Safe Road Design Manual Amendments To WB
Safe Road Design Manual Amendments To WB
Safe Road Design Manual Amendments To WB
3,5
1,5
6,5
1,2
2,5
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
INTRODUCTION
World Bank manual Sustainable safe road design
Need for amendments
Overview of amendments
4
4
6
7
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
9
9
10
12
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
14
14
17
19
19
24
25
29
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
33
33
33
36
38
39
5
5.1
5.2
INTERSECTIONS
Intersection types
Selection of intersection type
44
44
46
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
ROADSIDE FACILITIES
Bus stops
Lay-bys
Rest areas
51
51
54
55
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
56
56
57
63
8
8.1
64
64
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FOREWORD
Background
As part of the project Consulting Services for Safe Road Design in Serbia a Safe Road Design Manual
based on the World Bank manual Sustainable safe road design (September 2005) will be produced. It consists of two parts:
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 World Bank manual Sustainable safe road design
The World Bank manual Sustainable Safe Road Design, a practical manual (WB manual) is presented
in a separate document. This section presents a short description of the purpose and the contents.
1.1.1 Purpose
The WB manual has been created during the project Safe Road Design, funded by the World Bank and in
cooperation with the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management.
Sustainable Safe Road Design, a practical manual is a manual to assist when developing national roads
outside urban areas. The three core aims are to:
1. provide an overview of relevant safe road design practices;
2. provide material for future training courses;
3. guide experts in applying safer road design measures in different countries
This manual is not a guideline on road design for one specific country. The manual is based on both the
Dutch philosophy of sustainable safe roads based on the Dutch standards and guide lines and on the training
sessions given in Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Turkey in autumn 2004 and
spring 2005.
Every location, every country and every culture is distinct in its own way and an appropriate solution needs
to be found for each location. The information contained in this manual should always be adapted for the
specific situation.
Not all weather and geographical conditions are treated separately from each other. It is important to develop country guidelines which consider the specific conditions encountered on the roads.
The manual is written:
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.1.2 Contents
The manual Sustainable safe road design a practical manual contains information on the principles of
sustainable road design, looking at the specific engineering implications. This manual focuses on the engineering principles of sustainable road safety, and covers to a lesser degree the principles that education and
enforcement play in sustainable safety. The manual focuses only on two-lane roads (single carriageway)
outside built-up areas.
The WB manual consists of twelve chapters. The first three chapters present a strategy for the management
of safety problems and general principle for safe road design.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STRATEGY
3. THEORY
The following five chapters present general principles and examples of the design of different road elements.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
CROSS SECTION
JUNCTIONS
ALIGNMENT
LINEAR VILLAGES
PEDESTRIAN CROSSING
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Content of the Safe Road Design manual in terms of completeness of aspects covered, the information per aspect, the quality of case studies and additional information;
Ease of use of the Safe Road Design manual in terms of clarity of the manual, accessibility of
information, balance between aspects, logical order of aspects presented, flexibility in use, etc;
Practical use of the Safe Road Design manual in terms of usefulness of manual elements for
practical work;
Application of the Safe Road Design manual in terms of being useful for the road administration, regional bodies and traffic police;
Transferability of the Safe Road Design manual in terms of the extent to which the manual
applies to the Serbian situation; and
An Amended Safe Road Design Manual, suitable for use in the Serbian Context
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Often the need for adaptation to Serbian conditions and the addition of design items coincide.
The current design practices seem to be more focused on capacity for motor vehicle traffic than the safety for
all road users. Examples are e.g. the use of right turning lanes in intersections, the number of lanes in intersections (e.g. roundabouts) and the lack of facilities for pedestrians and cyclists and of speed control
measures.
The safety deficiencies in current design practices reflect the deficiencies in the Serbian design guidelines.
The official design guidelines are old. New, in some aspects rather comprehensive, design guidelines have
been worked out but are not yet adopted. Even the new proposed guidelines seem to be more focused on
capacity than safety and there is a lack of guidelines for some important safety items. The lack of or deficiencies concerning safety have been noted for the following design items:
T-intersections
Pedestrian facilities
Median separation
Design of road side areas
Bus stops
Traffic calming
Speed control measures
Guardrails
Local access roads (frequency, location and design)
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Median separation
Clear roadside area
Roadside barriers
Traffic calming and speed control measures
Pedestrian and cyclist facilities
Road side facilities
Signs and markings
A good alignment and ample possibilities for overtaking are also important safety factors. Therefore, some
general advice for alignment choice and terrain adaptation and for the use of overtaking lanes is presented.
