e r , s t e e r t o 10 N, 148 W, a n d cr os s t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 150 W a n d 153 W. I n t h i s s eas on, a n d i f t h e p r e c a u t i o n b e t a k e n n o t t o f ol l ow a mo r e E' l y r o u t e t h a n t h a t i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e wi l l b e o n l y f r o m 2 t o 3 p e r c e n t of c a l ms b e t we e n 10 N a n d t h e e qua t or . T h e n c e p r o c e e d as d i r e c t e d a bove f or J a n u a r y t o J ul y. F r o m Oc t o b e r t o J a n u a r y , s t e e r t o 10 N, 138 W, a n d cr os s t he e q u a t o r i n 143 W. By f ol l owi ng t h i s r o u t e t h e r e wi l l b e o n l y f r o m 2 t o 3 p e r c e n t c h a n c e s of c a l ms b e t we e n t h e t wo T r a d e Wi n d r egi ons . F a r t h e r t o t h e W 65 a t t hi s s eas on, mo r e c a l ms ar e l i kel y. T h e n c e p r o c e e d as di r e c t e d a bove f or J a n u a r y t o J ul y. 11. 97. S a n F r a n c i s c o t o P a c i f i c i s l a n d s . F o r t h e No r t h Paci f i c i s l ands , s t a n d t o t h e S W i n t o t h e T r a d e Wi n d a n d t h e No r t h Eq u a t o r i a l Cu r r e n t , a n d t h e n r u n t o t h e W i n a b o u t 15 N as f a r as a b o u t 170 W; t h e n c e steer as di r e c t l y as n a v i g a t i o n p e r mi t s t o de s t i na t i on. PACI FI C OCEAN 225 F o r Ta hi t i , st eer S W on ne a r l y t he di r ect cour s e t o cr oss t he e qua t or i n 140 W, o r a l i t t l e t o t he E, a nd t he n di r ect , al l owi ng f or t he set of t he So u t h Equa t or i a l Cur r e nt . F o r Samoa, Fi j i , a nd i sl ands t o t he W, s t eer f r o m 10 N, 145 W as di r ect ed i n 11. 96 f or t he pe r i od Se p t e mb e r t o Ma y unt i l ar r i vi ng on t he par al l el of t he i s l and t o whi c h bound, a nd t he n r un W on t hi s par al l el . 11. 98. San Fr a nc i s c o t o P a n a ma . Ma k i n g t hi s passage be t we e n De c e mb e r a nd Ma y i ncl usi ve, wh e n t he pr evai l i ng wi nds on t he W coast of Me x i c o ar e f r o m t he N a nd t he c ur r e nt is f avour abl e, fi rst obt ai n a good offi ng, a nd t he n s t and d o wn t he coast of Cal i f or ni a, ke e pi ng a bout 100 mi l e s off, a nd at a bout 150 mi l es of f t he coast of Me xi c o, s ha pi ng a cour s e t o ma ke I sl a Ji car i t a, t he mos t S' l y of t he i sl ands S of I sl a Coi ba a nd a bout 10 55 mi l e s W of Pu n t a Ma r i a t o, wh i c h is a good l andf al l f or vessel s b o u n d t o Pa na ma f r o m t he W. Be t we e n J u n e a nd No v e mb e r , i ncl us i ve, wh e n cal ms, var i abl e wi nds a nd of t e nt i me s hur r i c a ne s pr evai l on t he W coast of Me xi c o, s t a nd wel l out t o sea af t er pas s i ng Sa n Fr anci s co, a nd t he n shape a cour s e t o cr oss t he e qua t or i n a b o u t 104 W; t he nc e s t and on t o t he S, unt i l s ur e of r eachi ng Pa na ma on t he o t h e r ( st ar boar d) t ack. Bo u n d t o Pa na ma f r o m t he N, t r y t o ma ke I sl a J i car i t a ( 7 13" 2"V, 81 48" W), a nd t he n t r y t o keep u n d e r t he 15 l and as f ar as Ca bo Mal a. I f una bl e t o do t hi s, s t a nd across f or t he oppos i t e coast of t he cont i nent , wh e n t he c ur r e nt wi l l be f ound f avour abl e. On ge t t i ng E of Ca bo Ma l a t he bes t pl an is t o shape a cour s e f or I sl a Gal er a, and t o use t he passage E of Ar chi pi 61ago de La s Per l as wi t h caut i on, see Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r e c t i ons . At t he s ame t i me, i f t e mp t e d up t he gul f b y a f ai r wi nd, t r y t o ge t on t he W si de of Ar chi pi 61ago de las Per l as, whe r e anchor age a nd l ess c ur r e nt wi l l be f o u n d i f t he wi nd s houl d fail. 20 Of f t he coast N of Pu n t a Gu a s c a ma (2 ,37' N, 78 25" W) , t he wi nds b e c o me mor e var i abl e a nd r ai ns mo r e f r e que nt , and t he f ol l owi ng a c c ount by Da mp i e r is pe r ha ps as good as can be gi ven : - - " I t is a ve r y we t coast , and r ai ns a bunda nt l y al l t he year . Th e r e ar e b u t f e w f ai r days, f or t he r e is l i t t l e di f f er ence i n t he seasons of t he year be t we e n t he we t a nd dr y; onl y i n t hat season whi c h s houl d be dr y t he r ai ns ar e less f r e q u e n t a nd mo r e mo d e r a t e t ha n i n t he we t season, f or t he n i t pour s as out of a s i e ve . " Th i s ki nd of we a t he r is f ound as f ar as Ca bo Cor r i e nt e s 25 (5 30" N, 77 33" W) , t he pr evai l i ng wi nd be i ng SW, b u t NE wi nds ar e not u n c o mmo n . Of f s hor e i n t hi s zone, be t we e n t he par al l el s of 2 N a nd 5 N, t he wi nds ar e e qua l l y baffi i ng, especi al l y dur i ng Ma r c h , Apr i l a nd Ma y. Be t we e n Ca bo Cor r i e nt e s a nd Pa na ma , t he pr e va i l i ng wi nds ar e f r om t he N and W, wi t h f r e q u e n t squal l s a nd we t we a t he r f r om t he S W be t we e n J u n e a nd Oct ober . Wi t h i n 60 mi l es of t he coast t her e is a cons t ant c ur r e nt t o t he N. Af t e r pas s i ng Ca bo Ma l a (7 28" N, 80 00" W) 30 i t me e t s t he Me x i c o Cu r r e n t f r o m t he WNW, a nd t hus causes t he n u me r o u s r i ppl i ngs a nd s hor t une a s y sea so of t en me t wi t h at t he e nt r a nc e of t he Gu l f of Cal i f or ni a. Th i s t r o u b l e d wa t e r wi l l be f ound mo r e or l ess t o t he S, accor di ng t o t he s t r e ngt h of t he c ont e ndi ng s t r eams . 11. 99. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Cal l ao or I q u i q u e . Ma ke a n offi ng f r om Sa n Fr anci s co of a bout 300 mi l es t o t he S W; a nd t he n wor k r o u n d gr a dua l l y t o t he S so as t o cr oss 30 N i n a bout 127 W. F r o m t hi s pos i t i on ma ke a s t r ai ght cour s e t o t he S S E r oughl y par al l el wi t h t he coast , ma ki ng f or a pos i t i on i n 5 N, 110 W, a bout whe r e t he So u t h - east Tr a d e s wi l l be me t . St a nd t h r o u g h t he Tr a d e s on t he por t t ack t o 20 S, 118 W. F r o m t hi s pos i t i on a cour s e gr adual l y a ppr oa c hi ng t he coast ma y be made, as t he Tr a d e Wi n d is l ost a nd t he W' l y wi nds ar e fel t . T h e mos t S' l y pos i t i ons r e a c he d wi l l be a bout 34 S, 110 W be t we e n Se p t e mb e r a nd No v e m- be r ; a bout t he par al l el of 37 S f r om De c e mb e r t o Ma y ; a nd an i nt e r me di a t e l at i t ude i n J une , J ul y, a nd Augus t . As t he coast is near ed, S' l y wi nds a nd a N- g o i n g c ur r e nt wi l l be obt ai ned, b y wh i c h t he des t i nat i on ma y be r eached. I n any case ma ke t he por t wel l t o t he S, i n or de r t o al l ow f or t he N- g o i n g c ur r e nt wh i c h r uns t he whol e l e ngt h of t he So u t h Ame r i c a n coast . 11.100. San Fr a nc i s c o t o Co q u i mb o , Val parai s o, and Cor one l . Pr oc e e d as di r ect ed i n 11. 99, b u t do n o t a t t e mpt t o ma ke mu c h cas t i ng af t er ar r i vi ng i n 20 S, 118 W unt i l wel l t o t he S of 35 S. Ma ke t he coast wel l S of dest i nat i on, i n or de r t o al l ow f or t he N- g o l n g c ur r e nt whi c h r uns t he whol e l e ngt h of t hi s coast . 40 45 50 11. 101. San Fr a nc i s c o t o r o u n d Cabo de Hor nos . Ge t a good offi ng of a bout 300 mi l es f r om Sa n Fr anci s co, a nd t he n s t and ne a r l y due S so as t o cr oss t he par al l el of 5 N i n a bout 126 W dur i ng De c e mb e r , J anuar y, a nd Fe b r u a r y ; a nd be t we e n 120 W a nd 122 W dur i ng t he r est of t he year , be i ng f ar t hes t E i n Ma r c h . Wh e n t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e s ar e me t , s t and t o t he S so as t o cr oss t he par al l el of 30 S i n a bout 124 W; a nd as s oon as t he Tr a d e s ar e l ost a nd t he W' l y wi nds pi cked up, as t he y wi l l be i n a bout 35 S, ma ke as di r e c t a cour s e as pos s i bl e t o r o u n d Ca bo de Ho r n o s as di r ect ed i n 9. 66. 01. ROUTES FROM LOWER CALI FORNI A AND PANAMA 11.102. Lo we r Cal i f or ni a no r t hwa r d t o No r t h Ame r i c a n port s . On account of t he c ont r a r y S- gol ng cur r ent , t he onl y wa y t o ma ke a passage f r om a ny por t of t hi s coast t o t he N is t o pr oc e e d W on t he s t ar boar d t ack unt i l t he var i abl e wi nds ar e r eached, i n a bout 130 W, a nd t he n ma ke nor t hi ng, as di r ect ed i n 11. 89. F r o m J ul y t o J a nua r y vessel s ma y have t o s t and on as f ar as 140 W. L u mb e r vessel s b o u n d t o J u a n de Fu c a St r ai t have f ound i t advant ageous t o keep as ne a r t he l and as pr act i cabl e, i n o r d e r t o t ake advant age of t he SE' l y s t or ms , wh i c h wor k r o u n d t o t he SW. Ra pi d passages have be e n ma d e i n t hi s ma nne r . 55 60 70 226 S A I L I N G V E S S E L R OUT E S 11. 103. L o w e r C a l i f o r n i a t o P a c i f i c O c e a n p o r t s . Fo r N- b o u n d passages coast wi se, see 11. 102. Fo r Ho n o l u l u a nd No r t h Paci f i c i sl ands, pr oc e e d di r ect wh e n i n t he No r t h - e a s t Tr a d e s ; see 11.91 a nd 11.97. F o r Sydney, s t eer t o j oi n t he r out e f r om Sa n Fr a nc i s c o (11. 96) i n 10 N, 145 W dur i ng J une , J ul y, a nd Au g u s t ; a nd at t he e qua t or at ot he r t i mes. Fo r ot he r Paci f i c Oc e a n dest i nat i ons, st eer S W t o j oi n t he appr opr i at e r out e f r om San Fr anci s co i n a c onve ni e nt posi t i on. 11. 104. N o t e s o n p a s s a g e o u t o f G u l f o f P a n a m a . Bound i n any di r ect i on f r om Panama, t he chi ef di f f i cul t y is t he passage out of t he Gu l f of Pa na ma , f or l i ght and baf f l i ng wi nds or cal ms ar e me t wi t h t her e at all seasons. 10 Be t we e n Oc t obe r a nd Apr i l , t he pr evai l i ng wi nd i n t he gul f is f r om t he N; f or t he r e ma i nde r of t he year t he wi nd hangs mor e t o t he W, and l and a nd sea br eezes ar e fel t , var i ed b y cal ms a nd occasi onal squal l s f r om t he SW. N of 5 N, be t we e n 80 W and 110 W, is a r egi on of cal ms and l i ght wi nds , va r i e d b y squal l s of wi n d a nd r ai n; b u t S of 5 N, a nd W of t he me r i di a n of 80 W, be t we e n t he ma i nl a nd a nd Archi pi 61ago de Co16n, t he wi nd is b e t we e n S a nd W all t he year r ound, a nd except be t we e n Fe b r u a r y a nd J une , i t is f ai r l y st r ong. Wh e t h e r b o u n d 15 N or S f r o m Pa na ma pus h t o t he S a nd gai n t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e ; by so doi ng t he d o l d r u ms and vexat i ous wi nds wi l l not onl y be a voi de d b u t t her e wi l l be t he addi t i onal advant age of s al ubr i ous weat her . 11. 105. P a n a m a t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . T h e passage t o por t s al ong t he coast of Ce nt r a l Ame r i c a is sl ow a nd 20 t r oubl e s ome t o sai l i ng vessel s; advant age mus t be t aken of e ve r y shi f t of wi nd t o get t o t he NW. T h e cur r ent s wi l l be wi t h t he shi p as f ar as Gol f o de Fons eca, b u t i f b o u n d f or Ac a pul c o or Mazat l an, t he passage ma y be be t t e r ma de b y s t andi ng of f f r om t he coast , af t er r eachi ng Fons eca (12 54" N, 87 42' W) . I f a " No r t h e r " is bl owi ng i n Gol f o de Te h u a n t e p e c , a nd sail can be car r i ed, i t is advi sabl e t o ease t he s heet s of f a nd r u n wel l t o t he W, wi t hout seeki ng t o make nor t hi ng; i f obl i ged t o heave- t o, f r o m t wo t o f our days' 25 he a vy we a t he r ma y be expect ed, wi t h a hi gh s hor t sea, a cl ear sky over head, and a dense r e d haze near t he hor i zon. I t is sai d t hat i f t he s ummi t s of Si er r a Chi ma l a pa ar e hi dde n about s uns et b y a s l at e- col our ed vapour , a No r t h e r wi l l bl ow t he f ol l owi ng day; and i f s i mi l ar mi s t s ar e seen on t he ocean hor i zon at sunset , a S S W' l y wi nd wi l l bl ow t he ne xt day. 30 40 45 50 55 60 11. 106. P a n a m a t o S a n F r a n c i s c o o r J u a n d e F u e a S t r a i t . F r o m J u n e t o J anuar y, ha vi ng l ef t t he Gu l f of Pa na ma (11. 104), i n or de r t o gai n t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e Wi nds , st eer t o pass N of Archi pi 61ago de Col 6n ke e pi ng on a bout t he par al l el of 2 N unt i l t he me r i di a n of 105 W is r eached, t he n al t er cour s e t o NW t o pass W of Cl i ppe r t on I sl and, i n t he ne i ghbour hood of whi c h t he No r t h - e a s t Tr a d e wi l l be me t ; t he n s t and t o t he NW t o cr oss t he par al l el of 20 N i n 120 W, and, i f b o u n d t o San Fr anci s co, s t and NW as f ar as 35 N, 135 W; b u t i f f or J u a n de Fu c a St r ai t , keep on t o t he NW as f ar as 40 N, 138 W, t he n haul i n f or t he coast as t he wi nd al l ows, r e me mb e r i n g al ways t o ma ke t he l and t o wi n d wa r d of t he des i r ed por t . F r o m Fe b r u a r y t o Ma y, i ncl usi ve, cross t he e qua t or be t we e n Archi pi 61ago de Col 6n a nd t he mai nl and, a nd r u n W unt i l pas t 105 W; t hen al t er cour s e t o NW t o pass W of Cl i ppe r t on I s l and and as f or J u n e t o J anuar y. 11. 107. P a n a m a t o A u s t r a l i a o r N e w Z e a l a n d . Cr oss t he equat or , a nd pass S of Ar chi pi 61ago de Col 6n i nt o t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a d e s as i n 11. 104 a nd 11. 105. Wh e n i n t he Sout h- e a s t Tr a de , r un S W t o cr oss t he me r i di a n of 120 W i n 11 S t o 12 S a nd t he n W t o pass S of I l es Ma r qui s e s a nd N of Ar c hi pe l des Tu a mo t u , a nd j oi n t he r out e f r om Sa n Fr a nc i s c o (11.96) i n 14 S or 15 S on t he me r i di a n of 160 W. ( See also char t 5308). I f b o u n d t o Ne w Zeal and, l eave t he r out e t o Sydne y i n about 170 W a nd pr oc e e d di r ect , not i ng t hat i t is advi sabl e, e xc e pt wh e n b o u n d t o Auckl and, t o pass down t he W coast , a nd r ound t he S of Ne w Zeal and, owi ng t o t he pr e va l e nc e of W' l y wi nds . I f condi t i ons ar e f avour abl e whe n of f Cook St r ai t , appr oach We l l i ngt on t h r o u g h it. 11. 108. P a s s a g e s f r o m P a n a m a t o t h e s o u t h w a r d ar e all sl ow a nd di ffi cul t f or a sai l i ng vessel , on a c c ount of t he c ont r a r y coast al cur r ent , whi c h set s N t h r o u g h o u t t he year, and t he equal l y cont r ar y l i ght , b u t per s i s t ent l y S' l y wi nds . T h e gener al opi ni on appear s t o be t hat , i f b o u n d f or por t s al ong t he coast S as f ar as Cal l ao, i t is be t t e r t o be a t down t he coast , b u t i f b o u n d t o por t s s uch as Mol l e ndo, I qui que , Ant of agast a, et c. , i t is be t t e r t o ma ke an offi ng i nt o t he Tr a d e Wi nds , r each t he coast by t he west er l i es S of 30 S, a nd t he n r un N wi t h a f ai r wi nd a nd c ur r e nt t o t he des i r ed des t i nat i on. 11. 109. P a n a m a t o G o l f o d e G u a y a q u i l . F r o m t he Gu l f of Panama, ma ke t he bes t wa y S unt i l be t we e n 5 N and t he equat or , a nd t r y, i f possi bl e, t o keep near t he me r i di a n of 80 W; t h e n ma ke a S W' l y cour s e i f t he wi nds wi l l al l ow. I f t he wi nd is SW, s t and t o t he S, b u t i f S S W s t and t o t he W, i f a good wor ki ng br e e z e ; i f t he wi nd be l i ght a nd baffl i ng, wi t h rai n, t he vessel is i n t he dol dr ums , a nd s houl d get t o t he S as soon as possi bl e, t aki ng advant age of e ve r y sl ant of wi nd t o Gol f o de Gua ya qui l . 11. 110. P a n a m a t o Ca l l a o . Fol l ow t he di r ect i ons i n 11.109 as f ar as Gol f o de Gua ya qui l ; t he n wor k d o s e i ns hor e a s f ar as I sl as Lo b o s de Af ue r a ( 6 57" S , 80 42" W) . Ap p r o a c h t hes e i sl ands wi t h care, see Ad mi r a l t y Sai l i ng Di r ect i ons . T r y al ways t o be i n wi t h t he l and soon af t er t he s un has set, so t hat advant age ma y b e t aken of t he PACI FI C OCEAN 227 land breeze, which however light, usually begins about this time; this will frequently enable a vessel to make way nearly along shore throughout the night, and be in a good situation for the first of the sea breeze. After having passed Islas Lobos de Afuera it would be advisable to work S until the latitude of Callao is ap- proached; then stand in, and if it be not fetched, work S along shore, as above directed, remembering that the wind hauls to the E on leaving the coast. Some navigators attempt to make this passage by standing off for several days, hoping to fetch in well on the other tack, but this will generally be found a fruitless effort, owing to the N' l y current. 11.111. Pa n a ma t o por t s b e t we e n Mo l l e n d o a nd Val par ai s o. Follow the directions in 11.104 for leaving 10 the Gul f of Panama according to season, and then, between June and January, stand to the W after crossing the parallel of 2 N, and pass N of Archipi61ago de Col6n, taking care to keep S of 5 N. S and SSW winds will persist as far as 85 W, but after passing that meridian the wind will haul round to the S, and vessels bound to the South Pacific may be considered fairly in the Trade. From February to May, it is better to cross the equator between Archipi61ago de Col6n and the coast before 15 proceeding to the W. Thi s may probably take a week, which outlay of time, however, is far preferable to encoun- tering the vexatious weather met in that season N of Archipi61ago de Col6n. In this route it must be remembered that S of 1 N the wind hauls to the E as the vessel leaves the coast, and in the longitude of 83 W it is frequently found E of S. The seasonal routes from Panama, given above, passing N and S of Archipi61ago de Col6n, meet one another 20 in about 20 S, 100 W; on reaching this position begin, if possible, to make southing and easting towards the coast, crossing 30 S, in about 95 W; and thence, as the W' l y winds and N-going current begin to be felt, and eventually the SW' l y and S' l y coast winds, gradually head for destination, always arranging to make the desired port to the S, on account of the current. 