February

2015

www.chemengonline.com

Heat Exchangers:
Two-Part Feature Report

02

FUNDAMENTALS OF HIGH-SHEAR DISPERSERS HEAT EXCHANGERS

Advances
in 3-D Printing
Focus on Industrial
Housekeeping

Facts at Your Fingertips:

Dimensionless Numbers
Valves for
Extreme Service

Fundamentals of
High-Shear Dispersers
page 40
VOL. 122 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2015

YOUR SINGLE SOURCE

FOR SERVICE:

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Downtime. A word often associated with high cost and low production. Team has been

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+ Field Machining

mechanical, and heat treating services. Were here to help you repair, maintain, and ensure

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www.chemengonline.com

February 2015

Volume 122 | no. 2

Cover Story
40

Fundamentals of High-Shear Dispersers

Successful dispersion depends on a basic understanding of dispersion
equipment and how dispersers should be used

In the News
7

Chementator
Xylenes production method takes advantage of low-cost methanol
feedstock; Electrode design increases efficiency of suspendedsolids removal; Reduce maintenance of high-pressure pumps; A
bio-based crosslinker for polyurethanes; Synthesizing adipic acid
without generating N2O; A highly efficient heterogeneous catalyst
for making THF and other chemicals from biomass; and more

16

Business News
Dresser-Rand and Ener-Core to provide cogeneration system
to Pacific Ethanol; Sipchem starts up production plant for
ethylene vinyl acetate; Eastman to increase ester alcohol capacity
at Longview site; and more

20

Newsfront 3-D Printing Accelerates, Creating

Opportunities for the CPI
Activity in standards development, industry initiatives and R&D are fueling the
growth of additive manufacturing technology in industry

24

Newsfront Valves for Extreme Service

To meet the needs of the chemical process industries, new valve materials
and designs combat corrosion and leaks

40

20

Technical and Practical

38

Facts at your Fingertips Dimensionless Numbers

This one-page reference provides descriptions of several key dimensionless
numbers used in fluid dynamics calculations

39

Technology Profile Production of Green Ethylene

A process to manufacture ethylene by dehydration of renewable ethanol is
described here

48

Feature Report Part 1 Evaluate Heat-Exchanger

Tube-Rupture Scenarios Using Dynamic Simulation
Applying dynamic simulation models to tube-rupture scenarios can help
assure more accurate sizing and hazard assessments

24

54

48

Feature Report Part 2 Thermal Design Guidelines for

Optimizing Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Ensuring optimal performance of shell-and-tube heat exchangers requires
knowledge of the controlling fluid, correct exchanger geometry and
configuration, as well as proper fluid placement

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

58

Engineering Practice Flare Consolidation

Considerations
Consolidating multiple flares can help mitigate emissions and maintenance

62

Solids Processing Bulk Solids: Optimizing Screw

Conveyors Despite their apparent simplicity, the complexity of these
conveying systems demands proper design and an understanding of the
underlying principles

29

Focus Industrial Housekeeping

Safeguard industrial workwear and tools with this rugged bin; Durable floor
decals provide clear safety instructions; Device safely extracts fumes during tank
and tote filling; Sound abatement solutions help curb industrial noise; Sprayed
refractory cement provides reliable fire protection; and more

Equipment and Services

58

33

New Products
Head-mount transmitter for hazardous area applications; Two new self-loading
regulator valves; This scanner can accept up to 16 process variables; A new
solenoid valve variant for high-pressure applications; and more

29

Departments
5

Editors Page Inspiring Women in the CPI

Recently announced award winners, who have been selected for their
exceptional accomplishments, are role models and a source of inspiration to
others in the chemical process industries

72

Economic Indicators

33

Advertisers
68

Product Showcase

69

Classified

70

Reader Service

71

Ad Index

Chemical Connections
Follow @ChemEngMag on Twitter
Join the Chemical Engineering Magazine
LinkedIn Group
Visit us on www.chemengonline.com for Latest News,
Web-exclusive articles, Test your Knowledge Quizzes,
Bookshelf and more

Coming in March
Look for: A Feature Report on Steam Handling; A Focus on BulkSolids Storage and Flow; A Facts at your Fingertips column on
Corrosion; News Articles on Process Control and Methane Emissions;
and more
Cover: Rob Hudgins; Photos courtesy of IKA Works, Inc.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

TRANSFER HEAT,
NOT BLAME.
In your line of work, you cant afford downtime. You have to know that
everything is doing its job so you can actually do yours. Thats why, at Eastman,
we have you covered with a wide range of dependable Therminol heat transfer
luids for some of the worlds most technical applications. And with our
Total Lifecycle Care Program, you can count on dedicated support
throughout the systems lifecycle. To learn more, go to Therminol.com or
call 1-800-426-2463 in North America. In Europe, call 32.2.746.5134.

2014 Eastman Chemical Company or its subsidiaries. All rights reserved. As used herein, denotes registered trademark status in the U.S. only.

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Circle 24 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-24

Editor s Page
PUBLISHER

ART & DESIGN

MICHAEL GROSSMAN

ROB HUDGINS

Vice President and Group Publisher

[email protected]

Graphic Designer
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EDITORS

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SERVICES

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Senior Editor
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DEVELOPMENT

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

JOHN CARSON

HENRY KISTER

Jenike & Johanson, Inc.

Fluor Corp.

DAVID DICKEY

GERHARD KREYSA (retired)

MixTech, Inc.

DECHEMA e.V.

MUKESH DOBLE

RAM RAMACHANDRAN

IIT Madras, India

(Retired) The Linde Group

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Senior Vice President & Group Publisher
Aerospace, Energy, Healthcare

A trailblazer
In November, President Obama honored the newest recipients of
the National Medal of Science and the National Medal of Technology and Innovation the highest honors bestowed by the U.S.
Government for achievements in science, technology and innovation. One of the eight recipients of the National Medal of Technology
and Innovation was Edith Flanigen, a chemist with UOP, a Honeywell
company, who is now retired but remains an active consultant for
the company.
Flanigen began her career at Union Carbide in 1952, a time
when there were few women in chemistry. She worked on the purification and extraction of silicone polymers and the manufacture
of molecular sieves, and she invented a process to synthetically
manufacture gem-quality emeralds for use in early laser technology. Over the course of her 42-year career, Flanigen invented more
than 200 synthetic materials and received 109 patents. In 1991,
she was the first woman to be awarded the Perkin Medal, an annual award from the Society of Chemical Industry (SCI) that recognizes outstanding work in applied chemistry. The first Perkin Medal
was awarded in 1906.

Winning careers

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ood role models can greatly influence the path of a persons

career. While role models dont always receive awards, recent announcements of award recipients describe a number of professionals in chemistry and chemical engineering
who have been singled out for their exceptional accomplishments.
These women are indeed role models, and a source of inspiration to
others in the chemical process industries (CPI).

CHARLES SANDS

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS

SARAH GARWOOD

Inspiring Women in the CPI

GERALD STASKO
Vice President/Corporate Controller

ROBERT PACIOREK
Senior Vice President,
Chief Information Officer

The Society of Women Engineers (SWE) Suzanne Jenniches Upward Mobility Award, endowed by Northrop Grumman, recognizes
a woman who has risen to a significant position in her organization, and has created a nurturing environment for other women in
their workplaces. In November, SWE announced the latest recipient
of this award: Janeen Judah, general manager of Chevron Corp.s
Southern African Strategic Business Unit. Judah, a Houston-area
resident who holds degrees in petroleum engineering and law, received the award for her multi-disciplinary career achievements, as
well as for inspiring other women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).
Jacqueline Barton, the Arthur and Marian Hanisch Memorial
Professor of Chemistry and chair of the Division of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering at the California Institute of Technology, will
receive the American Chemical Societys (ACS) Priestley Medal in
March and the American Institute of Chemists (AIC) Gold Medal
in May of this year. Barton pioneered the application of transitionmetal complexes to probe recognition and reactions of DNA. Her work has been useful in laying
a foundation for the design of chemotherapeutics. She has trained more than 100 graduate
and postdoctoral students.
We are grateful to these women and the many
others who, by example, provide inspiration to others in the field.

Dorothy Lozowski, Editor in Chief

4 Choke Cherry Road, Second Floor

Rockville, MD 20850
www.accessintel.com

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Join the ultra-high

shear revolution.
When Ross introduced the first Ultra-High Shear Mixer,
we revolutionized high speed, high shear mixing. Operating
with tip speeds up to six times higher than conventional
rotor/stator mixers, these mixers can produce
sub-micron emulsions and dispersions faster than
any conventional rotor/stator design.
Today, in applications from foods to pharmaceuticals,
coatings and adhesives, the results include smaller particle
sizes, tighter particle size distributions, greater
throughput and superior end-products.
Patent No. 5,632,596: X-Series
Patent No. 6,241,472: MegaShear
Patent No. 6,000,840: PreMax

Christine Banaszek
Applications Engineer
Employee Owner

Ross Ultra-High Shear Mixers produce

ultra-fine emulsions and dispersions in inline
(A-C) and batch (D) applications. Many models
also allow you to fine-tune shear to mix
shear-sensitive materials safely.

See the newest generation of

rotor/stator mixing technology.
Visit highshearmixers.com/ultra
Or call 1-800-243-ROSS

Scan to learn more.

Free Tag Reader: http://gettag.mobi

Circle 28 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-28

Chementator
Xylenes production method takes advantage of
low-cost methanol feedstock

Edited by:
Gerald Ondrey

Recycle toluene

BIO SNG PILOT

Offgas
Light ends

Mixed xylenes
to p-xylene
unit

Stabilizer
Toluene

Reactor

Methanol
Separator
Post-fractionation

GTC Technology

Wastewater

new low-pressure process for making xylenes combines toluene with

methanol to yield a xylenes product stream with the possibility of no
benzene byproduct. Known as GT-TolAlk
and developed by GTC Technology (Houston; www.gtctech.com), the new process
requires no hydrogen addition and produces
only water as a byproduct.
The first facility to use the process is currently in the design phase, and is slated for
startup in 2016 at a Chinese petroleum refinery, says David Bridgeman, global licensing
manager at GTC.
In the process (flowsheet), toluene and
methanol are pre-mixed before entering a set

C9+ aromatics to
transalkylation

of low-pressure, fixed-bed reactors where

the aromatic ring of toluene is methylated
over a zeolite-based catalyst. Products contain very low ethylbenzene levels, an impurity
for xylenes. Bridgeman says the process is
heat-integrated, so the overall energy input
is modest.
The xylenes product proceeds to a recovery and purification stage in which unreacted
toluene is recycled back to the beginning of
the process. Subsequently, p-xylene is purified in any one of several commercialized
routes, also licensed by GTC.
Bridgeman says the technology can be
built in a new facility, or retrofitted into an existing aromatics complex.

Electrode design increases efficiency of

suspended-solids removal

specially designed electrode could

improve the efficiency of removing
suspended solids, oil or other contaminants from water in applications
traditionally served by dissolved-air flotation
(DAF). Developers at OriginOil Inc. (Los Angeles, Calif.; www.originoil.com) believe their
electrolysis process overcomes limitations of
DAF and improves on the efficiency of the
companys earlier electro-flotation systems.
The patented electrode has a perforated
cylindrical outer cathode that surrounds an
inner anode rod. The perforated tube and rod
system carries a current, which electrolyzes
water and generates oxygen and hydrogen
bubbles in the water flowing through the
tube. The angstrom-scale bubbles adhere
to contaminant particles to float them to the
top of a tank, where they can be skimmed.
Keeping close proximity between anode
and cathode tubes lowers resistance to cur-

rent flow, so a high current per unit area can

be achieved at low voltage, explains inventor Bill Charneski, president of OriginOils Oil
& Gas Division. In addition, the smaller-sized
gas bubbles generated by this electrode
move solids more efficiently than the larger
bubbles typically seen in DAF systems,
Charneski adds. Finally, the electrodes can
spread over the floor of the tank, so that microbubbles are generated in multiple locations at once, exposing all of the water to
the bubbles.
OriginOil estimates the electrode design,
which can be retrofitted into existing clarification tanks, increases the extraction effectiveness by 54% compared to earlier
designs of its electro-flotation technology.
The companys electro-flotation system has
been field-tested at an oil-and-gas installation in the Niobrara and Permian Basins, and
is now available for commercial licensing.

Construction has been completed on a trailer-mounted

pilot plant that will produce
substitute natural gas (SNG)
from the products of biomass gasiication (H2, CO2
and CO). Built by researchers from the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT;
www.kit.edu) as part of the
DemoSNG project a
4.5-million project coordinated by the German Technical and Scientiic Assn. for
Gas and Water e.V. (DVGW;
Bonn, both Germany; www.
dvgw.de) the pilot plant
has undergone initial tests
in Karlsruhe, and will now
be transported to Kping,
Sweden where it will be integrated into the gas lows of
a biomass gasiication plant
utilizing wooden residues.
The goal is the reliable and
efficient production of methane from biomass-based
CO2 and variable amounts
of H2 from green power.
The pilot plant features
a new reactor concept for
the methanation process,
in which a honeycomb
catalyst carrier is used to
support the nickel catalyst.
The honeycomb design
is characterized by a high
thermal conductivity and
mechanical robustness
with a low pressure loss,
and also enables a compact construction. The pilot
plant has the lexibility to
handle both the products
of biomass gasiication as
well as additional H2 generated by electrolysis, when
available, which can double
the plants volume lowrate
and boost carbon utilization
of the biomass to nearly
100%, says KIT.

METAL-FREE ATRP
Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is a
relatively new process to
(Continues on p. 8)

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 70, or use the website designation.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Reduce maintenance of high-pressure pumps

form carbon-carbon bonds
of well-defined polymers.
Since its discovery in 1995,
ATRP has been performed
using transition-metal complexes, such as those of
copper. This feature has limited the application of ATRP
for making polymers for
high-purity applications due
to the difficulty in removing
traces of Cu from the product polymer, for instance in
microelectronics (where Cu
is conductive) or medical
applications (where Cu can
be toxic). Now, researchers from the University of
California, Santa Barbara
(www.ucsb.edu) and The
Dow Chemical Company
(Midland, Mich.; www.dow.
com) have discovered an alternative, metal-free ATRP
process, which promises to
greatly enhance the applicability of ATRP.
The method uses an
easily prepared organic
photocatalyst (phenothiazine) that is said to be highly
reducing in its excited
state, which can be activated by simply irradiating
with light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). The reaction takes
place at room temperature.

Cr+6-FREE COATINGS
Praxair Surface Technologies, a division of Praxair,
Inc. (Danbury, Conn.; www.
praxair.com), has recently
introduced a new line of
ceramic aluminum coatings that are said to have
the same performance as
legacy chromium (VI)-containing coatings. The companys SermeTel CF and
SermaLoy J CF systems are
suitable for applications in
the aerospace and powergeneration industries, where
they can be used to extend
the useful lifetime of critical
components, such as gas
turbines and other industrial
equipment, by providing protection from corrosion, heat
degradation and fouling.

CO2 CAPTURE
Chemists from Rice University (Houston; www.