Road links through built up areas
On road links through built up areas are conflicts between through traffic and local traffic and between motor
vehicles and vulnerable road users. On rural roads in Serbia there are many links through built up areas (linear villages) with big safety problems.
Important measures to deal with those conflicts are to control the speed and to separate vulnerable road users
from motor vehicle traffic. Speed control principles and measures as well as design principles and example
for different types of road links through built up areas are presented.
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To reduce the number of accidents and mitigate the consequences suitably selected and well designed standard intersection should be used. Thus a set of standard intersections to be used is proposed and a method for
selection of intersection type is presented.
Road side facilities
On most rural roads in Serbia there are bus lines. Bus stops are often missing or badly designed. Passengers
are sometimes waiting and dropped directly on the roadside or in the middle of intersection creating safety
problems for the passengers as well as for other road users.
The provision of well located and correctly designed bus stops is an urgent safety measure. Therefore, general recommendations and design examples are presented. From a safety point of view it is also important to
offer possibilities for drivers to safely stop for shorter and longer breaks to for example rest or use the mobile
phone.
Pedestrian and cyclist facilities
The perhaps most serious safety deficiency on rural roads in Serbia is the lack of facilities for pedestrians
and cyclists (vulnerable road users). Pedestrian crossings, if any, are generally not located or designed according to modern safety principles. There seems to be very few separate roads or lanes for pedestrians and
cyclists along rural roads.
An overview of different types of separation of vulnerable road users and examples on design of pedestrian
crossings are presented.
Signs and markings
Signs and markings can provide important information to improve road safety. Some general requirements
are presented.
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Restrictions
Users
Function
Resources
Problems
Money
Accidents
Environment
Nature
Transports
Developement
Objectives
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The number of injury accidents increases with the square of the vehicle speed
The number of fatal accidents increases with the fourth power of the vehicle speed.
The figure on the next page shows how the risk of being killed in a crash varies with collision speed. The
graph for pedestrians is well supported by research results, while the graphs for vehicle collisions are partly
based on expert assessments.
The graph shows that the risk of being killed increases rather slowly up to a speed where the risk of being
killed is around 10 percent - and then the risk increases rapidly. The conclusion is that a road transport system should be designed to avoid conflicts at speeds where the risk to be killed is higher than around 10 percent. This means that speeds should not exceed:
From this, some basic planning and design rules can be derived, for example:
However, measures to lower the speed, for example in intersections, are not sufficient. Measures to reduce
the risk of conflicts and the consequences of collisions must also be taken. Examples of such measures are:
the use of standard type intersections and reducing the number of potential conflict points and the sizes of
conflict areas.
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100
60
Pedestrian
Side collision
Head on collision
20
40
80
120
Prevent accidents
Reduce the seriousness of the accidents that occur.
Accident prevention
For the prevention of accidents the following points are especially important:
Creating a road design and environment that is self explaining for the road users, so they understand
what is expected from them and how to behave
Provision of physical separation between motor vehicles in opposing directions and also with other road
users (especially pedestrians and cyclists)
Avoidance of surprise elements for the drivers, for example abrupt changes in standard, insufficient
visibility or poor phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment
Avoidance of situations where drivers must make more than one decision at the time
Provision of design features that reduce speed differentials between vehicles, for example flat grades
and speed change lanes
Proper location and design of intersections
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Proper design, application and location of traffic signs, road markings and other traffic control devices
Provision of design elements compatible with traffic volumes and type of traffic
Provision of road design compatible with the roads traffic function
Provision of proper drainage of the road surface.
There should be a clear zone (safety zone) along each side of the road that is free from hazards such as
lighting columns, other utility poles, rocks, drainage structures, etc.
Roadside slopes should be as flat as feasible (1:4 or flatter)
Sign posts and other supports which must be located within the clear zone should be of a breakaway
type or protected by guard rail
Safety barriers should be provided to protect vehicles from hitting dangerous obstacles that cannot be removed or made breakaway and also to protect vehicles from running off the road down embankments.
Ripcord WP3 - Best practice on Road Design and Road Environment:
One prerequisite for a safe traffic is that the road design is in accordance with the function of the road. The
road user has to be informed about the function of the road by the road design. To achieve that road users
choose their traffic behaviour in accordance with the function of the road, the design of the road must be self
explaining.
As a second prerequisite, the road and the roadside environment must be designed in such a way that mistakes of the drivers do not lead to serious accidents (forgiving roadside environment). Based on information
on road classification in European countries as well as information on road design, the design of the roadside environment and traffic regulation best practice guidelines on road classification and the design of self
explaining roads will be formulated.