11.112. Pa n a ma t o Cabo de Ho r no s . Proceed as directed in 11.111 to 20 S, 100 W, and then continue standing to the S, crossing 30 S between 102 W and 103 W; from this position or on reaching the W' l ywi nds, gradually curve round towards the SE, crossing the meridian of 90 W at about 50 S, being to the N from September to November and to the S from June to August. Round Cabo de Hornos as directed in 9.66.01. 30 ROUTES F ROM S OUT H AMERI CAN PORTS 11.113. Cal l ao t o Pa n a ma , Ce nt r al Ame r i c a a nd Me x i c o . Stand N along the coast with a favourable current and a S' l y wind. See notes on winds, weather, and currents in 11.98. To ports on the coast of Central America, N of the Gul f of Panama, follow the general directions in 11.105. 11.114. Cal l ao t o San Fr a nc i s c o or Juan de Fuc a Strait. Stand out from the coast to pick up the South-east Trade, and then steer NW to cross the equator between the meridians of 112 W and 115 W, and the parallels of 5 N and 7 N in 115 W to 118 W, to join the route from Panama (11.106). 11.115. Cal l ao t o Aus t r al i a or Ne w Ze a l a nd. Steer W in the South-east Trade to join the route from Panama (11.107) in about 12 S, 122 W. 11.116. Cal l ao t o Chi na, Phi l i ppi ne Isl ands, Japan, etc. Steer W in the South-east Trade to j oi n the route from Valparaiso (11.123) in about 12 S, 122 W. 40 45 50 11.117. Cal l ao t o por t s as f ar s o u t h wa r d as 27 S. All of these ports lie within the area of the South-east Trade 55 Wind, and it is therefore recommended normally to work along shore, from Bahia de1 Callao as far as Isla San GallOn, whence the coast trends more to the E, so that a long leg and a short one may be made (with the land j ust in sight) to Rada de Arica (18 29" ,S, 70 21" W) or to any of the ports between it and Bahia Pisco. When proceeding from Callao to Bahia Pisco it is recommended to stand off the land at night, and towards it during the day until S of 13 S, when it is advisable to keep within 4 or 5 miles of the shore down to Bahia 60 Pisco. For currents, see Admiralty Sailing Directions. As an alternative, a very dull sailer mi ght do better by running through the Trade and making southing in the offing, so as to return to the N along the coast, than by attempting to work to windward against a Trade Wi nd which never varies more than a few points. Care is necessary when approaching Caldera in very light winds, as the current will tend to set the vessel on 65 the rocks N of Punta Francisco. 11.118. Cal l ao t o por t s s o ut h of 30 S. Bound to ports S of 30 S, there is no doubt that by standing offshore a quicker passage will be made than by working along the coast. Therefore, on leaving Bahia del Callao, stand well 70 228 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES out to the SW through the South-east Trade and, from January to March, cross the meridians of 90 W in 18 S, and 95 W in 30 S. From this position, as soon as the W' l y winds begin to be felt steer E for destination; making the desired port to the S on account of the current. From April to December, a lesser offing from the coast will suffice, and on leaving Bahia del Callao, steer so as to cross the meridians of 85 W in 18 S, and 90 W in about 30 S, and thence as above described, making to the E to destination. 10 11.119. Cal l ao to Cabo d e Ho r n o s . Follow the directions in 11.118, according to season, but on reaching the parallel of 30 S, continue on a S' ly course so as to cross the parallel of 50 S between 85 W and 90 W, being to the E from September to November, and to the W from June to August. Then steer to round Cabo de Hornos as directed in 11.101. 15 11.120. Va l p a r a i s o n o r t h w a r d t o p o r t s i n S o u t h A me r i c a . Steer N along the coast. Calms and variable winds may be experienced in the vicinity of the parallel of 30 S, but S' ly winds, and a steady N-goi ng current will be experienced throughout the remainder of the voyage. 20 25 30 40 11.121. Va l p a r a i s o t o P a n a ma , Ce n t r a l A m e r i c a , a n d Me x i c o . Stand to the NW, crossing the parallel of 30 S in about 77 W, and then standing N till on the parallel of Callao, from which position keep at a distance of about 150 miles from the land until reaching the Gul f of Panama. If bound to ports in Central America and Mexico N of Panama proceed as directed in 11.105. 11.122. Va l p a r a i s o t o S a n F r a n c i s c o , V a n c o u v e r o r P r i n c e Ru p e r t . The best route to pursue when making this voyage is the same at all times of the year. Leaving Valparaiso stand to the NW, passing E of Isla San F61ix (26 19' S, 79 54" W), and crossing the parallel of 17 S in 90 W. Wi t h the South-east Trade Wind, steer to cross the equator in about 118 W. Continue NW into the North-east Trade Wi nd and cross the parallel of 20 N in 138 W, the parallel of 30 N in 142 W, and the parallel of 40 N in 140 W. In May and June the North-east Trade Wi nd is often very weak to the N of 20 N, and frequently a belt of calm exists between 20 N and 30 N. For San Francisco, after losing the North-east Trade, make to the E as soon as the W' l y winds are met with, which will be from about 33 N during the winter to 40 N in the summer up to the end of August; making allowance for the SE-going current. Similarly, make for either Juan de Fuca Strait or Prince Rupert on reaching the parallel of 40 N at all times of the year; crossing the meridian of 130 W in 47 N before steering direct to destination. Prince Rupert may be approached either by Hecate Strait, or W of Queen Charlotte Islands. Allowance must be made for a SE-going current, setting across the track, and attention is called to the cautionary statements in 11.64.02. 11.123. Val par ai so to Phi l i ppi ne Isl ands, Chi na o r J a pa n. T h e passage may be made by using either the North-east or the South-east Trades. These two routes are described hereunder respectively as the Nort herl y Route and the Southerly Route. 45 The Nort herl y Route, for departures between August and February, passes through 12 S, 122 W, where vessels from Callao should join it, and continues through the South-east Trades to cross the equator in about 138 W, and the parallel of 10 N in about 143 W; the North-east Trades will be found near this parallel; thence continue as from Nort h America, passing close S of the Hawaiian Islands, and joining the appropriate route from San Francisco to destination. References are for Philippine Islands, 11.95; Hong Kong 11.93 or 11.95; 50 Shang-hai 11.94; Singapore 11.95; Nagasaki 11.94; Yokohama 11.92. For the Southerly Route, which is recommended for departures between March to July, on leaving Valparaiso steer NW into the South-east Trades. Having found these, pass S of Ties Marquises, S of Gilbert Islands, and N of Caroline Islands, to a position in about 13 N, 130 E. At this point, join the "Second Eastern Passage" (10.46) from the Eastern Archipelago to China and Japan in the North-east Monsoon (October to March), E 55 of the Philippines; and from April to September pass through San Bernardino Strait for Manila and the South China Sea. Bound to Yokohama leave the route when S of Gilbert Islands, cross the equator in about 168 E, and join the appropriate route from Sydney soon afterwards. See Chart 5308 and 11.07. See also routes from San Francisco in 11.93, 11.94, and 11.95. If there is a N' l y wind on leaving Valparaiso, stand W as long as it lasts and then NW into the South-east 60 Trade. In the latitude of Valparaiso, during June, July and August, N' l y winds occasionally extend far across the Pacific. 11.124. Va l p a r a i s o t o Au s t r a l i a o r N e w Zeal and. Steer to the NW to join the route from Panama described in 11.107, between the meridians of 120 W and 130 W, and between the parallels of 10 S and 12 S. See note in 11.123 regarding leaving Valparaiso with a N' l y wind. 11. 125. Va l p a r a i s o s o u t h w a r d , a n d r o u n d Ca b o d e H o r n o s . T h e same rule prevai l s f or r oundi ng Cabo de 70 Hornos as that from Callao (11.119) or from any port on the W coast of South America, namely, first to make an Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation PACI FI C OCEAN 229 of f i ng of b e t we e n 500 a n d 600 mi l e s t o t he SW, u n t i l t h e W' l y wi n d s ar e s t e a d y a n d c e r t a i n, a n d t h e s t r e n g t h of t he NE - g o i n g c u r r e n t i s l ost . F r o m Va l pa r a i s o or Ta l c a h u a n o t h e pos i t i on t o ma k e f or i s a b o u t 40 S, 84 W. T h e n c e s t a n d n e a r l y S, c r os s i ng 50 S i n a b o u t 85 W. F r o m t hi s pos i t i on, a l t e r c our s e gr a dua l l y t o t h e SE a n d E t o r o u n d Ca b o de Ho r n o s , as di r e c t e d i n 11. 101, a n d o n wa r d i n 11. 133. 5 ROUTES FROM CABO DE HORNOS 10 For directions for rounding Cabo de Hornos westbound, see 9. 08. 02. 11. 126. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Val parai s o. Af t e r pa s s i ng t he me r i d i a n of 70 W i n a b o u t 57 S, as d e s c r i b e d i n 9. 08. 02, s t a n d NW a n d t h e n N, k e e p i n g at a di s t a nc e of a b o u t 150 mi l e s f r o m t he l a n d ; b e g i n t o cl ose t he l a n d a t a b o u t 40 S. W' l y wi n d s a n d a f a vour a bl e c u r r e n t wi l l b e f o u n d f r o m a b o u t 48 S. Ma k e t h e l a ndf a l l S of de s t i na t i on. So me na vi ga t or s p r e f e r t o s t a n d f a r t h e r t o t he NW t o a b o u t 50 S, 80 W, be f or e t u r n i n g N a n d s t e e r i n g f or de s t i na t i on. 15 20 11.127. Cabo de Ho r no s t o port s i n Sout h Ame r i c a no r t hwa r d of Val parai s o. Af t e r r o u n d i n g Ca b o de Ho r n o s ( 9. 08. 02) , a n d b o u n d t o por t s o n t h e W coas t of S o u t h Ame r i c a , a n d wh e n W of t he me r i d i a n of Ca b o Pi l a f ( or a b o u t 75 W) , t ake e ve r y o p p o r t u n i t y of ma k i n g we s t i n g u n t i l t h e me r i d i a n of 82 W or 84 W b e r e a c h e d ; t h e n c e s t e e r di r ect , or as n e a r l y so as i s c o n s i s t e n t wi t h ma k i n g us e of t he s t e a dy wi n d s wh i c h pr e va i l i n t h e offi ng, f or t h e i n t e n d e d por t , b e i n g car ef ul n o t t o get t o l e e wa r d of i t o n a p p r o a c h i n g t he l a nd. 25 11. 128. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Panama, Cent ral Ame r i c a , and Me xi c o. Pr o c e e d as d i r e c t e d i n 11. 127, u n t i l 30 r e a c h i n g t h e me r i d i a n of 82 W or 84 W, a n d t h e n s t e e r N t o d o s e t h e l a n d u n t i l i t i s a b o u t 60 mi l e s di s t a nc e wh e n off, or j u s t N of Gol f o de Gu a y a q u i l . Af t e r c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r s t e e r f or I s l a Ga l e r a (8 30" N, 79 00' W), at t he s a me t i me t a k i n g car e, es peci al l y i n t he d r y s eas on, t o s t a n d i n s h o r e wi t h t h e f i r st N' l y wi n d s . By so doi ng, vessel s wi l l mo s t p r o b a b l y h a v e t he c u r r e n t i n t h e i r f a v o u r a l ong t h e coast , wh e r e a s b y k e e p i n g i n t he c e nt r e , or o n t h e W s i de of t he gul f , a s t r o n g S' l y s et wi l l b e e xpe r i e nc e d. 35 Af t e r ma k i n g I s l a Ga l e r a a n d c l e a r i ng Ba nc o Sa n Jos6, n a v i g a t i o n t o wa r d s P a n a ma b e t we e n Ar chi pi 61ago de l as Per l as a n d t he ma i n l a n d i s cl ear a n d easy, wi t h t h e a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g abl e t o a n c h o r d u r i n g a dve r s e c o n d i t i o n s of wi n d a n d t i de. As a r ul e t h e pa s s a ge E of t he i s l a nds s h o u l d b e t a ke n, b u t wi t h a s t r o n g S' l y wi n d t h e n a v i g a t o r i s t e mp t e d t o r u n u p t he gul f , i n wh i c h case he s h o u l d ke e p t o wa r d s t h e W s i de of Ar chi pi 61ago de l a Per l as , wh e r e a n c h o r a g e a n d l ess c u r r e n t wi l l b e f o u n d i f t h e wi n d s h o u l d fai l , a n e v e n t al ways t o b e e xpe c t e d i n t h e s e 40 r egi ons . Bo u n d t o p o r t s i n Ce n t r a l Ame r i c a or Me xi c o, N of t he Gu l f of P a n a ma , p r o c e e d ge ne r a l l y as di r e c t e d i n 11. 105. 11. 129. Cabo de Ho r no s t o San Fr a nc i s c o and nor t hwar d. F o r S a n Fr a nc i s c o, h a v i n g r o u n d e d Ca b o de 45 Ho r n o s as d i r e c t e d i n 9. 08. 02, s t a n d t o t he NW so as t o cr os s t h e par al l el of 50 S b e t we e n 80 W a n d 85 W, a n d t h e n due N t o 30 N. T h e n c e ke e p of f t o t he NW, r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e S o u t h - e a s t Tr a d e s t o cr os s t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 112 W a n d 115 W, b e i n g t o t h e E, t h r o u g h o u t t h e whol e voya ge f r o m Ca b o de Ho r n o s , f r o m S e p t e mb e r t o No v e mb e r ; a n d t o t h e W f r o m J u n e t o Au g u s t . Af t e r c r os s i ng t h e e qua t or , s t e e r so as t o cr oss t he me r i d i a n of 120 W i n 13 N t o 15 N, wh e r e t he r o u t e di vi de s 50 i nt o t wo b r a n c h e s , a c c o r d i n g t o s eas on. F r o m No v e mb e r t o F e b r u a r y , ma k e f or 30 N, 132 W, a n d f r o m t h a t pos i t i on, wh e n t h e W' l y wi n d s ar e me t , c ur ve gr a dua l l y r o u n d t o wa r d s Sa n Fr a nc i s c o, ma k i n g i t t o t h e N, a n d a l l owi ng f or t he c u r r e n t s e t t i n g S E acr os s t h e t r ack. F r o m Ma r c h t o Oc t o b e r , ma k e f or 30 N, 137 W, a n d t u r n t o wa r d s t he l a n d wh e n t he W' l y wi n d s ar e r e a c h e d 55 at a b o u t 35 o N; a ga i n a l l owi ng f or t he SE- g o i n g c u r r e n t acr os s t h e t r ack. F o r Co l u mb i a Ri ver , J u a n de F u c a St r ai t , or Pr i n c e Ru p e r t , f ol l ow t he r out e s g i v e n a bove as f a r as 30 N; t h e n c o n t i n u e t o t h e NW, c u r v i n g t o t h e E o n r e a c hi ng, or n e a r i n g t h e par al l el of 45 N, t o ma k e de s t i na t i on, a l l owi ng f or t h e c u r r e n t as above. 11. 130. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Ho n o l u l u . Fol l ow t h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 11. 129 as f ar as 30 S, or , i f ne c e s s a r y, a l i t t l e f a r t h e r N t o e n t e r t he S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d ; t h e n p r o c e e d as di r e c t l y as pos s i bl e, c r os s i ng t h e e q u a t o r b e t we e n 120 W a n d 125 W. 11. 131. Cabo de Ho r no s t o Ph i l i p p i n e I s l ands , Chi na, Japan, Aus t ral i a or Ne w Zeal and. Fo l l o w t h e di r e c t i ons gi ve n i n 11. 129 as f ar as 30 S, a n d t h e n r u n i n t h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e s t o a b o u t 12 S, 122 W, t o j o i n t h e r o u t e f r o m Va l pa r a i s o ( 11. 123) f or t he Ph i l i p p i n e I s l a nds , Ch i n a , or J a p a n ; or t h e r o u t e f r o m P a n a ma ( 11. 107) f or Au s t r a l i a or Ne w Ze a l a n d . 60 230 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES 10 11. 132. Ca bo de Ho r n o s t o Pac i f i c I s l a n d s . Fo l l o w t h e di r e c t i ons g i v e n i n 11. 129 as f a r as 30 S, 85 W, a n d t h e n r u n WNW i n t h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e Wi n d , p a s s i n g S of Pi t c a i r n I s l a nd, t h e n c e d i r e c t t o Ta h i t i or o t h e r d e s t i n a t i o n . F o r i s l a nds i n t h e W p a r t of t h e No r t h Paci f i c Oc e a n, a f t e r c r os s i ng 30 S, r u n i n t h e S o u t h - e a s t T r a d e t o a b o u t 12 S, 122 W, t o j o i n t h e mo s t N' l y r o u t e f r o m Va l pa r a i s o t o t h e Ph i l i p p i n e I s l a nds , Ch i n a , or J a p a n ( 11. 123) . Le a v e t hi s r o u t e i n a b o u t 175 E i f b o u n d t o Ma r s h a l l I s l a nds , or i n 160 E or 165 E i f b o u n d t o Ca r o l i n e I s l a n d s or f a r t h e r W; a n d p r o c e e d d i r e c t t o de s t i na t i on. T h e r o u t e t o Ho n o l u l u i s g i v e n i n 11. 130. F o r i s l a nds i n t h e W p a r t of t h e S o u t h Paci f i c Oc e a n, p r o c e e d e i t h e r vi a Ta h i t i as above, a n d t h e n c e , a f t e r r e a c h i n g t h e par al l el of de s t i na t i on, di r e c t ; or a l t e r na t i ve l y b y t he r out e gi ve n i n 11. 107 as f ar as a b o u t 160 W, a n d t h e n t o de s t i na t i on. General Index See Articles 1.12, 1.13. References in italics are f or Sailing routes, Chapters 9, 10, 11 Adel ai de (34047 " S, 13823 " E) : Rout es to : Bri sbane Br i t i sh Col umbi a Cabo de Hor nos Cape Leeuwi n Cape To wn Chi l ean por t s Dur ba n Fr emant l e Hoba r t Hong Kong Mel bour ne Por t Dar wi n Por t Hedl and San Fr anci sco Si ngapor e Sydney Tor r es St r ai t Aden (1245' N, 4458' E): Rout es to : Bay of Bengal 10.61 Bombay 6.76, 10.60 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwi n 6.166, 10.64 Cape Town 6.59, 10.66 Col ombo 6.78, 10.62 Dondr a Head 6.78, 10.62 Dur ba n 6.59 Fr emant l e 6.166, 10.64 Kar achi 6.64 Mal acca St r ai t 10.62 Maur i t i us 6.94, 10.65 Mogambi que Channel 6.59 Momba s a 6.59, 10.67 New Zeal and 8.24, 10.64 Pacific Ocean 8.24 Por t Dar wi n 6.164 Seychel l es Gr oup 6.108 Si ngapor e 8.20 Sout her n Aust r al i a 10.64 St r ai t of Hor muz 6.64 Suez 6.52 Sunda St r ai t 6.153 Tor r es St r ai t 6.154 Adr i at i c Sea: Cur r ent s 5.16 Rout es 5. 26-5. 35 Wi nds and weat her 5. 05-5. 07 Aegean Sea: Cur r ent s 5.16 Rout es 5. 26-5. 35 Wi nds and weat her 5. 05-5. 07 Afri ca, NW coast : Rout es to : Car i bbean Sea 8.11 Gul f of Mexi co 8.11 Sout h Amer i ca, E coast 8.12 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163 11.03.05 11.03.01 6. 125-6. 137, 7.163 6.162 11.03.04 6.162 6. 125-6. 137, 7.163 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51-7. 54 7.163 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163 6. 125-6. 137 6. 125-6. 137 11.03.05 7.163 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163, 11.03.07 6. 125-6. 