Sand tank

Chemical tank

Water tank

Blender
LP clean
water out

HP clean
water in

LP fracking
fluid in

VorTeq
HP fracking
fluid out

High-pressure pump fleet

Energy Recovery

Downhole

n hydraulic fracturing, high-pressure

pumps force water bearing sand or ceramic proppants into a manifold, known
as a missile, and subsequently into an oil
or gas well. Exposure to the highly abrasive,
proppant-filled fluids means the pumps require frequent maintenance and have shortened life spans. Energy Recovery Inc. (San
Leandro, Calif.; www.energyrecovery.com)
has developed a missile that allows the abrasive hydraulic-fracturing fluid to bypass the
high-pressure pumps, reducing maintenance
costs and pump failures. The new system will
begin field-testing in the first quarter of 2015.
Named the VorTeq hydraulic pumping system, it employs a modified version of the Pressure Exchanger (PX) technology used by Energy Recovery in the desalination market. At a
hydraulic fracturing site, several pump trucks
are connected to VorTeq, which sits on a truck
trailer. The pump trucks push clean, proppantfree water into the VorTeq at high pressure.
Meanwhile, low-pressure (LP) hydraulic fracturing fluid containing proppant is fed into VorTeq
from a blender (see diagram). Using a specially

designed rotating cylinder, the LP fracturing

fluid is briefly exposed to the high-pressure (HP)
water on the pump side. The brief exposure
instantly pressurizes the fluid at efficiencies up
to 95%, sending it downhole at pressures of
up to 15,000 psi. The clean water, now at low
pressure, is re-circulated to the pumps for another cycle. The rotor at the heart of the VorTeq
system is made from tungsten carbide, an extremely abrasion-resistant material.
At a recent investor event, Energy Recovery CEO Tom Rooney pointed out that separating the pumps from the hydraulic-fracturing fluid reduces maintenance costs by $1
million per fleet per year, and significantly
extends their lifetimes. In addition to saving on maintenance, the VorTeq system can
decrease the number of pumps required on
each fracturing job because there are fewer
pump failures, Rooney said. In the future, he
added, VorTeq could enable a new pumping
model that uses more efficient pumping options, such as centrifugal pumps, because
the pumps will no longer be exposed to
abrasive hydraulic-fracturing fluid.

A bio-based crosslinker for polyurethanes

t the European Coatings Show

(April 2123; Nuremberg, Germany),
Bayer MaterialScience AG (BMS;
Leverkusen, Germany; www.materialscience.bayer.com) will launch Pentamethylene diisocyanate (PDI), a new isocyanate
with 70% of its carbon content originating
from biomass. The eco-friendly hardner

component is being evaluated for use in

coatings, adhesives and other applications.
First PDI-based products will be introduced
in April. Commercial manufacturing will follow in 2016, with a production capacity of
up to 20,000 m.t./yr. These products will be
produced in existing plants using an energyefficient, gas-phase technology, says BMS.

(Continues on p. 14)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

We look forward to seeing

you at ACHEMA in Frankfurt
from 15 to 19 June 2015
Hall 8, Stand H14

ow life
cycle costs

perating
reliability

Pumps
Valves
Service

vailability

ACHEMA Solutions from a single

source for the chemical industry
Get the answers to all of your questions from KSB, the only full-range supplier for
pumps, valves and service. We look forward to welcoming you to ACHEMA 2015
from 15 to 19 June. Visit us at stand H14 in hall 8 to benefit from competent and
comprehensive consultancy on all services throughout the entire life cycle of your
equipment. Learn how we can optimise your life cycle costs, achieve maximum
operating reliability and secure the availability of the systems you operate. Find out
about our all-in solutions and other fascinating highlights for the chemical industry.
Whatever you need. From a single source.
For more information, please visit www.ksb.com/achema
Circle 18 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-18

Our technology. Your success.

Pumps Valves Service

2015 CHEM SHOW

NOV 17-19 / JAVITS CENTER / NYC
U S H E R I N G I N T H E N E X T 1 0 0 Y E A R S O F P R O C E S S I N N OVAT I O N
Since 1915, The Chem Show is where producers of chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
food and other processed products find the latest equipment and solutions
for their operations. Join us in New York City as we embark on a
new century of innovation in process technology.

B E C O M E A N E X H I B I TO R
O R LE A R N M O R E :
C H E M S H O W. C O M

M E D I A PA R T N E R

203-221-9232

E N D O R S E D BY

Circle 9 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-09

Synthesizing adipic acid without generating N2O

dipic acid, a precursor for

the synthesis of nylon, is
usually produced through
nitric acid oxidation of cyclohexane, a process which has disadvantages, such as the emission of
nitrous oxide a greenhouse and
ozone-depleting gas as well as
low product yield, high energy consumption, and corrosion of reaction
vessels by nitric acid. The amount
of N2O thus released into the atmosphere accounts for up to 8% of
annual anthropogenic N2O emission
worldwide. An alternative adipicacid route that eliminates the use of

HNO3 and thus the associated corrosion problems and N2O emissions,
has been discovered by professor
Kuo Chu Hwang and researcher Arunachalam Sagadevan at National
Tsing Hua University (Hsinchu, Taiwan; www.nthu.edu.tw).
The researchers were inspired by
reports that ozone and ultraviolet (UV)
irradiation were primarily responsible
for oxidative degradation of most hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, and
decided to see whether both treatments in combination could oxidize
cyclohexane, which exclusively contains unactivated sp3 C-H bonds. By

bubbling O3 gas through cyclohexane

with concurrent UV irradiation at room
temperature, a solid reaction product
precipitated at the bottom of the reaction vessel after 28 h. The solid oxidation product of cyclohexane was found
to be adipic acid. The yield of solid adipic acid was about 53 mol.% at room
temperature. A stronger UV light and a
longer irradiation time generally leads
to higher adipic acid yields.
Subsequent experiments clearly
show that ozone treatment and UV irradiation of cyclohexane leads to the
formation of cyclohexanol, then cyclohexanone, and finally adipic acid.

A highly efficient heterogeneous catalyst for making

THF and other chemicals from biomass

he research group of Keiichi

Tomishige at Tohoku University (Sendai, www.che.
tohoku.ac.jp/~erec), in collaboration with Daicel Corp. (Tokyo,
both Japan; www.daicel.com/en),
has developed a catalytic reaction

system that is highly efficient for synthesizing tetrahydrofuran (THF) a

widely used solvent and raw material
for making polyether resin.
The catalyst system consists of
rhenium as the major active metal
and palladium as a promoter, on a

cerium oxide support. In laboratory

trials, a THF yield of more than 99%
is achieved for the hydrogenolysis of
the two adjacent hydroxyl groups of
1,4-anhydroerythritol (which is made
by the fermentation and dehydration
(Continues on p. 12)

Use spreadsheets
to power customized
simulation owsheets.
Good thinking.
Feedback from our users is what inspires us to keep making
CHEMCAD better. As a direct response to user need, many
features like this one were added to our integrated suite of
chemical process simulation software. Thats why we consider
every CHEMCAD user part of our development team.

Engineering advanced

E
BL

NO

AD
MC 6

5
.5.

CHE

Get the whole story behind this user-inspired feature and

learn more about how CHEMCAD advances engineering
at chemstations.com/drive.

AVA IL A

2015 Chemstations, Inc. All rights reserved. | CMS-3879 1/15

Circle 10 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-10

(Continues from p. 11)

Frankfurt am Main 15 19 June 2015

of sugar) in a dioxane solvent at 140180C and H2

pressure of several tens of atmospheres. The catalytic
reaction exhibited a turnover number velocity of 300
h1, and turnover number of 10,000, which is one order
of magnitude larger than alternative homogeneous
catalyst systems that use rhenium catalysts reducing
agents, which are more costly than H2.
The Re/Pd catalyst is not only highly active, but it
is easily recovered by filtration and can be reused
without a loss in activity after calcination to remove
traces of organic compounds.
The chemists say the new catalyst system could be
applied for the hydrogenolysis of other biomass-based
sugar alcohols. For example, they obtained alcohols
containing one hydroxyl group with more than 87%
yield from sugar alcohols with an odd number of carbons, such as glycerine (C3) and xylitol (C5), as well as
diols containing two hydroxyl groups with more than
85% yield from sugar alcohols with an even number of
carbons, such as erythritol (C4) and sorbitol (C6).

Making biocrude and

nutrients from algae

World Forum and Leading Show

for the Process Industries

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Be informed.
Be inspired.
Be there.
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he hydrothermal liquefaction of algae has been

the subject of many studies because algae exhibit high photosynthetic activity and growth
rate compared to other biomass, leading to increased CO2 absorption. The algae can grow in a wide
variety of water resources and have a high moisture
content that is suitable for use in the process of hydrothermal liquefaction. Most of the previous studies have
been carried out in a batch reactor.
Now, researchers from Chulalongkorn University
(Bangkok; www.chula.ac.th) and the PTT Research
and Technology Institute (Wangnoi, both Thailand;
www.pttplc.com) have studied the biocrude oil yield
and nutrient recovery from Coelastrum algae by a twostep hydrothermal liquefaction process using a semicontinuous reactor. The semi-continuous system is
said to avoid thermal decomposition of the product
while improving the flexibility in the process.
The study was carried out using design of experiments (DoE), based on a response surface methodology and 2k factorial design, to study the influence of
the operating temperature, pressure and water flowrate. It also compared the product distribution obtained from the two-step process with that obtained
from the one-step process. The best conditions for
biocrude production have been reported to include
a reaction temperature of 553623K, giving a 1550
wt.% yield of biocrude, depending on the algal species and its composition.
The team has reported a higher biocrude oil and nutrient recovery yield than in the case of a single-step
process. According to the team, its two-step process
gave a total biocrude yield of 36 wt.%, and nutrient
recovery level (in terms of nitrogen-containing compounds) of 60 wt.% of protein content in the original
algae as ammonium and nitrate ions, as well as protein and polypeptides.

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12

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FEBRUARY 2015

A step closer to making CO by

artificial photosynthesis
Electrons

Toshiba

Raw material for

fuels and chemicals

Sunlight

O2 + 4H+

Berndorf Band o ers

customized steel belts
for each application

2CO + 2H2O
H+

2 H2O

2CO2 + 4 H+

Multijunction semiconductor
Gold nanocatalyst

esearchers at Toshiba Corp. (Tokyo, Japan;

www.toshiba.co.jp) have developed an artificial
photosynthesis system that uses solar energy
to convert CO2 and water into CO with 1.5%
efficiency the highest efficiency achieved to date. The
company believes the technology has the potential for
utilizing CO2 to make CO a precursor for methanol
and other chemicals normally made from petroleum- or
coal-based synthesis gas.
Toshiba uses a gold nanocatalyst via nanoscale
structural-control technology applied to a multi-junction semiconductor that absorbs light in the visible
range with high light-utilization efficiency (diagram).
The company says that a wired photovoltaic (PV) cell
system with cobalt oxide (CoOx) and gold nanoparticle (AuNP) catalysts promotes the reduction of CO2 to
CO under simulated solar light, and that the solar-toCO conversion efficiency achieved over 1.5% without
external bias at the initial stage of the reaction. The
efficiency is said to be comparable to that of some
algae species. Although the efficiency falls to around
1% after 3 h, it is still higher than the 0.3% achieved
by artificial photosynthesis, which Panasonic first reported using electronic materials that absorb only ultraviolet (UV) light.
Toshiba plans to enhance the efficiency (aiming at
10%) and improve the endurance of the systems conversion efficiency. Practical implementation could be
possible in the early 2020s. The companys long-term
goal is to develop a technology compatible with CO2capture systems installed at large facilities, such as
power plants.

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perfect adhesion of vee-ropes

Reducing ground-level O3

he Catalyst Div. of BASF (Iselin, N.J.; www.basf.

com) has launched PremAir NXT, a next-generation direct ozone reduction (DOR) catalytic
coating technology that can help automakers
meet new U.S. Tier 3 and California LEV III emissions
reduction requirements. When applied to a cars radiator, the PremAir NXT solution converts ground-level
O3 into O2. PremAir NXt provides a 5 mg/mi credit towards vehicle emissions certification, which is applied
to the total emissions of the vehicle over its lifetime.

Phone: +1 847 841 3300

[email protected]

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Circle 3 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-03

rice.edu) are developing an

asphalt-based powder that
holds 114% of its weight in
CO2. The porous material,
known as asphalt-porous
carbon (A-PC) captures
CO2 as it leaves a naturalgas wellhead at room temperature and at the pressures supplied by the rising
gas (about 30 atm), while
allowing the methane to
pass through. The CO2 can
then be recovered by simply
releasing the pressure.
A-PC is made by mixing
asphalt with potassium
hydroxide at high temperature, and then made
into a porous carbon with
high (2,780 m2/g) surface
area. Further processing
with ammonia and then
H2 boosted the materials
CO2-storage capacity
from 93% to 114%. The
A-PC is very inexpensive
compared to conventional
amine-based materials,
which can only capture
about 13 wt.% of CO2, as
well as being corrosive.

Isothermal compression gets practical

echanical engineering students

have been taught that true isothermal compression, while ideal
from an energy-efficiency perspective, is not achievable. However, a late
1800s technology, the Taylor Compressor has delivered isothermal compression
in large industrial applications for nearly a
century. The largest installation of the Taylor compressor powered multiple local mining operations in Canada for over 80 years,
with no moving parts and no maintenance.
It drew air and water down a 342-ft shaft,
where the weight of the water compressed
the air. The air separated from the water in
an underground storage cavern, and delivered 40,000 ft3/min at 120 psi, equivalent to
more than 5,500 hp.
Unfortunately, the Taylor compressor was
geographically constrained to a large natural
hydro resource, and is not suitable for most
practical compression. Now, Carnot Compression LLC (Scotts Valley, Calif.; www.
carnotcompression.com) has taken concepts from the Taylor compressor and removed the geographic constraint. Its technology creates a gas/liquid emulsion and
compresses gas in a centrifugal field. The

company uses centrifugal force, creating

G-forces in the thousands, thereby enabling
high pressures and flowrates. The companys system captures the heat energy of
compression within its process, generating
higher efficiencies, with estimated energy
savings of 2550% for typical applications,
says Edward Beardsworth, an advisor at
Carnot Compression. He points out that energy costs comprise roughly 75% of a typical compressors lifetime cost of ownership.
Besides energy savings, Carnot Compressions design delivers compressed air that is
cool, dry and oil-free, without any post treatment, he adds.
Carnot Compression has demonstrated
the proof-of-concept in a number of small
prototypes, and is now completing construction of a 100-ft3/min demonstration
unit. Preliminary discussions have begun
with major compressor manufacturers. The
company is targeting multiple applications
for its compression technology, including air
and gas, refrigeration, air conditioning and
energy storage.
In the U.S. and E.U. alone, air and gas
compression consumes $24 billion in energy

costs, says Beardsworth.

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The computer platform I bought a few

years ago is already obsolete. I need
technology that will keep pace.

YOU CAN DO THAT

DeltaV Virtual Studio makes it easier to keep your system current. Keeping your control system
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The Emerson logo is a trademark and a service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2014 Emerson Electric Co.

Business News
Plant Watch
Dresser-Rand, Ener-Core to provide
cogeneration system to Pacific Ethanol
January 12, 2015 Dresser-Rand (Houston;
www.dresser-rand.com) will install a 3.5-MW
cogeneration system at Pacific Ethanol Inc.s
(Sacramento, Calif.; www.pacificethanol.
com) ethanol-production plant in Stockton,
Calif. The system will utilize Ener-Core Inc.s
(Irvine, Calif.; www.ener-core.com) gradual
oxidizer technology to convert waste gas
into electricity and steam. The cogeneration
system is expected to be operational by the
second quarter of 2016.
Praj to provide EPC services for
sugarcane ethanol plant in Uganda
January 8, 2015 Praj Industries (Pune,
India; www.praj.net) has signed a contract
with Kakira Sugars for engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) services for a
new ethanol plant in Uganda. The plant will
process sugarcane molasses to produce
fuel- and beverage-grade ethanol, and will
have a capacity of 60,000 L/d. Praj will provide technology for fermentation, distillation,
wastewater treatment and biomethanation.
Honeywell begins full-scale
production of low-GWP material
January 6, 2015 Honeywell (Morristown,
N.J.; www.honeywell.com) has started
full-scale commercial production of a low
global-warming-potential (GWP) material
at its facility in Baton Rouge, La. The new
material, called by the industry designation
HFO-1234ze, is used as an aerosol propellant, insulating agent and refrigerant.
Sipchem starts up production plant
for ethylene vinyl acetate
December 29, 2014 Saudi International
Petrochemical Co. (Sipchem; Al Khobar,
Saudi Arabia; www.sipchem.com) started up
an ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA) films plant located in the Hail industrial zone in Saudi Arabia. The plants production capacity is 4,000
metric tons per year (m.t./yr) EVA, to be used
for the manufacture of solar panels.

waste-to-energy (WTE) power plant near

Dunbar, Scotland. The plant is scheduled to
start up in the fourth quarter of 2017.