Since most fatalities on rural roads are caused by two types of accidents, information on measures to avoid
and to reduce the severity of head-on-collisions and run-off-the-road-collisions will be collected. Based on
validated established measures in European countries the best practice concerning these aspects will be
worked out.
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2.3.3 Step 2
Measures that give more efficient utilisation of the existing road network
This step include input within control, regulation, effect and information directed towards the various components of the road transport system, in order to use the existing road network more efficiently, more safely
and in a more environmentally friendly way.
2.3.4 Step 3
Road improvement measures
This step include improvement measures and rebuilding of existing segments, for example, traffic safety
measures or load-bearing capacity measures.
2.3.5 Step 4
New investment and major rebuilding measures
This step include rebuilding and new building measures, which often demand new land, for example, new
segments of road.
2.3.6 Application
The four-stage principle describes an approach in the analyses of measures for solving identified problems and deficiencies. It therefore presupposes that an analysis of deficiencies has been carried out, in
which the existing situation is compared with the transport-policy goals.
An accessible transport system
High transport quality
Positive regional development
Safe traffic
Good environment
2.3.7 Example
Problem: Many head-on collisions on a 13.0 m wide 2-lane main road.
Possible measures
Step 1
No measure found
Step 2
Reduce speed
Step 3
Step 4
Reconstruction to motorway
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Large-scaled landscape
Small-scaled landscape
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Hilly landscape
Space
The space or room is a defined part of the landscape as far as you can overview from a specific point. The
limitations of the space or room could be:
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9
15
9
100 km/h
15
20
20
80 km/h
29
29
60 km/h
37
37
Space building
Rhythm
The rhythm of a trip along a road the experience and enjoyment depends on the design and how this design is located in the landscape. The designer should use the landscape combined with the road alignment,
cross-section and road side area to create a variation, rhythm, in impressions and outlooks. The objective is
to create a road that is enjoyable to drive.
No harmony
Harmony
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Symmetric widening
Minimum length
(m)
1500
500
300
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AADT
design year
3-5000
2-4000
80
100
150
200
200
300
60
Real profile
Approximate profile
P4
50
Approximative profile
40
P2
30
20
10
P1
0
0% Rv 5000
500
1000
6%
150
P2
1000
P3
310
P4
Long
150
1150
1460
0
6
0
-2
2000 L (m)
1500
Rv 7000
P1
-2%
Profile
Example profile
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If the road width is not sufficient to install a median barrier, centre line crossings can be limited by a centre
line marking reinforced with cat-eyes or milled rumble strips. Based on Swedish experiences milled rumble
strips is recommended for Serbia based on problem with cat-eyes for winter maintenance.
Median barrier
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Existing roads
1+1 sections
The design should deterr from overtaking. Thus, wide lanes and shoulders should be avoided. Shoulders
wider than 1.0 m should be separated from the traffic lane by e.g. a milled edge line.
The total width should not be less than the recommended width for 1-lane sections (see above).
2+2 sections
The design should be symmetric and have the same lane widths and shoulder widths as connecting road sections.
For reconstruction of existing roads the2+2 sections can be designed with the total width of 15.25 m. For
new roads the total width should normally be 15.75 16.75 m.
Transition sections
A typical design of a transition section is shown in the figure below.
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Typical design of a T-intersection with a left turn lane and provisions to facilitate left turn from the
secondary road
Typical design of a T-intersection with a left turn lane and bus stops
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Typical design of a T-intersection with possibilities to turn around on the secondary road
Alternatively left turns can be made possible at access roads by constructing a shepherds hook and allowing perpendicular passing of the median.
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The principle for provision of overtaking lanes on roads with reinforced centre line markings
The use of milled median rumble strips is a standard design in Sweden since 5 years. Below some experiences are presented.
Should not be used on roads with widths less than 7.0 m because heavy vehicles frequently cross the
centre line
Due to noise problems the distance to residential houses should be at least 150 m.
Road users are generally positive
The safety effect is not statistically proven
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1:1.5
1:2
1:3
1:4
8
10 12
Height of fill (m)
14
16
18
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Length b (m)
90 km/h
70 km/h
50 km/h
50 km/h
low standard
Distance f (m)
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height difference>5 cm
should be smoothed
traversable
max 1:6 recommended
1:4 absolute minimum
Direction of travel
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Type
Deflection
Rigid
Concrete
Semi-rigid
Steel beam
1m
Flexible
Wire rope
1m
Comments
Expensive, low maintenance costs
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Be free of hazardous objects (such as posts, trees etc) and other hazards
Have a smooth design with no steep slopes, open drains, etc.