137 Afri ca, W coast : Rout es and di st ances Agul has Cur r ent Al as St r ai t (840"S, 11640"E) Rout es t o: Cape of Good Hope Chi na Sea Al aska Cur r ent Al eut i an Cur r ent Al gi ers (3648"N, 306"E): Rout es to : Barcel ona Bei r ut Dar danel l es Genova Gi br al t ar Mal t a Mar sei l l e Napol i Pi rai dvs Por t Sai d Tar ~bul us Tr i est e Al or St r ai t (815"S, 12355' E) Ambon (341"S, 12810"E) : Rout es to : Hong Kong Madr as Si ngapor e Ant i cycl ones Ant i l l es Cur r ent Apl a (1344' S, 17145"W) : Rout es t o: Auckl and Br i sbane Callas Cent r al Rout e Guam Hong Kong Honol ul u I qui que Juan de Fuca St r ai t Mani l a Panama Papeet e Pr i nce Ruper t Sai l i ng east bound San Di ego San Fr anci sco Shang- hai Suva Sydney Tongat apu Tor r es St r ai t Val parai so Wel l i ngt on Yap Yokohama Ar abi an Sea: Swel l Arquip61ago dos A~Sres: Rout es to and f r om 3.41, 3.42 3.11, 6.36 8.26, 10,31, 10.47.02 10.125 10.32.05 7.33 7.32 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 8.26 7.137 8.22 7.127 1.40 2.15 7.91 7.79 7.247 7.264 7.181 7.177 7.203 7.247 7.282 7.177 7.264, 7.285 7.100 7.282 11.26 7.282 7.282 7.181 7.97 7.70 7.98 7.85 7.247 7.91 7.177 7.179 6.21 2.121 232 GE N E R A L I N DE X Arquip61ago de Cabo Verde: Routes to and from To English Channel South America Ascension (757"S, 1422"W) : Routes to : Africa 9.35 Cape of Good Hope 9.34 English Channel 9.31 Saint Helena 9.33 South America 9.32 Atlantic routes: Traffic density 2.61 Atmospheric pressure 1.21 Auckland (3646"S, 17449' E) : 2.126, 2.127 9.25 9. 07. 02-9. 07. 07 Routes to: Apia 7.91 Brisbane 7.74 Cabo de Hornos 7.240 Callao 7.240 Dut ch Harbour 7.162 Estrecho de Magallanes 7.240 Guam 7.162 Hakodate 7.162 Hobart 7.59 Hong Kong 7.161, 7.162 Honolulu 7.202 Iquique 7.240 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.282 Manila 7.161, 7.162 Melbourne 7.62 Noum~a 7.92 Ocean Island 7.90 Panama 7.244 Papeete 7.93 Petropavlovsk 7.162 Prince Rupert 7.282 San Diego 7.282 San Francisco 7.282 Shangohai 7.161, 7.162 Suva 7.92 Sydney 7.65 Tongat apu 7.89 Torres Strait 7.82 Valparaiso 7.240 Wellington 7.88 Yap 7.162 Yokohama 7.162 Australia: Approach from South Indi an Ocean 6.121 Approach from Sunda Strait 6.120 Coastwise passages 6.125-6.137, 7.51-7.54 Passages to South Africa 6.157 Routes to: China 7.160 Japan 7.160 Singapore 10.32.06 Australia, E coast: Routes to Indi an Ocean 8.25 Australia, N coast: Routes to Bay of Bengal 6.140 Australia, SE coast: Routes to: Aden 10.149 Bay of Belgal 10.151 Cape of Good Hope 10.148 Colombo 10.150 Singapore 10.152 Azores Current 2.16 Baffin Land Current 2.16 Bahia Blanca (3904' S, 6149' W) : Routes to : Cabo de Hornos 3.34 Comodoro Rivadavia 3.34 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.34 Porto do Salvador 3.39 Recife 3.39 Rio de Janeiro 3.34 Rio de la Plata 3.34 Stanley 3.37 Balabac Strait (743' N, 11700' E) 10.31 Bali Strait (810"S, 11425"E) 8.26, 10.31, 10.47.02 Routes to : Cape of Good Hope 10.125 China Sea 10.32.05 Balik Papan (120"S, 11657"E) : Routes to: Hong Kong 7.136 Madras 8.22 Manila 7.142 Singapore 7.130 Sydney 7.165 Balintang Channel ( 194YN, 12210"E) 10.31 Route to Panama 7.271 Baltic ports : Sailing routes from 9.01 Bangka Strait (145"N, 12505' E) 8.26 Bangkok (I324"N, 10036' E) : Routes to : D jakarta 7.133 Hong Kong 7.133, 11.39 Manila 7.133 Ports N of Hong Kong 11.39 Singapore 7.112, 11.40 Barbados (13lO' N, 5920' W) : Routes to : Bishop Rock 2.86 Bordeaux 2.86 Cabot Strait 2.103 Chesapeake Bay 2.103 Delaware Bay 2.103 Halifax 2.103 Horta 2.121 Lisbon 2.86 New York 2.103 Ponta Delgada 2.121 South America 9.54 Strait of Gibraltar 2.86 Vigo 2.86 Barcelona (4122' N, 213' E): Routes to : Algiers 5.26-5.35 Beirut 5.26-5.35 Dardanelles 5.26-5.35 Genova 5.26-5.35 Gibraltar 5.26-5.35 Malta 5.26-5.35 Marseille 5.26-5.35 Napoli 5.26-5.35 Pirai~vs 5.26-5.35 Port Said 5.26-5.35 GENERAL I NDEX Barcelona--continued Tarabul us 5.26-5.35 Trieste 5.26-5.35 Bashi Channel (2120"N, 12100"E) 10.31 Basilan Strait (654"N, 12204" E) 8.26, 10.31 Route to Panama 7.269 Bass Strait (4000"S, 14600"E) 10.01.03, 10.160 Routes to: Adelaide 10.162 Spencer Gul f 10.163 Bathurst (1330"N, 1655"W): Route to Porto Grande 2.127 Batumi (4140"N, 4139"E) : Routes to : Constan~a 5.36 Istanbul 5.36 Novorossiysk 5.36 Odessa 5.36 Sevastopol 5.36 Sulina 5.36 Zhdanov 5.36 Bay of Bengal 10.90 Routes i n 6.71 Routes to : Aden 10.94 Australia, N coast 6.140 Australia, S and SE coasts 10.96 Bombay 10.93 Cape Leeuwin 10.96 Cape of Good Hope 10.95 Fremantle 10.96 New Zealand 10.96 Swell 6.21 Bay of Biscay 2.33, 9.13 Beaufort wind scale 1.63 Beirut (3355"N, 3531"E) : Routes to : Algiers 5.26-5.35 Barcelona 5.26-5.35 Dardanelles 5.26-5.35 Genova 5.26-5.35 Gibraltar 5.26-5.35 Malta 5.26-5.35 Marseille 5.26-5.35 Napoli 5.26-5.35 Pirai~vs 5.26-5.35 Port Said 5.26-5.35 Tarabul us 5.26-5.35 Trieste 5.26-5.35 Bel~m (032'S, 4722"W): Routes to : Bishop Rock 2.111 Bordeaux 2.111 Cabo de S~o Roque 2.107 Cabot Strait 2.104 Casablanca 2.111 Chesapeake Bay 2.104 Dakar 2.111 Delaware Bay 2.104 Freetown 2.111 Halifax 2.104 Horta 2.121 Las Palmas 2.111 Lisbon 2.111 New York 2.104 Ponta Delgada 2.111, 2.121 Bel6m--continued Porto Grande 2.111, 2.126 Saint Vincent, W. I. 2.105 Strait of Gibraltar 2.111 Vigo 2.111 Belize (1730"N, 8801"W) : Routes to: English Channel 9.48 Nort h America 9.48 Benguela Current 1.72, 1.77, 3.11 Bergen (Kors Fjorden, 60 08'N, 501'E): Routes to : Boston 2.61-2.67 Cabot Strait 2.61-2.67 Chesapeake Bay 2.61-2.67 Delaware Bay 2.61-2.67 Halifax 2.61-2.67 Kap Farvel (75'S of) 2.49 New York 2.61-2.67 Strait of Belle Isle 2.54 Berhala Strait (IO0'S, 10420"E) 8.26, 10.31 Route to Duri an Strait 10.38.03 Bering Sea: Currents 7.33 Bermuda (3223"N, 6436"W) : Routes to : Bishop Rock 2.86 Bordeaux 2.86 Habana 4.22 Horta 2.121 Kingston 4.24 Lisbon 2.86 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.126 Strait of Gibraltar 2.86 Vigo 2.86 Best track 1.11 Bight of Biafra: Routes to : Cape of Good Hope 9.30 English Channel 9.28 Freetown 9.27 South America 9.29 Bishop Rock (4947"N, 627'W): Routes to : Barbados 2.86 Bel~m 2.111 Bermuda 2.86 Boston 2.61-2.67 Cabot Strait 2.61-2.67 Chesapeake Bay 2.61-2.67 Delaware Bay 2.61-2.67 Halifax 2.61-2.67 Horta 2.121 Kap Farvel 2.50 Mona Passage 2.86 New York 2.61-2.67 North-East Providence Channel 2.81, 2.83 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.126 Reeife (landfall) 2.117 Saint John' s 2.57 Sombrero Passage 2.86 Strait of Belle Isle 2.55 Turks Island Passage 2.86 233 234 GENERAL I NDEX Black Sea: Currents 5.17 Distances 5.36 Ice 5.21 Swell 5.11 Wi nds and Weather 5.08 Bluff Harbour (4638"S, I6821"E): Routes to : Brisbane 7.72 Hobart 7.57 Mel bourne 7.60 Sydney 7.63 Boling Strait (825"8, 12330'E) 8.26 Bombay (1851"N, 7250'E): Routes to : Aden 6.77, 10.72 Bay of Bengal 10.77 Brisbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwin 6.156 Cape Town 6.66, 10.74 Colombo 6.81, 6.156, 10.75 Dondra Head 6.81 Dur ban 6.66 Fremantle 6.156 Karachi 6.81, 6.156, 10.71 Mombasa 6.73 Port Darwin 6.155 Port Headland 6.156 Port Louis 6.97 Seychelles Group 6.109 Strait of Hormuz 6.156 Tort es Strait 6.155 Bonny (413"N, 701'E) : Routes to : Cape Town 3.41, 3.42 Casablanca 2.96, 3.41 Colon 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Douala 3.41, 3.42 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.53 Freetown 2.96, 3.41 Gamba Oil Termi nal 3.41, 3.42 Halifax 8.13 Tle d' Ouessant 2.96, 3.41 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Palmas 2.96, 3.41 Lobito 3.41, 3.42 New York 8.13 Pointe Noire 3.41, 3.42 Porto do Salvador 3.46 Porto Grande 2.127 Recife 3.46 Rio de Janeiro 3.46 Rio de la Plata 3.46 Strait of Gibraltar 2.96, 3.41 Takoradi 3.41, 3.42 Bordeaux (4540'N, 129'W) : Routes to : Barbados 2.86 Bel6m 2.111 Bermuda 2.86 Boston 2.61-2.67 Cabot Strait 2.61-2.67 Chesapeake Bay 2.61-2.67 Delaware Bay 2.61-2.67 Halifax 2.61-2.67 Horta 2.121 Kap Farvel 2.50 Bordeaux--continued Mona Passage 2.86 New York 2.61-2.67 North-East Providence Channel 2.86 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Saint John!s 2.57 Sombrero Passage 2.86 Strait of Belle Isle 2.55 Turks Island Passage 2.86 Boston (4220"N 7046'W) : Routes to : Bergen 2.61-2.67 Bishop Rock 2.61-2.67 Bordeaux 2.61-2.67 Cape Wrath 2.61-2.67 I nishtrahull 2.61-2.67 Lisbon 2.70 Nordkapp 2.61-2.67 Strait of Gibraltar 2.70 Trondhei m 2.61-2.67 Vigo 2.70 Brazil Current 3.11 Brazil Inshore Counter- current 1.73, 3.31 Brisbane (2645"S, 15313'E): Routes to : Adelaide 7.51-7.54, 7.163 Aden 8.25 Apia 7.79 Auckland 7.74 Bluff Harbour 7.72 Bombay 8.25 Cabo de Hornos 7.240 Callao 7.240 Cape Town 8.25 Central Route 7.262 Colombo 8.25 Durban 8.25 Dut ch Harbour 7.162 Estrecho de Magallanes 7.240 Fremantle 7.163 Guam 7.162 Hakodate 7.162 Hobart 7.51-7.54 Hong Kong 7.161, 7.162, 7.163 Honol ul u 7.200 Iqui que 7.240 Karachi 8.25 Madras 8.25 Manila 7.161, 7.162 Melbourne 7.51-7.54, 7.163 Mombasa 8.25 Noum6a 7.76 Ocean Island 7.80 Panama 7.262, 7.274 Papeete 7.75 Petropavlovsk 7.162 Rangoon 8.25 Sandheads 8.25 Shang-hai 7.161, 7.162 Singapore 7.163 Strait of Hormuz 8.25 Suva 7.78 Sydney 7.51-7.54, 7.163 Tongat apu 7.77 Tort es Strait 7.51-7.54 Valparaiso 7.240 Wellington 7.73 Yap 7.162 Bri sbane--cont i nued Yokohama 7.162 But on Passage (520"S, 13315' E) 8.26, 10.31 But on St r ai t (456"S, I2247' E) 8.26 Cabo de Hor nos (5604"S, 67I5"W) : De e p- dr a ught shi ps 8.45 Roundi ng E- bound 9.66.01 Roundi ng W- b o u n d 9.08.02 Rout es to : Auckl and 7.246 Aus t r al i a 9.70, 11.131 Bahi a Bl anca 3.34, 9.68 Cape Agul has 3.58 Cape To wn 3.58, 9.69 Cent r al Amer i ca 11.128 Chi na 11.131 Comodor o Ri vadavi a 3.34 Engl i sh Channel 9.66 Honol ul u 7.219, 11.130 I ndi an Ocean 9.70 J apan 11.131 Mexi co 11.128 New Zeal and 11.131 Nor t h Amer i ca 9.67, 11.129 Pacific I sl ands 11.132 Panama 11.128 Papeet e 7.236 Phi l i ppi ne I sl ands 11.131 Por t o do Sal vador 3.39, 9.68 Reci fe 3.39, 9.68 Ri o de Janei r o 3.39, 9.68 Ri o de l a Pl at a 3.34 Sout h Amer i ca, W coast 11.127 St anl ey 3.35, 3.38 Sydney 7.246 Val parai so 11.126 Wel l i ngt on 7.246 Cabo de S~o Roque (440"S, 3435"W): Rout es t o: Bel~m 2.107 Cabot St r ai t 2.105 Chesapeake Bay 2.105 Del awar e Bay 2.105 Hal i f ax 2.105 Ne w Yor k 2.105 Sai nt Vi ncent , W. I . 2.107 Tobago 2.107 Tr i ni da d 2.107 Cabot St r ai t (4722"N, 5940' W) : Avai l abi l i t y 2.65 I ce r epor t s 2.28 Rout es t o: Bar bados 2.103 Bel~m 2.104 Ber gen 2. 61-2. 67 Bi shop Rock 2. 61-2. 67 Bor deaux 2. 61-2. 67 Cabo de S~o Roque 2.105 Cape Town 8.07 Cape Wr a t h 2. 61-2. 67 Cr ooked I sl and Passage 2.101 Fas t net 2. 61-2. 67 Hor t a 2.121 GE N E R A L I N DE X Cabot St rai t --cont i nued I ni sht r ahul l 2. 61-2. 67 Li s bon 2.68 Mona Passage 2.101 Nor dka pp 2. 61-2. 67 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.101 Pont a Del gada 2.121 Por t o Gr ande 2.126 Sombr er o Passage 2.101 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.68 Tr ondhe i m 2. 61-2. 67 Tur ks I sl and Passage 2.101 Vi go 2.68 Caicos Passage (2210"N, 7220' W) 4.21, 4.29 Cal cut t a, see Sandheads Cal i cut (1115"N, 7546"E) : Rout e to : Aden 10.72 Cal i f or ni a: Rout es to : Nor t h Amer i can por t s 11.102 Pacific Ocean por t s 11.103 Cal i f or ni a Cur r ent 1.72, 7.32 Cal l ao (1203' S, 7712"W): Rout es to : Api a 7.247 Auckl and 7.246 Aust r al i a 11.115 Cabo de Hor nos 11.119 Cent r al Amer i ca 11.113 Chi na 11.116 Coast wi se, S- bound 11.117, 11.118 Est r echo de Magal l anes 7.196, 11.114 Honol ul u 7.219 I qui que 7.196, 11.114 Japan 11.116 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.196, 11.114 Mexi co 11.113 New Zeal and 11.115 Panama 7.195, 11.113 Papeet e 7.232 Phi l i ppi ne I sl ands 11.116 San Di ego 7.192 San Fr anci sco 7.192, 11.114 Suva 7.248 Sydney 7.246 Val parai so 7.196, 11.114 Wel l i ngt on 7.246 Canar y Cur r ent 1.72, 2.16 Cape Agul has (3450"S, 20 OI' E) : Rout es to : Cabo de Hor nos 3.56 Est r echo de Magal l anes 3.56 Por t o do Sal vador 3.46 Recife 3.46 Ri o de Janei r o 3.46, 3.50 Ri o do la Pl at a 3.46, 3.52 St anl ey 3.56 Cape Leeuwi n (3422"S, 115008 " E) : Rout es t o: Adel ai de 6. 125-6. 137 Aden 6.167 Bombay 6.156 Col ombo 6.156 Fr emant l e 6. 125-6. 137, 6.156 Hoba r t 6. 125-6. 137 235 236 GENERAL I NDEX Cape Leeuwin--continued Hong Kong 7.164 Karachi 6.156 Madras 6.141 Manila 7.164 Melbourne 6.125-6.137 Mombasa 6.163 Paradip 6.141 Port Darwin 6.125-6.137 Port Hedland 6.125-6.137, 6.156 Port Louis 6.102 Rangoon 6.142 Sandheads 6.141 Seychelles Group 6.111 Shang-hai 7.164 Strait of Hormuz 6.156 Tort es Strait 6.125-6.137 Yokohama 7.164 Cape of Good Hope (3421"S, 1828'E) : Roundi ng 8.06 Routes to : Africa, W coast 9.43 Australia 10.01 Ascension 9.40 Bay of Bengal 10.03 Bordeaux 9.40 Central America 9.41 China Sea 10.02 English Channel 9.40 New Zealand 8.23, 10.01 North America 9.41 Pacific Ocean 8.23 Saint Helena 9.40 Singapore 8.18, 10.02 South America 9.42 West Indies 9.41 Cape Race (4639'N, 5304'W) : Ice 2.27 Cape Town (3354"S, 1826"E) : Routes to : Adelaide 6.161 Aden 6.59, 10.07 Bombay 6.65, 10.05 Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Brisbane 8.25 Cabo de Hornos 3.56 Cabot Strait 8.07 Caribbean Sea 8.09 Casablanca 2.96, 3.41 Colombo 6.67, 10.04 Colon 8.08 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Douala 3.41, 3.42 Durban 6.56, 6.59 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.56 Freetown 2.96, 3.41 Fremantle 6.161 Galleons Passage 8.08 Gamba Oil Termi nal 3.41, 3.42 Gul f of Mexico 8.09 Halifax 8.07 Hobart 6.161 $1e d' Ouessant 2.96, 3.41 Kar~chi 6.61 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Palmas 2.96, 3.41 Lobito 3.41, 3.42 Cape Town--continued Madras 6.67 Melbourne 6.161 Mogambique Channel 6.56 Mombasa 6.59, 10.08 New York 8.07 Paradip 6.67 Pointe-Noire 3.41, 3.42 Port Darwin 6.158 Port Hedland 6.158 Port Louis 6.90, 10.06 Porto do Salvador 3.46 Porto Grande 2.127 Rangoon 6.67 Recife 3.46 Rio de Janeiro 3.46, 3.50 Rio de la Plata 3.46, 3.52 Sandheads 6.67 Selat Benggala 6.67 Seychelles Group 6.106 Stanley 3.56 Strait of Gibraltar 2.96, 3.41 Strait of Hormuz 6.60 Sunda Strait 6.150 Takoradi 3.41, 3.42 Tortes Strait 6.158 Cape Wrat h (5842'N, 5O0'W): Routes to : Boston 2.61-2.67 Cabot Strait 2.61-2.67 Chesapeake Bay 2.61-2.67 Delaware Bay 2.61-2.67 Halifax 2.61-2.67 Kap Farvel 2.50 New York 2.67 Saint John' s 2.57 Strait of Belle Isle 2.55 Caribbean Sea: Approaches 4.21 Currents 4.11 Directions 9.50 Navigation 4.15 Routes to : Africa, NW coast 8.11 Cape Town 8.10 Europe 2.81-2.86, 8.11 North America, E coast 8.15 South America, E coast 8.17 Yucatan Channel 4.26 Swell 4.05 Wi nds and weather 4.01 Caroline Islands : Passage through 8.46 Casablanca (3338"N, 737' W): Routes to : Bel6m 2.111 Bonny 2.96, 3.41 Cape Town 2.96, 3.41 Chesapeake Bay 2.76 Dakar 2.96 Delaware Bay 2.76 Douala 2.96, 3.41 Freetown 2.96 Gamba Oil Termi nal 2.96, 3.41 Horta 2.121 Lagos 2.96, 3.41 Las Palmas 2.96 Lobito 2.96,3.41 Casablanca--continued Ne w Yor k 2.76 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.76 Poi nt e- Noi r e 2.96, 3.41 Pont a Del gada 2.121 Por t o Gr ande 2.127 Sai nt Vi ncent , W. I . 2.76 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.96 Takor adi 2.96, 3.41 Tr i ni da d 2.76 Cebu (1021"N, 12401 " E) : Rout es to : Hong Kong 7.140 Mani l a 7.143 Si ngapor e 7.125 Cer am Sea 10.31 Char t s : Cl i mat i c 1.14 Rout ei ng 1.02, 1.14 Chesapeake Bay (3654"N, 7543"W): Rout es t o: Bar bados 2.103 Bel6m 2.104 Bergen 2. 61-2. 67 Bi shop Rock 2. 61-2. 67 Bor deaux 2. 61-2. 67 Cabo de $5o Roque 2.105 Cape Wr a t h 2. 61-2. 67 Casabl anca 2.76 Cr ooked I s l and Passage 2.101 Dakar 2.76 Fas t net 2. 61-2. 67 Fr eet own 2.76 I ni sht r ahul l 2. 61-2. 67 Li s bon 2.70 Mona Passage 2.101 Nor dka pp 2. 61-2. 67 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.101 Sombr er o Passage 2.101 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.70 Tr ondhe i m 2. 61-2. 67 Tur ks I sl and Passage 2.101 Vi go 2.70 Chi na : Rout es t o: Aust r al i a 7.160 I ndi an Ocean 11.42 New Zeal and 7.160 Chi na Sea: Rout es t hr ough 7.113 Rout es t o: Java Sea 7.114 I ndi an Ocean 10.32.09 Sunda St r ai t 10.32.08 Cl i mat e 1. 31-1. 56 Coat zacoal cos (1811"N, 9425"W): Rout es t o: Col on 4.29 Cochi n (958"N, 7614"E) : Rout es to : Ade n 10.72 Col d Wal l 2.17 Col ombi a: Rout es to : Engl i sh Channel 9.49.01 GE N E R A L I N DE X Colombia--continued Gul f of Mexi co 9.49.03 Nor t h Amer i ca, E coast 9.49.02 Col ombo (658"N, 7950"E) : Rout es to : Ade n 6.79, 10.79 Bombay 6.81, 6.156, 10.78 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwi n 6.156, 10.81 Cape Town 6.68, 10.80 Dur ba n 6.68 Fr emant l e 6.156, 10.81 Kar~chi 6.81, 6.156 Madr as 6.71 Mal acca St r ai t 10.82 Mombas a 6.75 New Zeal and 10.81 Par adi p 6.71 Por t Dar wi n 6.155 Por t Hedl and 6.156 Por t Loui s 6.98 Rangoon 6.71 Sandheads 6.71 Sel at Benggal a 6.71 Seychel l es Gr oup 6.110 Si ngapor e 8.21 Sout her n Aust r al i a 10.81 St r ai t of Hor muz 6.80, 6.156 Tor r es St r ai t 6.155 Col on (923"N, 7955"W) : Rout es t o: Bonny 8.14 Cape Town 8.10 Coat zacoal cas 4.29 Cor pus Chr i st i 4.29 Donal a 8.14 Engl i sh Channel 9.49.01 Gal vest on 4.29 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 8.14 Gul f of Mexi co 4.25, 9.49.03 Lagos 8.14 Lobi t o 8.14 Mi ssi ssi ppi Ri ver 4.29 Nor t h Amer i ca, E coast 9.49.02 Poi nt e- Noi r e 8.14 Takor adi 8.14 Ta mpi c o 4.29 Tobago 4.28 Tr i ni da d 4.28 Col umbi a Ri ver (4615"N, 12405"W) : Rout es to : Honol ul u 11.86 San Fr anci sco 11.88 Sout h Amer i ca 11.88 Sydney 11.87 Yokohama 11.86 Comodor o Ri vadavi a (4551"S, 6726"W): Rout es t o : Bahi a Bl anca 3.34 Cabo de Hor nos 3.34 Est recho de Magal l anes 3.34 Por t o do Sal vador 3.39 Recife 3.39 Ri o de Janei r o 3.34 Ri o de la Pl at a 3.34 St anl ey 3.37 Consol 1.92.02 237 238 Constan~a ( 44 08' N, 2842"E) : Routes to : Batumi Istanbul Novorossiy,k Odessa Sevastopol Sulina Zhdanov Coral waters, navigation in Corpus Christi (2748"N, 9657"W) : Routes to : Colon Crooked Island Passage ( 24 05' N, 7415"W) Routes to : Cabot Strait Chesapeake Bay Delaware Bay Halifax New York Currents Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Atlantic Ocean Black Sea Caribbean Sea Direct effect of wi nd Effect of wind over a coast- line General surface circulation Gradi ent currents Gul f of Mexico I ndi an Ocean Medi t erranean Sea Named currents: see name. Pacific Ocean St rengt h of currents Warm and cold currents Cyclones 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 5.26, 5.36 1.103 4.29 4.21, 4.29 2.101 2.101 2.101 2.101 2.101 1.71 5.16 5.16 2.15-2.21, 3.11 5.17 4.11 1.75 1.77 1.74 1.76 4.11 6.31-6.37 5.16 7.32-7.38 1.73 1.72 1.38 Dakar ( 14 39' N, 1725"W) : Routes to : Bel~m 2.111 Bonny 2.97, 3.41 Casablanca 2.96 Chesapeake Bay 2.76 Delaware Bay 2.76 Douala 2.97, 3.41 Freetown 2.96 Gamba Oil Termi nal 2.97, 3.41 Horta 2.121 $1e d' Ouessant 2.96 Lagos 2.97, 3.41 Las Palmas 2.96 Lobito 2.97, 3.41 New York 2.76 North-East Providence Channel 2.76 Pointe-Noire 2.97, 3.41 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.127 Saint Vincent, W. I. 2.76 Strait of Gibraltar 2.96 Takoradi 2.97, 3.41 Tri ni dad 2.76 G E N E R A L I N D E X Dampier Archipelago (2010"S, 11640"E) : Routes to : Osaka Yokahama Dampier Strait (040"S, 13045' E) Dardanelles (4001"N, 2611' E) : Routes to: Algiers Barcelona Beirut Black Sea ports Genova Gibraltar Malta Marseille Napoli Pirai~vs Port Said Tar~bulus Trieste Davidson Current Davis Strait (60O0' N, 5500"W) : Routes to : Bergen Bishop Rock Bordeaux Cape Wrath Fastnet Hudson Bay Inishtrahull Lindesnes Lisbon Nordkapp Strait of Gibraltar Trondhei m Vigo Delaware Bay (3848"N, 7501"W) : Routes to: Barbados Bel6m Bergen Bishop Rock Bordeaux Cabo de S~o Roque Cape Wrat h Casablanca Crooked Island Passage Dakar Fastnet Freetown Horta Inishtrahull Lisbon Mona Passage Nordkapp North-East Providence Channel Ponta Delgada Porto Grande Sombrero Passage Strait of Gibraltar Trondhei m Turks Island Passage Vigo 8.44 8. 