LINEUP
AIR LIQUIDE
ALTANA

Fund Energy project to license

Ineos PP technology
December 19, 2014 Ineos Technologies (Rolle, Switzerland; www.ineos.com)
has licensed its Innovene PP polypropylene process technology to a subsidiary of
Fund Energy Investment Holdings Co. in
Changzhou, China. The plant will produce
300,000 m.t./yr of PP from propylene feedstock produced via a methanol-to-olefins
(MTO) process.
Chevron Phillips to build polyethylene
pilot plant in Oklahoma
December 18, 2014 Chevron Phillips
Chemical Co. LP (The Woodlands, Tex.;
www.cpchem.com) plans to build a polyethylene pilot plant at its site in Bartlesville, Okla.
The new pilot plant will facilitate polyethylene
research, including new catalyst and polymer
development. Construction is scheduled to
begin in 2015, and completion of the new
pilot plant is expected in 2017.

BABCOCK & WILCOX

CHEVRON PHILLIPS
CLARIANT
DRESSER-RAND
DUPONT
EASTMAN
EXXONMOBIL
FERRO
FLUOR
HONEYWELL
INDORAMA
INEOS
MITSUBISHI
MITSUI
PRAJ INDUSTRIES
SIEMENS
SIPCHEM

Eastman to increase ester alcohol

capacity at Longview site
December 18, 2014 Eastman Chemical
Co. (Kingsport, Tenn.; www.eastman.com)
plans to increase manufacturing capacity for
Eastman Texanol ester alcohol in Longview,
Tex. The plant expansion is expected to be
complete in the second half of 2016, and will
increase capacity by more than 20%.

SULZER
TECHNIP

Fluor begins construction work on

ExxonMobil Antwerp refinery
December 17, 2014 Fluor Corp. (Irving,
Tex.; www.fluor.com) has begun construction activities on a new delayed coker unit
for ExxonMobil Petroleum & Chemical BVBA
at its Antwerp, Belgium petroleum refinery.
Fluors work on the project includes EPC
services, module fabrication, transportation
and installation.

Mergers & Acquisitions

Babcock &Wilcox Vlund consortium to
build WTE power plant in Scotland
December 22, 2014 B&W Vlund,
the Denmark-based subsidiary of The
Babcock & Wilcox Co. (Charlotte, N.C.;
www.babcock.com), and its construction
partner, Interserve, have been awarded a
$230-million EPC contract for Viridor UKs
16

Sulzer strengthens service activities

offering with InterWeld acquisition
January 12, 2015 Sulzer Ltd. (Winterthur,
Switzerland; www.sulzer.com) has agreed
to acquire InterWeld Inc. (Belfast, Northern
Ireland), a specialized weld overlay company
that offers corrosion and erosion solutions
to the power, oil-and-gas, petrochemicals
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Look for more

latest news on
chemengonline.com

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Your one-stop resource

from drop in spray lances
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For over 60 years, BETE Fog Nozzle has been

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Our in-house capabilities include all aspects of
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and pulp-and-paper industries. The

acquisition will enhance Sulzers offering of welding solutions.

will provide plants, products and

services for the iron, steel and
aluminum industries.

former Baton Rouge plant, and

its polymer additives laboratory in
Independence, Ohio.

Indorama acquires Polyplex

PET plant near Istanbul
January 8, 2015 Indorama Ventures Public Co. (IVL; Bangkok, Thailand; www.indorama.net) announced
that its wholly owned subsidiary Indorama Netherlands B.V. will acquire
a 100% equity stake of Polyplex Turkey, including a greenfield polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plant near
Istanbul with a planned capacity of
252,000 m.t./yr.

SRF acquires DuPonts pharmagrade propellant business

January 5, 2015 Refrigerant
manufacturer SRF Ltd. (New Delhi,
India; www.srf.com) has agreed to
purchase DuPonts global HFC-134a
medical-pharmaceutical propellant
business. Under the transaction, SRF
will own the DuPont Dymel brand,
and will also receive technology for
setting up manufacturing facilities for
pharma-grade products.

Mitsui and SKC to merge

polyurethane businesses
December 22, 2014 Mitsui
Chemicals Inc. (MCI; Tokyo; www.
mitsuichem.com) and SKC Co.
(Seoul, Korea) have agreed to consolidate their polyurethane material
businesses into a 50/50 JV, with
headquarters in Korea. Closing of the
merger is scheduled for April 2015.

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and

Siemens form metals JV
January 8, 2015 Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries, Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan; www.
mhi-global.com) and Siemens AG
(Munich, Germany; www.siemens.
com) announced the formation
of their joint venture (JV) Primetals Technologies, Ltd. Headquartered in London, the JV is focused
on the metallurgical industry, and

Ferro sells Polymer Additives

business for $154 million
December 22, 2014 Ferro Corp.
(Mayfield Heights, Ohio; www.ferro.
com) sold its Polymer Additives
business to Polymer Additives, Inc.
for approximately $154 million. The
transaction includes the companys
four plants in the U.S., a manufacturing operation in Newport, U.K.,
certain assets at the companys

Technip to acquire Zimmer

polymer technology business
December 15, 2014 Technip
(Paris, France; www.technip.com)
has agreed to purchase Air Liquides
(Paris, France; www.airliquide.com)
Zimmer polymer technology business. Based in Frankfurt, Germany,
the business includes technologies
for the processing of polyesters and
polyamides, as well as research and

development facilities.
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The Clock Is Ticking.

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Zeeco, Inc. 2015

Newsfront
FIGURE 1. The 3-D printing market surpassed $3 billion in 2014,
and more growth is expected

3-D Printing Accelerates,

Creating CPI Opportunities
Activity in standards development, industry initiatives and R&D are fueling the growth of
additive manufacturing (3-D printing) technology in industry

he field of additive manufacturing

(AM) often referred to as three-dimensional (3-D) printing has seen
explosive growth in the past three
years, and seems poised to have a profound
and lasting impact on manufacturing decisions across many industry sectors. Activity
in the field has been largely motivated by the
technologys potential to lower manufacturing costs, and enable revolutionary designs
for a wide range of components and equipment that are simply not possible with traditional manufacturing methods. Further,
a significant shift is underway in which AM
technology is increasingly used for manufacturing final products for industrial use, rather
than as a tool for prototyping and research
and development (R&D).
However, the degree to which the wellhyped technology will infuse the industrial
world in general, and the chemical process
industries (CPI) in particular, depends greatly
on how effectively industry stakeholders resolve a host of questions, including: How can
the measurement of raw-material properties
be standardized? How can the consistency
and quality of final products be ensured?
How will qualification and certification of final
products be accomplished? How will the
cost of production be managed?
Current developments in three main areas
are now helping the industry address those
questions and are serving to catalyze the
more widespread use of AM as a commercial
manufacturing method. These developments
include drafting and adopting voluntary consensus standards for AM, the establishment
of industry-wide consortia, and targeted R&D
efforts, including the emergence of process
simulation tools designed for AM.
A confluence of factors is now coming together behind a maturing technology to accelerate the expansion of AM, says Brent
Stucker, University of Louisville (UL; www.louisville.edu) industrial engineering professor.
The expansion and maturation of AM tech-

20

nologies are creating opportunities for CPI

companies, including the use of AM-derived
AM PROCESSES
components to improve the performance and
efficiency of chemical processes, as well as GROWTH AND PROMISE
opportunities to meet a growing demand for
REPRODUCIBILITY AND
new raw-material formulations specifically for
MATERIALS
use in one or more of the seven distinct proSTANDARIZATION
cesses that comprise AM (see box, p. 22).

IN BRIEF

EFFORTS

Growth and promise

The 2014 edition of the annual Wohlers Report, an AM-industry publication authored
by the firm of consultant Terry Wohlers
(Wohlers Associates Inc.; Fort Collins,
Colo.; wohlersassociates.com), estimates
that the market for 3-D printing worldwide
surpassed the $3-billion mark in 2014, and
saw the highest compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) for the industry in 17 years, at
34.9%. From 2011 to 2013, the industry
CAGR averaged 32.3%, and strong growth
is expected over the next several years,
Wohlers Report 2014 says.
Projections by Lloyds Register (London;
www.lr.org) suggest the market for AM is set
to grow by 390% over the next seven years.
The report further notes that growth will be
fueled by sales of personal 3-D printers, as
well as by the expanded use of the technology for producing final parts (especially
metal) that go into commercial use.
Wohlers Report 2014 found that revenues
from the production of parts for final products now represent 34.7% of the entire market for AM. Since 2003, this market segment
has grown from less than 4% to over onethird of the total revenues from AM products
and services worldwide.
AM approaches enable significant advantages over conventional formative manufacturing processes. Shane Collins, director
of program management at Incodema3D
(Ithaca, N.Y.; www.incodema3d.com), says
key advantages include tool-less fabrication, just-in-time inventory control, pointof-sale manufacturing, freeform fabrication,
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INITIATIVES
R&D AIMS

FEBRUARY 2015

mass customization and design democratization.

Without doubt, AM technologies
present opportunities for tighter supply chains, reduced logistics costs,
more complex designs and a greater
degree of customization, adds Claire
Ruggiero, technical vice president of
inspection services at Lloyds Register Energy.
In addition to complex internal features and highly customizable parts,
AM processes also have the potential
to allow variable material functionality
for load paths and locally altered material for wear- and corrosion-resistance. AM processes also minimize
material waste and reduce the time
between design and production.
When final parts or products require
a complicated geometry, and when a
good method of making something
is lacking, AM processes tend to be
very effective and economic at delivering, says Dave Bourell, professor of
mechanical engineering and materials
science at the University of Texas at
Austin (UT; www.utexas.edu).

AM technologies allow for tighter supply chains,

reduced logistics costs, more complex designs and
greater customization, Lloyds Registers Ruggiero says
Reproducibility and materials
AM processes expose raw materials to different process physics than
those in traditional manufacturing
methods. And the different types
of AM processes can have different
raw-materials requirements. Understanding how process conditions
affect the materials and the final
products made from them is critical
to the widespread use of AM. Questions such as How dependent are
the properties of final parts on the
variables of the process? and How
reproducible are mechanical property
results? must be addressed for AM
to fluorish in industrial applications.
As AM approaches are more widely
used in manufacturing final products,
there is increased pressure to improve
process reproducibility and to expand
the range of materials that can be
used in the processes. ULs Stucker

sees reproducibility as a key limiting

factor. The materials that are currently available would be more widely
adopted if we just had more predictability and repeatability, he says.
Developing new materials for AM
processes requires adapting the
material for the thermal history associated with that process, which is
different than what you would see in
conventional processes like injection
molding, explains Stucker. Materials
developed for injection molding often
dont work well for AM, he says.
Establishing the correct process parameters for the properties of a given
raw material is essential to obtaining
a product with the desired properties,
says John Slotwinski, a researcher at
the Johns Hopkins University Applied
Physics Laboratory (JHU-APL; Baltimore, Md.; www.jhuapl.edu).
There is significant demand for

Y
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INC.

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SINCE 1982
Custom Catalyst

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FEBRUARY 2015

21

AM PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

dditive manufacturing (AM) refers to a set of seven distinct

processes for applying successive layers of a raw material in
a directed fashion, according to a computer file that renders
objects in three-dimensions. All AM technologies begin with 3-D models created by computer-aided design (CAD) tools. The 3-D model is
converted into stereolithography format, which slices the model into
a series of cross-sections. AM machines are considered a form of industrial robot. They use the cross-sectional slices from the computer
file to lay down layer upon layer of material, eventually forming a 3-D
shape that matches that of the computer file that guides it.
Conceptually, the seven different processes are similar, but important technical differences exist. The descriptions here are adapted
from the ASTM F2792 Standard on AM terminology. Several of the
seven main types have various subcategories.
1. Binder jetting (used with metals, plastics and ceramics). Powder
material is spread over a build platform, and a liquid binder adhesive is deposited to join powder materials.
2. Directed-energy deposition (metal only). Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited. The focused thermal-energy source could be a laser, electron
beam or plasma arc focused to melt materials being deposited.
3. Material extrusion (polymer only). Raw material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice. Examples include fuse-deposition modeling (FDM).
4. Material jetting (polymer). Droplets of build material are jetted
onto a build surface, where it solidifies. Examples include photopolymers and wax
5. Powder-bed fusion (both metal and plastic). Thermal energy (for
example, a laser or electron beam) selectively fuses regions of a
powder bed.
6. Sheet lamination (metal sheets, paper and plastic sheets). Sheets
of raw material are bonded together to form an object. Examples

the ability to use more different types

of materials in AM, but so far, the
leading companies have not really
pushed the envelope in terms of really going after a wide range of new
materials yet, Wohlers remarks.
Theres going to be a lot of interesting activity in the area of expanding
the materials, both in high-end performance materials to low-end, less
expensive materials, he predicts.
UTs Bourell says one of the holy
grails of AM is to have a systematic
way of evaluating materials for use in
AM, which doesnt exist yet, he says.
Currently, most AM materials are
developed in-house by the vendors
who also sell AM machines, as a way
to help ensure that the materials will
work well in the process. In the future, as standards come online, materials will come from a wider variety
of sources, Wohlers explains, meaning a more competitive environment
in the future.
There are many opportunities for
the chemical industry to develop new
polymer formulations and material
chemistries that work with AM processes, says ULs Brent Stucker.
22

include ultrasonic additive manufacturing and laminated object

manufacturing.
7. Vat photopolymerization (polymer only). Liquid photopolymer
resin in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization.
Powder-bed fusion processes, like polymer laser sintering, lasermetal sintering and electron-beam melting are the leaders right now,
and they have a head start on being used for direct production and
manufacturing of final products, says ULs Brent Stucker. Other technologies are useful for niche applications, and could move ahead rapidly, but powder-bed fusion is the sweet spot right now, he says.
Materials used in AM are varied and include the following:
Polymers
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
PLA (polylactide), including soft PLA
PC (polycarbonate)
Polyamide (nylon)
Nylon 12 (tensile strength 45 MPa)
Glass filled nylon (12.48 Mpa)
Epoxy resin
Photopolymer resins
Metals
Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V,
Aluminum AlSi10Mg alloy
Various types of steel (maraging steel, 15-5 PH stainless steel
Cobalt-chromium alloy
Inconel
Gold and silver
Ceramic powders
Silica/glass
Porcelain
Silicon carbide

Cost and qualification

Standardization efforts

To fully realize the potential of AM

technology, the cost of producing
parts by that method will be a key parameter. If you dissect the part cost,
it turns out that the largest segment
arises from the AM machine cost, followed closely by the feedstock cost,
explains UTs Bourell, so if machines
get faster and less expensive, and
that is coupled with low-cost feedstock, the markets will boom.
However, to be able to reliably use
a material in AM processing, a better understanding is required of the
microstructure of a product and its
degree of porosity, Bourell says.
With AM-derived products, consistency and quality control of the
final parts are major concerns. The
use of final AM-made metal parts
is limited primarily by the industrys ability to certify and qualify the
parts, says JHU-APLs Slotwinski.
The industry is still trying to figure
out how to do qualification and certification quickly and easily, but its
a tough problem. AMs full impact
will be felt when that can be done
routinely, he says.