There are a number of empirical studies in Europe and US indicating major safety benefits from clear zones.
It is obvious that the need for clear zones increases with speed and curvature.
3.7.2 Width
The following clear zone widths, measured from the edge of the traffic lane, are considered to give an acceptable standard of safety. Traffic volume is also a factor, as, generally, the higher the traffic volume the
greater the frequency of run-off-road incidents which supports the use of wider clear zone widths.
Speed
(km/h)
70
80
100
Desired
5m
6m
9m
Standard
Minimum
3m
4m
6m
The clear zone widths given in table above should be increased at sharp bends on high-speed roads according
to the diagram below.
Correction factor
2
Radius (m)
0
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
Example:
Radius 700 m and speed limit 100 gives the correction factor 1.6.
Desired clear zone is extended from 9 m to 1.6 * 9 = 14.4 m
Front slopes steeper than 1:3 cannot be counted as part of the clear zone because they are too steep. Slopes
that can be traversed safely by out-of-control vehicles need to be at least 1:4 or gentler. Slopes between 1:3
and 1:4 are marginal; the normal practice is that half the width of these slopes is counted as part of the clear
zone see the figure on the next page.
Amendments to WB Manual, 2011-02-25
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1.5
1.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
Electricity Pole
Telecom Pole
Lamp Post
Other Rigid Post
Information Traffic Sign of Concrete
Bus Shelter
Tree (diameter >0.1 m)
Rock
Such objects should be removed, made softer (e.g. break-away lighting poles) or shielded by a safety barrier.
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Traffic lane
H
Sf >= 4 if speed limit>= 80
1
Foreslope
Hard shoulder
Support strip
Hinge point
Toe of slope minimum bottom width
0.5 m and back slope 1:4
The back slope design in cuts with a cut drain should be designed with a 0.5 m wide ditch bottom followed
by a 1:4-backslope for half a metre and then a 1:2-backslope for 2.0 m. This will help to redirect a run-off
vehicle to the roadside area.
When the embankment (fill) height is greater than about 3.0 m, the 1:4 front slopes recommended above
become uneconomic. This is because a large amount of fill material will be needed and the structure will
extend over a large area thus increasing land acquisition costs. In these circumstances the front slope is best
determined by the natural angle of repose and erosion of the material (often 1:1.5). Where steep front slopes
have to be used, consider installing safety barrier.
Clear zone with slopes steeper
- than 1:3 excluded
- 1:3 - 1:4 included with
0.5 * the width
Traffic lane
Hard shoulder
Support strip
Backslope
Sf >= 4 if speed
limit >= 80 km/h
1
Foreslope
1:2
1:4
Hinge point
Toe of slope
Sb
>=
>= >=
0.5 m 0.5 m 1.0 m
The area in front of roadside obstructions such as bridge abutments, retaining walls, etc. should be smooth,
with a maximum change of deflection (w) of 24.5 degrees. Ensure that the lateral clearance is adequate, and
that the obstruction is outside the clear zone. If it is not, consider installing a safety barrier.
Width due to sight distances,
lateral clearances etc
Vertical
abutment
w
Shallow change of
deflection w<24.5 degrees
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The control of speed is the most important design question. To ensure that the intended speed is not exceeded, the design must be based on a proper design speed and the expected traffic volume. In addition, some
kind of speed control measure must often be applied. There are many different speed control measures available, such as:
measures at intersections,
single measures along a road section,
general measures along a road section
4.2.2 Cross-section
General
The cross-section must be adapted to the expected traffic volume and the intended speed limit. Too wide
sections will make it difficult for drivers to keep the speed limit. The need for parking/stopping and for restrictions for pedestrians must also be considered. In principle:
Needed widths
The width of traffic lanes, shoulders, pedestrian lanes, separators etc. can be determined by tables showing
widths needed at different speeds. The table on the next page shows examples of values according to the
Swedish guidelines.
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30 km/h
50 km/h
70 km/h
0,5
0,9
1,2
to kerbstone
0,2
0,4
0,7
2,6
2,6
2,6
1,8
1,8
1,8
0,7
1,0
1,3
0,1
0,1
0,1
For example, the width between the curbstones for a two-lane road or for one roadway of a two-lane divided
road according to the figure (except for the walls) will be:
0,2+2.6+0.7+2.6+0.2 = 6.3 m
0.4+2.6+1.0+2.6+0.4 = 7.0 m
0.7+2.6+1.3+2.6+0.7 = 7.9 m
4.2.3 Intersections
Reduction of number of intersections
One way to increase the safety on through roads is to reduce the number of intersections. However, too long
distances between intersections may increase the speed and also increase the traffic volumes in the local
streets.