44 8.26, 10.31 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.36 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 5.26-5.35 7.32 2.49 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.46 2.50 2.49 2.51 2.48 2.51 2.49 2.50 2.103 2.104 2.61-2.67 2.61-2.67 2.61-2.67 2.105 2.61-2.67 2.76 2.101 2.76 2.61-2.67 2.76 2.121 2.61-2.67 2.70 2.101 2.61-2.67 2.101 2.121 2.126 2.101 2.70 2.61-2.67 2.101 2.70 De nma r k St r ai t (6600"N, 30O0"W) : I ce 2.27 Depr essi ons 1.37 Di r ect i ons 1.05 Di st ances 1.13 Dj ai l ol o Passage (000 ', 12900' E) 8.26, 10.31 Dj akar t a (603"S, 10653"E) : Rout es to : Bangkok 7.133 Hong Kong 7.134 Lombok St r ai t 7.126 Madr as 8.22 Mani l a 7.141 Sa' igon 7.133 Si ngapor e 7.111 WSt ar St r ai t 7.126 Dol dr ums , see Equat or i al Tr o u g h Dondr a Head (540"N, 8030"E) : Rout es to : Ade n 6.79 Bombay 6.81 Col ombo 6.71, 6.80 Kar ~chi 6.81 Madr as 6.71 Momba s a 6.75 Par adi p 6.71 Rangoon 6.71 Sandheads 6.71 Sel at Benggal a 6.71 St r ai t of Hor muz 6.80 Doual a (353"N, 933"E): Rout es t o: Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape Town 3.41, 3.42 Casabl anca 2.96, 3.41 Col on 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Fr eet own 2.96, 3.41 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 3.41, 3.42 Hal i f ax 8.13 ~le d' Oues s ant 2.96, 3.41 Lagos 3.41,3.42 Las Pal mas 2.96, 3.41 Lobi t o 3.41, 3.42 Ne w Yor k 8.13 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.41, 3.42 Por t o Gr ande 2.127 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.96, 3.41 Dur ba n (2951"S, 3104"E) : Rout es to : Adel ai de 6.161 Ade n 6.59, 10.10 Aust r al i a 10.09 Bombay 6.65 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape To wn 6.59, 10.11 Chi na Sea 10.09 Col ombo 6.67 Fr emant l e 6.161 Hoba r t 6.161 I ndi a 10.09 Kar ~chi 6.61 Madr as 6.67 Mel bour ne 6.161 Momba s a 6.59, 10.10 Ne w Zeal and 10.09 GE N E R A L I N DE X Durban--cont i nued Par adi p Por t Dar wi n Por t Hedl and Por t Loui s Rangoon Sandheads Sel at Benggal a Seychel l es Gr oup Si ngapor e St r ai t of Hor muz Sunda St r ai t Tor t e s St r ai t Dur i an St r ai t (O40'N, 10340"E) Rout es to : Si ngapor e St r ai t Dut c h Ha r bour (5354"N, 16631"W) : Rout es to : Auckl and Br i sbane Hakodat e Honol ul u Juan de Fuca St r ai t Panama Pr i nce Ruper t San Di ego San Fr anci sco Sydney Tor r es St r ai t Wel l i ngt on Yokohama East Af r i can Coast Cur r ent East Aust r al i an Coast Cur r ent East Gr eenl and Cur r ent East I cel and Cur r ent East er n Ar chi pel ago : Rout es S- bound t hr ough Rout es t o Chi na Ei ght Degr ee Channel (730"N, 7245'E) El ect r oni c ai ds Engl i sh Channel : Caut i on i n Wes t er n Appr oaches Rout es to : Af r i ca Arquip61ago de Cabo Ver de Ber muda Cape of Good Hope Car i bbean Sea Fr e nc h por t s Gul f of Mexi co Li s bon Nor t h Amer i ca Sai nt Hel ena Sout h Amer i ca Sout hbound, general di r ect i ons St r ai t of Gi br al t ar Wes t I ndi es Equat or i al Count er - cur r ent : At l ant i c Ocean I ndi an Ocean Pacific Ocean 6.67 6.159 6.159 6.91, 10.10 6.67 6.67 6.67 6.106 8.18, 10.09 6.60 6.151 6.159 8.26, 10.31 10.38.04 7.162 7.162 7.174 7.215 7.190 7.190 7.190 7.190 7.190, 11.90 7.162 7.162 7.162 7.174 1.73, 6.32 1.72, 1.73, 7.37 1.72, 2.16 2.16 10.48-10.51 11.38 10.63 1.91 2.19, 2.31 2.96, 8.05, 9.11 9.07.01 9.05 9.10 8.03 9.09.02 8.02, 9.06 9.09.03 9.04 9.12 8.04, 9.06, 9. 07 9.09.01 2.91, 9.09.04 9. 06 1.71, 1.73, 2.15 1.73, 6.32, 6.35, 6.36 1.73, 7.32 239 240 Equat or i al Tr o u g h 1.31 At l ant i c Ocean 2.01 I ndi an Ocean 6.11 Pacific Ocean 7.02, 7.15 Est r echo de Magal l anes : De e p- dr a ught power vessels 8.45 Sai l i ng vessel s 9.08.01 Est r echo de Magal l anes, E ent r ance (5220"S, 6805"W): Rout es t o: Bahi a Bl anca 3.34 Bonny 3.53 Cape Agul has 3.55 Cape To wn 3.55 Comodor o Ri vadavi a 3.34 Lagos 3.53 Poi nt e Noi r e 3.54 Por t o do Sal vador 3.39 Reci fe 3.39 Ri o de Janei r o 3.34 Ri o de la Pl at a 3.34 St anl ey 3.36 Takor adi 3.53 Est r echo de Magal l anes, W ent r ance (5225"S, 7512"W): Rout es t o: Auckl and 7.246 Cal l ao 7.196 Honol ul u 7.219 I qui que 7.196 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.196 Panama 7.195 Papeet e 7.235 San Di ego 7.196 San Fr anci sco 7.194 Sydney 7.246 Val par ai so 7.196 Wel l i ngt on 7.246 Fal kl and Cur r ent 1.72, 1.73, 3.11 Fa s t ne t (5117"N, 935"W) : Rout es to : Bost on 2. 61-2. 67 Cabot St r ai t 2. 61-2. 67 Chesapeake Bay 2. 61-2. 67 Del awar e Bay 2. 61-2. 67 Hal i f ax 2. 61-2. 67 Ka p Far vel 2.50 New Yor k 2. 61-2. 67 Sai nt J ohn' s 2.57 St r ai t of Belie I sl e 2.55 Fi gur e of t he Ear t h 1.11 Fi j i , see Suva Fi r s t East er n Passage 10.47 Fi s hi ng vessels 1.102 Fl or es St r ai t (820"S, 12300"E) 8.26 Fl or i da Cur r ent 1.73, 2.15, 4.11 Fl or i da St r ai t (2700'N, 7949"W) 4.21, 4.29 Rout es t o: Bi shop Rock 2.81, 2.82 Bor deaux 2.81, 2.84 Hor t a 2.121 Li s bon 2.81, 2.85 Pont a Del gada 2.121 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.81, 2.85 Vi go 2.81, 2.84 GENERAL I NDEX Fog Advect i on For ecast i ng Fr ont al Nor t h At l ant i c Ocean Radi at i on Sea Fr eet own (831"N, 1322'W) : Rout es to : Ascensi on Bel6m Bonny Cape Town Casabl anca Chesapeake Bay Dakar Del awar e Bay Doual a Engl i sh Channel Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l $1e d' Oues s ant Lagos Las Pal mas Lobi t o New Yor k Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel Poi nt e- Noi r e Por t o Gr ande Sai nt Vi ncent , W. I . Takor adi Tr i ni da d Fr emant l e (3158'S, 11540"E) : Rout es to : Adel ai de Aden Bombay Br i sbane Cape Leeuwi n Cape Town Col ombo Dur ba n Hoba r t Hong Kong Kar ~chi Madr as Mani l a Maur i t i us Mel bour ne Momba s a New Zeal and Par adi p Por t Dar wi n Por t Hedl and Por t Loui s Rangoon Sandheads Seychel l es Gr oup Shang- hai Si ngapor e Sout h- east er n Aust r al i a St r ai t of Hor muz Sydney Yokohama Gal l eons Passage (I058"N, 6048"W) 1. 51-1. 56 1.52 1.56 1.53 2.07 1.55 1.52 9.26 2.111 2.96, 3.41 2.96, 3.41 2.96 2.76 2.96 2.76 2.96, 3.41 9.25 2.96, 3.41 2.96 2.96, 3.41 2.96 2.96, 3.41 2.76 2.76 2.96, 3.41 2.127 2.76 2.96, 3.41 2.76 6. 125-6. 137, 7.163 6.167, 10.142 6.156 7.163 6. 125-6. 137, 6.156 6.162, 10.141 6.156, 10.143 6.162 6.125, 6.137 7.164, 10.146 6.156 6.141 7.164 10.140 6. 125-6. 137, 7.163 6.163 10.147 6.141 6. 125-6. 137 6. 125-6. 157, 6.156 6.102 6.142 6.141, 10.144 6.111 7.164 7.163, 10.145 10.147 6.156 7.163 7.164 4.29 Gal ves t on (2919'N, 9438"W) : Rout es t o : Col on 4.29 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l (252'S, 957"E): Rout es to : Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape Town 3.41, 3.42 Casabl anca 2.97, 3.41 Col on 8.14 Dakar 2.97, 3.41 Doual a 3.41, 3.42 Fr eet own 2.97, 3.41 Hal i f ax 8.13 ~le d' Oues s ant 2.97, 3.41 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Pal mas 2.97, 3.41 Lobi t o 3.41, 3.42 New Yor k 8.13 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.41, 3.42 Por t o Gr ande 2.127 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.97, 3.41 Takor adi 3.41, 3.42 Genova (4423"N, 854"E): Rout es to : Al gi er s 5. 26-5. 35 Barcel ona 5. 26-5. 35 Bei r ut 5. 26-5. 35 Dar danel l es 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar 5. 26-5. 35, Mal t a 5. 26-5. 35 Mar sei l l e 5. 26-5. 35 Napol i 5. 26-5. 35 Pirai~vs 5. 26-5. 35 Por t Sai d 5. 26-5. 35 Tar ~bul us 5. 26-5. 35 Tr i est e 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar (3609'N, 523' W): Rout es E- bound (for W- bound r out es see St r ai t of Gi br al t ar ) : Al gi er s Barcel ona Bei r ut Dar danel l es Genova Gul f of Li ons Mal t a Mar sei l l e Napol i Pi rai 6vs Por t Sai d Sar di ni a Si ci l y Tar abul us Tr i est e Gol d Coast : Rout es t o: Cape of Good Hope Engl i sh Channel Fr eet own Sout h Amer i ca Gr a nd Banks: Al t er - cour se posi t i ons I ce Gr eat circle sai l i ng For mul ae Gr eenl and Cur r ent s 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35, 9.19 5. 26-5. 35, 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35, 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 9.20 9.20 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 9.30 9.28 9.27 9.27 2.66 2.66 1.15 1.16 2.16 9.19 9.21 9.20 GE NE R A L I NDE X 241 Habana (2310'N, 8222"W) : Rout es to : Ber muda 4.23 Hakodat e (4144"N, 14040"E) : Rout es t o: Auckl and 7.162 Br i sbane 7.162 Dut c h Ha r bour 7.173 Hong Kong 7.169 Honol ul u 7,214 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.309 Gua m (1327"N, 14435"E): Rout es t o: Api a 7.181 Auckl and 7.162 Br i sbane 7.162 Cent r al r out e 7.266 Hong Kong 7.288 Honol ul u 7.207 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.286 Mani l a 7.287 Panama 7.266, 7.281 Papeet e 7.225 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.286 San Di ego 7.286 San Fr anci sco 7.286 Shang- hai 7.181, 7.182 Si ngapor e 7.287 Suva 7.182 Sydney 7.162 Tor r es St r ai t 7.162, 7.175 Wel l i ngt on 7.162 Yokohama 7.178 Gui ana Cur r ent 1.73 Gui nea Cur r ent 1.73, 2.15 Gul f of Ade n: Swel l 6.23 Wi nds and weat her 6.07, 6.08 Gul f of Gui nea: Rout es to : Canada 8.13 Uni t ed St at es 8.13 Gul f of Li ons : Rout es t o: Gi br al t ar 9.24 Gul f of Mexi co : Cur r ent s 4.11 Ent r ance channel s 4.21 Navi gat i on 4.15 Rout es to : Afri ca, NW coast 8.11 At l ant i c Ocean 9.47 Cape Town 8.10 Col on 4.25 Eur ope 2.81, 2.86, 8.11 Nor t h Amer i ca, E coast 8.15 Sout h Amer i ca, E coast 8.17 Swel l 4.05 Wi nds and weat her 4.01 Gul f of Oma n: Wi nds and weat her 6.09 Gul f of Panama 11.104 Gul f of Sai nt Lawr ence : I ce 2.27 Rout es to Eur ope 2. 61-2. 70 Gul f St r eam 1.71, 1.72, 1.73, 1.78, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 4.11 242 H ak oda t e--cont i nued Panama 7.307 Pet r opavl ovsk 7.171 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.309 San Di ego 7.308 San Fr anci sco 7.308 Sydney 7.162 Tor r es St r ai t 7.162 Wel l i ngt on 7.162 Hal i f ax (4430"N, 6325"W) : Rout es to : Bar bados 2.103 B~lem 2.104 Ber gen 2. 61-2. 67 Bi shop Rock 2. 61-2. 67 Bonny 8.13 Bor deaux 2. 16-2. 67 Cabo de S~o Roque 2.105 Cape To wn 8.07 Cape Wr a t h 2. 61-2. 67 Cr ooked I sl and Passage 2.101 Doual a 8.13 Fas t net 2. 61-2. 67 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 8.13 Hor t a 2.121 I ni sht r ahul l 2. 61-2. 67 Lagos 8.13 Li s bon 2.69 Lobi t o 8.13 Mona Passage 2.101 Nor dka pp 2. 61-2. 67 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.101 Poi nt e- Noi r e 8.13 Pont a Del gado 2.121 Por t o Gr ande 2.126 Sombr er o Passage 2.101 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.69 Ta kor a di 8.13 Tr o n d h e i m 2. 61-2. 67 Tur ks I s l and Passage 2.101 Vi go 2.69 Ha r ma t t a n 2.02 Hawai i an I s l ands : Sai l i ng passages 11.79 Hi nat uan Passage (940"N, 12545"E) 8.26 Hoba r t (4300"S, 14722"E) : Rout es t o : Adel ai de Auckl and Bl uff Ha r bour Br i sbane Cabo de Hor nos Cal l ao Cape Leeuwi n Cape To wn Dur ba n Est r echo de Magal l anes Fr emant l e I qui que Me l bour ne Panama Por t Dar wi n Por t He dl a nd Sydney Tor r es St r ai t Val par ai so Wel l i ngt on Hol y Chi l d Cur r ent GE N E R A L 6. 125-6. 137, 7.54 7.59 7.57 7. 51-7. 54 7.240 7.240 6. 125-6. 137 6.162 6.162 7.240 6. 125-6. 137 7.240 6. 125-6. 137, 7.54 7.242 6. 125-6. 137 6. 125-6. 137 7. 51-7. 54 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51-7. 54 7.240 7.58 7.37 1 N DE X Hong Hong (2216"N, 11416"E): Rout es t o: Adel ai de 7.163 Ambon 7.137 Api a 7.177 Auckl and 7.161, 7.162 Bal i k Papan 7.136 Bangkok 7.133 Br i sbane 7.161, 7.162, 7.163 Cape Leeuwi n 7.164 Cebu 7.140 Chi na 11.50 D j akar t a 7.134 Fr emant l e 7.163, 7.164 Gu a m 7.288 Hakodat e 7.169 Honol ul u 7.211 I l oi l o 7.139 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.302 Lombok St r ai t 7.164 Makassar 7.136 Mani l a 7.138, 11.47 Mel bour ne 7.161, 7.163 Nagasaki 7.169, 11.49 Nor t h Amer i ca 11.51 Panama 7.300, 11.51 Papeet e 7.226 Por t Dar wi n 7.161, 11.45 Por t He dl a nd 7.164 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.302 Sai gon 7.133 Sandakan 7.135 San Di ego 7.301 San Fr anci sco 7.301 Shang- hai 7.118 Si ngapor e 7.117 Sout h Amer i ca 11.52 Sunda St r ai t 7.134 Sur abaya 7.134 Suva 7.177 Sydney 7.161, 7.162, 7.163, 11.46 Tar akan 7.136 Tor t es St r ai t 7.161, 7.162, 11.44 Vl adi vost ok 7.118 Wel l i ngt on 7.161, 7.162 Yap 7.288 Yokohama 7.169, 11.48 Honol ul u (2116' N, 15753' W): Rout es to : Api a Auckl and Aust r al i a Br i sbane Cabo de Hor nos Callao Cent r al Rout e Chi na Dut c h Ha r bour Est r echo de Magal l anes Gu a m Hakodat e Hong Kong I qui que Japan Juan de Fuca St r ai t Mani l a New Zeal and 7.203 7.202 11.81 7.200 7.219, 11.85 7.219, 11.85 7.265 11.82 7.215 7.219, 11.85 7.207 7.214 7.211 7.219, 11.85 11.82 7.217 7.210 11.81 GE NE R A L Honolulu--continued Ocean I sl and 7.205 Panama 7.218, 7.265, 11.84 Papeet e 7.208, 11.80 Phi l i ppi ne I sl ands 11.82 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.216 San Di ego 11.84 San Fr anci sco 11.83 Shang- hai 7.212 Si ngapor e 7.209 Sout h Amer i ca 11.85 Suva 7.204, 11.81 Sydney 7.200 Tonga t a pu 7.206 Tor r es St r ai t 7.201 Wel l i ngt on 7.202 Yap 7.207 Yokohama 7.213 Hor se Lat i t udes 1.33, 2.04, 3.03 Hor t a (3830"N, 2836"W) : Rout es to : Bar bados 2.121 Bel~m 2.121 Ber muda 2.121 Bi shop Rock 2.121 Bor deaux 2.121 Cabot St r ai t 2.121 Casabl anca 2.121 Dakar 2.121 Del awar e Bay 2.121 Fl or i da St r ai t 2.121 Hal i f ax 2.121 Las Pal mas 2.121 Li s bon 2.121 Mona Passage 2.121 New Yor k 2.121 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.121 Por t o Gr a nde 2.121 Sai nt J ohn' s 2.56, 2.121 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.121 Sombr er o Passage 2.121 Tur ks I s l and Passage 2.121 Vi go 2.121 Huds on Bay: Rout es to : Davi s St r ai t 2.46 Hu mb o l d t Cur r ent , See Per d Cur r ent 7.37 Hur r i canes 1.38, 2.05, 7.10, 7.20 I ce: Bl ack Sea 5.21 For mat i on and di s t r i but i on 1.81 I ndi an Ocean 6. 41-6. 43 Medi t er r anean Sea 5.21 Nor t h At l ant i c Ocean 2. 25-2. 27, 2.64 Pacific Ocean 7. 41-7. 45 Pat r ol , I nt er nat i onal 2.28 Radar : caut i on when usi ng 2.54 Repor t i ng and advi sor y servi ces 2.28 Sout h At l ant i c Ocean 3. 16-3. 18 ~le d' Oues s ant (4828'N, 524"W): Caut i on 2.32 Rout es t o : Bonny 2.96, 3.41 Cape Town 2.96, 3.41 I NDE X Tle d'Ouessant--continued Casabl anca Dakar Doual a Fr eet own Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l Lagos Las Pal mas Li s bon Lobi t o Poi nt e- Noi r e St r ai t of Gi br al t ar Ta kor a di Vi go I l ha de Fe r na ndo de Nor onha (350'S, 3228'W): Caut i on 2.37, 3.22 Il oi l o (1035'N, 12230'E) : Rout es to : Hong Kong 7.139 Mani l a 7.143 Si ngapor e 7.125 I ndi an Ocean: Rout es to : Aust r al i a E coast Speed r educt i on and sea condi t i ons Wi nds and weat her I ni sht r ahul l (5531"N, 715"W): Rout es t o: Bost on 2. 51-2. 67 Cabot St r ai t 2. 61-2. 67 Chesapeake Bay 2. 61-2. 67 Del awar e Bay 2. 61-2. 57 Hal i f ax 2. 61-2. 67 Ka p Far vel 2.50 New Yor k 2. 61-2. 67 Sai nt J ohn' s 2.57 St r ai t of Belle I sl e 2.55 I qui que (2012"S, 7010"W) Rout es to : Auckl and 7.246 Api a 7.247 Cal l ao 7.196 Est r echo de Magal l anes 7.196 Honol ul u 7.219 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.196 Panama 7.195 Papeet e 7.233 San Di ego 7.192 San Fr anci sco 7.192 Suva 7.248 Sydney 7.246 Val par ai so 7.196 Wel l i ngt on 7.246 I r i sh Sea: Sai l i ng r out es f r om 9.03 I r mi nger Cur r ent 2.16 Isl as Canar i as: Rout es to : Bel6m 2.111 I s t anbul (4058"N, 2859"E): Rout es t o : Bat umi 5.35 Constan~a 5.35 Dar danel l es 5.35 Novor ossi ysk 5.35 Odessa 5.35 243 2.96 2.96 2.96, 3.41 2.96 2.96, 3.41 2.96, 3.41 2.96 2. 91-2. 92 2.96, 3.41 2.96, 3.41 2. 91-2. 92, 2.96 2.96, 3.41 2. 91-2. 92 8.25 6.26 6. 01-6. 05, 6. 10-6. 