Voluntary consensus standards

represent a critical aspect of addressing the questions raised in the
development of AM, and a committee at ASTM International (West
Conshohocken, Pa.; www.astm.
org) is working on that front. First
established in 2009, ASTM Committee F42 on Additive Manufacturing
Technologies now includes over 300
members from 22 countries. Were
seeing an important wave of activity
around industry standards for AM,
says Terry Wohlers, but theres still
much work to be done.
Among the top industry barriers is
a lack of standards, notes Slotwinski,
an F42 member who chairs the Test
Methods subcommittee. Standards
help ensure correctness, confidence,
consistency and common terminology. Standardized practices, materials and techniques must be identified
and validated for AM, he says.
Currently, there is no standardized means of evidencing the safety
and integrity of additive manufactured products, says Claire Ruggiero, technical vice president for

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

inspection services at Lloyds Register Energy. This is a major focus

for Lloyds Register Energy, including participation on the British Standards Institute Committee for additive manufacturing, which is working
towards generating a collection of
ISO standards.
Consensus standards programs
help provide a bridge between R&D
work and commercialization, remarks
Pat Picariello, ASTM director of developmental operations and staff manager of Technical Committee F42.
The efforts of ASTM Committee
F42 will have a huge positive influence on the confidence of companies that want to use AM-produced
parts, or those who want to enter the
market as producers of raw materials, Picariello explains. Standardization efforts have been incredibly helpful
in making companies feel confident
about entering the space, and using

metal-based AM systems and the

components produced by them.

Industry initiatives
Many in the field recognize that realizing the potential of AM technology
for production of engineered metallic
components requires the collaboration and collective expertise of organizations involved in all aspects of the
technology. And indeed, alongside the
consensus standards efforts, there
are also significant industry initiatives
designed to foster those linkages.
Industry consortia will play a significant role in accelerating the adoption
of AM, notes ULs Stucker.
For example, the organization
America Makes (Youngstown, Ohio;
www.americamakes.us) is a network
of over 100 U.S. government agencies, companies, academic research
institutions and non-profit groups
focused on AM. And the Additive

Industry consortia will play a significant role in

accelerating the adoption of AM, notes ULs Stucker
the technology," he says.
The F42 group includes four technical subcommittees (test methods,
design, materials and processes; and
terminology) that have developed 10
standards to date. Another 1520
work items are in various stages of
development, with several expecting
approval in 2015. ASTM is working
with the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO; Geneva,
Switzerland; www.iso.org) to jointly
develop standards for AM.
Among the approved standards the
Standard Guide for Characterizing
Properties of Metal Powders Used
for AM Processes. The document
is expected be critical for determining the properties of the feedstock
powder used in AM processes a
necessary condition, ASTM says, for
establishing industrys confidence
in powder selection and its ability to
produce consistent components with
known and predictable properties.
The standard will serve as a starting point for the future development
of a suite of specific standard test
methods that will address each individual property or property type that
is important to the performance of
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Manufacturing Consortium is a group

operated by engineering and technology organization EWI (Columbus,
Ohio; www.ewi.org) that is designed
to foster technical interchange among
academia, government and industry.
Incodema3Ds Collins says industry-wide consortia will play a key role
in creating the expensive materialproperties databases that engineers
can use to make accurate designs
and that AM is currently lacking.
Meanwhile, Lloyds Register recently
announced a new Joint Industry Project (JIP) on AM that seeks to foster
collaboration among the key parties
in the industry, from material and machine suppliers, manufacturers, endusers and research organizations. By
collectively considering the risks and
control measures from different perspectives, the JIP hopes to shape
best practice standards in AM.

R&D aims
As the adoption of AM gains steam,
R&D work in the field will continue to
be intense. UTs Bourell says The
AM research community needs to
focus on the following areas: increase materials offerings, increase

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

part-property reliability, reduce defects in final products, and enhance

the user experience, through the development of better computer-aided
design (CAD) software.
In addition to focusing on the predictability, repeatability and reproducibility issues, and developing new
materials, ULs Stucker says that AM
machine performance (speed) is an
important focus of R&D, as is learning to control material properties in
the as-built and heat-treated state,
and learning to overcome residual
stress-induced inaccuracies.
JHU-APLs Slotwinski adds that
developing a high-fidelity industry
database of AM material properties,
advancing qualification and certification protocols, and improving in-process sensing and control should be
key research goals.
In-situ process sensors and monitoring combined with closed-loop
feedback will be the next step in
process control capability, Incodema3Ds Collins elaborates.
Another aspect noted by Slotwinski
developing physics-based modeling systems of AM processes is
something that ULs Stucker is heavily
involved with, and one that Stucker
thinks will have a huge impact. Accurate simulation can dramatically
reduce the need for experiments,
says Stucker. You can train modeling software to evaluate a wide range
of what-if scenarios in AM proceses
without spending as much time and
resources on the experiments.
To date, growth in AM has been
based on empirical experiments, he
explains, and simulations designed
for the complexity and details of AM
are not currently available.
Stucker started a company known
as 3DSIM (Louisville, Ky.; www.3dsim.
com) to commercialize modeling software and tools to fill the gap. Simulation ability of the software we are
developing can significantly increase
the rate of innovation in AM, says
Stucker, because it moves the industry from an experiment-based paradigm for innovation to a simulationn
based innovation paradigm.
Scott Jenkins
Additional quotes and information on additive
manufacturing can be found in the online version
of this article, at www.chemengonline.com
23

Newsfront

Valves for Extreme Service

To meet the needs of the chemical process industries, new valve materials and designs
combat corrosion and leaks

n the grand scheme of any chemical

process, a valve might seem an afterthought. However, in reality, valves play
as critical a role as any reactor, separator,
mixer or other integral piece of equipment.
For this reason, the reliability of valves is a
major concern. No matter the application or
valve style, processors require valves that
can stand up to harsh chemicals and process environments, while reliably containing
liquids or gases. Fortunately, valve manufacturers are developing new materials and
designs to help keep their valves, and your
chemical processes, up and running.

IN BRIEF
SEVERE PROCESS
ENVIRONMENTS
PREVENTING FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
Source: Cashco

Severe process environments

One of the primary challenges we see regarding valves in the chemical processing industry is demanding service conditions, says
Nang Chau, global product manager with ITT
Engineered Valves (Lancaster, Pa.; www.
engvalves.com). Common chemical process
applications may be corrosive, erosive, scaling or hazardous in nature; and are often at
elevated temperatures and pressures.
And, these issues are becoming more of
a concern as processes change to become
more sophisticated or efficient, adds Doug
Jones, president of Cooper Valves (Stafford,
Tex.; www.coopervalves.com). With the
conversion of feedstocks to natural gas feeds
and the desire to make processes more efficient, which is driving the increased use of
catalysts and high-temperature applications,
we are finding more and more chemical processors are faced with the need for valves
that will remain reliable in challenging service
environments, says Jones.
In addition, in critical services, valves must
be capable of absolute shutoff while maintaining piping-system integrity. Valve manufacturers bring to the table expertise in materials science, alloys and polymers to help
processors find a valve that is right for their
individual process conditions. For example,
explains Chau. We have many customers
handling dry chlorine. Dry chlorine ball valves
are susceptible to ferric chloride buildup,
24

FIGURE 1. Model 521 is

a sliding stem, globe-style,
bellows-sealed, pneumatically actuated control valve
designed for maximum corrosion resistance in pure chemical service

which can minimize seat life due to buildup

on the ball. ITT developed an abrasion-resistant ceramic ball that eliminates ferric chloride formation, leading to extended seat life
and more reliable valve performance.
Creative materials and valve designs can
be found in just about every valve destined for
use in a chemical application. For instance,
Groth Corp. (Stafford, Tex.; www.grothcorp.
com) also offers corrosion-resistant materials
in its line of extreme-corrosion-service pressure and vacuum relief valves. The polymer
valves operate in a similar fashion to metal
and fiberglass counterparts, but are available in more resistant materials, says Greg
Berdine, senior technical specialist with
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Groth. The valves protect low-pressure atmospheric storage tanks from

excessive pressure and/or vacuum,
but the all-polymer internal construction enables them to operate in harsh
chemical environments that would
damage traditional metal and fiberglass valves. The non-metallic pressure/vacuum relief valves are available in polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
polypropylene (PP), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and chlorinated
polyvinylchloride (CPVC), which are
resistant to chemical attack.
And because control valves also
face corrosion and chemical compatibility challenges, Dan Ray, director of EPC management with Cashco
(Ellsworth, Kan.; www.cashco.com),
says his company offers their control
valves not only in corrosion-resistant
materials, but also with improved
valve designs. For example, Model
521 (Figure 1) is a sliding-stem,
globe-style, bellows-sealed, pneumatically actuated control valve
designed to provide long-term per-

formance and maximum corrosion

resistance in pure chemical service.
The design allows for all wetted internal parts to be machined from
a solid block of isostatically compacted, virgin tetrafluoroethylene
(TFE) to ensure maximum density
and low permeability.
The benefit of this design, says
Ray, is very thick walls, which result
in longer life. This valve was designed
for corrosive chemical use, including
hazardous or toxic fluids. It provides
ultimate performance when handling
chlorine, bromine, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acids
and most industrial reagents. It also
performs well in alkaline or strong
basic fluids and most organics.
In addition to corrosion and
chemicals, many valves used in the
process industries encounter dirty
or abrasive conditions, which can
quickly take a toll on valve life. For
this reason, Flowrox (Linthicum, Md.;
www.flowrox.com) launched a new
slurry knife gate product, the SKW

Source: Val-Matic

FIGURE 2. QuadroSphere trunnion ball valves

handle tailing, dirty mine waters and gas-and-liquid
applications in the mining and steel industries

valve, for use in the oil-and-gas, mining, minerals and metallurgy, power
and wastewater industries, where
abrasive or corrosive slurries, powders or coarse substances are processed. The valve was engineered at

CHEMICAL PROCESSING SOLUTIONS

Complete process control for every aspect of your chemical operation.
The Model 1049 Secure-Gard is a
pilot-operated vent valve intended
for installation on atmospheric and
low-pressure storage tanks, vapor
recovery systems, and process
systems.

The Model 1078 Vacu-Gard is a

pilot-operated valve, speciically
designed to reduce blanketing
gas losses on low-pressure
storage tanks.

The Model 521 is a sliding stem,

globe style, bellows sealed,
pneumatically actuated control valve
designed for maximum corrosion
resistance in pure chemical service.

For immediate access to our

product resource iles, visit
www.cashco.com/chem

www.cashco com
Innovative Solutions

Cashco, Inc. P.O. Box 6, Ellsworth, KS 67439-0006 Ph. (785) 472-4461, Fax: (785) 472-3539
Circle 6 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-06
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

25

full-bore with no flow restrictions, allowing processes with damaging fluids, such as lime or mineral slurries,
to move without compromising performance. Because of the full-bore
design, the valve itself becomes an
integral part of the pipe and allows
it to process the same fluids in the
harshest of conditions.
Similarly, Val-Matic (Elmhurst, Ill.;
www.valmatic.com) offers its Quadro-

Sphere trunnion ball valves (Figure 2)

for service in tailing, dirty mine waters
and gas and liquid applications in the
mining and steel industries. The trunnion-mounted ball has lip edges that
clean the seating surfaces whenever
the valve is operated. The recessed
surfaces on the ball provide for selfflushing of the inner body to prevent
scale and solids buildup.
Meanwhile, as oil-and-gas produc-

Source: ITT Engineered Valves

FIGURE 3. ITT offers a bellows assembly that

removes all dynamic sealing surfaces and is hermetically sealed

Source: Cooper Valves

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FIGURE 4. Accuseal metal-seated ball valves

offer Omni-Lap 360 , which mate-laps the entire
ball and seat for optimal roundness, producing
100% ball-to-seat contact

tion moves to even more challenging

geographic areas, the standard 40
to 85C environment tolerance is no
longer sufficient. In particular, more
stringent regulations originating from
North America, Russia and China have
made it necessary for valve controllers
to be certified for even more extreme
temperatures. To meet these evolving
needs, Metso Corp. (Helsinki, Finland;
www.metso.com) recently launched
an Arctic option that expands its Neles
ND9000
intelligent-valve-controller
family and enables the controller to
withstand temperatures from 53 to
85C. The Arctic-temperature option
is available in aluminum and stainlesssteel flameproof enclosures. For both
material options, an intrinsically safe
option is also available.

Preventing fugitive emissions

2014 The Lubrizol Corporation, all rights reserved. All marks are the property of The Lubrizol Corporation.
The Lubrizol Corporation is a Berkshire Hathaway company.
GC 140681

Circle 20 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-20
26

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The valve industry is also focused

on preventing leakage and emissions in the most critical services,
says Chau. Stem seal leakage is
generally a primary concern when
considering compliance with emisWWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Source: Groth

ing band of the ball-to-seat surfaces, creating ridges that distort the
balls roundness and compromise
the coating thickness. The sealing
sweet spot originates a leak path if
even slightly misaligned, resulting in
reduced valve life, more maintenance
and higher actuation costs. Vacuum
testing of every Accuseal ball and seat
prior to assembly verifies 100% ballto-seat seal to Class VI shutoff. All

this means theres minimal chance of

leakage happening, says Jones.
Fugitive emissions are of a particular concern where volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are present, says
Groths Berdine. We have many requests from customers in the solvents and paints industry concerning
the reduction of VOC emissions into
the atmosphere, he says. The Environmental Protection Agency is re-

FIGURE 5. The 1660A pilot-operated relief valve

is used to prevent structural damage due to excess internal pressure or vacuum

HEAT TRANSFER FLUID

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

FLUID USERS GUIDE

Source: Griffco

SYSTEM CLEANERS
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VALUE
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HIGH VOLUME

FIGURE 6. Unibody back-pressure and pressure-relief valves feature single-piece construction

with union connections machined together with
the valve body to form a solid piece of material

sions regulations and safety.

Improvements to typical stem-seal
designs can often address these
problems. For example, says Chau,
ITT offers a bellows assembly which
removes all dynamic sealing surfaces
and is hermetically sealed; thus delivering a solution that inherently eliminates packing gland adjustment and
stem packing leakage (Figure 3).
Jones agrees that seal design
plays a major role in eliminating fugitive emissions. He says Coopers
Accuseal metal-seated ball valves
(Figure 4) are an excellent example
of unique design, including a proprietary mate-lapping technology.
Omni-Lap 360 produces a tight,
reliable seal. All metal-seated ball
valves rely on continuous, unbroken contact between the metal ball
and seat to create an isolating seal.
Omni-Lap 360 mate-laps the entire
ball and seat for optimal roundness,
producing 100% ball-to-seat contact, regardless of positioning.
Traditional cup-lapping methods,
explains Jones, mate only the sealCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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Explore a clickable image where all the keywords in this drum link
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Circle 23 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-23
FEBRUARY 2015

27

One of the primary challenges we see regarding valves

in the [CPI] is demanding service conditions.
Nang Chau, ITT Engineered Valves

ally watching manufacturers in these

industries with a close eye.
He says as parts of its mandate to
protect public health, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA;
Washington, D.C.) has issued a protocol designed to detect and eliminate
fugitive VOC leaks in a wide array of
process equipment, including valves.
Method 21 currently allows for no
more than 500 ppm [parts per million] leakage, he says. In response,
Groth offers its 1660A pilot-operated
relief valve (Figure 5) for liquid storage
tanks and other process vessels or
systems to prevent structural damage due to excess internal pressure
or vacuum. The valve has two principal advantages over standard relief
valves, says Berdine. First, its bubble-tight to set pressure and, second,

it is fully open at less than 10% above

set pressure. These characteristics
permit an operating pressure nearer
to the maximum allowable working
pressure of the tank. High operating
pressures reduce evaporation and
total venting volume, thereby reducing product loss and cost of processing emissions. This valve meets the
requirements of Method 21 testing,
as it offers premium seat tightness,
says Berdine.
Fluid leaks are also a big issue
in the chemical process industries
(CPI) since what they are processing
is likely to be corrosive or harmful,
notes Colin Black, president of Griffco
Valve (Amherst, N.Y.; www.griffcovalve.com). Threads provide a path for
the chemical to walk down and drip,
so in many instances, chemical pro-

cessors are looking for a solution to

leaks in an effort to protect personnel
and equipment.
Often, he says, the problem can
be solved using flanges and union
connectors, but in applications such
as chemical feed, metering and dosing pump systems, a valve made
from a solid block of material is often
the best solution. Griffcos leak-free
Unibody back-pressure and pressure-relief valves feature single-piece
construction with union connections
machined together with the valve
body to form a solid piece of material
(Figure 6). Trouble-free and leak-free
operation is possible because there
are no threads, gaskets, glues or
welds to cause problems. Designed
for hard-to-seal or troublesome piping systems, the valve is engineered
to be reliable and to safeguard the
chemical feed system by applying
a continuous back pressure to the
chemical feed pump, while also acting as an anti-siphon valve.