Replacement of 4-way intersections
Two 3-way intersections are generally safer than one 4-way intersection. Uncontrolled 4-way intersections
should therefore be avoided and if possible replaced by a roundabout or split into two 3-way intersections.
Roundabouts
If possible, every intersection on through roads should be designed as a roundabout, because:
It is the safest intersection type. Both the number and the severity of accidents are decreased compared to other types of intersections
It reduces the vehicle speed for all traffic and allows the traffic to flow smoothly.
Signalized intersections
Signalized intersections can be used if:
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400
300
200
Pedestrian crossing not needed
100
200
400
600
800
1000
Vehicles / h
Pedestrian crossings should be located to places where the vehicle speed can be reduced to 30 km/h. Generally, pedestrian crossings are located at intersections.
Design of separate pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossing on a 2-lane through road
Pedestrian crossings should be constructed with a traffic island to make it possible to pass the road in stages
and to make the crossing clearly visible to drivers. On roads with low traffic volumes and few heavy vehicles, the crossing can be raised over the travelled way to reduce the speed and to make it more convenient for
the pedestrians.
Pedestrian crossing on a 4-lane through road
On divided roads, pedestrian crossings can be designed with a side displacement in the median to force the
pedestrians to turn and face the oncoming traffic before crossing the road.
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4.3.1 Classification
For the application of priority rules and design criteria, through roads should be classified into different
groups depending on the contact with the urban network and pedestrians. Three classes are suggested.
Contacts with
Through road I
Urban streets
Pedestrians
Only at intersections
Through road II
At intersections and
along sections
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varies
Travelled way
0,7
2,6
1,3
2,6
0,7
Side reserve
with fence
Pedestrian
lane
varies
varies
8,0 m
Through road II
Pedestrians are expected to use pedestrian crossings. If necessary, fences should be installed to direct the
pedestrians to these crossings.
Sidewalk
Travelled way
varies
0,4
2,6
1,0
2,6
0,4
varies
varies
7,0 m
Sidewalk
varies
Parking
0,1
2,6
3,0 m
Travelled way
0.2 0,4
2,6
1,0
Sidewalk or
premise
2,6
0,4
varies
7,0 m
Proposed standard cross-section for through road class III (50 km/h)
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Rumble strips
Gate
Rumble
strips
Rumble
strips
Central speed
control section
Gate
Sidewalks
Gate
The preferred and maximum intervals between speed control measures for different desired speeds are given
in the table below.
Desired speed
Maximum
30 km/h
50 m
125 m
50 km/h
125 m
175 m
Speed control should preferably be located where judged reasonable for drivers. Pedestrian crossings can be
combined with humps. Speed control is most effectively achieved by humps. Other measures are rumble
strips, gates, narrowings and chicanes.
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Rumble strips create disturbing noises and can cause vibration problems on soft ground and should be avoided near dwelling-houses, schools, hospitals, etc.
Design of rumble strips
The following principles should be observed when designing rumble strips:
Height
10 - 15 mm
Width 0.5 m
Length of rumble strip zone
50 km/h
20 m
80 km/h
80 m
0.5 1.0 m
Distance to obstacle
30 50 m
Design of rumble strips
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Design of gates
The figure below shows the design of speed control gates. The following principles should be used:
The toughest vehicle path for a passenger car through the gate should have an entry radius R1 below 100
m for 50 km/h speed control and 50 m for 30 km/h speed control.
Curves that follow (R2, R3) should have a radius greater than or equal to the entry radius.
The gate can be one-sided with speed control only in the entry direction or two-sided with speed control
also in the exit direction.
The design should be tapered or smoothed with curves.
2 m passenger
car track
Entry radius
R1
Entry radius
R1
Separated foot
and cycle way
2 m passenger
car track
Separated foot
and cycle way
R2
R2
Exit radius
R3
Exit radius
R3
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The circular hump is normally recommended for local roads. For roads in residential areas the following is
recommended:
Speed level:
Plateau hump:
Circular hump:
30 km/h
4.0 m long hump with 1.0 m ramp length
4.0 m long hump with 20 m radius
For roads with a large number of buses a 6.5 m long circular hump or a 6.0 m long plateau hump is recommended to ease discomfort for bus passengers.
The plateau hump can be used in combination with pedestrian and cycle crossings.