16 244 Istanbul--continued Sevastopol 5.35 Sulina 5.35 Zhdanov 5.35 Jamaica: Routes to : Curacao 9.52 English Channel 9.51 Halifax 9.51 New York 9.51 Japan: Routes to : Australia 7.160 Indi an Ocean 11.42 New Zealand 7.160 Java Sea: Passage through 10.47.05 Routes to : China Sea 7.114 Juan de Fuca Strait (4828"N, 12450'W): Routes to: Apia 7.282 Auckland 7.282 Brisbane 7.283 Callao 7.196, 11.88 Dut ch Harbour 7.190 Estrecho de Magallanes 7.196, 11.88 Guam 7.286 Hakodate 7.317 Hong Kong 7.312 Honol ul u 7.217, 11.86 Iqui que 7.196, 11.88 Manila 7.312 Panama 7.191, 11.88 Papeete 7.230 San Diego 7.191, 11.88 San Francisco 7.191, 11.88 Shang-hai 7.312 Singapore 7.312 Suva 7.282 Sydney 7.283, 11.87 Tort es Strait 7.284 Valparaiso 7.196, 11.88 Wellington 7.282 Yap 7.286 Yokohama 7.314, 11.86 Kamchatka Current 7.32 Kap Farvel (5945"N, 4352"W) : Routeing positions 2.47 Routes to : Bergen 2.49 Bishop Rock 2.50 Bordeaux 2.50 Cape Wrath 2.50 Fastnet 2.50 Inishtrahull 2.50 Lindesnes 2.49 Nordkapp 2.48 Trondhei m 2.49 Vigo 2.50 Karachi (2446"N, 6657"E): Routes to : Aden 6.64 Bombay 6.56, 10.70 GENERAL I NDEX Kar~ chi--continued Brisbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwin 6.156 Cape Town 6.63 Colombo 6.156 Durban 6.63 Fremantle 6.156 Mozambique Channel 6.63 Mombasa 6.62 Port Darwin 6.155 Port Hedland 6.156 Port Louis 6.95 Strait of Hormuz 6.156 Torres Strait 6.155 Karimata Strait (300'S, 10900"E) 8.26, 10.31, 10.44 Kingston (1754'N, 7645"W) : Routes to : Bermuda 4.24 Kuro Shio 1.72, 1.73, 7.32 Labrador Current 1.72, 1.77, 2.16, 2.17 Lagos (623'N, 324"E): Routes to : Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape Town 3.41, 3.42 Casablanca 2.96, 3.41 Colon 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Douala 3.41, 3.42 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.53 Freetown 2.96, 3.41 Gamba Oil Termi nal 3.41, 3.42 Halifax 8.13 ~le d' Ouessant 2.96, 3.41 Las Palmas 2.96, 3.41 Lobito 3.41, 3.42 New York 8.13 Pointe Noire 3.41, 3.42 Porto do Salvador 3.46 Porto Grande 2.127 Recife 3.46 Rio de Janeiro 3.46 Rio de la Plata 3.46 Strait of Gibraltar 2.96, 3.41 Lamakera Strait (830'S, 12312'E) 8.26 Las Palmas (28OYN, 1516~W) : Routes to: Bel6m 2.111 Bonny 2.96, 3.41 Cape Town 2.96, 3.41 Casablanca 2.96 Dakar 2.96 Douala 2.96, 3.41 Freetown 2.96 Gamba Oil Termi nal 2.96, 3.41 Horta 2.121 ~le d' Ouessant 2.96 Lagos 2.96, 3.41 Lobito 2.96, 3.41 Pointe-Noire 2.96, 3.41 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.127 Recife 2.106, 2.117 R~o de Janeiro 2.106 Strait of Gibraltar 2.96 Takoradi 2.96, 3.41 Li ndes nes (5755"N, 658"E) : Rout es to : Ka p Far vel 2.49 St r ai t of Belle I sl e 2.54 Li s bon (3840'N, 924"W): Rout es t o: Bar bados 2.86 Bel 6m 2.111 Ber muda 2.86 Bost on 2.70 Cabot St r ai t 2.68 Chesapeake Bay 2.70 Davi s St r ai t 2.51 Del awar e Bay 2.70 Hal i f ax 2.69 Hor t a 2.121 $1e d' Oues s ant 2. 91-2. 92 Mona Passage 2.86 New Yor k 2.70 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.86 Pont a Del gada 2.121 Reci fe 2.117 Sombr er o Passage 2.86 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2. 91-2. 92 Tur ks I sl and Passage 2.86 Vi go 2. 91-2. 92 Lobi t o (1218'S, 1335"E) : Rout es to : Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape Town 3.41, 3.42 Casabl anca 2.96, 3.41 Col on 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Doual a 3.41, 3.42 Fr eet own 2.96, 3.41 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 3.41, 3.42 Hal i f ax 8.13 $1e d' Oues s ant 2.96, 3.41 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Pal mas 2.96, 3.41 New Yor k 8.13 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.41, 3.42 Por t o Gr a nde 2.127 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.96, 3.41 Takor adi 3.41, 3.42 Lo mb o k St r ai t (830'S, 11530'E) Rout es to : Cape of Good Hope 10.125 Chi na Sea 10.32.05 D j akar t a 7.126 Hong Kong 7.164 Mani l a 7.164 Shang- hai 7.164 Si ngapor e 7.126 Sf l nda St r ai t 7.126 Yokohama 7.164 Lor a n 1.92.03 Madagas car Cur r ent 6.36 Madr as (1306"N, 8019"E): Rout es t o: Ambon 8.22 Bal i k Papan 8.22 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwi n 6.141 Cape To wn 6.69 GENERAL 8.26, 10.31, 10.47.02 I NDEX Madras--continued Col ombo 6.71 D j akar t a 8.22 Dur ba n 6.69 Fr emant l e 6.141 Makassar 8.22 Mer gui 10.92 Moul mei n 10.92 Par adi p 6.71 Por t Dar wi n 6.140 Por t He dl a nd 6.141 Rangoon 6.71, 10.92 Sandheads 6.71, 10.91 Sandakan 8.22 Sel at Benggal a 6.71 Si ngapor e 8.22 Sur abaya 8.22 Tar akan 8.22 Tor r es St r ai t 6.140 Makassar (508"S, 11922'E) : Rout es t o: Hong Kong 7.136 Madr as 8.22 Mani l a 7.142 Si ngapor e 7.128 Makassar St r ai t (200'S, 11800"E) 8.26, 10.31 Mal abar Coast 10.76 Rout es to : Aden 10.72 Mal acca St r ai t (4O0'N, IO0O0"E) 6.83, 8.26, 10.83 Mal t a (3556"N, 1433"E): Rout es to : Al gi er s 5. 26-5. 35 Barcel ona 5. 26-5. 35 Bei r ut 5. 26-5. 35 Dar danel l es 5. 26-5. 35 Genova 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar 5. 26-5. 35, 9.22 Mar sei l l e 5. 26-5. 35 Napol i 5. 26-5. 35 Pirai6vs 5. 26-5. 35 Por t Sai d 5. 26-5. 35 Tar ~bul us 5. 26-5. 35 Tr i est e 5. 26-5. 35 Mani l a (1434"N, 12055"E) : Rout es to : Auckl and 7.161, 7.162 Api a 7.177 Aust r al i a 11.63 Bal i k Papan 7.142 Bangkok 7.133 Br i sbane 7.161 Cape Leeuwi n 7.164 Cebu 7.143, 11.62 D j akar t a 7.141 Fr emant l e 7.164 Gua m 7.287 Hong Kong 7.138, 11.60 Honol ul u 7.210 Hs i a - Me n 11.60 I l oi l o 7.143, 11.61 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.299 Lo mb o k St r ai t 7.164 Makassar 7.142 Mel bour ne 7.161 Nor t h Amer i ca 11.51 Panama 7.297, 11.51 245 246 Manila--continued Papeet e Por t Dar wi n Por t He dl a nd Pr i nce Ruper t Sa' igon San Di ego San Fr anci sco Sandakan Shang- hai Si ngapor e Sout h Amer i ca Sunda St r ai t Sur abaya Suva Sydney Ta r a ka n Tor r es St r ai t Wel l i ngt on Yokohama Mani pa St r ai t (315' S, 12720' E) Mar i t i me Met eor ol ogy Mar sei l l e (4318' N, 516' E): Rout es to : Al gi er s Barcel ona Bei r ut Dar danel l es Genova Gi br al t ar Mal t a Napol i Pi rai 6vs Por t Sai d Tar ~bul us Tr i es t e Maur i t i us , see Por t Loui s Medi t er r anean Sea Cur r ent s Rout es Swel l Wi nds and weat her Me l bour ne (3820' S, 14433"E) : Rout es to : Adel ai de Auckl and Bl uff Ha r bour Br i sbane Br i t i sh Col umbi a Cabo de Hor nos Callao Cape Leeuwi n Cape To wn Chi l e Du r b a n Est r echo de Magal l anes Fr emant l e Ho b a r t Hong Kong I qui que Mani l a New Zeal and P a n a ma Por t Dar wi n Por t He dl a nd San Fr anci sco Shang- hai Si ngapor e GE N E R A L I N DE X 7.226 7.161 7.164 7.299 7.133, 11.59 7.298 7.298 7.143 7.167 7.124, 11.58 11.52 7.141 7.142 7.177 7.161, 7.162 7.142 7.161, 7.162 7.161, 7.162 7.168 8.26, 10.31 1. 21- 1. 24 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5. 26-5. 35 5.16 5. 26-5. 35 5.11 5. 01-5. 07 6. 125-6. 137, 7.54, 7.163 7.62 7.60 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163 I1.03.05 7.240 7.240 6. 125-6. 137 6.162 11.03.04 6.162 7.240 6. 125-6. 137, 7.163 6. 125-6. 137, 7.54 7.161, 7.163 7.240 7.161, 7.163 11.03.06 7.272 6. 125-6. 137 6. 125-6. 137 11.03.05 7.161, 7.163 7.163 Mel bourne--cont i nued Sydney 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163, 11.03.07 Tor r es St r ai t 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51- 7. 54 Val parai so 7.240 Wel l i ngt on 7.61 Mer gui (1226' N, 9836"E): Rout es to : Madr as 10.110 Sandheads 10.109 Mer i di onal par t s 1.17 Mi ndor o St r ai t (II30"N, 12130' E) 8.26, 10.31 Mi ssi ssi ppi Ri ver (2852' N, 8926"W) : Rout es t o: Col on 4.29 Mogambi que Channel 6.55 Rout es t hr ough 6.58 Rout es to : Aden 6.59 Cape Town 6.57 Dur ba n 6.57 Por t Loui s 6.92 Mogambi que Cur r ent 1.72, 1.73, 6.36 Mol ukka Sea 10.31 Momba s a (405' S, 3943"E) : Rout es to : Ade n 6.59, 10.18 Aust r al i a 10.21 Bombay 6.72, 10.19 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwi n 6.163 Cape Town 6.59, 10.22 Col ombo 7.74, 10.20 Dondr a Head 6.74 Dur ba n 6.59, 10.22 Fr emant l e 6.163 Kar ~chi 6.61 Por t Dar wi n 6.163 Por t He dl a nd 6.163 Por t Loui s 6.93, 10.21 Sandheads 10.20 Seychel l es Gr oup 6.107 St r ai t of Hor muz 6.60 Sunda St r ai t 6.152 Tor r es St r ai t 6.163 Mona Passage (1820' N, 6800' W) 4.21, 4.29 Rout es t o: Bi shop Rock 2.86 Bor deaux 2.86 Cabot St r ai t 2.101 Chesapeake Bay 2.101 Del awar e Bay 2.101 Hal i f ax 2.101 Hor t a 2.121 Li s bon 2.86 Ne w Yor k 2.101 Pont a Del gada 2.121 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.86 Vi go 2.86 Monr ovi a (620' N, 1052"W) : Rout es to : Por t o Gr ande 2.127 Monsoons 1.36 Moul mei n ( 16 29"N, 9738"E) : Rout es t o: Cape of Good Hope 10. I08 Moulmein--continued Madras 10.106 Malacca Strait 10.107 Sandheads 10.105 Singapore 10.107 Mur man Coast Current 2.16 Nagasaki (3243"N, 12943"E): Routes to : China 11.73 Hong Kong 7.168 Singapore 7.121 Napoli (4049"N, 1417"E) : Routes to : Algiers 5.26-5.35 Barcelona 5.26-5.35 Beirut 5.26-5.35 Dardanelles 5.26-5.35 Genova 5.26-5.35 Gibraltar 5.26-5.35 Malta 5.26-5.35 Marseille 5.26-5.35 Pirai~vs 5.26-5.35 Port Said 5.26-5.35 Tar~bulus 5.26-5.35 Trieste 5.26-5.35 Navigation, Radio aids 1.91, 1.92 New Orleans (South- West Pass 2855'N, 8925"W) : Routes to : Colon 9.46 English Channel 9.45 Mosquito Coast 9.46 Nort h America 9.45 New York (4028"N, 7350"W): Routes to: Barbados 2.103 Bel6m 2.104 Bergen 2.61-2.67 Bishop Rock 2.61-2.67 Bonny 8.13 Bordeaux 2.61-2.67 Cabo de S~o Roque 2.105 Cape Town 8.07 Cape Wrat h 2.61-2.67 Casablanca 2.76 Crooked Island Passage 2.101 Dakar 2.76 Douala 8.13 Fastnet 2.61-2.67 Freetown 2.76 Gamba Oil Termi nal 8.13 Horta 2.121 Inishtrahull 2.61-2.67 Lagos 8.13 Lisbon 2.70 Lobito 8.13 Mona Passage 2.101 Nordkapp 2.61-2.67 North-East Providence Channel 2.101 Pointe-Noire 8.13 Ponta Dalgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.126 Sombrero Passage 2.101 Strait of Gibraltar 2.70 Tokoradi 8.13 Trondhei m 2.61-2.67 GENERAL I NDEX New York--continued Turks Island Passage 2.101 Vigo 2.70 New Zealand: Routes to : Australia Cabo de Hornos China Japan North America Pacific Islands South America Newfoundland Banks: Currents 2.17 Ice 2.26 Routeing in vicinity 2.66 Newfoundland coasts : Caution 2.36 Nigeria: Routes to : English Channel 9.28 Freetown 9.27 South America 9.29 Ni ne Degree Channel (9O0'N, 7300"E) 10.63 Nordkapp (7121"N, 2540"E): Routes to : Boston 2.61-2.67 Cabot Strait 2.61-2.67 Chesapeake Bay 2.61-2.67 Delaware Bay 2.61-2.67 Halifax 2.61-2.67 Kap Farvel 2.48 New York 2.61-2.67 Strait of Belle Isle 2.53 North America, E coast: Routes to : Cape of Good Hope Caribbean Sea English Channel Gul f of Mexico Rio Amazonas South America Nort h Atlantic Current North Atlantic Ocean: Currents 2.15-2.21 Ice 2.25-2.28 Swell 2.1 t-2.13 Wi nds and weather 2.01-2.08 North Cape Current 2.16 Nort h Equatorial Current: Atlantic Ocean 2.15 Caribbean Sea 4.11 Pacific Ocean 7.32 North Pacific Current 7.32 North Sea: Currents 2.18 Sailing routes from 9.02 Nort h Sub-tropical Current 2.15 North-east Monsoon: North Indi an Ocean 6.04 North Pacific Ocean 7.05 North-East Providence Channel (2550"N, 7700'W): Routes to : Bishop Rock 2.86 Bordeaux 2.86 Cabot Strait 2.101 Casablanca 2.76 11.11-11.13 11.14 7.160, 11.18 7.160, 11.18 11.16 11.17 11.15 9.44.02 8.15, 9.44.05 9.44.01 8.15, 9.44.05 8.17, 9.44.03 9.44.04 2.15, 2.16 247 248 North-East Providence Channel --cont i nued Chesapeake Bay 2.101 Dakar 2.76 Delaware Bay 2.101 Freetown 2.76 Halifax 2.101 Horta 2.121 Lisbon 2.86 New York 2.101 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.126 Strait of Gibraltar 2.86 North-east Trade Wi nd: Nort h Atlantic Ocean 2.03 Nort h Pacific Ocean 7.04 North-west Monsoon: Indi an Ocean 6.12 South Pacific Ocean 7.16 Nort hern Australia: Routes to : Cape of Good Hope 10.132 Colombo 10.133 Fremantle 10.131 Hong Kong 10.136 Sandheads 10.134 Singapore 10.135 Sydney 10. I30 Northers 2.03 Norway: Ice 2.26 Routes from 9.01 Routes to: Kap Farvel 2.48 Norwegian Atlantic Current 2.16 Norwegian Coastal Current 2.18 Noum~a (2231"S, i6626"E) : Routes to : Auckland 7.92 Brisbane 7.76 Sydney 7.67 Wellington 7.92 Novorossiysk (4437' N, 3751"E) : Routes to : Batumi 5.36 Constan~a 5.36 Istanbul 5.36 Odessa 5.36 Sevastopol 5.36 Sulina 5.36 Zhdanov 5.36 Obi Strait ( I 15' S, 12800"E) 8.26 Ocean Island (056"S, 16931"E) : Routes to: Auckland 7.90 Brisbane 7.80 Central Route 7.268 Honol ul u 7.205 Panama 7.268, 7.277 Suva 7.94 Sydney 7.71 Torres Strait 7.86 Wellington 7.90 Ocean weather ships 2.39 Odessa (4630' N, 3046"E): Routes to : Batumi 5.36 ConstanSa 5.36 GE N E R A L I N DE X Odessa--cont i nued Istanbul 5.36 Novorossiysk 5.36 Sevastopol 5.36 Sulina 5.36 Zhdanov 5.36 Old Bahama Channel (2200"N, 7700"W) 4.21, 4.29 Ombai Strait (830' S, 12500' E) Routes to : Cape of Good Hope 10.125 Ceram Sea 10.46.02 China Sea 10.32.04 Omega 1.92.04 Os16 : Ice 2.27 Oya Shio 1.72, 7.33 Pacific Islands (North): General notes Routes to : Asia 11.75 North America 11.75 South America 11.75 South Pacific Islands 11.77 Sydney 11.77 Tortes Strait 11.78 Pacific Islands (South): Routes to: Cabo de Homos 11.21 Estrecho de Magallanes 11.21 New Zealand 11.20 Nort h America 11.23 Panama 11.22 South America 11.22 Southern Australia 11.19 Sydney 11.19 Pacific Ocean: Central Route Currents Ice Navigation North Pacific Trans-ocean Routes Routes to China Sea Soundings and dangers Southern Route Swell Winds and weather Panama (853"N, 7931"W) : Routes to: Apia Auckland Australia Brisbane Cabo de Hornos Callao Central America Dut ch Harbour Estrecho de Magallanes Golfo de Guayaquil Guam Hong Kong Honolulu Iquique Juan de Fuca Strait Manila Mollendo 8.26, 10.31, 10.46.02 11.74, 11.76, 11.79 7.260 7.32-7.38, 7.49, 11.01.02 7.41-7.45 11.01.03 7.295 10.46.05, 10.46.06 7.48, 11.01.01 7.240 7.25-7.29 7.01-7.20 7.285 7.245 11.107 7.274 11.112 7.195, 11. I10 11.105 7.190 7.195 11.109 7.280 7.310 7.218 7.195 7.191, 11.106 7.279 11.111 GE N E R A L Panama--continued New Zeal and 11.107 Ocean I s l and 7.277 Papeet e 7.231 San Di ego 7.191 San Fr anci sco 7.191, 11.106 Shang- hai 7.310 Si ngapor e 7.279 Sout h- bound sai l i ng passages f r om 11.108 Suva 7.285 Sydney 7.273 Tor t e s St r ai t 7.276 Val parai so 7.195, 11.111 Wel l i ngt on 7.245 Yokohama 7.304 Pant ar St r ai t (820"S, 12420"E) 8.26 Papeet e (1730' S, 14936"W) : Rout es to : Api a 7.100 Auckl and 7.93 Aus t r al i a 11.28 Br i sbane 7.75 Cabo de Hor nos 7.236 Cal l ao 7.232 Est r echo de Magal l anes 7.235 Gu a m 7.225 I-Iong Kong 7.226 Honol ul u 7.208, 11.27 I qui que 7.233 J uan de Fuca St r ai t 7.230 Mani l a 7.226 New Zeal and 11.28 Panama 7.231 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.229 San Di ego 7.230 San Fr anci sco 7.230 Shang- hai 7.227 Suva 7.97 Sydney 7.66 Tongat apu 7.99 Tor t e s St r ai t 7.83 Val parai so 7.234 Wel l i ngt on 7.87, 7.93 Yokohama 7.228 Par adi p (2010"N, 8638' E) : Rout es to : Cape Leeuwi n 6.141 Cape Town 6.69 Col ombo 6.71 Dur ba n 6.69 Fr emant l e 6.141 Madr as 6.71 Por t He dl a nd 6.141 Rangoon 6.71 Sandheads 6.71 Sel at Benggal a 6.71 Penedos de S~o Pedr o e Sao Paol o (057"N, 2922' W) : Caut i on 2.37, 3.22, 9.07.04 Per si an Gul f : Rout es : Cape of Good Hope 8.41 I nt er nal 6.54 Swel l 6.24 Wi nds and weat her 6.09 Per i l Coast al Cur r ent 7.37 Per i l Cur r ent 1.72, 7.37 I N DE X Per i l Oceani c Cur r ent 7.37 Pet r opavl ovsk (5228"N, 15835"E) : Rout es to : Auckl and 7.162 Br i sbane 7.162 Hakodat e 7.171 Sydney 7.162 Tor r es St r ai t 7.162 Wel l i ngt on 7.162 Yokohama 7.171 Pirai~vs (3756"N, 2336"E): Rout es to : Al gi er s 5. 26-5. 35 Barcel ona 5. 26-5. 35 Bei r ut 5. 26-5. 35 Dar danel l es 5. 26-5. 35 Genova 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar 5. 26-5. 35 Mal t a 5. 26-5. 35 Mar sei l l e 5. 26-5. 35 Napol i 5. 26-5. 35 Por t Sai d 5. 26-5. 35 Tar ~bul us 5. 26-5. 35 Tr i est e 5. 26-5. 35 Pl anni ng a passage 1. 01-1. 05, Poi nt e- Noi r e (446"S, 1149' E) : Rout es to : Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape To wn 3.41, 3.42 Casabl anca 2.96, 3.41 Col on 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Doual a 3.41, 3.42 Fr eet own 2.96, 3.41 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 3.41, 3.42 Hal i f ax 8.13 ~le d' Oues s ant 2.96, 3.41 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Pal mas 2.96, 3.41 Lobi t o 3.41, 3.42 Ne w Yor k 8.13 Por t o Gr a nde 2.127 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.96, 3.41 Takor adi 3.41, 3.42 Pol ar Regi ons 1.35, 2.08 East erl i es 7.09 Pol l ut i on 11.101 Pont a Del gada (3742"N, 2540' W) : Rout es to : Bar bados 2.121 Bel~m 2.111, 2.121 Ber muda 2.121 Bi shop Rock 2.121 Bor deaux 2.121 Cabot St r ai t 2.121 Casabl anca 2.121 Dakar 2.121 Del awar e Bay 2.121 Fl or i da St r ai t 2.121 Hal i f ax 2.121 Las Pal mas 2.121 Li s bon 2.121 Mona Passage 2.121 New Yor k 2.121 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.121 Por t o Gr ande 2.121 249 1. 11-1. 17 250 GE N E R A L I N DE X Ponta Delgada--continued Saint John' s 2.121 Sombrero Passage 2.121 Strait of Gibraltar 2.121 Turks Island Passage 2.121 Vigo 2.121 Port Darwin (1225"S, 13046' E) : Routes to: Adelaide 6.125-6.137 Aden 6.165 Bombay 6.155 Cape Leeuwin 6.125-6.137 Cape Town 6.160 Colombo 6.155 Durban 6.160 Fremantle 6.125-6.137 Hobart 6.125-6.137 Hong Kong 7.161 Kar~chi 6.155 Madras 6.140 Manila 7.161 Melbourne 6.125-6.137 Mombasa 6.163 Port Hedland 6.125-6.137 Port Louis 6.101 Rangoon 6.140 Sandheads 6.140 Shang-hai 7.161 Strait of Hormuz 6.155 Torres Strait 6.125-6.137 Port Hedland (2013' S, 11834' E) : Routes to: Adelaide 6.125-6.137 Bombay 6.156 Cape Leeuwin 6.125-6.133, 6.156 Cape Town 6.160 Colombo 6.156 Durban 6.160 Fremantle 6.125-6.137, 6.156 Hobart 6.125-6.137 Hong Kong 7.164 Kar~chi 6.156 Madras 6.140 Manila 7.164 Mel bourne 6.125-6.137 Mombasa 6.163 Paradip 6.140 Port Darwin 6.12 5-6.137 Rangoon 6.142 Sandheads 6.140 Shang-hai 7.164 Strait of I-Iormuz 6.156 Torres Strait 6.125-6.137 Yokohama 7.164 Port Louis (2008' S, 5728' E): Routes to : Aden 6.94, 10.15 Australia 10.12 Bombay 6.97 Cape Leeuwin 6.102 Cape Town 6.90, 10.17 China Sea 10.1,3 Colombo 6.98 Durban 6.91, 10.17 Fremantle 6.102 Indi a 10.14 Port Loui s--cont i nued Kar~chi 6.95 Mosambique Channel 6.92 Mombasa 6.93, 10.16 Ne~v Zealand 10.12 Port Darwin 6.101 Selat Benggala 6.99 Seychelles Group 6.96 Singapore 8.19 Sunda Strait 6.100 Tortes Strait Port Said (3120"N, 3223' E): Routes to : Algiers 5.26-5.35 Barcelona 5.26-5.35 Beirut 5.26-5.35 Dardanelles 5.26-5.35 Genova 5.26-5.35 Gibraltar 5.26-5.35 Malta 5.26-5.35 Marseille 5.26-5.35 Napoli 5.26-5.35 Pirai6vs 5.26-5.35 Tar~bulus 5.25-5.35 Trieste 5.26-5.35 Porto do Salvador (I306' S, 3823"W) : Routes to : Bahia Blanca 3.39 Bonny 3.46 Cabo de Hornos 3.39 Cape Agulhas 3.46 Cape Town 3.46 Comodoro Rivadavia 3.39 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.39 Europe 9.58 Lagos 3.46 North America 9.58 Pointe-Noire 3.46 Retire 3.37, 3.39 Rio de Janeiro 3.39 Rio de la Plata 3.39 Takoradi 3.46 Porto Grande (1653' N, 2508"W) : Routes to : Bathurst 2.127 Bel6m 2.126 Bermuda 2.126 Bishop Rock 2.126 Cabot Strait 2.126 Casablanca 2.127 Dahar 2.127 Delaware Bay 2.126 Freetown 2.127 Gul f of Guinea 2.127 Halifax 2.126 Horta 2.121 Las Palmas 2.127 Monrovia 2.127 New York 2.126 North-East Providence Channel 2.126 Recife 2.117 Saint John' s 2.126 Saint Vincent, W. I. 2.126 Strait of Gibraltar 2.127 Tri ni dad 2.126 Portugal Current 2.16 Position fixing systems 1.92 Pr i nce Ruper t (5419' N, 13053"W) : Rout es to : Api a 7.282 Auckl and 7.282 Br i sbane 7.283 Dut c h Ha r bour 7.190 Gu a m 7.286 Hakodat e 7.318 Hong Kong 7.312 Honol ul u 7.216, 11.86 Mani l a 7.312 Papeet e 7.229 San Fr anci sco 11.88 Shang- hai 7.312 Si ngapor e 7.312 Sout h Amer i ca 11.88 Suva 7.282 Sydney 7.283, 11.87 Tor t e s St r ai t 7.284 Wel l i ngt on 7.282 Yap 7.286 Yokohama 7.315, 11.86 Pr ovi dence Channel s 4.21, 4.29 Radar , caut i on, wi t h i ceber gs 2.64 Rangoon (1608"N, 9620"E) : Rout es t o: Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeu~vin 6.142 Cape To wn 6.69, 10.108 Col ombo 6.71 Dur ba n 6.69 Fr emant l e 6.142 Madr as 6.71, 10.106 Mal acca St r ai t 10.107 Par adi p 6.71 Por t Dar wi n 6.140 Por t He dl a nd 6.142 Sandheads 6.71, 10.105 Sel at Benggal a 6.71 Si ngapor e 10.107 Tor r es St r ai t 6.140 Reci fe (landfall, 800"S, 3440' W) : Rout es t o: Bi shop Rock 2.117 Engl i sh Channel 9.57 Las Pal mas 2.117 Li s bon 2.117 Nor t h Amer i ca 9. 