Joy LePree

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Circle 26 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-26
28

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Focus

Industrial Housekeeping
Safeguard industrial workwear
and tools with this rugged bin
This companys lockable industrial
storage bin (photo) is available for
gathering soiled workwear for laundering, used sorbent products (nonhazardous materials), maintenance
tools and related industrial hygiene
items. Its metal-free interior safeguards the stored goods. Its onepiece, rotationally molded lid and
door, made from 100% waterproof,
ultraviolet (UV)-resistant polyethylene, ensures a tight seal in inclement
weather, and it will not crack, fade
or deteriorate, allowing it to be used
outdoors. The unit cannot harbor
bacteria or mold and wipes clean
with common cleaning agents, says
the company. Meese Orbitron
Dunne Co., Ashtabula, Ohio
www.modlaundry.com.com

Durable floor decals provide

clear safety instructions
This companys Smart Signs (photo)
allow facilities to clearly and efficiently
communicate information and safety
instructions with stickers placed on
floors or walls. The peel-and-stick
messages are made of durable,
high-bond acrylic with a 5-mil polyvinyl chloride (PVC) laminate layer
that is slightly textured, with scratchresistant and anti-skid properties.
This construction allows them to
withstand heavy foot and forklift traffic. They are available in three sizes:
12- and 17-in. round or 14-by-20-in.
rectangles with rounded corners.
Byron Center, Mich.
www.visualworkplace.com

Device safely extracts fumes

during tank and tote filling
The Fill Tube with Fume Eliminator
assembly (photo) is designed to simplify the venting of noxious, dangerous or hazardous fumes when filling
drums, totes or tanks with solvents
or chemicals. It features a one-piece,
closed-system fill-tube design with a
built-in chamber to control filling and
eliminate fumes. The stainless-steel
product has two large handles for
easy installation and removal into

standard 2-in. bung hold flanges. It

comes in a variety of sizes, is available with multiple inlets (male and
female), quick connectors, and I-line
and S-line connectors. The outlet
ends can be made to any length or
configuration (such as straight or
J-shape). American Machining,
Fenton, Mich.
www.ibcresource.com

Reduce worker risk with these

antiseptic nitrile gloves
BioGard is said to be the first antimicrobial-treated, single-use glove designed to reduce the risk of transient
microorganisms. These self-cleaning gloves have been shown to kill
up to 99.999% of bacteria they contact. BioGard gloves work by combining the companys antimicrobial
technology with polyhexamethaline
biguanide (PHMB), a powerful yet
safe antiseptic, says the firm. Nitrile
rubber construction makes them
safe for latex-sensitive skin, and textured fingertips promote a safer grip.
Ansell Ltd., Iselin, N.J.
www.ansell.com

Meese Orbitron Dunne

Visual Workplace

This versatile device crushes

drums, or their contents
The Sahara explosion-proof drum
crusher and compactor (photo)
helps facilities to reduce waste volumes and enable more economical
disposal of drums, which can be
flattened to 4 in. Its totally explosionproof construction makes it ideal for
use in NFPA Class 1, Div. 1 areas.
It provides 60,000 lb of compaction
force, rugged welded-steel construction and a non-sparking compaction chamber. A quick-change
head allows the device to provde indrum compacting, as well. Benko
Products, Sheffield Village, Ohio
www.benkoproducts.com

American Machining

Benko Products

Cleaning and inspection device

targets subsea flexible joints
The Flex Joint Cleaning Tool (FJCT)
was originally designed for one major
oil company to help clean flexible
elastomeric elements in joints with
diameters ranging from 4 to 24 in.,

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 70, or use the website designation.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

29

against excessive marine growth

an essential step to allow for reliable
operation and proper inspections.
This company now operates a rental
fleet to enable companies to use the
FJCT. The product offering allows
users to work with various inspection
cameras, 3D modeling, lasers, temperature probes and cleaning tools,
and to collect various types of information, data and images to guide
subsea inspection and maintenance
operations. Seanic Ocean Systems, Houston
www.seanicusa.com

Acoustiblok

Morgan Advanced
Materials

New Star Environmental

Kafko International

Sound-abatement solutions
help curb industrial noise
Quiet-Cloud
Industrial
Sound
Absorption Panels (photo) reduce
noise from industrial environments.
They rely on Acoustiblok, a propietary viscoelastic polymer material
with a high-density mineral content.
As sound waves cause the material
to flex, internal friction occurs and
the acoustical energy is dissipated
via an isothermal adiabatic principal.
The panels can be installed without
major construction changes, special
tools or skilled labor and is approved
for use in more than 375 fire-rated
wall, floor and ceiling configurations.
The companys Industrial All Weather
Sound Panels, designed for outdoor
use, have a noise-reduction coefficient of 1.00, and are engineered to
withstand damage from water, moistur, humid salt air and salt water, dirt,
dust, constant ultraviolet light, grease
and harsh chemicals. Acoustiblok,
Tampa, Fla.
www.acoustiblok.com

Sprayed refractory cement

provides reliable fire protection
FireMaster FireBarrier 135 is a
sprayed refractory-cement product
that provides fire protection and is
easy to install (photo). Its use can
help safeguard concrete tunnels,
ventilation shafts, escape tunnels
and refuge spaces, as well as critical conduit systems used for water
mains and communication cables. It
can be applied to concrete or metal
substrates using standard spraying
equipment. It is adhesive to most
construction materials and can be
flattened with a trowel, and fixtures
can be attached to it. It can also be
cast into sheet form and installed as
30

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

a dry board or shape for applications

where spraying is not convenient. It
meets NFPA 502 requirements.
Morgan Advanced Materials, Windsor, U.K.
morganadvancedmaterials.com

Capture air samples with

chain-of-custody confidence
The patented VeriAir Flex Manual
Inflating Sample Bag (photo) is
designed for emergency-response
situations, where an atmospheric
air sample can be collected in a hot
zone and then moved to a safe zone
for immediate testing with a portable
gas chromatograph or other analytical instrument. The design allows
an atmospheric grab sample to be
collected directly without the need
for a calibrated sampling pump or
other equipment, says the company.
It has multi-layer foil construction,
is rated at 5,800 lbs tensile
strength, and offers excellent barrier
properties. It has a built-in volumetric
pump and valve, and has no batteries
to replace. Each VeriAirFlex includes
a unique identifying number on the
label that allows the user to ensure
reliaable
chain-of-custody
handling and support sampleretention records. New Star
Environmental, Roswell, Ga.
www.newstarenvironmental.com

Absorbent, tear-proof flooring

helps improve worker safety
The absorbent Oil Eater Tuff Rug
(photo) is a durable flooring material
that provides long-wearing durability
needed to keep floors dry and safe
in high-traffic areas, including forklift
aisles and walkways in manufacturing
plants and other industrial settings. It
is made of 100% recycled materials
and available in rolls with 36-in. width
and 150-ft length. Kafko International, Skokie, Ill.
www.oileater.com

Capture vent gases using

water or reagents
The ScrubPac Vent Clean packaged
scrubber systems are designed to
capture and remove emissions of
acids, ammonia, alcohols, formaldehyde, amines, sodium bisulfite,
hydrogen sulfide and many other
water-soluble contaminants that
arise during breathing and filling operations from storage tanks and rail-

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

cars. The VentClean is now available

in four model sizes to handle gas capacities through 1,500 ft3/min. Two
configurations are available to adapt
to a variety of scrubbing liquid preferences. Type 1 is configured to use
water on a once-through basis. Type
2 uses a special circulation pump
that reduces water consumption,
or allows for the use of chemical reagents, such as sodium hydroxide
on a recirculated batch basis.
Bionomic Industries, Mahwah, N.J.
www.bionomicind.com

ics, Kemp, Tex.

www.larsonelectronics.com

Barrier systems reduce

workplace hazards
The Guardian Defender is an automated barrier door that is designed to
guard machinery, contain processes
and protect employees from robotics and machine-movement zones.
Compared to its predecessor, the

Slimline, the latest version includes

patent-pending upgrades to its noncontact safety switch configuration,
control systems and interlocking
capabilities, says the firm. Variablefrequency drive control is available
to manage curtain speed and quickdisconnect cables allow for easier installation and integration than comparable barrier doors. The barrier is
designed to increase worker safety

Creating tangible
solutions...

TLV Corp.

This air vent is suitable for

sanitary applications
The VS3 Air Vent (photo) is designed
for sanitary applications requiring an
air vent for a liquid line or filter. Threepoint seating and a rubber valve seat
allow for tight sealing. The compact
device can function as an air vent or
a vacuum breaker, and thanks to its
size, it is suitable for use in confined
or tight spaces. With a crevice-free
design that allows for easy cleaning
and free drainage of liquids without
pooling, the VS3 meets specific requirements for materials, surface
treatments, component configuration and industry standards set forth
by FDA and USP. The VS3 is available with a variety of internal and
exernal electropolished surface finishes, some as fine as 0.5 m Ra.
TLV Corp., Charlotte, N.C.
www.TLV.com

GEM Valves features diaphragm

valves, butterfly valves,
angle seat and globe valves,
lined metal valves, and
multiport block valves.

Portable lighting solutions

ease tank cleaning
A broad range of products are designed to provide portable, explosion-proof lighting tools both
handheld and cart-mounted to
support tank-cleaning operations.
Different options are available to provide either broad square footage of
illumination or intense focused light
for close work. Larson ElectronCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

3800 Camp Creek Parkway

Building 2600 Suite 120 Atlanta, GA 30331
Tel: 678-553-3400 Fax: 678-553-3459 [email protected]

www.gemu.com
Circle 14 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-14

chemEng201502_GEMUisld.inddFEBRUARY
1
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2015

1/7/2015 1:30:41 PM

31

related to robotic welding cells,

material-handling operations, automated assembly systems, palletizing
and packaging machinery and others that require electronic safeguarding devices. Rite-Hite Machine
Guarding, Milwaukee, Wisc.
www.ritehite.com

Move drums without

the need for a forklift
The Pig Poly Deck with Pallet Jack
Pockets (photo) is the latest product
to join this companys spill-containment product offerings. Using this
device, operators can move drums
without the need for a forklift. Because the Poly Deck has fork channels that are sized and spaced to fit
most pallet jacks, it can be moved
quickly and easily using a pallet jack,
even when fully loaded. Its low-density polyethylene construction helps
to resist damage from UV rays, rust,
corrosion and most chemicals. The
2,000-lb capacity will support two
fully loaded steel and poly drums
without buckling. The 22-gal. sump

New Pig

catches leaks and drips during drum

transfer. New Pig, Tipton, Pa.
www.newpig.com

Capture fumes with this

streamlined hood
The Purair 20 Ductless Fume Hood
(photo) is designed to provide operator protection when hazardous substances are present. A face velocity
at 100 foot/min ensures containment
of fumes and an alarm alerts the operator when the airflow falls to an
unacceptable level. All switches and
electrical components are isolated
from the dirty airflow to prevent contamination. The device is 49 in. wide,
27.5 in. deep and 47.5 in. high. A
larger version with width of 96 in. is
also available. To capture a range of
organic compounds, solvents, acids,
mercury and formaldehyde, 14 types
of carbon filter are available. The
filter is required by ANSI Z9.5 section 4.12 4.2. Air Science USA,
Fort Myers, Fla.
www.airscience.com

Suzanne Shelley

NEW

...

Air Science

When it comes to harsh

operating environments

Weve got
you covered.

ITS A CHECK-ALL
Our spring loaded check
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times are less than one
week. Thats what makes
Check-All the only choice.

Roto Hammer is pleased to

offer another NEW product
Stainless Steel Chain Wheels for:
Harsh operating environments
High moisture environments
We also ofer galvanized chain wheels to
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The NEW Chucket,

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Circle 7 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-07
32

Also available:
The NEW Chuckout
with Lockout/Tagout
feature - patent pending

Circle 29 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-29

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

New Products
Molecular structure database
now has 750,000 entries
Over 750,000 entries are now available to the scientific community
through the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD). This fully validated database, established in 1965, contains
all small-molecule chemical structures
ever published, and is an essential resource to scientists around the world.
Information derived from crystal structures is vital to structural chemistry research, in particular to pharmaceutical drug discovery, materials design
and drug development and formulation. Cambridge Crystallographic
Data Center Inc., Cambridge, U.K.
www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk

Head-mount transmitter for

hazardous area applications
The M100 (photo) is a two-wire transmitter for liquid analytics in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries.
The M100 is said to be the worlds first
transmitter for analytical measurement
based on a compact head-mount
design, and without a local interface.
This new member of the companys
transmitter portfolio offers global approvals for hazardous-area use, and
combines multiparameter measurement with remote access to predictive sensor-diagnostic tools over the
HART communication protocol. The
transmitter covers pH/ORP (oxidationreduction potential), dissolved oxygen
and conductivity measurements.
Mettler Toledo, Process Analytics Div.,
Urdorf, Switzerland
www.mt.com/pro-m100

Two new self-loading

regulator valves
With the introduction of the new
SLR-1 and SLR-2 self-loading regulator valves (photo), this company now
offers more choices for pressure regulation. The SLR-1 consists of a DA4
high-performance, pressure-loaded,
flow-to-open, pressure-reducing regulator with either this companys P1 or
Fairchild Model 10 pressure-reducing
regulator mounted onto it. The inlet
of the main valve will divert into the
P1/Fairchild, which in turn reduces
the pressure to the level that is required inside the cover dome in order
to maintain the setpoint of the main
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

valve. Similar to the SLR-1, the SLR-2

employs a P1/Fairchild valve mounted
onto a DA4 pressure-reducing regulator. However, unlike the SLR-1, the
P1/Fairchild used on the SLR-2 is not
self-relieving. Instead, the cover dome
pressure will constantly bleed through
a filter and check valve, and dump
back into the outlet of the main valve.
Cashco, Inc., Ellsworth, Kan.
www.cashco.com

Mettler Toledo

Slash mine-ventilation electricity

costs with this smart system
The SmartVentilation system (photo) is
a complete solution to the challenge
of providing fresh air and venting toxic
gases from subterranean mines. It
also minimizes energy use by ventilating only those areas of a mine that
require it. The company estimates
that this ability to work on-demand
could reduce an operators electricity
bill by up to half. The SmartVentilation
system is divided into three implementation levels SmartBasic,
SmartMid and SmartPerfect. These
give different degrees of control over
the operation of the mines intake
and exhaust fans. The fans and their
drives come in modular form and are
controlled with the companys System 800xA automation platform.
ABB, Baden, Switzerland
www.abb.com

Cashco

This scanner can accept up

to 16 process variables
The Vantageview PD6730X Modbus
scanner (photo) is designed for accurate display of and quick access
to information, locally or remotely, in
wet or dirty environments. The scanner can accept up to 16 individually programmed process variables
(PVs) from multiple devices, and four
math channels allow for calculations
on multiple PVs. The pulse input accepts a wide range of flow-transmitter signals, such as millivolt input
from a magnetic flowmeter and highfrequency signals. The PD6730X includes backlighting, two open-collector outputs, and an analog output as
standard. The scanner is housed in
a durable, injection-molded thermal
plastic enclosure. Precision Digital
Corp., Holliston, Mass.
www.predig.com