Design of humps
General
The hump can be made of pre-fabricated concrete elements with asphalt ramps or entirely of asphalt. If made
of asphalt a template must be used to ensure the right height and shape. On a road with shoulders the hump
should be extended about 1.0 m over the shoulder to discourage drivers from going around the hump.
On roads with kerbed sidewalks the hump should be stopped 100 150 mm before the kerb to create a drain.
This solution cannot be used at a raised pedestrian crossing.
Humps should be clearly marked with chequerboard markers and hump information signs in each direction
of the road. Hump warning signs might also be needed.
The recommended detailed design is based on empirical studies into hump dimensions, speed, and driver /
passenger discomfort. The design of the hump is base on the desired passing speed for passenger cars.
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Hump
Sidewalk
1.5 m
Hump length
Plateau hump
The height of the plateau hump should be 0.10 m. The table below gives recommended ramp lengths and
grades.
r 4-6m
i
Speed level
Car
Truck
< 25
<5
25
5
30
10
35
15
40
20
45
25
50
30
35
40
0.10 m
Ramp length r
(m)
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.7
2.0
2.5
3.3
4.0
Grade i (%)
14
12.5
10
7.5
6
5
4
3
2.5
Circular hump
The height of the circular hump should be 0.10 m. Hump radii and chord lengths are given in the table below. The traffic level-of-service, especially for buses and trucks, can be improved if the hump entry and exit
is smoothed as shown below.
Height = 0.10 m
length
Speed level
Car
Truck
20
5
25
10
30
15
35
20
40
25
45
30
50
35
40
Radius
(m)
11
15
20
31
53
80
113
180
Length
(m)
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.5
8.0
9.5
12.0
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Meeting situation
(km/h)
Two cars
Two trucks
30
4.0 m
4.15 m
4.95 m
5.9 m
50
4.5 m
4.5 m
5.5 m
Design of narrowings
The basic design principles of one-sided and double-sided road narrowings are illustrated the figure below.
Shoulder or footway
One-sided
narrowing
Double-sided
narrowing
5m
3 - 3.5 m
3 - 3.5 m
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5 INTERSECTIONS
5.1 Intersection types
5.1.1 Proposed intersection types
This Manual covers only at-grade intersections. At-grade intersections can be classified into two main intersection categories depending on the form of control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types.
Intersection category
Traffic control
Intersection types
Major road
Minor road
Priority intersection
Priority
A
B
C
Control intersection
D
E
Unchannelised T-intersection
Partly Channelised T-intersection
Channelised T-intersection
Roundabout
Signalised intersection
Unchannelised
Partly channelised
Channelised
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Roundabout
Signalised intersection
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5.2.1 General
These selection guidelines mainly deal with traffic safety. Other important impacts such as capacity / road
user costs, environmental issues, investment and maintenance costs should also be taken into consideration.
Capacity, delays, queue lengths, road user costs and also exhaust emissions could be estimated using standard software such as Oscady, Picady and Arcady (UK) SIDRA (Australia) or Capcal (Sweden) but they have
not been calibrated for Serbian conditions, so they could give misleading results. Some traffic flow threshold
values for capacity are given in figure 6.6.
The safety requirement for intersections can be defined as an interval where the expected number of accidents should not exceed a desired level and must not exceed a maximum level. If the expected number of
accidents does not exceed the desired level, a priority intersection should be selected. If the number exceeds
the maximum level, a control intersection should be selected. Between the two defined levels, a control intersection should be considered. The traffic flow threshold values presented in the following Figures 6.5 and 6.7
are based on this concept using general European traffic safety research results on the relationship between
speed and incoming traffic flows on the major and minor road.
The selection is divided into two steps; selection of intersection category (priority or control) and selection of
intersection type. It is based on the following assumptions:
Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain traffic volumes and speed limits
If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major road traffic must also be
controlled.
Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of priority or control intersection should be selected.
50 km/h
Q3
Q1
Q2
Select control
intersection
4000
Consider control
intersection
2000
Select priority
intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
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Select control
intersection
80 km/h
Q3
Q1
2000
Q2
Consider control
intersection
1000
Select priority
intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
100 km/h
3000
Select control
intersection
2000
Consider
control
intersection
Q3
Q1
Q2
1000
Select priority
intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Capacity
The selection of intersection category based on safety should be checked for capacity. It can primarily be
made by using diagrams with the relationships between the capacity and the approaching traffic volumes
during the design hour (DHV in pcu/design hour, see section 3.2.2 and 3.3.3). The diagrams shown in below
are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80 and 100 km/h speed limit. The desired level refers to a
degree of saturation (actual traffic flow/capacity) of 0.5. The acceptable level refers to a degree of saturation
of 0.7.