57 Por t o Gr ande 2.117 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.117 Reci fe (port, 804"S, 3452"W) : Rout es t o: Bahi a Bl anca 3.39 Bonny 3.46 Cabo de Hor nos 3.39 Cape To wn 3.46 Comodor o Ri vadavi a 3.39 Est r echo de Magal l anes 3.39 Lagos 3.46 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.46 Por t o do Sal vador 3.32, 3.39 Ri o de Janei r o 3.32, 3.39 Ri o de la Pl at a 3.39 St anl ey 3.37 Ta kor a di 3.46 GE N E R A L I N DE X 251 Sagewi n St r ai t (055"S, 13040"E) 8.26 Sai' gon ( l O20"N, 10703"E): Rout es t o: D j akar t a 7.133 Red Sea: Rout es 6. 51-6. 53, 10. 55-10. 57 Swel l 6.22 Wi nds and weat her 6.06, 6.08 Rhumb l i ne sai l i ng 1.17 Ri o Amazonas (1 30' N, 4900' W) : Rout es to : Engl i sh Channel 9.56 Ne w Yor k 9.56 Recife 9.55 Ri o de Janei r o (2254' S, 4310"W): Rout es to : Bahi a Bl anca 3.39 Bonny 3.46 Cabo de Hor nos 3.39 Cape Agul has 3.46, 3.49 Cape of Good Hope 9.61 Cape To wn 3.46, 3.49 Comodor o Ri vadavi a 3.39 Est r echo de Magal l anes 3.39 Eur ope 9.60 Lagos 3.46 Nor t h Amer i ca 9.60 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.46 Por t o do Sal vador 3.32, 9.59 Recife 3.32, 9.59 Ri o de la Pl at a 3.33 St anl ey 3.37 Ri o de la Pl at a (3510",~, 56Q17'W) : Rout es to : Bahi a Bl anca 3.34 Bonny 3.46 Cabo de Hor nos 3.34, 9.65 Cape Agul has 3.46, 3.51 Cape of Good Hope 9.63 Cape Town 3.46, 3.51 Comodor o Ri vadavi a 3.34 Est r echo de Magal l anes 3.34 Eur ope 9.62 Fal kl and I sl ands 9.64 Lagos 3.46 Nor t h Amer i ca 9.62 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.46 Por t o do Sal vador 3.39 Reci fe 3.39 Ri o de Janei r o 3.34 St anl ey 3.37 Ta kor a di 3.46 Ri ouw St r ai t (055"N, 10420"E) 8.26, 10.31, 10.37 Ri ver Cl yde : Sai l i ng Rout es f r om 9.03 Roar i ng For t i es, see West er l i es Rot i St r ai t (1025"S, 13330"E) 8.26 Rout ei ng char t s 1.02 Rout es 1.04 Cl i mat i c 1.11 Weat her r out ei ng 1.61 252 S~i gon--cont i nued Hong Kong 7.133, 11.39 Manila 7.133 Ports N of Hong Kong 11.39 Singapore 7.112, 11.41 Sailing passages : Duration page 135 Saint Helena (1558' S, 543' W) : Routes to : Africa 9.38 Ascension 9. 37 Cape of Good Hope 9.39 English Channel 9. 37 South America 9.36 Saint John' s (4735' N, 5238"W) : Open dates 2.56 Routes to: Bishop Rock 2.56 Bordeaux 2.56 Cape Wrath 2.56 Fastnet 2.56 Horta 2.56, 2.121 Inishtrahull 2.56 Lisbon 2.56 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.56, 2.126 Strait of Gibraltar 2.56 Vigo 2.56 Saint Lawrence River: Approach 2.61 Ice 2.26 Saint Vincent, W. I. (1328"N, 6110' W) : Routes to : Bel~m 2.106 Cabo de Sao Roque 2.106 Casablanca 2.76 Dakar 2.76 Freetown 2.76 Porto Grande 2.126 Saleier Strait (540' S, 12030"E) 8.26, 10.31 San Bernardino Strait (1300"N, 12430"E) 8.26, 10.31 Routes to : Central Route 7.270 Panama 7.270 San Diego (3237"N, I 1713' W) : Routes to : Apia 7.282 Auckland 7.282 Brisbane 7.283 Callao 7.192 Dut ch Harbour 7.190 Guam 7.286 Hakodate 7.316 Hong Kong 7.311 Honolulu 7.217 Iquique 7.192 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.191 Manila 7.311 Panama 7.191 Papeete 7.230 San Francisco 7.191 Shang-hai 7.311 Singapore 7.311 Suva 7.282 GE N E R A L I N DE X San Di ego--cont i nued Sydney 7.283 Torres Strait 7.284 Valparaiso 7.193 Wellington 7.282 Yap 7.286 Yokohama 7.313 San Francisco (3745"N, 12240' W): Routes to : Apia 7.282 Auckland 7.282 Australia 11.96 Brisbane 7.283 Cabo de Hornos 11.101 Callao 7.192, 11.99 China Sea 11.93, 11.95 Columbia River 11.89 Coquimbo 11.100 Coronel 11.100 Dut ch Harbour 7.190, 11.90 Estrecho de Magallanes 7.194 Guam 7.286 Hakodate 7.316 Hong Kong 7.311 Honolulu 7.217, 11.91 Iquique 7.192, 11.99 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.191, 11.89 Manila 7.311 Nagasaki 11.94 Pacific Islands 11.97 Panama 7.191, 11.98 Papeete 7.230 Prince Rupert 11.89 San Diego 7.191, 11.89 Shang-hai 7.311, 11.94 Singapore 7.311 Suva 7.282 Sydney 7.283 Torres Strait 7.284 Valparaiso 7.193, 11.99 Wellington 7.282 Yap 7.286 Yokohama 7.313, 11.92 Sandakan (550' N, 11809"E) : Routes to : Hong Kong 7.135 Madras 8.22 Manila 7.143 Singapore 7.132 Sandheads (2054"N, 8812"E) : Routes to : Brisbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwin 6.141 Cape Town 6.69 Colombo 6.71, 10.97 Durban 6.69 Fremantle 6.141 Madras 6.71, 10.97 Mergui 10.98 Moul mei n 10.98 Paradip 6.71 Port Darwin 6.140 Port Hedland 6.141 Rangoon 6.71, 10.98 Selat Benggala 6.71 Singapore 10.99 Tortes Strait 6.140 GE NE R A L I NDE X Sape St r ai t (830'S, 11920'E) 8.26 Sapudi St r ai t (700"S, 11415"E) 8.26, 10.31 Sar di ni a: Rout es to : Gi br al t ar 9.23 Sat el l i t e navi gat i on 1.92.05 Sea 1.62, 1.64 Seasonal wi nds 1.36 Second East er n Passage 10.46 Sevast opol (4438"N, 3321"E) : Rout es to : Bat umi 5.36 Constan~a 5.36 I s t anbul 5.36 Novor ossi ysk 5.36 Odessa 5.36 Sul i na 5.36 Zhdanov 5.36 Sel at Bangka (230'S, 10545"E) 8.26, 10.31, 10.35 Rout es t o: Berhal a St r ai t 10.38.03 Chi na Sea 10.43 Ri ouw St r ai t 10.36 Si ngapor e St r ai t 10.38.02, 10.42 Sel at Baur (300"S, 10718"E) 10.31, 10.40.03 Sel at Benggal a (550'N, 9500"E) 6.82 Rout es to : Cape Town 6.70 Col ombo 6.71 Dur ba n 6.70 Madr as 6.71 Par adi p 6.71 Por t Loui s 6.99 Rangoon 6.71 Sandheads 6.71 Sel at Gel asa (300'S, 10715'E) 8.26 Rout es t o: Chi na Sea 10.43 Ri ouw St r ai t 10.41 Si ngapor e St r ai t 10.42 Sel at Lepl i a (253"S, 10658"E) 10.31, 10.40.02 Sel at Li me ndo (300'S, 10712"E) 10.31, 10.40.04 Sel at Pengel ap (O30"N, 10420"E) 10.31 Sel e St r ai t (110"S, 13105"E) 8.26 Seychel l es Gr oup (436"S, 5529"E) : Rout es to : Aden 6.108 Bombay 6.109 Cape Leeuwi n 6.111 Cape To wn 6.106 Col ombo 6.110 Dur ba n 6.106 Fr emant l e 6.111 Momba s a 6.107 Por t Loui s 6.96 Shang- hai (3103'N, 12220"E) : Rout es to : Shang- hai - - cont i nued Api a 7.181 Auckl and 7.161, 7.162 Br i sbane 7.161, 7.162 Cape Leeuwi n 7.164 Coast wi se S- bound 11.53 Fr emant l e 7.164 Gua m 7.181, 7.182 Hong Kong 7.118 Honol ul u 7.212 I ndi an Ocean 11.54 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.303 Lombok St r ai t 7.164 Mani l a 7.167 Mel bour ne 7.161 Nagasaki 11.55 Nor t h Amer i ca 11.5 7 Panama 7.303 Papeet e 7.227 Por t Dar wi n 7.161 Por t Hedl and 7.164 San Di ego 7.303 San Fr anci sco 7.303 Si ngapor e 7.120 Suva 7.182 Sydney 7.161, 7.162 Tor r es St r ai t 7.162 Wel l i ngt on 7.161, 7.162 Yokohama 7.170, 11.56 Si but u Passage (455'N, 11937"E) 10.31 Si ci l y: Rout es to : Gi br al t ar 9.23 Si ngapor e (113'N, 10352"E) : Rout es to : Adel ai de 7.163 Aden 8.20, 10.123 Ambon 7.127 Bal i k Papan 7.130 Bangkok 7.112, 11.37 Br i sbane 7.163 Cape of Good Hope 8.18, 10.112 Cebu 7.125 Chi na 11.35 Col ombo 8.21, 10.116 D j akar t a 7.211 Dur ba n 8.18 Dut c h Ha r b o u r 7.296 Fr emant l e 7.163, 10.121 Gua m 7.287 Hong Kong 7.116, 11.34 Honol ul u 7.209 I l oi l o 7.125 Japan 11.35 J uan de Fuca St r ai t 7.296 Lombok St r ai t 7.126 Madr as 8.22, 10.115 Makassar 7.128 Mani l a 7.124, 11.33 Mel bour ne 7.163 Mol ukka Ar chi pel ago 11.31 M oul mei n 10.118 Nagasaki 7.121 Pal awan Passage 7.115 Panama 7. 125, 7.278 Por t Dar wi n 10.119 Por t Loui s 8.19 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.296 Rangoon 1.1018 253 254 GENERAL I NDEX Singapore--continued Sa'igon 7.112, 11.36 Sandakan 7.132 Sandheads 10.117 San Diego 7.296 San Francisco 7.296 Shang-hai 7.119 South Australia 10.121 Sulu Sea 11.32 Sunda Strait 7.111, 10.32.07 Surabaya 7.129 Sydney 7.163, 11.30 Tarakan 7.131 Tort es Strait 7.163, 10.120 W~tar Strait 7.126 Yap 7.122 Yokohama 7.175 Singapore Strait 10.31, 10.39 Somali Current 1.73, 6.32 Sombrero Passage (1835'N, 6350'W) 4.21, 4.29 Routes to : Bishop Rock 2.85 Bordeaux 2.86 Cabot Strait 2.101 Chesapeake Bay 2.101 Delaware Bay 2.101 Halifax 2.101 Horta 2.121 Lisbon 2.85 New York 2.101 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Strait of Gibraltar 2.86 Vigo 2.86 South Africa: Caution 3.21 Routes to : Australia 6.157 Cabo de Hornos 11.02 South America, E. coast: Caution 3.22 Passages 3.31-3.39 South America, NE coast: Landfall 2.111 Routes to : Africa, NW coast 8.12 Caribbean Sea 8.17 Europe 8.12 Gul f of Mexico 8.17 Nort h America, E coast 8.16 South Atlantic Ocean: Routes in S part 3.48 South Equatorial Current : Atlantic Ocean 2.15, 3.11 Pacific Ocean 1.73, 7.37 South Indi an Ocean: Approach to Australian waters 6.121 Swell 6.25 Wi nds and weather 6.10 South-east Monsoon 6.13 South-east Trade Winds : Atlantic Ocean 1.77, 3.02 Indi an Ocean 6.13 Pacific Ocean 7.17 Southern Monsoon 6.13 Southern Ocean Current 1.71, 1.72 Atlantic Ocean 3.11 Indi an Ocean 6.36 Pacific Ocean 7.37 South Sub-tropical Current: Atlantic Ocean 3.11 Pacific Ocean 7.37 South-west Nlonsoon : Atlantic Ocean 2.02 Indi an Ocean 6.02 Pacific Ocean 7.06 South-west Monsoon Current 1.73 Speed: Reduction in relation to sea conditions 1.61, 6.26 Stanley (5140"S, 5740'W) : Routes to : Bahia Blanca 3.37 Cabo de Hornos 3.38 Cape Agulhas 3.57 Cape Town 3.57 Comodoro Rivadavia 3.37 Estrecho de Magallanes 3.37 Porto do Salvador 3.37 Retire 3.37 Rio de Janeiro 3.37 Rio de la Plata 3.37 Strait of Belle Isle (5145"N, 5523"W) : Approach 2.35 Open dates 2.27, 2.52 Routes to: Bergen 2.54 Bishop Rock 2.55 Bordeaux 2.55 Cape Wrath 2.55 Fastnet 2.55 Inishtrahull 2.55 Lindesnes 2.54 Nordkapp 2.53 Trondhei m 2.54 Strait of Gibraltar (3556"N, 545"W): Approach from W 2.34 Routes W- bound (for E-bound routes see Gibraltar) : Barbados 2.86 Bel6m 2.111 Bermuda 2.86 Bonny 2.96, 3.41 Cabot Strait 2.68 Cape of Good Hope 9.16 Cape Town 2.96, 3.41 Casablanca 2.96 Dakar 2.96 Davis Strait 2.51 Douala 2.96, 3.41 English Channel 9.14 Freetown 2.96 Gamba Oil Termi nal 2.96, 3.41 Halifax 2.69, 9.15 Horta 2.121 Tle d' Ouessant 2.91, 2.92, 2.96 Lagos 2.96, 3.41 Lobito 2.96, 3.41 Las Palmas 2.96 Lisbon 2.91, 2.92 New York 9.15 North-East Providence Channel 2.86 Pointe-Noire 2.96, 3.41 Ponta Delgada 2.121 Porto Grande 2.127 GE N E R A L I N DE X St r ai t of Gibraltar--continued Recife 2.117 Sai nt J ohn' s 2.57 Sombr er o Passage 2.86 Sout h Amer i ca 9.16 Ta kor a di 2.96, 3.41 Tur ks I sl and Passage 2.86 Vi go 2.91, 2.92 Wes t I ndi es 9.16 St r ai t of Hor muz (26 21"N, 5638"E): Rout es to : Aden 6.64 Bombay 6.156 Br i sbane 8.25 Cape Leeuwi n 6.156 Cape Town 6.60 Col ombo 6.80, 6.156 Dondr a He a d 6.80 Dur ba n 6.60 Fr emant l e 6.156 Kar ~chi 6.156 Momba s a 6.60 Per si an Gul f 6.54 Por t Dar wi n 6.155 Por t He dl a nd 6.156 Tor r es St r ai t 6.155 Sub- ar ct i c Cur r ent , see Al eut i an Cur r ent 7.32 Suez (2951"N, 3234"E): Rout es t o : Ade n 6.52 Sul awesi Sea: Rout es to : Chi na Sea 10.47.06 Sul i na (4508' N, 2946' E) : Rout es t o : Bat umi 5.36 Constan~a 5.36 I s t anbul 5.36 Novor ossi ysk 5.36 Odessa 5.36 Sevast opol 5.36 Zhdanov 5.36 Sul u Sea 10.31 Sumba St r ai t (900"S, 12000"E) 8.26 Sunda St r ai t (630' S, 10500"E) 8.26, 10.31, 10.33 Rout es to : Ade n 6.54, 10.123 Banda Sea 10.45 Cape Town 6.150, 10.122 Chi na Sea 10.32.03, 10.44 Dur ba n 6.151 Hong Kong 7.134 Kar i mat a St r ai t 10.44 Lombok St r ai t 7.126 Mani l a 7.141 Momba s a 6.152 Por t Dar wi n 6.120 Por t Loui s 6.100 Sel at Bangka 10.34 Sel at Gel asa 10.40 Si ngapor e 7.111, 10.32.02 Sumat r a, W coast 10.124 Tor t e s St r ai t 6.120 Sur abaya (725"S, 11258"E) : Rout es t o: Hong Kong 7.134 Surabaya--continued Madr as 8.22 Mani l a 7.142 Si ngapor e 7.129 Sur i gao St r ai t (1030"N, 12530' E) 8.26, 10.31 Suva (1811"S, 17824"E) : Rout es to : Api a 7.97 Auckl and 7.92 Br i sbane 7.78 Cal l ao 7.248 Cent r al Rout e 7.264 Gu a m 7.181 Hong Kong 7.177 Honol ul u 7.204, 11.24 I qui que 7.248 Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.282 Mani l a 7.177 Ocean I s l and 7.94 Panama 7.264, 7.285 Papeet e 7.96, 11.25 Pr i nce Ruper t 7.282 San Di ego 7.282 San Fr anci sco 7.282 Shang- hai 7.181 Sydney 7.69 Tongat apu 7.95 Tor r es St r ai t 7.84 Val parai so 7.248 Wel l i ngt on 7.92 Yap 7.177 Yokohama 7.180 Swel l 1.62, 1.64 Black Sea 5.11 Car i bbean Sea 4.05 Gul f of Mexi co 4.05 Medi t er r anean Sea 5.11 Nor t h At l ant i c Ocean 2. 11-2. 13 Pacific Ocean 7. 25-7. 29 Red Sea, I ndi an Ocean, and Per si an Gul f 6. 21-6. 26 Sout h At l ant i c Ocean 3. 06-3. 09 Sydney (3350' S, 15120' E) : Rout es to : Adel ai de 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163, Api a Auckl and Bal i k Papan Bass St r ai t Bl uff Ha r bour Br i sbane Br i t i sh Col umbi a Cabo de Hor nos Callao Cape of Good Hope Cent r al Rout e Dut c h Ha r bour Est r echo de Magal l anes Fr emant l e Gua m Hakodat e Ho b a r t Hong Kong Honol ul u I ndi an Ocean I qui que Mani l a 11.04.01 7.80 7.65, 11.04.03 7.165 10.160 7.63 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163 11.05.05 11.05.01 7.240 10.164 7.261 7.162 7.240 7.163 7.162 7.162 7. 51-7. 54, 11.04.02 7. 161-7. 163, 11.08 7.200 10.164 7.240 7.161, 7.162 255 256 GE N E R A L I N DE X Sydney- - cont i nued Me l bour ne 7. 51-7. 54, 7.163, 10.161, 11.04.01 Noum6a 7.77, 11.06.04 Ocean I s l and 7.81 Pacific I sl ands 11.06.03 Panama 7.261, 7.272 Papeet e 7.66, 11.06.01 Pet r opavl ovsk 7.162 Por t Chal mer s 11.04.05 San Fr anci sco 11.05.05 Shang- hai 7.161, 7.162 Si ngapor e 7.163, 11.10 Sout h Amer i ca 11. 05. 02-11. 05. 04 Suva 7.79, 11.06.02 Ta r a ka n 7.166 Tonga t a pu 7.78 Tor r e s St r ai t 7. 51-7. 54, 11.09 Val par ai so 7.240 Yap 7.162 Yokohama 7.162, 11.07 Ta kor a di (452"N, 144' W) : Rout es to : Bonny 3.41, 3.42 Cape To wn 3.41, 3.42 Casabl anca 2.96, 3.41 Col on 8.14 Dakar 2.96, 3.41 Doual a 3.41, 3.42 Est r echo de Magal l anes 3.53 Fr eet own 2.96, 3.41 Ga mba Oi l Te r mi na l 3.41, 3.42 Hal i f ax 8.13 Tle d' Oues s ant 2.96, 3.41 Lagos 3.41, 3.42 Las Pal mas 2.96, 3.41 Lobi t o 3.41, 3.42 New Yor k 8.13 Poi nt e- Noi r e 3.41, 3.42 Por t o do Sal vador 3.46 Por t o Gr ande 2.127 Reci fe 3.46 Ri o de Janei r o 3.46 Ri o de la Pl at a 3.46 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.96, 3.41 Ta mpi c o (2217' N, 9750"W) : Rout es t o: Col on 4.29 Tar ~bul us (3256"N, 1312"E) : Rout es to : Al gi er s 5. 26-5. 35 Bar cel ona 5. 26-5. 35 Bei r ut 5. 26-5. 35 Dar danel l es 5. 26-5. 35 Genova 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar 5. 26-5. 35 Mal t a 5. 26-5. 35 Mar sei l l e 5. 26-5. 35 Napol i 5. 26-5. 35 Pi rai 6vs 5. 26-5. 35 Por t Sai d 5. 26-5. 35 Tr i es t e 5. 26-5. 35 Tar akan (315"N, 11753' E) : Rout es to : Hong Kong 7.136 Madr as 8.22 Mani l a 7.142 Si ngapor e 7.131 Sydney 7.166 Te r mi na l por t s Th r o u g h Rout es Tobago (1135"N, 6035"W) : Rout es to : Col on Tonga t a pu (2059"S, 17510' W) : Rout es t o: Api a Auckl and Br i sbane Honol ul u Papeet e Suva Sydney Wel l i ngt on Tor na dos Tor r es St r ai t ( W entrance 1050"S, 14059"E): Rout es passi ng t hr ough Rout es to : Adel ai de Aden Api a Auckl and Bombay Br i sbane Cabo de Hor nos Cal l ao Cape Leeuwi n Cape Town Cent r al Rout e Col ombo Dur ba n Dut c h Ha r bour Est r echo de Magal l anes Fr emant l e Gu a m Hakodat e Hoba r t Hong Kong Honol ul u I qui que Juan de Fuca St r ai t Kar ~chi Madr as Mani l a Mel bour ne Momba s a Ocean I sl and Panama Papeet e Pet r opavl ovsk Por t Dar wi n Por t He dl a nd Por t Loui s Pr i nce Ruper t Rangoon Sandheads San Di ego San Fr anci sco Shang- hai Si ngapor e St r ai t of Hor muz Suva Sydney Val par ai so Wel l i ngt on Yap Yokohama 1.12 8.01 4.28 7.98 7.89 7.77 7.206 7.99 7.95 7.68 7.89 2.02 7.54 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51- 7. 54 6.165 7.85 7.82 6.155 7. 51- 7. 54 7.241 7.241 6. 125-6. 137 6.160 7.263 6.155 6.160 7.162 7.241 6. 125-6. 137 7.162, 7.175 7.162 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51- 7. 54 7.161, 7.162 7.201 7.241 7.284 6.155 6.140 7.161, 7.162, 8.42 6. 125-6. 137, 7. 51- 7. 54 6.163 7.86 7.263, 7.276 7.83 7.162 6. 125-6. 137 6. 125-6. 137 6.101 7.284 6.140 6.140 7.284 7.284 7.162 7.163 6.155 7.84 7. 51-7. 54, 11.29 7.241 7.81 7.175 7.162 Tr acks 1.11 Tr a de Wi nds 1.32 Tr ans at l ant i c r out es: Al t er - cour s e posi t i ons 2.66 Tr i es t e (4540"N, 1344"E): Rout es t o: Al gi er s 5. 26-5. 35 Bar cel ona 5. 26-5. 35 Bei r ut 5. 26-5. 35 Dar danel l es 5. 26-5. 35 Genova 5. 26-5. 35 Gi br al t ar 5. 26-5. 35 Mal t a 5. 26-5. 35 Mar sei l l e 5. 26-5. 35 Napol i 5. 26-5. 35 Pi rai 6vs 5. 26-5. 35 Por t Sai d 5. 26-5. 35 Ta r a bul us 5. 26-5. 35 Tr i n i d a d ( l lO0"N, 6047"W) : Rout es to : Bel 6m 2.106 Casabl anca 2.76 Dakar 2.76 Fr eet own 2.76 Panama Canal 4.28 Por t o Gr a nde 2.126 Tr o n d h e i m (6318"N, 740"E) : Rout es t o: Bost on 2. 61-2. 67 Cabot St r ai t 2. 61-2. 67 Chesapeake Bay 2. 61-2. 67 Del awar e Bay 2. 61-2. 67 Hal i f ax 2. 61-2. 67 Ka p Far vel 2.49 Ne w Yor k 2. 61-2. 