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

ABB

Precision Digital

33

Brkert Fluid Control Systems

A new solenoid valve variant for minum oxide; Al2O3) is highly resilient
high-pressure applications
against both abrasion and wear, and
This companys Type 6027 solenoid
valve (photo) is now available in a
new, high-pressure version for pressures up to 250 bars. The new variant of the type 6027 seals the valve
seat with a ceramic ball seal. This
seal is self-centering and provides
reliable and longterm protection
against leaks. The ball material (alu-

also features excellent resistance

to chemicals. In addition to the ceramic ball seal, the material used
for the seat of the solenoid valve is
polyether ether ketone (PEEK), which
is extremely temperature-resistant.
Brkert Fluid Control Systems,
Ingelfingen, Germany
www.burkert.de

An intelligent valve actuator with

integrated safety function

Circle 16 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-16
34

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The TriVAX (photo) and TriVAX flex intelligent electrohydraulic valve actuators
are as easy to install and handle as an
all-electric drive unit, yet are as powerful,
robust
and
durable
as an actuator
that is entirely
hydraulic. The
intelligent electronics ensure
simple
and
intuitive
operation. TriVAX
replaces conventional valvecontrol
units
that may not
Hoerbiger Automation Technology
yet feature certain safety functions, such as quick
action or explosion protection, and
do not comply with the latest standards. In addition to direct operation using the integrated electronics
of the TriVAX unit featuring an intuitive human-machine interface (HMI),
the valve can also be actuated via
a remote-control console. Thanks
to integrated interfaces to standard
fieldbuses (in preparation: Profibus
PA, HART, Foundation Fieldbus),
TriVAX can also be incorporated
into existing automation concepts.
Hoerbiger Automation Technology,
Vienna, Austria
www.hoerbiger.com
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Wilden Pump and Engineering

AODD air-distribution system is

now available in stainless steel

Compatibility updates for this

overpressure protection software

The energy-efficient Pro-Flo Shift AirDistribution System (ADS) is now available in 316 stainless steel and polypropylene plastic (photo) materials of
construction, joining the original aluminum and nickel-plated aluminum offerings. The introduction of the stainlesssteel and plastic options allows the
companys air-operated, doublediaphragm (AODD) pumps to be offered for a greater number of new
and existing applications, including
sanitary (food and beverage, personal-care products and pharmaceuticals), hazardous chemicals and
corrosive environments. The ADS is
ATEX-compliant for use in potentially
explosive areas. Wilden Pump
and Engineering, part of Pump Solutions Group, Grand Terrace, Calif.
www.wildenpump.com

The newest version of the Process

Safety Pressure Protection Manager
(PS PPM) software, 1.4 PS PPM,
includes a number of comprehensive overpressure-protection solutions that support critical equipment.
This versions enhancements allow
the software to be installed on more
operating systems worldwide. Also

Universal display module

for point-level sensors

Vega Grieshaber

With the new plicsLED display module (photo), the switching status of a
sensor can be read from afar, even in
strong sunlight. The module is compatible with all of the sensors in this
companys plics family with relay
output: VegaSwing series 60, VegaVib series 60, VegaWave series 60,
VegaCap series w60 and VegaMIP
series 60. Since external wiring is unnecessary, the time needed for installation is reduced to a minimum. Power
is supplied via the relay electronics.
The second relay output is used to
control the switching status display.
Depending on the module version,
the switching status is displayed in
the color combination red-green or
yellow-green. PlicsLED is installed directly inside the plics sensor housing
which gives it a high degree of protection from dust and water ingress.
Operating temperatures range from
40 to 80C. Vega Grieshaber KG,
Schiltach, Germany
www.vega.com
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Heat Transfer Research, Inc. (HTRI) began its real-world

thermal process research more than 50 years ago.
These proprietary data and countless studies using
industrially relevant research rigs led to the development
of Xchanger Suite 7 its acclaimed heat exchanger design,
rating, and simulation software. To ensure your equipment
meets your requirements, Xchanger Suite provides nine
specific modules that offer access to the most advanced
performance prediction methods available.

When you need accurate heat

exchanger performance prediction,
www.htri.net
you can count on HTRI.

Circle 15 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-15

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

35

Samson

diaphragm or angle valves, the

actuator forms a compact automated unit with components
that are perfectly tailored to one
another. The travel is reliably
measured by a non-contact
magnetoresistive sensor in the
positioner. The two software
limit contacts indicate when
the valve travel exceeds or falls
below an adjustable switching
value. After automatic initialization, operation is intuitive
using three keys. Navigation
within the menu on the display
has been adopted from the
A new actuator for
hygienic applications
companys Series 3730 PositionThe new Type 3379 Pneumatic Ac- ers. Samson AG, Frankfurt am
tuator (photo) is tailored to the re- Main, Germany
quirements of hygienic applications. www.samson.de
All moving parts are contained in a
housing with a smooth stainless- This data-acquisition system has
steel finish, making it easy to clean. three new amplifier modules
The internal air-routing prevents This company has introduced three
dirt or water from entering the ac- new amplifier modules for its Sotuator. Together with the new Type matXR Data Acquisition System
3724 Positioner and the companys (photo, p. 37). The new amplifier
included among the versions updates are capabilities for converting
default units of measure
and improved reporting
capabilities. The software
suites Inlet Control of
Valve Failure Calculation
Method allows for users
to easily ensure that design standards are met.
Siemens Industry Inc.,
Alpharetta, Ga.
www.usa.siemens.com

modules are especially suitable for

taking measurements under very
harsh operating conditions, making
SomatXR systems suitable for drive
and durability testing of machinery
used in construction, manufacturing,
agriculture or mining applications. All
three modules are rated to be dusttight and water-tight, and have an extended operating temperature range
of 40 to 176F, while also meeting
stringent tolerance requirements for
shock and vibration. The SomatXR
data-acquisition mainframe can perform a broad range of onboard data
processing, including custom computed channels, triggers, gates and
Boolean expressions. HBM, Inc.,
Marlborough, Mass.
www.hbm.com

A new panel simplifies controlvalve-related functionalities

Automated process valves using
pneumatic actuators always require
a range of various instrumentation
components to build specific func-

ENSURE
T +49 2961 7405-0 | [email protected]

YOUR PIPING
INTEGRITY

Made
in
Germany

Your Specialist for

REMBE | All rights reserved

PROCESS SAFETY,
EXPLOSION PROTECTION,
INDUSTRIAL
MEASUREMENT

In todays operating environment, its more

important than ever that the piping within
your Mechanical Integrity Program complies
with standards such as API-570 and API-574.
Quest Integrity offers a comprehensive solution
for piping circuits using our proprietary,
ultrasonic-based intelligent pigging technology
combined with LifeQuest Fitness-for-Service
software.

100% inspection of
internal and external
pipe surfaces
Inspection results
tailored to comply with
API-570 and API-574
LifeQuest Fitnessfor-Service results
tailored to comply with
API-579

Ensure your piping integrity by identifying

degradation before loss of containment occurs.
Gallbergweg 21 | 59929 Brilon, Germany
F +49 2961 50714 | www.rembe.de

www.QuestIntegrity.com
A TEAM Industrial Services Company

Circle 27 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-27

36

Circle 25 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-25
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Paul N. Gardner

users to achieve their objectives of

efficiency and reliability when building up instrumentation functionalities,
lowering the overall cost of ownership. With its highly compact, modular design, the Panel centralizes all
instrumentation components on one
panel plate. This allows simple installation and easy maintenance access
to all components from a single side.
Metso Corp., Helsinki, Finland
www.metso.com
HBM

This instrument measures

adhesion strength

tions for each application. In conventional single-engineered solutions,

components are typically assembled
all around the actuator. To date, valve
assembly-related instrumentation has
been a selection of individual components and functionalities, resulting in
a complex mix of components and
systems within a plant. This companys instrumentation panel makes
valve instrumentation simpler by providing a compact solution to enable

The P.A.T.T.I. Micro (photo) is an

adhesive-testing instrument that
quantitatively measures the adhesion
strength of numerous coating materials, including: paints, polymers,
ceramics, inks, films, adhesives and
thermal or arc-sprayed metals. Designed for both laboratory and field
use, the device can collect measurements on rough, smooth, porous, flat
or curved test surfaces, in an operating temperature range of 50120F.

Custom-machined pull-stubs are

available at any size, either flat or
with a radius to match curved surfaces. Even with its lightweight and
portable design, the P.A.T.T.I. Micro
features internal memory slots to
hold test data for up to 100 pull tests.
Software for computer interface is
included. Paul N. Gardner Co.,
Pompano Beach, Fla.

www.gardco.com
Mary Page Bailey and Gerald Ondrey

Flow Measurement

Accuracy over a wide ow and viscosity range.

One of the Most Precise Flowmeters.

KRAL Volumeter robust and precise.

Extremely accurate measurements of liquids.
Accuracy of rate 0,1%.
Measurement range 1:150.
Flow range from 0.1 to 7,500 l/min.
No ow conditioning required. Valves and pipe

elbows are allowed close to the owmeter.

Electronic units that are coordinated to

KRAL owmeters and their divers applications.

KRAL AG, 6890 Lustenau, Austria, Tel.: +43 / 55 77 / 8 66 44 - 0, e-mail: [email protected]

KRAL - USA, Inc., Tel.: +1 / 704 / 814 - 6164, Fax: +1 / 704 / 814 - 6165, e-mail: [email protected]
Circle 17 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/56194-17

www.kral.at
www.kral-usa.com

Facts At Your Fingertips

Dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins

imensionless numbers refer

to physical parameters that
have no units of measurement.
These numbers often appear in calculations used by process engineers.
As long as consistent units are used,
dimensionless numbers remain the
same whether metric or other units
are used in the equations. Here are
some dimensionless numbers often
used in chemical engineering fluid dynamics calculations:
Reynolds number (Re). Reynolds
numbers express the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces in a flowing
fluid, and represent a way to quantify
the importance of these two types of
forces under a given set of flow conditions. When calculating pressure,
heat transfer or head loss in pipes, it
is important to know whether a fluid is
exhibiting laminar flow, turbulent flow,
or a mixture of the two. Re is typically
used as a criterion for determining
whether pipe flow is laminar or turbulent. High Reynolds numbers are
associated with turbulent flow, where
inertial forces dominate and flow is
chaotic and characterized by eddies
and vortices. Low Reynolds numbers are associated with laminar flow,
where flow paths are smooth and viscous forces dominate as defined by
Equation (1). The term is named for
U.K. physicist Osborne Reynolds.
Re = ( v L) /

(1)

is fluid density
v is fluid velocity
L is characteristic linear dimension
(traveled length of the fluid)
is fluids dynamic viscosity
Prandtl Number (Pr). Prandtl numbers represent the ratio between kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusivity of a fluid. It is used in calculations
that involve heat transfer in flowing
fluids because it provides a measure
of the relative thickness of the thermal
and momentum boundary layers. A
fluids Prandtl number is based on its
physical properties alone. For many
gases (with the notable exception of
hydrogen), Pr lies in the range of 0.6
38

to 0.8 over a wide range of conditions. Named after German physicist

Ludwig Prandtl, Pr can be calculated
using the following equation:
Pr = (CP) / k

(2)

CP is fluid specific heat capacity

is dynamic viscosity
k is thermal conductivity
Nusselt number (Nu). In heat transfer at the boundary or surface of a
flowing fluid, the Nusselt number is
the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across the boundary over a given length. When Nu is
close to one, convection and conduction are of similar magnitude, which is
characteristic of laminar flow. Larger
Nusselt numbers are associated with
higher convection and turbulent flow.
Named for German engineer Wilhelm
Nusselt, Nu can be calculated with
the following equation:
Nu = (hl) / k

(3)

h is heat transfer coefficient

l is characteristic length (for heat
transfer in pipes, l is equal to the pipe
diameter)
k is thermal conductivity
Sherwood Number (Sh). Somewhat analogous to the Nusselt number, but for mass transfer, rather than
heat transfer, the Sherwood number
is a ratio of convective and diffusive
mass transfer in a fluid. Named for
American engineer Thomas Kilgore
Sherwood, Sh can be calculated using the following equation:
Sh = (hD l) / D

(4)

hD is mass transfer coefficient

l is characteristic length
D is molecular diffusivity
Froude number (Fr). As the ratio
between inertial and gravitational
forces, the Froude number can be
used to determine the resistance of
an object moving through a fluid.
Named for English engineer William
Froude, Fr can be calculated with the
following equation:

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

(5)

Fr = v / (g l)1/2

v is velocity
l is characteristic length
g is acceleration due to gravity
Grashof Number (Gr). The Grashof
number expresses the ratio of buoyancy to viscous force in a fluid. It can
serve to correlate heat and mass
transfer due to thermally induced
natural convection at a solid surface
immersed in a fluid. Named after German engineer Franz Grashof, Gr is
shown in the following equation:
Gr = (L3 gT) / v2

(6)

L is characteristic length
is volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient
T is the difference between surface temperature and bulk temperature of the fluid
v is kinematic viscosity
g is acceleration due to gravity
Mach number (Ma). Mach number is
the ratio of fluid velocity to the velocity
of sound in that medium. In chemical
engineering, Ma is commonly used
in calculations involving high-velocity
gas flow. The Mach number is named
for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. It
can be calculated with the following
equation:
(7)

Ma = u/v

u is velocity of the fluid

v is the velocity of sound in that
medium
Schmidt number (Sc). The Schmidt
numbers is the ratio of kinematic
viscosity to diffusivity in a fluid, and
characterizes fluid flow where there
are molecular momentum and massdiffusion convection processes occurring simultaneously. Named for
German engineer Heinrich Schmidt,
the number can be calculated using
the following equation:
Sc = / D

(8)

is dynamic viscosity
is fluid density
D is diffusivity

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Technology Profile
Green Ethylene Production
By Intratec Solutions

ith a global nominal capacity of about 140 million

ton/yr, ethylene is among
the main petrochemicals
produced worldwide, and is a key
building block for the industry. Ethylene is produced mostly via steamcracking of petroleum-based feedstocks, such as naphtha. Ethylene is
a raw material for the manufacture of
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
ethylene oxide and other products.
Global concerns about sustainability
and global warming have prompted
the chemical industry to develop production routes for ethylene that utilize
non-petroleum resources. Renewable
ethylene-production alternatives have
begun to emerge in this context.
Green ethylene can be produced
by the dehydration of ethanol, which
can be produced from renewable feedstocks such as sugarcane and corn.
Ethanol-derived ethylene is chemically identical to traditional ethylene, so
downstream processing is equivalent.

next reactor. This is repeated until the

fourth reactor, where ethanol reaches
99% conversion. Next, the reactorproduct stream is cooled in a wasteheat boiler, generating steam.
Quenching, compression, caustic
washing and drying. After reaction,
the product streams water content
is reduced in a quench column. The
ethylene stream leaves by the overheads and is compressed before
entering the washing column, where
impurities are removed with a caustic
solution. Process water is also supplied to this column to avoid caustic
entrainment along with the ethylene
overhead stream, which is cooled by
interchange with the ethylene product stream. Water separated in the
compression and cooling stages is
recycled to the quench column. Next,
the gas stream is dehydrated in a molecular sieve unit.
Purification. After cooling by interchange with the ethylene product, the
dehydrated stream is fed into the ethylene column, where heavy residues
are removed. Next, light impurities are
removed in the stripper column. The
two columns share a single condenser,
which uses propylene refrigerant. The
polymer-grade ethylene (99.9 wt.%)
product is obtained in the bottoms of
the stripper column and used to cool
process streams in heat integrations.