The diagrams are based on Swedish capacity studies with findings similar to other European countries. It is
judged reasonable to be used in Serbia until sufficient Serbian research is available. Capacity could be
checked more in detail using standard capacity software as already stated with the general drawback that
Serbian capacity studies are as yet not available.
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50km/h
400
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Acceptable
Desired
200
Q3
Q1
Q2
500
1000
1500
80km/h
400
Acceptable
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Desired
200
Q3
Q1
Q2
500
1000
1500
400
100km/h
Acceptable
200
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Desired
Q3
Q1
Q2
500
1000
1500
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50 km/h
Q3
Q1
Select channelised
T-intersection
Q2
4000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
2000
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
80 km/h
Q3
3000
Q1
Q2
2000
Select channelised
T-intersection
1000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
100 km/h
1500
Q3
1000
Q1
Q2
Select channelised
T-intersection
500
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised T-intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Partly channelised should normally be used if needed to facilitate pedestrian crossings and also if the minor
road island is needed to improve the visibility of the intersection.
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10 000
Interchange
needed
Roundabout
5 000
Consider
Signalised
Intersection
0
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
If a signalised intersection is considered due to planning conditions or traffic volumes, a capacity analysis
and economic analysis should be made. This should include road construction and maintenance costs, accident costs, travel time costs, vehicle operating costs and environmental costs.
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6 ROADSIDE FACILITIES
6.1 Bus stops
6.1.1 Bus stop types
On rural roads there are generally four types of bus stops to be used.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In rural areas, especially on high speed roads, it is important that buses entering or leaving the bus stop not
obstruct other road users. Consequently, the type of bus stop to be selected depends primarily on the traffic
volume and the number of buses using the bus stop. Other factors influencing the selection are the speed
limit, visibility, vulnerable road users, the number of lanes and shoulder width.
Buses per hour
Lay-by
Separated
Traffic lane
Shoulder
Entry
Exit
70
90
Speed
limit,
km/h
LI, m
55
85
LII, m
0
60
v = shoulder width
p = platform length
110
115
110
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Bus lay-by
A bus lay-by outside the travelled way is the preferred bus stop on rural roads with high traffic volumes.
There is generally no platform for the passengers
Busses at the bus stop do not generally block or obstruct the sight for vehicles behind.
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Distance
60 km/h
300 m
80 km/h
500 m
100 km/h
700 m
Distance between bus stops
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6.2
Lay-bys
6.2.2 Location
Lay-bys can be used on all roads except motorways. They should normally be used for traffic in one direction only. To avoid median crossings they should be located in pairs. On roads without medians, the lay-bys
should be placed with at least 10 meters displacement with the right hand lay-by first.
Lay-bys in pairs
Considering the road users disposition to use lay-bys the driving time between two facilities should be about
20 minutes. On roads with a high proportion long distant traffic the distance can be extended to about 30
minutes driving time. That means that the distance can vary from around 20 km (normal roads with 60 km/
speed limit) to around 50 km (national roads with 100 km sped limit).
6.2.3 Design
All types of vehicles should be able to use the lay-bys. Consequently, they should be designed for all normal
vehicles including buses and trucks. The figure below shows a suitable design for all normal vehicles.
Shoulder
width
Width
D
Exit
L1
Parking
L2
Entry
L3
<2m
4.5 m
15 m
20 m
25 m
2m
6m
20 m
20 m
35 m
Design of lay-bys
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6.3
Rest areas
A rest area can be used for traffic in one or two directions. The figure below shows a typical design of a rest
area used for traffic in one direction.
Tables
Voitures touristiques
Poubelle
Poubelle
Toilette
Camion (24 m)
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A. Mixed traffic
B. Cycle lane
C. Shoulder
The main ways of separation of vulnerable road user are the following:
D. Separate lane divided by a curbstone
E. Separate lane divided a separator
F. Separate pedestrian-/cycle way located away from the main road
D. Separated by a
curbstone
E. Separated by a separator
F. Separate
location
General recommendations on separation should be worked out for different types of roads and traffic volumes.
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The possibilities to locate and design the bridge in a way it will be used
The costs for the bridge in relation to the number of pedestrians
The traffic volume
For example, if the terrain is favorable a bridge should be provided even if the traffic volume and/or the
number of pedestrians are low. On the other hand, if the traffic volume and/or the number of pedestrians are
very high a pedestrian bridge should always be built.
Whenever possible the bridge or tunnel should be in line with the normal path that pedestrians and cyclists
take when crossing the road. If they have to diverge from their direct route they will be discouraged from
using the facility. Barriers can be used to try and force them to use the facility if the detour not is unreasonable.