67 St r ai t of Belle I sl e 2.54 Tr opi cal st or ms 1.38, 1.39 I ndi an Ocean 6.16 Pacific Ocean 7.10, 7.20 Tur ks I s l and Passage (21 35"N, 7110"W) 4.21, 4.29 Rout es t o: Bi shop Rock 2.86 Bor deaux 2.86 Cabot St r ai t 2.101 Chesapeake Bay 2.101 Del awar e Bay 2.101 Hal i f ax 2.101 Hor t a 2.121 Li s bon 2.86 New Yor k 2.101 Pont a Del gada 2.121 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.86 Vi go 2.86 Typhoons 1.38, 7.10 Uni t e d St at es of Amer i ca, see Nor t h Amer i ca Val par ai so (3300'S, 7139"W): Rout es to : Api a 7.247 Auckl and 7.246 Aust r al i a 11.124 Cal l ao 7.196 Cent r al Amer i ca 11.121 Chi na 11.123 Coast wi se N- b o u n d 11.120 GE NE R A L 1 ND E X Valparaiso--continued Coast wi se S- bound 11.125 Est r echo de Magal l anes 7.196 Honol ul u 7.219 I qui que 7.196 Japan 11.123 . Juan de Fuca St r ai t 7.196, 11.122 Mexi co 11.121 New Zeal and 11.124 Panama 7.195, 11.121 Papeet e 7.234 Phi l i ppi ne I sl ands 11.123 Pr i nce Ruper t 11.122 San Di ego 7.193 San Fr anci sco 7.193, 11.122 Suva 7.248 Sydney 7.246 Wel l i ngt on 7.246 Var i abl es 1.33 At l ant i c Ocean 2.04, 3.03 I ndi an Ocean 6.14 Pacific Ocean 7.07, 7.18 Vema Seamount (3140"S, 822"E) 3.47 Ver de I s l and Passage (1340'N, 12040"E) 10.31 Vi go (4209"N, 855"W): Rout es t o : Bar bados 2.86 Bel 6m 2.111 Ber muda 2.86 Bost on 2.70 Cabot St r ai t 2.68 Chesapeake Bay 2.70 Del awar e Bay 2.70 Hal i f ax 2.69 Hor t a 2.121 ~le d' Oues s ant 2.91, 2.92 Ka p Far vel 2.50 Li s bon 2.91, 2.92 Mona Passage 2.86 New Yor k 2.70 Nor t h- Ea s t Pr ovi dence Channel 2.86 Pont a Del gada 2.121 Sai nt J ohn' s 2.57 Sombr er o Passage 2.86 St r ai t of Gi br al t ar 2.91, 2.92 Tur ks I s l and Passage 2.86 Vl adi vost ok (4302"N, 13158"E) : Rout es t o : Hong Kong 7.118 Weat her r out ei ng 1.61, 2.62 Wel l i ngt on (4123"S, 17450"E) : Rout es to : Api a 7.91 Auckl and 7.88 Br i sbane 7.73 Cabo de Hor nos 7.240 Cal l ao 7.240 Dut c h Ha r bour 7.162 Est r echo de Magal l anes 7.240 Gua m 7.162 Hakodat e 7.162 Hoba r t 7.58 Hong Kong 7.161, 7.162 Honol ul u 7.202 257 258 GE NE R A L Wellington--continued Iquique 7.240 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.282 Manila 7.161, 7.162 Mel bourne 7.61 Noum6a 7.92 Ocean Island 7.90 Panama 7.243 Papeete 7.87, 7.93 Petropavlovsk 7.162 Prince Rupert 7.282 San Diego 7.282 San Francisco 7.282 Shang-hai 7.161 Suva 7.92 Sydney 7.64 Tongat apu 7.89 Tort es Strait 7.81 Valparaiso 7.240 Yap 7.162 Yokohama 7.162 West Australian Current 6.36 West Greenl and Current 2.16 'West Indies : Channels 2.86 Routes to : English Channel 9.53 North America 9.53 West Spitsbergen Current 2.16 Westerlies 1.34 Atlantic Ocean 2.06, 3.04 Indi an Ocean 6.15 Pacific Ocean 7.08, 7.19 W~tar Strait (815'S, 12625"E) 8.26 Routes to: D jakarta 7.126 Singapore 7.126 Sunda Strait 7.126 White Sea: Ice 2.27 Willy-Willies 1.38 Wi nd 1.22, 1.62 Beaufort scale 1.63 Wi nds and weather: Atlantic Ocean 2.01-2.08, 3.01-3.04 Black Sea 5.08 Caribbean Sea 4.01 Gul f of Mexico 4.01 Indi an Ocean 6.01-6.05, 6.10-6.16 Mediterranean Sea 5.01-5.07 Pacific Ocean 7.01-7.20 Persian Gul f and Gul f of Oman 6.09 Red Sea and Gul f of Aden 6.06-6.08 Windward Passage (20O0"N, 7350"W) 4.21, 4.29 Yap (928'N, 13809"E): Routes to : Apia 7.177 Auckland 7.162 Brisbane 7.162 I NDE X Yap--continued Central Route 7.267 Hong Kong 7.288 Honolulu 7.207 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.286 Panama 7.267 Prince Rupert 7.286 San Diego 7.286 San Francisco 7.286 Singapore 7.176 Suva 7.177 Sydney 7.162 Torres Strait 7.162, 7.175 Wellington 7.162 Yokohama 7.178 Yokohama (3526'N, 13943"E) : Routes to : Apia 7.179 Auckland 7.162 Brisbane 7.162 Cape Leeuwin 7.164 Columbia River 11.64 Dut ch Harbour 7.172 Fremantle 7.164 Guam 7.178 Hakodate 11.72 Hong Kong 7.169, 11.70 Honolulu 7.213, 11.66 Hsia-men 11.70 Indi an Ocean 11.68 Juan de Fuca Strait 7.306 Lombok Strait 7.164 Manila 7.168 Panama 7.304 Papeete 7.228 Petropavlovsk 7.171 Port Hedland 7.164 Prince Rupert 7.306, 11.64 San Diego 7.305 San Francisco 7.305, 11.65 Shang-hai 7.170, 11.71 Singapore 7.122, 11.57 Suva 7.180 Sydney 7.162, 11.69 T' ai -wan 8.43 Torres Strait 7.162 Vancouver 11.64 Wellington 7.162 Yucatan Channel (2140"N, 8540'W) 4.21, 4.29 Routes to : Caribbean Sea 4.26 Zhdanov (4703'N, 3735'E): Routes to : Batumi 5.36 Constan~a 5.36 Istanbul 5.36 Novorossiysk 5.36 Odessa 5.36 Sevastopol 5.36 Sulina 5.36 Printed for HerMajesty's Stationery Office by McCorquodale Primers Ltd., London Dd158047 Gp3309 9/74 Personal Property of S V Victoria Not for navigation 136s S u p p l e me n t No . 1 - - 1977 TO OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD T HI RD EDI TI ON 1973 CORRECTED TO 2nd MAY 1977 Whenever reference is made to Ocean Passages for the Worl d this Suppl ement must be consulted Crown Copyright 1977 P UBLI S HED BY THE HYDROGRAP HE R OF THE NAVY To be obt ai ned f r om Agent s for the sale of Admi r al t y Chart s. Personal Property of SV Victoria Not for navigation Pr e f a c e Supplement No. 1, 1977, corrected to the date given below, has been prepared by Lieutenant-Commander C. J. de C. Scott, R.N., from information received since the publication of Ocean Passages for the World, 3rd Edition, 1973. This Supplement has been corrected to Notice to Mariners No. 1000 of 1977. Hydrographic Department Taunton Somerset 2rid May 1977 D. W. HASLAM Rear-Admiral HYDROGRAPHER OF THE NAVY O C E A N P A S S A G E S F O R T H E W O R L D vi Di agr am 19 For '~p.58 "" read"p.5T" Di agr am 20 For "p.62"" read "p. 68" Di agr am 23 For "bet ween pp. 74 & 75" read "faci ng p. 77" Di agr am 25 For "110 & 111" read "108 & 109"" vii Distances: For "sea mi l es" read "I nt er nat i onal Naut i cal mi l es" 3 22 Add." Chart s of part i cul ar interest for passage pl anni ng include" Omega charts L (Omega) 12 L (Om) 24 L (Omega) 24 L (Omega) 113 L (Omega) 245 L (Om) 4008 L (Om) 4009 L (Om) 4023 L (Om) 4102 L (Omega) 4102 L (Om) 4108 L (Omega) 4109 Nor way to Icel and including the Faeroes English Channel to the Strait of Gi br al t ar and the Ar qui pel ago dos Aq6res English Channel to the Strait of Gi br al t ar and the Arquip61ago dos Ag6res Gr eenl and to Nor way including Bj ~rn0ya Scot l and t o Iceland Nor t h At l ant i c Ocean S por t i on Nor t h At l ant i c Oc e a n - N por t i on Sout h Pacific Ocean- E port i on West ern appr oaches to the British Isles West ern appr oaches to the British Isles SE coast of N Ameri ca including the Bahamas and Gr eat er Antilles Gull" of Mai ne to Strait of Belle Isle including Gul f of St. Lawrence (Station pairing) AB, AC, BC, BD, BD, BH AB, AC, AD, BD, BF, CF, DF AB, AC, AD, BC, BD AB, AC, BC, BD, CD, DH AC, AD, BC, BD, DH AB, AD, AF, BC, BF, DF AB, AC, AD, BD, BF, CF, DF BC, BD, CD, CF, DF AB, AC, AD, BD, BF, CF, DF AC, AD, BC, BD AB, AC, AD, BD, CF AB, AC, AD, BC, BD Gnomoni c charts 5029 5032 5095 5096 5097 5098 5099 Gr eat Circle di agram for use in Navi gat i on, Avi at i on and Radi o Telegraph)' . Ice chart of the S hemi sphere. N At l ant i c Ocean S At l ant i c and Sout her n Oceans. N Pacific Ocean. Sout h Pacific and Sout her n Oceans. I ndi an and Sout her n Oceans. Routeing charts, see 1.02. 5124 N At l ant i c Ocean ( l ) -(12) with inset E Medi t er r anean, Aegean and Black Seas. 99 35' W 66 40' N 4~ 20 00' E 15 00' S Lhnits 47 15'N 19 00' E ~ - ~ 26 00~N 42 00' E 20 00' N 74 00' W[ 5125 [29 20' E 5125 S At l ant i c Ocean ( 1) - ( 12) ~ I 60 45' S 30 30' N 5126 Indi an Ocean with ( 1) - ( 12) inset Japan, Sea of 18 00' E I 5126 I* Japan and Yellow Sea. I I 50 00' S 116 00' E 47 '7 00' N - ~146 00' E 26 00"N * E limit is drawn t hr ough the following posi t i ons: 30 30' N, 129 00' E 3 ~ 30' N, 129 00' E 3 30' N, 158 30' E II 00' S, 158 30' E 11 00' S, 178 45' E 50 00' S, 178 45' E 61 40' N 5127 N Pacific Ocean 120 00' E ~ - ~ 7 9 10' W ( 1) - ( 12) [ ~ 11 00' S OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 10 00' N 5128 S Pacific Ocean 137 00' E ~ - ~ 6 2 15' W ( 1) - ( 12) [ I 62 10'S Smal l s c a l e n a v i g a t i o n a l c h a r t s . The limits of small scale chart s, i ncl udi ng t hose of the i nt ernat i onal series al ready compi l ed on scales of 1:3 million and 1 10 mi l l i on, are best seen on I ndex Char t A of the Catalogue of Admiralty Charts. Lar ge scale chart s whi ch will al so be requi red for the appr oaches t o por t s of depar t ur e or arri val , or where the t r ack appr oaches pr omont or i es or dangers, can also readi l y be det er mi ned f r om the cat al ogue, or Admi r al t y Sailing Di rect i ons. 37-41 Read. . . tion of the i nt er medi at e posi t i ons depends upon their l ongi t ude E or W of one of the vert i ces of the great circle of the t r ack, so t hat the posi t i on of a vert ex mus t first be det er mi ned. I f bot h initial and final azi mut hs, measur ed f r om the N pole, are less t han 90 , t hen the N vert ex lies on the t r ack: if bot h are mor e t han 90 , t hen the S vert ex lies on the t rack, f f the azi mut h of onl y one end is mor e t han 90 , the vert ex nearest to the pol e f r om which the azi mut h is measur ed will lie on the ext ensi on of the t rack f r om t hat posi t i on, with the ot her vert ex differing by 180" of l ongi t ude f r om it, and with l at i t ude of the same val ue but opposi t e name. Page 4, line 1 to Page 6, line 22 Read." In Di agr am 2, the f or mul ae are expressed as fol l ows: F o r mu l a I - - Cosi ne f or mul a: c o s p - ~ cos f c o s t +- sin f s i n t ~ cos ~p_ Formul a 2 - - Haver si ne f or mul a: (a) hav p : : hav ( f ~ t) s i n f sin t , hav ~p_ or, obser vi ng t hat hav x sin2, (b) si nZp si n2 ( f ~ t ) s i n f sin t sin2 /P F o r mu l a 3 Hal f - l og. haversi ne f or mul a: log hav ~_ log cosec t + log cosec p + log hav I f + (t ~p) ] + log hay I f - - ( t ~p) ] or log hav ~T_ log c o s e c f + l og cosec p log hay [t + ( f ~p) ] + log hav [t - ( f ~p) ] F o r mu l a 4 - - Sine f or mul a: sin ~F_ sin ~P~ sin ~ s i n f sin p sin t An el ect roni c cal cul at or giving the usual mat hemat i cal funct i ons, i ncl udi ng t r i gonomet r i cal funct i ons, can readi l y be used with 1, 2 or 4. A conveni ent met hod of wor ki ng is by expressi ng angles in degrees and deci mal s of a degree, and t o r egar d : N l at i t ude as : S l at i t ude as - - . E l ongi t ude as : W l ongi t ude as - - . d. l o n g f r o mWt o E a s : d. l o n g f r o mE t o Wa s - . d. l ong ( FT) as expressi ng the d. l ong of T f r om F : d. l ong ( TF) (with opposi t e sign) as expressi ng the d. l ong o f F f r om T. For angl es over 90 , it must be r emember ed t hat t hough the cal cul at or may show the correct sign when sin, cos or t an of an angle is ent ered on it, with the reverse process of obt ai ni ng arc-sin, arc-cos or ar c- t an f r om it, the sense of the angl e mus t be det er mi ned by i nspect i on. Since c o s A cos + A - - c os A = cos (180 + A) s i n A = sin + A - - s i n A= s i n - - A t an A t an + A - - t an A t an - - A e.g. 0.5 cos 60 or cos 300 or cos A or cos (180 - - A) or sin (180 - - A) or sin (180 + A) or t an (180 + A) or t an (180 - A) and A= 360 - A OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 3 For ease of reference these convent i ons for angles in the appr opr i at e quadr ant s are shown as fol l ows; 0 o 270 Sin Cos t an Sin Cos t an + Sin + Co s + t an + Sin -+ Cos - - t an - 90 180 d l o n g . F T . . . . . . . . . . . . ' , ~ .~ . . . . . . . . . . . ,~. . . . ~ ~ k " ~ L P T V " , , . V . . . . . . I - ' " ~ . . . F m * l ~ G ~ , . , , , ~ r ~ . . ~ C . . . . . ,~, , ~ ~ q . . . . . ~ ~ ~ / ', ~ V ' - 0 _ F m ~ l ~ T' ~). . . ~-. -- ~ P T - , B O C . . . . . , " ] p' Gr eat Circle t r ack Di a gr a m 3 A t heoret i cal great circle passage f r om Yo k o h a ma to Est recho de Magal l anes (not feasible navi gat i onal l y wi t hout small di versi ons t hr ough the Fiji and Tonga Isl ands) serves to i l l ust rat e the met hods of wor ki ng descr i bed bel ow. Yo k o h a ma (Posi t i on F) 34 49' N 140 00' E co-l at (t ) 55 11' Est r echo de Magal l anes (Posi t i on T) 52 25' S 75 12' W co- l at (D 142 25' d. l ong /P 144 48' Wor ki ng for i nt ermedi at e positions on the gr eat circle t r ack. I t was st at ed in article 1.15 t hat cal cul at i on of i nt er medi at e posi t i ons on the t r ack depends upon t hei r l ongi t ude E or W of a vertex. At a vertex, the t r ack lies at ri ght angl es to the mer i di an, so the pr obl em calls for the sol ut i on of the requi red number of ri ght - angl ed spheri cal triangles. Finding the vert ex. In Di a gr a m 3, the t ri angl es FVP and TVP (and FV' P' and TV' P' ) are ri ght -angl ed at V (and V' ). The f or mul ae used for finding the posi t i on of a vert ex of the t r ack are deri ved f r om Napi er ' s Rul e, and are as follows. t an d. l ong (VT) ~ t an Lat F cot Lat T _ cot d. l ong ( FT) sin d. l ong ( FT) cot Lat V = cot Lat F cos d. l ong (FV) ( Though the posi t i on of onl y one vert ex is necessary, the wor ki ng for bot h is given in the exampl e. ) Wor ki ng f or l ongi t ude: l og t an Lat F (34 49' N) l og cot Lat T (52 25' S) log cosec d. l ong ( FT) (144 48' ) 9.842 27 - - ve 9.886 29 0.239 25 - - ve 9.967 81 ant i -l og --0. 928 55 cot d. l ong ( FT) --1. 417 59 By subt r act i on, t an d. l ong (VT) Gi vi ng d. l ong (VT) = +2 6 03. 6' or - - 153 56.4 N vert ex S vert ex Long T 75 12.0 W 75 12.0 W d. l ong (TV) 153 56.4 E 26 03.6 W Long V 78 44.4 E 101 15. 6' W 0.489 04 OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD Worki ng for latitude : N vertex S vertex Long V 78 '~ 44.4 E 101 15.6 W Long F 140 '~ 00.0 E 140 00.0 E d. long (FV) 61 15.6 W 118 44.4 E log cos d. long (FV) 9.681 99 ve 9.681 99 log cot Lat F 0.157 73 0.157 73 log cot Lat V 9.839 72 -ve 9.839 72 Giving Lat V 55 ~' 20.4 N 55 ~ 20.4 S Pl ot t i ng the track. To plot the intermediate positions on the great circle track, it is necessary to find the latitude in which the track crosses a series of meridians usually at equal intervals of longitude. The formula used, where the great circle cuts a selected meridian in position G, is: cot Lat G .... cot Lat V ,~ sec d. long ( VG) Using N vertex 150 00~0 E ~ 160 ~ 00'.0 E 170" 00~0 E 78 44.4 E ] 78 44. 4E 78 44. 4E 71 15.6 81 15.6 91 15.6 0.493 12 0.818 30 1.657 79 ( 9.839 72 9.839 72 9.839 72 Selected l ongi t ude ( l ong Gi Long V d. l ong ( VG) l ong sec d. l ong ( VG) log cot Lat V 150 ~ 00~0 E 101 15.6 W 1 0 8 44.4 vel 0.493 12 I ve) 9.839 72 I ve) log cot Lat G Gi vi ng Lat G Using S vertex 160 ~ 0070 E 101 15.6 W 98 44.4 0.818 30 ( 9.839 72 ( ve) 170 0070 E 101 15.6 W 88 44.4 0 3 3 2 ~ 4 1 0 1 ~ 0 2 - i ]~97~] i ) e i " ~133} ~4 - ~ 0. 6580~ / / 24' 55" N | 12 24' N I 49' S 24 55' N I 12' 24' N ve) 1.657 79 9.839 72 I ve) ~ 1. 497~i i ~i ve ) - 1' 49' S Using a calculator, the working can be set out thus : tan 34":816 tan d. long (VT) . . . . = . . . . . . . . . cot 14478 - 0.489 04 t an( 52.'416) sin 144~8 N vertex Giving d. long (VT) - 15379395 o r d. long (TV) 153.9395 Long T - 75.2 Hence, Long V 78.7395 Long F 140.0000 Hence, d. long (FV) 61.2605 S vertex 26?0605 --26.0605 75.2 101.2605 140.0000 -241.2605 cot Lat V : cos( 61.26051 tan 34.816 = 0.69139 (Giving Lat V -- 55.34 N or S) Selected long (G) 150?0000 160?0000 Long V 78.7395 78.7395 d. long (VG) 71.2605 81.2605 tan Lat G cos d. long (VG) 0.46467 0.21976 cot Lat V Giving Lat G 24 55' N 12 24' N 17070000 78.7395 91.2605 --0.03182 1 49"S cos( 241.26051 tan 34.816 --0.69139 15070000 16070000 17020000 101.2605 --101.2605 --101.2605 251.2605 261.2605 271.2605 0.46467 0.21976 --0.03182 24 55' N 12 24' N 1 49' S The same formulae can be used to determine the longitudes in which the track cuts a series of given latitudes. The background of the formulae used for these and other problems connected with great circle sailing are given in Admiralty Manual of Navigation. Working for distance. Applying Formul a 2(a) to the example, the working is as follows: log hay d. long (/P) 9.958 36 log sin co-lat (f) 9.785 27 log sin co-lat (t) 9.914 33 Sum 9.657 96 anti-log 0.454 96 hav d. co-lat ( f ~ t) 0.475 87 Sum =ha v (p) 0.930 83 Distance (p) 149 30' = 8970 miles O C E A N P A S S A G E S F O R ~[ HE WO R L D 5 F o r t he c a l c u l a t o r , F o r mu l a 2( b) c a n c o n v e n i e n t l y be us ed, o b s e r v i n g t h a t : si n ( c o- l a t x) - - c os La t x c os ( c o- l a t x) = si n La t x. I n t he e x a mp l e , t he f o r mu l a t he n b e c o me s : sin2p = sin2[d, l a t ( FT) ] + cos La t F cos La t T sin2[d, l ong ( FT) ] sin2[{34,o816 -- ( - 52, O416) }] + cos 347816 cos ( - 5 2 7 4 1 ~ ) si n2[ ( - - 75?2 - 1407)] = si n 2 43761~ + cos 347816 cos (--52741(~) x si n 2 ( 10776) = 0. 47587 0. 82098 0. 60991 0. 90857 - 0. 93081 si n p = 0./-0~.93081 = 0. 96479 Gi v i n g p 74?75 a n d p =- 14975 = 8970 mi l es ( The s a me d i s t a n c e wo r k e d on t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p h e r o i d is 8973 mi l es ) An a l t e r n a t i v e is t o use F o r mu l a 1 i n t he f o r m: c o s p = si n La t T si n La t F + cos La t T cos La t F cos d. l o n g ( F T ) But t he r a t e o f c h a n g e o f cos/_p_ wh e n / P is s ma l l ma y ma k e t hi s f o r mu l a unr e l i a bl e f or di s t a nc e s o f l ess t h a n 300 mi l es . Worki ng f or azimuth. F r o m Yo k o h a ma t = 55 11' l og cosec p = 149 30' l og cos ec t ~ p = 94 19' f = 142 25' f + ( t ,-, p) - - 236 44' f - - ( t ~ p ) = 4 8 06' He n c e ~F_ = 136 09' Us i n g F o r mu l a 3 t he wo r k i n g is as f ol l ows : F r o m Es t r e c ho de Ma g a l l a n e s 0. 085 67 0. 214 73 l og cos ec f 142 25' 0. 294 53 0. 294 53 l og cos ec p = 149 30' f ~p = 7' ~05 ' t 55 '~ 11' 1oghav t + ( / ' ~ p ) = 62 16' Sl og hav t ( f ~ p) = 48 06' :}log ha v 4. 944 45 4. 713 52 log ha v 4. 610 16 4. 610 16 l og ha y 9. 934 81 9. 832 94 a c a l c u l a t o r , F o r mu l a 1 can be us ed in t he f ol l owi ng f or m s i n L a t T - - c o s p s i n L a t F s i n p x cos La t F sin La t F cos p si n La t T si n p ~. cos La t T I f us i ng c o s / _ F _ = c o s f c o s p c o s t = si n p si n 1 o r c os t cos p c o s f COS ~ _ ~ : ~ si n p s i n f l og ha v /_T_-= 111 11' l og sin d. l ong ( FT) l og si n c o - l a t T : f l og. cos ec p Di s t a n c e l og si n ~ _ 9. 