The process
A process for ethylene production
via ethanol dehydration similar to the
processes developed by Chematur
Technologies AB (Karlskoga, Sweden; www.chematur.se) and Petron
Scientech Inc. (Princeton, N.J.; www.
petronscientech.com) is depicted in
Figure 1. The reaction occurs in four
fixed-catalyst-bed adiabatic reactors.
Reaction. Ethanol is vaporized,
heated in a furnace and fed to the
first reactor. During reaction, the temperature drops and the output stream
must be re-heated before entering the

Coast, partially integrated with a

polyethylene complex
Storage capacity equal to 20 days
of operation for ethanol and no
storage for ethylene
The estimated capital expenses (total fixed investment, working capital
and initial expenses) to construct the
plant are about $260 million, while the
operating expenses are estimated at
about $1,400/ton of green ethylene.

Global perspective

Economic performance
An economic evaluation of the process assumes the following:
A facility capable of producing
300,000 ton/yr of green ethylene constructed on the U.S. Gulf

Editors Note: The content for this column is supplied by Intratec

Solutions LLC (Houston; www.intratec.us) and edited by Chemical
Engineering. The analyses and models presented are prepared on the
basis of publicly available and non-confidential information. The content
represents the opinions of Intratec only. More information about the
methodology for preparing analysis can be found, along with terms of
use, at www.intratec.us/che.

C2=
1

Lights
to fuel

ST

FIGURE 2. Operating expenses for green ethylene

The cost of manufacturing ethylene

from ethanol dehydration is highly
dependent on raw material cost (Figure 2). Because ethanol is used as a
biofuel and the crop feedstocks used
in its production are also part of the
food market, ethanol prices may vary
according to the market dynamics of
both food and biofuels.
However, a niche consumer market
may pay higher prices to obtain environmentally friendly products. Therefore, it is possible to commercialize
green ethylene at a premium price,
sufficient to offset the higher production costs of green ethylene.

RF

Ethanol

Net raw materials

cost
89%
Main utilities
consumptions 6%
Fixed costs
5%

CW

10

RF

11

ST

12

C2=
PW
2

5
CW

FU
BFW

Caustic
soda

4
CW
To waste
treatment

To waste
treatment

ST

ST
Heavies
to fuel

Ethylene product
(C2=) to heat
integrations

1) Ethanol vaporizer
2) Furnace
3) Reactors
4) Quench column
5) Compression system
6) Caustic washing column
7) Molecular sieve unit
8) Ethylene column
9) Stripper column
10) Cooling tower
11) Refrigerant system
12) Steam boiler
BFW Boiler feed water
C2= Ethylene product
CW Cooling water
FU Fuel
PW Process water
RF Refrigerant
ST Steam

FIGURE 1. Green ethylene production via an ethanol dehydration process that is similar to Chematur and Petron processes
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

39

Fundamentals of HighShear Dispersers

Successful dispersion depends on a basic understanding of dispersion equipment and how
dispersers should be used
MixTech

David S. Dickey
MixTech, Inc.

IN BRIEF
HIGH-SPEED DISPERSION
HIGH-SHEAR
DISPERSION
LIQUID BLENDING
FORMULATIONS AND
REACTIONS
QUALITY CHECKS
SAWTOOTH DISKS
ROTARY-HEAD
DISPERSERS
BOTTOM-MOUNTED
DISPERSERS
ROTOR-STATOR
DISPERSERS
INLINE DISPERSERS
CHOOSING MIXERS

FIGURE 1. These three types of baffles can be adjusted while the tank is filled

igh-shear mixers typically operate

at high rotational speeds and are
used for mixing applications that
are best described as dispersion
processes. They can be used in a variety
of applications, such as to speed additions,
wet powders, break lumps and provide process intensification. Many dispersion problems are caused by incorrect use of equipment, when simple operational changes
may give better results. While the inherent
intensity of high-shear dispersers sometimes provides limited success even when
they are misused, successful dispersion depends on a basic understanding of how the
dispersers should be employed. This article
focuses on the use of these dispersers dur-

40

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ing the addition of powders and liquids to

liquids. Best practices for successful dispersion and the different types of dispersers
are discussed.

BASIC PRINCIPLES
The high rotational speeds of high-shear dispersers are often the motor speeds, including speeds at the electric power frequency.
Most dispersers operate at a single speed,
although some large dispersers may have
variable speed control. The dispersions may
be powder dispersions in a low-viscosity
liquid, or liquid dispersions of miscible or
immiscible liquids. In a few instances, gas
bubbles may be dispersed in a liquid for a
transport process or to create a foam. The
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HIGH-SHEAR MIXING: DO
Submerge the impeller. The disperser impeller should remain fully submerged, unless gas dispersion is the
purpose of the process. When the disperser remains fully submerged, it provides maximum energy input with
the greatest amount of hydraulic shear. When gas passes through a rotating impeller, the power input and liquid
flow are drastically reduced. The power and flow loss may be continuous or cyclical. In either case, vibration
or surging place additional mechanical loads on the disperser and reduce the effectiveness of powder or liquid
dispersion. When gas passes through the impeller, it creates a rumbling sound and mechanical vibration.
Control vortex depth and rate of addition. In cases where the mixing equipment is designed to handle the
vibration of air going through the impeller and air bubbles do not adversely affect the process, a tradeoff exists
between vortex depth and rate of powder addition. A deep vortex may allow for more rapid liquid or powder
addition, but blending and dispersion will be reduced. The balance between vortex depth and rate of addition
is too often left to the discretion of the production operator. To achieve consistent product quality and mixing
results, both vortex depth and rate of addition must be controlled.
Maintain liquid levels. The primary and preferred means used to prevent gas entering the impeller region is
adequate liquid coverage. Mixing tanks designed for use with high-shear dispersers are sometimes taller than
the tank diameter, to as much as 125% of the tank diameter. Adequate liquid coverage may be at least onethird the tank height or often half the tank height. The off-bottom location of the rotating impeller will influence
the minimum liquid level for mixing and coverage to maintain submergence.
Make additions carefully. Any additions on the surface should be made about halfway between the tank wall
and the mixer shaft, away from solid surfaces. Additions near the tank wall or mixer shaft are likely to accumulate on the equipment surfaces and be difficult to dislodge and disperse. All powder additions should be slow
enough that individual particles have time to wet and air between particles is allowed to escape. Rapid powder
addition will carry gas bubbles into the liquid. Some liquids may be added along a tank wall to reduce splashing
and possible foaming, but any material sticking to the wall should be washed into the batch.

purpose of dispersion is rapid formation of a

suitably uniform fluid. For processes involving soluble solids, the equipment may be
called a dissolver. With dispersed thickeners or emulsion formation, the fluid viscosity
may increase.
This lengthy description is needed because different processes and applications
can be accomplished with variations on
similar equipment (see section on Types
of High-Shear Dispersers). The open impellers for high-speed dispersers may be
sawtooth disks, short-bladed impellers or
slotted heads. Some rotating impellers are
mounted inside a stationary cage having either holes or slots, through which the fluid
is forced. These mixers are usually called
rotor-stators, but may also be called homogenizers. The primary mechanism caus-

ing dispersion is hydraulic shear, although

some mechanical shear is also present, especially with rotor-stator mixers. Even within
the general category of high-shear mixers,
some are used primarily for rapid initial dispersion, while others use multiple recirculation passes for improved dispersion and
uniformity. Hydraulic shear is rarely sufficient to grind or reduce the size of individual
particles, but it will break agglomerates or
lumps. Some particle breakage may occur
with weak organic or biologic particles.
Other types of mills or grinders are used
when particle-size reduction is needed.
Although most of the high-shear dispersers are mounted either on-center or slightly
off-center, they may be either top or bottom
mounted. To control the fluid swirl created
by the rotating impeller, the tanks often have
FIGURE 2. Typical types of
high-shear sawtooth blades
are shown here

The Blade Shop

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41

HIGH-SHEAR MIXING: DONT

Allow deep vortices. Dont allow a surface vortex to extend all of the way to the rotating impeller, except in
some very forgiving processes. The presence of dispersed air usually does not add value to a liquid product
and can be difficult to remove, especially from a viscous liquid. Often mistaken for good mixing a deep surface vortex is usually a sign of poor mixing. If the surface vortex reaches the impeller, power and flow are lost.
Rumbling and vibration are signs of air entrainment. When a deep vortex is present, the primary flow pattern
in the remainder of the tank may be rotational, with insufficient radial and vertical mixing. In rotational flow, the
fluid moves in solid-body rotation, which neither mixes liquids nor suspends solids.
Bypass the impeller. The purpose of tank baffles is to control the surface vortex and promote vertical mixing.
While vigorous surface motion aids or speeds the addition of powders and liquids, the direction of motion must
include flow across the surface and toward the center of the tank. If a vortex reaches the impeller, surface additions will go through the impeller without wetting by the bulk liquid. Initial bypassing of the impeller by surface
additions means that additional recirculations are required to obtain the desired dispersion. That additional
circulation time may allow agglomerates or lumps to form. The presence of adjustable baffles is intended to
allow vigorous surface motion without having the vortex reach the impeller. If additions to a batch increase the
liquid level or fluid viscosity, adjustment of the baffles may be necessary.
MixTech

FIGURE 3. This rotary-head

disperser is mounted offset
from the center

APV Liquiverter

FIGURE 4. Rotary-head
dispersers create more local
flow through the impeller than
sawtooth disks

Admix Rotosolvers

FIGURE 5. This box-type disperser contains a high-shear

mixer in the bottom

rotational flow does not provide good mixing (see the boxes for High-Shear Mixing: Do
and Dont, pp. 4142).

High-speed dispersion

one or more baffles. Too much rotational flow

and a surface vortex that draws air into the
impeller can reduce dispersion and create
unwanted air bubbles in the product. Flow
through a stator eliminates much of the rotational flow from the discharge of rotor-stator
mixers. Single or dual baffles may be adjustable to control a surface vortex. In other disperser designs, off-center mounting or tanks
with square cross-sections are used to reduce the need for baffles. A deep vortex with
42

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

To create dispersions of solids, gases or

immiscible liquids, a disperser must break
the added components into individual particles, gas bubbles or liquid droplets. A
high-speed disperser also allows the rapid
addition of miscible liquids or soluble solids.
Whether the process is batch or continuous,
rapid addition usually results in greater productivity and sometimes better quality.
Solids dispersion. For solids dispersion,
individual particles need to be surrounded
by liquid and initially suspended. To make
sure that individual particles are exposed to
the liquid, the rate of addition must be controlled. If solids are added too rapidly, clusters of particles will carry trapped air into the
liquid and the partially wetted powder may
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FEBRUARY 2015

Breddo - Likwifier

form lumps. If the particles hydrate in

the liquid, the particles must be separated and suspended quickly.
If the solids are soluble, the rate of
dissolution is determined primarily by
equilibrium solubility and particle size.
Fluid motion may enhance the external mass transfer around the particle,
but concentration uniformity in the fluid
provides the most effective driving force
for dissolution.
For insoluble solid particles, the typical objective is continued suspension
with some degree of uniformity. The
degree of suspension and uniformity
is determined by the liquid velocity and
flow pattern. If rotational flow is not adequately controlled by baffles or off-center mounting, some solids may never be
suspended off the bottom of the tank.
Since most high-speed dispersion impellers are radial flow, they need to be
near the bottom of the tank to create
a flow pattern that will lift and suspend
settling particles.
Liquid dispersion. For liquid dispersion
of an immiscible liquid, nearly all of the
actual droplet breakage occurs in the
fluid velocity gradients near the impeller blades. The rate of addition must
be controlled so that the disperser can
break the liquid into individual droplets.
The ultimate drop size and dispersion
uniformity are closely related to the impeller tip speed or peripheral velocity of
the disperser. However, viscosity difference and surface tension also influence

the drop size. The rate at which a dispersion is formed may depend on how
many passes through the disperser are
required for uniformity.
Gas dispersion. Gas dispersion by a
high-speed disperser is typically less
effective than sparged gas dispersion,
where the gas enters from below the
impeller. Gas dispersion brought from
the surface by a vortex may be difficult
to control, since it is affected by both
liquid-level coverage and baffle adjustment. For dispersion of solids and liquids, gas entrainment should be avoided
or closely controlled.

FIGURE 6. A variety of bottom-mount

high-shear impellers is available

High-shear dispersion
Shear effects are responsible for the
creation of dispersions. However,
some dispersions are more sheardependent than others. The dominant
shear mechanism for most high-speed
impellers is hydraulic shear, resulting
from velocity gradients around the impeller. The high velocity of the rotating
blades creates locally high fluid velocities in the liquid. The velocity gradients
responsible for fluid shear may be associated with trailing vortices near the
tips of the blades. Sawtooth blades will
create multiple fluid vortices, with one
forming behind each blade tip. Sawtooth blades may contribute mechanical shear when large or dense particles
strike the blade tips.
High-shear impellers composed of a
rotating blade surrounded by a station-

FIGURE 8. The flow pattern (right) of a

slotted rotor-stator disperser (left) is between the rotating slots and through the
stationary slots

MixTech

FIGURE 7. A deep vortex can be created by bottommounted high-shear dispersers

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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IKA Works

FEBRUARY 2015

43

TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL HIGH-SHEAR DISPERSION

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

6.
7.
8.

FIGURE 9. Some rotor-stator

dispersers have an impeller
with blades rotating inside a
stator with slots or holes

Good surface motion with some swirl and strong flow toward the center is necessary to add and disperse
powders or liquids successfully. A controlled surface vortex will assist the addition of floating powders.
To avoid air entrainment, a surface vortex should not extend more than halfway from the surface to the
impeller. Most high-speed dispersers have only a single rotational speed with an impeller near the bottom, so surface motion must be controlled by liquid level and baffle adjustment. To prevent a vortex from
reaching the impeller, the liquid level and/or baffle effect need to be increased.
The liquid level usually needs to be at least one third of the tank diameter, but may be greater than the
tank diameter.
A periodic or continuous rumbling with vibration means that air is being sucked into the impeller. Air drawn
from the surface or added with powders will form bubbles that will be difficult to remove. The formation of
air bubbles should be avoided if possible.
Controlled addition of powders is a good way to get rapid dispersion and avoid lump formation. The addition point for powders or liquids should be approximately midway between the side and the center of
the tank.
If additions of powders or liquids change the liquid level or viscosity, the baffles may need to be adjusted
to maintain surface motion.
The quantities of powders or liquids should not exceed the capacity of the liquid to disperse, suspend or
dissolve them.
Stopping the disperser at the end of a batch will allow an opportunity to check the quality of the dispersion. A screen may be used to scoop material from the surface to check for lumps. In a clear liquid, a
check for undissolved particles may be possible. Large air bubbles coming to the surface show that
dispersed air has been trapped around the impeller.

ary grid, are commonly called rotor-stator

dispersers or even homogenizers. The dispersion mechanisms with rotor-stator dispersers are a complicated combination of
primarily fluid shear with some mechanical
shear. Any significant amount of mechanical shear will wear or damage the disperser
head. The rotor of some dispersers looks
like a typical bladed impeller. The stator may
have either slots or holes, through which the
dispersion passes. In other rotor-stators the
rotating element is more like a vertically slotted cylinder, which rotates inside a similarly
slotted stationary cylinder. However, to control mechanical vibration, the number of slots
in the rotor is lower than the number of slots
in the stator. The unequal number of slots
means that only two or three of perhaps ten
to twenty slots are aligned and open at any
instant in the rotation.
Several types of flow and mechanisms
contribute to the hydraulic shear in a rotorstator. Some shear occurs with an inrush
of flow as a pair of slots begin to align. The
shear is caused both by flow through a narrow slot and that flow resulting in a vortex

in the stator slot. The flow is caused by a

pressure differential between the inner rotor
flow and the outer slot flow. Flow through an
open slot contributes to the shear effects. As
the slot alignment begins to close, the fluid
momentum creates another jet of fluid that
also swirls in the stationary slot. The small
gap between the rotor and the stator creates
a velocity gradient and shear effects associated with the differential speed. Some combination of differential velocities, changing
directions, and interrupted flow contribute to
the hydraulic shear effects.
Shear effects in rotor-stator mixers contribute to the breaking of agglomerates or
lumps. Agglomerates often form when particles of thickeners begin to soften and become sticky. If particles are added too quickly
or not dispersed well enough, the agglomerates may develop a sticky outer surface that
limits penetration of liquid into the nearly dry
or only partially hydrated material inside the
lump. If rapid dispersion of particles is not
sufficient to avoid formation of lumps, then
mechanical shear may be necessary to break
the lumps. As the particles of thickener continue to hydrate, fluid shear is necessary to
stretch and fold the increasingly viscous fluid
created by the thickener.