Dimensions
Bridges should normally be 2-3 meters wide. The width and height of tunnels depend on the length of the
tunnel. Recommended minimum dimensions for tunnels are given in the table below.
Type of tunnel
Width
(m)
Height
(m)
Narrow (short)
Standard
Wide (long)
2.3
3.3
5.0
2.3
2.6
2.6
Accesses
Ideally, there should be a both stairs and ramps. Ramps should not normally be steeper than 5% and should
have a non-slip surface. If there are many disabled persons the ramp should not be steeper than 3%.
To avoid unreasonable detours steeper ramps can be accepted.
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The minimum width of the median island is decided by the sign width chosen, which is normally 0.6 m at
intersections m and 0.9 m at single pedestrian crossings. The additional margin would be minimum 2*0.3 m.
The minimum width of the markings should be 2.5 m. Wider crossings could be needed at large pedestrian
flows, see Highway Capacity Manual.
The island could be made wider to get the desired conflict zone width, which is recommended not to be
longer than preferably 4 m and maximum 5 m to avoid the possibility of overtaking. This means that this
type of crossing is not recommended on multilane highways.
The kerb height is recommended to be 0.1 m. The minimum length of the island is 1 m and the minimum
radius 0.5 m.
Pedestrian could be directed to the crossing by use of rails.
The geometric measures could be strengthened with humps. These could be applied as Watt humps upstream
the crossing. Another option is to elevate the crossing itself by use of a plateau hump. Hump design is described more in detail in a separate section.
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Road reflectors
2 lane road
W<= 4 m
60
60
10 cm
Min 1 m
Pedestrian crossing with median island on two-lane road
The speed limit should be decreased to maximum 50 km/h combined with a warning sign for pedestrian
crossing if the speed limit is higher. It is strongly recommended that the speed limit would be decreased further to at least 50 km/h. It is also recommended that the crossing should be illuminated.
The median island should be divided with the crossing area in the same level as the carriageway without any
kerbs to facilitate conditions for pedestrians. The median should have directional signs and pedestrian crossing signs to improve the visual impact for on coming vehicles.
The pedestrian road in the median between the zebra crossings must be designed to prevent bikes and motorbikes to cross the median, e.g. with a pedestrian gate according to the figure below.
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Location at intersections
Pedestrian crossings over the minor road in normal at-grade intersections should located in one of the following three positions:
1. Close to the main road
2. Withdrawn from the main road
3. Away from the main road
Location close to the main road gives good conditions for interplay between pedestrians and drivers turning right from the major road. The lateral displacement should be maximum 1 m, see figure below.
The stop line or give way line would be located up-stream the pedestrian crossing, which is an advantage for
the pedestrian but a disadvantage for the driver. It also requires a long sight distance from the minor road.
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The intersection curve design is of outmost importance for the traffic safety of pedestrian crossings at intersections. Wide tapers and large radii to facilitate high speeds and to accommodate large trucks are obviously
hazardous for traffic safety. Speeds will obviously increase. Sight angles between pedestrians and drivers
will deteriorate and conflict zones will grow, see figure below. Right turn lanes are not recommended for the
same reason.
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>=50 m
Isolated location
Hpl
Bus stop
50 m
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Average daily
vehicle traffic
400 to 1,400
> 1,400
700 to 1,400
> 1,400
1m
1.8 m
2.25 m
3.5 m +
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meet a need
command attention
be legible
convey a simple, clear meaning at a glance
be placed so as to give road users time to respond
command respect
Signs must only be used where there is a clear need for them. The incorrect or unnecessary use of a sign annoys drivers, and when this happens frequently, drivers lose respect for the sign, and it becomes ineffective
in situations where it is really needed. For the same reason, avoid using signs which impose a restriction
which will be unpopular and difficult to enforce. Drivers will stop taking signs seriously when they see others ignoring them without being punished.
Using standard signs assists in their quick recognition, as does uniformity of shape, colour and lettering for
each type. To obtain the full benefits of standardisation, the signs must be used in a consistent manner.
It is important that the message is presented in a simple way. The new signs make a great use of pictorial
symbols, as these are more effective than words, and can be understood by those who cannot read. Signs
with words should be used only where there is no alternative.
Signs must have sufficient impact to be noticed by drivers. This has been taken into account in the design of
the signs, but the size and siting of the sign are also relevant. For most signs there are several permitted sizes,
and it is largely the speed of the traffic at the site that determines which size is appropriate.
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