840 55 Gi v i n g / ~ _ 043 51' or 136 09' 144 ~ 48' 9, 760 75 142 ~ 25' 9, 785 27 149 30' 0. 294 53 F r o m Es t r e c h o de Ma g a l l a n e s 9, 760 75 l og sin d. l ong ( FT) = 144 48' 9 . 9 1 4 3 3 l og sin c o - l a t F :~- t - - 55 11' 0. 294 53 l og cos ec p = Di s t a n c e = 149 30' 9. 969 61 19g si n Z~_ 111 11' f or LT_ The de c i s i on t o d i s c a r d t he val ue o f 43 51' for/_F_ mu s t be d e t e r mi n e d by i ns pe c t i on, p o s s i b l y wi t h t he a s s i s t a nc e o f a g n o mo n i c c ha r t or c h a r t 5029 (Great Circle Diagram), bot h o f whi c h wi l l i n d i c a t e t he ver t ex o f t he g r e a t ci r cl e. Us i ng t he s a me f o r mu l a f or a c a l c u l a t o r , but s u b s t i t u t i n g t he f unc t i ons o f t he l a t i t ude f or t hos e o f t he c o - l a t i t u d e , t he wo r k i n g is : F r o m Yo k o h a ma sin/__p_ cos La t T sin 14478 x cos ( 52.416) si n ~ - - = 0. 69271 si n p si n 14975 Gi v i n g ~_ = 43?8446 o r 13671554 = By i ns pe c t i on 136 09' The e x a mp l e ma y be wo r k e d t hus" F r o m Yo k o h a ma I n t he e x a mp l e , whe r e t he gr e a t ci r cl e di s t a nc e , p, 149. _, t hes e gi ve : F r o m Yo k o h a ma q~ o " si n ( 52741(~) cos 14975 ~ si n _4. 816 c o s / ~F - 0. 72122 si n 14975 / c os 34?811~ Giving/_if_ 136715 = 136 09' F r o m Es t r e c h o de Ma. gal l anes si n 34?816 - c os 14975 si n ( 52,O416) c o s ~ . . . . . 0. 36136 si n 14975 :.~ c os ( - - 52? 416) Gi v i n g ~ 111 ? 184 = 111 o 11' I n ma n y cases, whe r e bot h p a n d t he q u a d r a n t o f t he a z i mu t ~ a r e k n o wn , F o r mu l a 4 ma y ~ used, but i n an o b t u s e - a n g l e d t r i a ngl e t he f o r mu l a is a mb i g u o u s . OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD Fr om Est r echo de Magal l anes s i n / P cos Lat F sin 144'~'8 ~, cos 347816 sin ~ . . . . 0.93242 sin p sin 14975 Gi v i n g / T = 1117184 = 111 11' The initial course f r om Yokohama, wor ked on the I nt er nat i onal Spheroi d, is 136 13'. 7 39 41 R e a d . . . correct i on convert s the ari t hmet i cal mean of the latitudes to the ' mi ddl e l at i t ude' so allowing for the varyi ng rate of change of the cosine of the l at i t ude: it is also t abul at ed and is illustrated in Di agr am 5. 17 TABLE B- - Ri ght - hand col umn For " 12" r e ad " 13" a n d f o r "13"' r e ad "12"" 28 21 A d d : 1.65 Abnormal waves. A wel l -found ship pr oper l y handl ed is designed to wi t hst and the longest and highest waves she is likely to encount er as long as they retain their original shapes. But when waves are di st ort ed by meet i ng shoal water, a st rong opposi ng tidal stream or current , or anot her wave system, abnor mal st eep-front ed waves must be expected. Abnor mal waves may occur anywher e in the world where appr opr i at e condi t i ons arise. In places where waves are nor mal l y large, abnor mal waves may be massive and capabl e of wreaki ng severe st ruct ural damage on the largest of ships, or even causing t hem to founder. Repor t s of such occurrences, and indeed all wave measurement s, are very few, and in many parts of the worl d are non-exi st ent . However , where condi t i ons are consi dered to exist which may combi ne to pr oduce abnor mal waves liable to endanger ocean-goi ng craft, a warni ng is given in Admi r al t y Sailing Directions and in this book, so t hat if condi t i ons appr opr i at e to the f or mat i on of abnor mal waves arise, the mari ner may avoi d the area. Off the coast of SE Africa, however, some research has been made into abnor mal waves. To show how these waves are believed to occur in this part i cul ar case, the rel evant article from Af i ' i ca Pi l ot , Vol. I I I , is quot ed below in full. "Abnormal waves. Under cert ai n weat her condi t i ons, abnor mal waves of except i onal height occasionally occur off the sout h-east ern coast of Sout h Africa, causing severe damage to ships unf or t unat e enough to encount er t hem. In 1968 S.S. Wo r l d Gl or y, of over 28,000 gross tons, encount er ed such a wave and was broken in two, subsequent l y sinking with loss of life. These abnor mal waves, which may attain a height of 65 feet (19m8) or more, instead of having the nor mal sinusoidal wave-form have a very st eep-front ed leading edge preceded by a very deep trough, the wave movi ng nor t h- east war d at an appreci abl e speed. These waves are known to occur between the latitudes of Gr eat Fish poi nt and Dur nf or d point, mai nl y j ust to seaward of the cont i nent al shelf, where the Agul has cur r ent runs at its strongest. A ship has however r epor t ed sustaining damage f r om such a wave 30 miles to seaward of the cont i nent al shelf. No encount ers with abnor mal waves have been report ed inside the 100- f at hom (182m8) line. When heavy seas have been experi enced out si de the 100-fathom (182m8) line, much cal mer seas have been experi enced closer i nshore in dept hs of 50 fat homs (91m4). Abnor mal waves are appar ent l y caused by a combi nat i on of sea and swell waves movi ng in a nort h-east erl y di rect i on against the Agul has cur r ent combi ned with the passage of a cold front . Swell waves generat ed f r om st orms in high latitudes are al most always present off the sout h-east ern coast of Sout h Africa, generally movi ng in a nort h-east erl y di rect i on. These are somet i mes augment ed by ot her swell waves from a depressi on in the vicinity of Mar i on island ( 46 52' S. , 37 45' E. ) , and by sea waves generat ed from a local depressi on also movi ng in a general nort h-east erl y direction. Thus t here may be three and sometimes mor e wave trains each with widely differing wave-lengths all movi ng in the same general direction. Very occasi onal l y the crests of these different wave trains will coincide causing a wave of except i onal height to build up and last for a short time. The ext ent of this except i onal height will be onl y for a distance of a few cables bot h al ong the di rect i on the waves are travelling and al ong the crest of the wave. In the open sea this wave will be sinusoidal in f or m and a well f ound ship, pr oper l y handl ed, should ride safely over it. However when the cold front of a depressi on moves al ong the sout h-east ern coast of Sout h Africa it is preceded by a st rong nort h-east erl y wind. I f this blows for a sufficient length of time it will increase the speed of the Agul has cur r ent to as much as 5 knots. On the passage of the front the wind changes direction abrupt l y and within 4 hours may be blowing strongly f r om a sout h-west erl y direction. Under these condi t i ons, sea waves will rapi dl y build up, movi ng in a nor t h- east er l y di rect i on against the much st ronger t han usual Agul has current . I f this occurs when there is al ready a heavy swell runni ng in a nort h-east erl y direction, the occasi onal wave of except i onal height, which will build up j ust to seaward of the edge of the cont i nent al shelf, will no l onger be sinusoidal but ext remel y st eep-front ed and preceded by a very deep t rough. On encount eri ng this t rough, a ship st eami ng in a sout h-west erl y di rect i on will find her bows still dr oppi ng into the t rough with increasing moment um when she encount er s the st eep-front ed face of the oncomi ng wave, which she steams st rai ght into, the wave event ual l y breaki ng over the fore part of the ship with devast at i ng force. Because of the shape of the wave a ship steaming on a nor t h- east er l y course is much less likely to sustain serious damage. The weat her condi t i ons giving rise to the abnor mal waves are likely to occur most frequent l y in the wi nt er mont hs, but will obvi ousl y occur at any time of the year if the condi t i ons are right. Ships pr oceedi ng south- ward off the sout h-east ern coast of Sout h Afri ca in condi t i ons of heavy swell f r om a sout h-west erl y direction, and with st rong nort h-east erl y winds bl owi ng with a falling bar omet er , shoul d keep well clear of the seaward edge of the cont i nent al shelf if a cold f r ont bringing strong sout h-west erl y winds is f or ecast . " OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 7 33 16-17 Read: The Omega system was still under development in 1977, and positions should be checked by other means whenever possible. Omega-latticed charts cover the Atlantic and N Indian Oceans, and by the end of 1977 should also cover the S Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Appropriately l at t i ced. . . 57 Add." 1.104 Traffic Separation Schemes. In many parts of the world where main shipping lanes converge to enter straits or channels or to round headlands, Traffic Separation Schemes have been estab- lished. Most schemes have been adopted by IMCO (Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organiza- tion). All schemes whether adopted by IMCO, or sponsored by national authorities, are shown on the appropriate Admiralty charts, are referred to in Admiralty Sailing Directions, and are listed in The Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners. Regulations for Traffic Separation Schemes adopted by IMCO are embodied in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972. Regulations for schemes not adopted by IMCO are given in the appropriate volumes of sailing directions. The routes given in this volume do not take into account Traffic Separation Schemes and the charts and publications mentioned above should be consulted for the existence of such schemes in focal areas of ocean routes. 38 67 For "Baffin Land Current " read "Canadi an Current " 62 For "Baffin Land" read"Canadian" 39 43 58 For " ' W-bound, E" read W, W-bound. E" 8 For ~'2990" read "3160" 47 For "3120" read "3210" 48 For "2970" read "3050" 47 48 21 For "2600" and "2670" read "2560" and "2600" 29 For "2340" and "2500" read "2160" and "2300" 49, 52 For "Bathurst" read"Banjul" 59 32 For "935" read"lO00" 63 31 For "1290" and "1710" read "12905." and "17105-" 51 Add." t S of Sicily. 64 For "415" read "550" 27, 49 For "Ceylon" read"Sri Lanka" 67 68 Diagram 20 facing page. Delete references to NEMEDRI Routes below title and in Black Sea. 72 58 For "Lorenqo Marques" read"Maput o" 74 59 Add: See Africa Pilot. Vol. 111. 69 For "Admiralty Sailing Directions" read"l . 65" 75 3 For "coast." read "coast, see Africa Pilot, Vol. ILL" 77 40 Add: For tanker restrictions off the South African coast, see Africa Pilot, Vol. IlL 44 For "Ceylon" read "Sri Lanka" 58 For "seaward" read "seaward, see 1.65" 68 Add: See 1.65, and for tanker restrictions off South African coast, see Africa Pilot, Vol. IlL 78 24 For "Ceylon" read "Sri Lanka" 8 OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 79 50 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 80 20 For "s eawar d, " read "seawar d, see 1.65," 52- 53, 69 For "Laccadi ve I sl ands" read"Lakshadweep" 68 For"3850"read _750 69 For"3840"read"3740" 69 For " Ce yl on" read "Sr i La nka " 8 For "' Ceyl on" read "Sr i Lanka' " 35 For "4990" read "3990" 81 85 86 8 Add. " For t anker rest ri ct i ons of f the Sout h Afri can coast , see Africa Pilot, Vol. HI. 68 For "4740" read "4730" 69 For "4700" read "4740" 6- 24 Read." 6.164. Aden - - Nort h coast of Australia. Thr ough the Ar abi an Sea, the rout e for this passage changes seasonally, see 6.153, but the distances t hr ough One and Hal f Degree Channel and Ei ght Degr ee Channel are virtually the same. E of Mal di ve Islands, t here is a choi ce of rout es, see 6.155. Tor r es Strait Por t Dar wi n W ent rance By ocean r out e, S of Jawa and Ti mor . S of Jawa and t hr ough Sumba, Ombai and W~tar Straits for Tor r es Strait, or Sumba and Rot i Straits for Por t Darwi n. By Mal acca and Sapudi Straits; t hence by W~t ar Strait for Tor r es Strait, or by Lombok St rai t for Por t Darwi n. 5990 5960 6080 5370 5390 5580 69 For "i s" read " i f " 102 57, 67 For "22 30' S'" read "22 50' S" 105 106 60- 68 Read: The Mai n Rout e passes W of Anambas Kepul auan, thence to position 10 00' N, 110 05' E, t hence mi dway between Macclesfield Bank and Bombay Reef (16 00' N, 112 30' E), and t hence W of Hel en Shoal (19 12' N, 113 53' E). Dur i ng the st rengt h of the Sout h-west Mons oon smoot her wat er may be found nearer the coast of the Cambodi an peninsula. 39, 47 41- 43 For "1450" read" 1500" Delete "Al t er nat i vel y" t o "mi l es. " 107 108 12 Read: In a st rong Nor t h- east Mons oon a t rack passing W of Anambas Kepul auan, t hence about 30 miles W of Prince of Wales Bank and Nor t h Danger Reef, and t hence t hr ough P' eng-hu chi ang- t ao and N a l o n g . . . 39- 40 Read: 7.124 Si ngapore ~-~ Manila. Pass W of Anambas Kepul auan, thence about 30 miles W of Pri nce of Wales Bank and Nor t h Danger Reef, t hence steer a direct course to Manila. Di st ance 1330 miles. Between pages 108 and 109 Di agr am 25 Delete t hree green lines meet i ng NE of Paracel Islands, and insert three similar green lines meet i ng mi dway between Paracel Islands and Macclesfield Bank, in position 16 10' N, 113 24' E. Delete blue line f r om N Danger Reef t o Hong Kong. OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 114 47 For "76. 11" read"7. 161" 69 For " a r e a " read"area, and NW of Mar i anas Isl ands" 116 32 For " t hr ee" read " f our " 34 Re a d . . . miles. Alternatively, since Bougainville Strait may not be suitable for deep- dr aught ships, a r out e may be used passing t hr ough J omar d Ent rance, thence following the t racks r ecommended by the chart s to Pi oneer Channel (5 S, 154 E), and thence between Gi l bert Islands and Marshal l Islands. 117 1 2 Read." The passage may also be made in ei t her di rect i on passing W of Anambas Kepul aun ; t hence 30 miles W of Prince of Wales Bank and r oundi ng Nor t h Danger Reef at the same di st ance, t hence passing t hr ough Verde Island Passage and San Ber nar di no Strait, p r o c e e d i n g . . . 26 Re ad. " . . . Island, but passes close to r epor t ed dangers near Mi l waukee Bank (32 40' N, 172 10"E). Di st ance 3390 miles. 122 1 Read." Thr ough the Chi na Sea passing W of Anambas Kepul auan and about 30 miles W of Prince of Wales Bank t o Bal i nt ang Channel , t hence by great circle across the P a c i f i c . . . 124 21 For "dest i nat i on. " read"dest i nat i on. Caut i on is requi red in the area NW of Mari anas Islands owi ng to vol cani c activity, see Pacific Islands Pilot, Vol. I . " 125 For " r ecommended. " read "r ecommended. Due at t ent i on being paid to the caut i on in Pacific Islands Pilot, Vol. I regardi ng vol cani c activity in the area NW of Mar i anas Islands. 130 25, 27, 30 For "6. 81" read "6. 83" 45 For "2190" read "2390" 66 Add: Li napacan Strait 11 37' N, 119 57' E E approaches. 131 Chi na Sea to Sulu Sea. Deep and clear, but dangers in 133 25 Add: 8.47. Durban - - Japan. In 1976, Capt ai n C. P. Miles of MV Sugekt (16,405 tons) r epor t ed t hat on leaving Dur ban in July of t hat year, he steered E to the meri di an of 70E, and then set a great circle cour se for Al or Strait. Aft er passing t hr ough Al or Strait, he kept W of Buru Island (3 17'S, 127 00' E) and Hal maher a Island (1 00' N, 127 40' E), and t hence set course for Kur e. He comment ed t hat the passage t ook one day less t han a similar passage made t hr ough Sunda Strait in July of the previ ous year, and had used 53 tons bunkers less al t hough the distance was about 360 miles greater. Apar t from spray on deck for two days off the NW coast of Australia, decks were dr y t hr oughout the whol e passage. 134 In cert ai n copies of this book, the blue dividing page facing page 134 has been i ncorrect l y headed and gives the cont ent s of Par t I. For these copies, cut out and paste on the correct i on slip at the end of this Suppl ement . 143 55 For "Bat hur s t " read "Banj ul " 1 ~ 33 For " Fe r na ndo P6o" r ead"Maci as Nguema Bi yogo I sl and" 59 For " An n o b o n " read"Pagal u' " 156 Rout es 10.61 and 10.97 For " Ce yl on" read "Sri Lanka' " 157 66 Add." See 1.65. 161 22 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri Lanka" 163 6 For "Laccadi ve Isl ands" r ead" Laks hadweep" 10 OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 20 For"lO.54.05"" read"10.74" 43 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 23, 33, 41 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 2 For"10.54.05" read"10.74" 164 165 166 185 41 For "Ceyl on" read"Sri La n k a " 44, 47, 49, 51, 68 For " Ce yl on" read "Sr i La nka " 186 1 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 69 For "Laccadi ve I sl ands" read"Lakshadweep" 187 22 For "Laccadi ve Isl ands" read"Lakshadweep'" 44 For"lO.54.06, 10.54.07" read"10.75, 10.76"' 188 1 For " S of i t . " read "S of it (see 1.65)." 13 For "Laccadi ve I sl ands" read"Lakshadweep" 68 For " Ce yl on" read "Sr i La nka " 189 29 For "Laccadi ve I sl ands" r ead " Laks hadweep" 49 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 190 46, 54 For " Ce yl on" read "Sr i La nka " 191 23 For " Ceyl on" read "Sr i La n k a " 192 23 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 193 6, 70 For " Ce yl on" read"Sri La nka " 194 58 For " Ce yl on" read "Sr i La nka " 231 Aden - Tor r es Strait: For "6. 154" read "6. 164" Pol l ut i on For "11. 101" read "1. 101" Por t Lo u i s - Tor r es Strait: Add." 6.101 249 250 254 Si ngapore - Yap" For "7. 122" read "7. 176" Si ngapore - Yokoha ma : For "7. 176" read "7. 122" Sunda St r a i t - Aden:For "6. 54" read "6. 153" Sydney - Api a' For "7. 80" read "7. 70" 255 256 Sydney - Noum6a : For "7. 77" read "7. 67" S y d n e y - Ocean Isl and: For "7. 81" read "7. 71" Sydney - Suva: For "7. 79" read "7. 69" Sydney - Tongat apu: For "7. 78" read "7. 68" Sydney - Val par ai so: Add: Sydney - Wel l i ngt on 7.64 OCEAN PASSAGES FOR THE WORLD 11 PART 11 SAI LI NG VESSEL ROUTES CONTENTS I nt r oduct or y r emar ks . Chapt er 9 - At l a n t i c Ocean and Medi t er r anean Sea. Chapt er 10 Indi an Ocean, Red Sea, and East ern Ar chi pel ago" Cha pt e r 11 --Paci fi c Ocean . Page 135 137 155 198 Personal Property of S V Victoria Not for navigation