COMMON APPLICATIONS
Liquid blending
Most liquid blending applications do not
require high-shear dispersers for uniform
blending. As with many types of mixing
equipment, however, multiple purposes
Charles Ross & Son

44

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

Silverson

FIGURE 10. Many types of

stator heads are available

left - Charles Ross & Son, right - Greerco

FIGURE 12. High-shear

dispersers are also used in
laboratory applications

IKA Works

FIGURE 11. Some rotor-stator dispersers employ verticalflow impellers

can be served by the same type of mixer.

High-speed dispersers may be used simply
to achieve rapid liquid addition and blending. Dispersers are often used for a multistep batch process that may involve both
the addition of miscible liquids and dispersion of solids for dissolving. The addition of
miscible fluids with differing viscosities may
require dispersion to effectively combine
the fluids. The high power requirements of
high-speed dispersers may not be energy
efficient, unless the rate of addition or the
heat added by power are important to the
overall process.

take advantage of the rapid and intense mixing in the impeller region. Other chemical reactions may involve mass transfer between
dispersed solids, immiscible liquids, or gas
bubbles. For multi-phase reactions, the effects of the dispersers promote both dispersion and rapid mixing for chemical reaction.

Quality checks
Formulations and chemical reactions
Some applications for high-speed dispersers
involve only the physical combination of ingredients or components. Such formulation
applications may not involve any chemical
reactions and only involve forms of blending
for a uniform composition. Dispersions may
be composed of liquids with solids, gases or
immiscible liquids. The quantities of added
powder or liquid should not exceed the capacity of the base liquid to disperse, suspend or dissolve the additions.
Other applications may involve composition changes associated with chemical reactions. Some chemical reactions may only
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

When additions to a batch are finished, some

observational checks may be made. First,
the disperser must be stopped for safety.
Then a screen might be used to scoop material from the surface to check for lumps.
If the liquid is clear, a check for undissolved
particles may be possible. Bubbles or foam
on the surface will show that dispersed gas
is present. If large bubbles come to the surface, dispersed gas may have accumulated
around the impeller. Drawing a vacuum on
a batch may aid in the removal of air bubbles, but only if fluid with dissolved gas is
circulated to the surface. Any other nonuniformities on the surface may be signs

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45

FIGURE 13. Some inline dispersers add powders to liquid

shear disks are rotational or radial. Disks with

angled blades or flow pockets may create
some axial flow.
High-shear disks may be used in highviscosity fluids or emulsions. Viscous drag
across the disk surface creates a radial discharge and flow pattern. The high-power
input associated with the high-speed blades
overwhelms the resistance to flow in high-viscosity fluids. High power input adds heat to
the fluid, resulting in a temperature increase.

Rotary-head dispersers
Quadro

of mixing problems. Continued operation

of the disperser may be sufficient to reduce
some problems.

TYPES OF HIGH-SHEAR
DISPERSERS
Most high-shear dispersers are top-mounted
on cylindrical tanks. The tanks may be baffled, partially baffled, or unbaffled depending
on the process and fluid viscosity. At low viscosity as an alternative to baffles or to improve vortex control, the disperser may be
off-center mounted. The off-center location
is typically from 15 to 40% of the radius from
the center of the tank.
Vortex formation is difficult to predict and
strongly dependent on liquid level. To control
the vortex formed with a high-shear disperser
effectively, adjustable baffles may be used.
Figure 1 shows three different types of adjustable baffles, all of which can be adjusted
while the tank is filled. Some baffles can be
adjusted while the disperser is operating.

High-shear sawtooth disks

Sawtooth disks are the simplest high-shear
dispersers. Typical examples are shown in
Figure 2. Sawtooth blades are usually bolted
to the bottom end of the mixer shaft. Sometimes the mixer drive can be raised and lowered while the disperser is operating to more
effectively mix all of the tank contents.
Most of the dispersion by a sawtooth disk
is a result of hydraulic shear. Trailing vortices
that are shed from the teeth on the blades
contribute to high local velocity gradients.
Some agglomerates may be dispersed by
physical contact with the teeth on the disks.
Abrasive wear on high-shear disks is common and requires periodic disk replacement.
Most of the flow patterns generated by high46

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

High-shear, rotary-head dispersers are typically mounted in baffled or partially baffled

tanks and may also be offset from the center. Figure 3 shows an offset-mounted rotary-head disperser in a tank with an adjustable baffle.
Rotary-head dispersers, also called
closed-rotor dispersers, like those shown in
Figure 4, create more local flow through the
impeller than sawtooth disk impellers.
Because the rotary-head-style dispersers
typically operate at lower tip speeds in lower
viscosity fluids than sawtooth disks, they are
less susceptible to mechanical wear. The
lower tip speeds may not provide as intense
dispersion as is possible with the sawtooth
disks. The rotary-head dispersers are often
used for addition of miscible liquids, soluble
powders or viscosity modifiers.

Bottom-mounted dispersers
Many high-shear dispersers are manufactured and sold as disperser-in-tank packages, because the sizes are transportable
and the combination simplifies purchasing and installation. Some tank and mixer
combinations have a square cross-section
with rounded corners, like the one shown
in Figure 5.
Many different types of bottom-mount
high-shear blades are available for different
applications (Figure 6). Some of these impellers are designed to chop frozen foods or
create emulsions.
Bottom-mounted high-shear dispersers
can create a deep vortex, even with baffles
in the tank (Figure 7).

Rotor-stator dispersers
Rotor-stator dispersers have an impeller,
with blades or slots, rotating inside a stationary cylindrical housing. The stationary
housing may have either slots or holes depending on the type of dispersion required
for the process. The impeller typically draws
incoming flow primarily from below the head
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to limit vortexing. Figure 8 shows a slotted

rotor inside a slotted stator. The flow pattern
is between the rotating slots and through
the stationary slots.
Unequal numbers of slots in the rotor and
the stator allow flow through only a few slots
at a time. The partial alignment of slots limits
noise and vibration caused by flow pulsed
through the slots.
Some rotor-stator dispersers have an impeller with blades rotating inside a stator with
slots or holes (Figure 9). Many different types
of stators are available to create dispersions
of different-sized particle agglomerates or
immiscible liquids (Figure 10).
Flow through the stator is strictly radially
outward, with no rotational flow in the discharge. The only rotational flow comes from
the inlet side of the rotor or additional impellers mounted on the rotating shaft above
the rotor-stator. To create vertical motion in
a rotor-stator mixed tank, axial flow impellers can be attached to the rotating shaft.
Reversing the direction of the mixer rotation
can either draw liquids and powders down
from the surface or draw flow up from the
bottom (Figure 11).

Laboratory dispersers
Various types of laboratory high-shear dispersers are available for accomplishing
small-scale tasks similar to the large-scale
dispersers (Figure 12).

Inline dispersers
Not all high-shear dispersers are mounted
in tanks. Some are installed in a line feeding
a tank or in a recirculation loop connected
to a tank. A few applications may use the
inline disperser only to combine ingredients
and send them to other equipment for further processing. Many inline dispersers are
designed to draw in powdered ingredients
and disperse them immediately into a liquid
(Figure 13).
Powdered ingredients may be soluble
materials or thickening agents that hydrate
in the liquid. Rapid and intense contacting
helps wet particles quickly and reduces the
chance of lumps forming.
The heads for inline dispersers are similar
to other rotor-stator heads (Figure 14).

Quadro

Author

FIGURE 14. Heads for inline dispersers are similar to other

rotor-stator heads

dispersion processes. For difficult emulsions inline rotor-stators, high-pressure

homogenizers, and colloid mills will create
finer dispersions. These inline or pressuredriven dispersers also require an external
pump. Some dispersers are an integral part
of a system with other types of impellers,
including turbines or sweeps to handle a
range of viscosities. Inline dispersers can
be used in an external loop connected to a
conventionally mixed tank. The primary purpose of dispersers used in multiple-impeller
systems is to provide intense mixing at a
point in the process.
No matter what a vendors sales representative can tell you about your process
and available equipment, testing is an essential part of high-shear disperser selection. Actual materials, process objectives,
and quality controls are all factors in the
selection of appropriate high-shear dispersers. Any equipment or process must be sufficiently robust to handle expected upsets,
process variations and ingredient changes.
Few processes or products are so well controlled and defined as to remain completely
unchanged for long periods. Some knowledge of high-shear dispersers only comes

from experience.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski

David S. Dickey has run

his own consulting business
called MixTech, Inc. since 1998
(Website: www.mixtech.com;
Email:[email protected]).
He has more than 35 years
experience designing mixing
equipment and solving process
or mechanical problems with
most types of fluid and powder
mixing equipment. He received
his B.S.Ch.E. from the University of Illinois and completed
his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
chemical engineering at Purdue
University. He is a fellow of the
AIChE, and is a past president
of the North American Mixing
Forum (NAMF).

Choosing equipment
The high-shear dispersers discussed in this
article are not the only types of equipment
that can be used for dispersion. Turbine impeller mixers, with conventional or special
purpose impellers, will be effective in some
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Related stories, such as Ten Things You May Not Know

About Liquid Mixing Scaleup, Chem. Eng., August 2013,
Increase Productivity Through Better Gas-Liquid Mixing, Chem.
Eng., October 2007, and Mixing Systems: Design and Scaleup,
Chem. Eng., April 2006, can be found online at www.
chemengonline.com

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47

Feature Report
Part 1

Evaluate Heat-Exchanger
Tube-Rupture Scenarios
Using Dynamic Simulation
Applying dynamic simulation models to tube-rupture scenarios can help ensure more
accurate sizing and hazard assessments
Soumitro
Nagpal
Fluor Daniel India
Pvt. Ltd.

IN BRIEF
EVALUATION CRITERIA
TUBE-RUPTURE FLOW
ESTIMATION
RELIEF-DEVICE
SELECTION
RELIEF-DEVICE SIZING
EXAMPLES
CLOSING THOUGHTS

FIGURE 1. Heat exchangers in many CPI applications can experience tube rupture, and these scenarios must be evaluated and
addressed in order to ensure continued safe operations

ube rupture in heat exchangers is an

extremely serious issue in the chemical process industries (CPI; Figure 1).
Heat-exchanger tube-rupture scenarios can be evaluated by various means,
including dynamic and steady-state process
simulation. Performance of reliable dynamic
simulations of tube-rupture scenarios requires suitable experience, expertise and
significantly higher effort than steady-state
evaluations. This article discusses a number
of heat-exchanger tube-rupture scenarios,
including: the requirements for scenario evaluation; tube-rupture flow estimation; selection and sizing of relief devices and associated piping; and guidelines for identification
48

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

of situations where a dynamic evaluation is

appropriate.
In addition, several dynamic-simulation
case-study summaries are presented, illustrating the utility of this method in the proper
selection and sizing of relief systems. Special emphasis is given to liquid-filled systems, which see very rapid pressure-rise
rates upon tube rupture. These cases show
that dynamic evaluation can lead to better
relief-device selection and sizing, as well as
improved materials selection for various conditions, including some that do not require
dynamic evaluation under American Petroleum Institute (API; Washington, D.C.; www.
api.org) guidelines.
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FEBRUARY 2015

TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF TUBE-RUPTURE SCENARIO DYNAMIC EVALUATION CASES

HP Fluid/
LP Fluid

Natural gas/
Propane
evaporator

Natural gas/
Propane
condenser

Natural gas/
LP steam [8]

Hydrotreater
effluent/
Stripper
bottoms [6]

Natural-gas
condensate /
Liquid propane

Ethylene /
Liquid
propylene [7]

Ethylene /
Liquid
methanol [7]

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

Case 5

Case 6

Case 7

Design pressure
(HP/LP)

barg

89 / 17

89 / 17

149 / 5.5

183 / 128

89 / 17

111 / 18.9

111 / 17.2

Operating pressure
(HP/LP)

barg

69 / 1

67 / 8

113 / 3.5

158 / 19

43 / 7.2

101 / 11.9

101 / 36

Operating temperature (HP/LP)

16 to 20
/ 24

2 to 10 / 18

3 to 80 / 147

275 to 310 /
230 to 290

20 / 18

26 to 11 / 25

11 to 15 / 64

Blocked-in pressurerise rate

bars/s

0.16

0.92

74

67

28

64

Set pressure, Pset

barg

17

17

5.5

23/24.1

17

16.2

11.8

PSV

PSV

PSV

PSV (3)

Rupture disk

PSV

PSV

6
9%

37.7
64%

17.05
0.3%

20.5
26%

16
36%

17.1

5.7

13.4

338.9

165.2

Not reported

Not reported

Relief device
Peak pressure, Pmax
Pmax/Pset

barg

18.4
8.2%

18.2
7%

Peak rupture flow

kg/s

3.7

3.6

Peak relief flow

kg/s

4.6

7.8

12.5

Note: Cases 4 through 7 refer to exchangers that are liquid-filled on the LP side

Evaluation criteria
Process-hazard analyses for shelland-tube heat exchangers call for
evaluation of tube-rupture scenarios
if the difference in maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) between the low-pressure (LP) and
high-pressure (HP) sides is greater
than that covered by the 10/13 (or
2/3 rule, as may be applicable). This
is based on ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Div.1
[1], which requires a system to be
hydro-tested at 130% of its MAWP.
This code requirement eliminates
the need to evaluate a tube-rupture
scenario, as the LP side is protected
if its design pressure is no less than
10/13 of the HP sides design pressure. API-521 6th Ed. [2] notes that
Pressure relief for tube rupture is
not required where the low-pressure
exchanger side (including upstream
and downstream systems) does not
exceed the criteria noted above. The
tube-rupture scenario can be mitigated by increasing the design pressure of the low-pressure exchanger
side (including upstream and downstream systems), and/or assuring
that an open flow path can pass the
tube-rupture flow without exceeding the stipulated pressure, and/or
providing pressure relief.
This option is often used to eliminate a tube-rupture scenario evaluation. However, for an exchanger with
a large pressure difference between
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

the HP and LP sides, uprating the

LP side design pressure can be expensive, and a tube-rupture scenario
evaluation is necessary. The required
activities in a tube-rupture scenario evaluation are detailed in the
following sections.

Tube-rupture flow estimation

API 520, Part 1 [3] provides the necessary guidelines and equations for
single- and two-phase flow estimation. For two-phase flow, API-521 [2]
recommends the following: A twophase flow method should be used
in determining the flowrate through
the failure for flashing liquids or twophase fluids. The flow models developed by DIERS (the Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems)
and others can be adapted for this
purpose. In cases where the fluid
flashes at the low-pressure side of
the heat exchanger, two-phase flow
methods based on the homogenous
equilibrium model (HEM), such as
those proposed by DIERS, may be
used for the flow through the tube to
the break.
Darbys work in this area [4] also
presents a good summary of these
steady-state sizing methods, including the homogenous direct-integration (HDI) method.

Relief-device selection
In systems where the shellsidetubeside pressure difference is high,

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FEBRUARY 2015

the pressure rise on the LP side can

be very rapid. In those cases, relief
valves provided to protect the LP
side from overpressure may not respond quickly enough to protect the
system. Such a scenario may call for
the installation of a rupture disk.
Many companies have developed
their own practices for identifying
scenarios that require protection with
rupture disks. Some companies prefer that the rupture disk is mounted
directly on the exchanger not on
the inlet or outlet piping because
the disk might not react fast enough
with the intervening pipe. This is not
always practical to implement, since
other factors must be considered,
such as layout constraints or freedraining requirements for two-phase
or liquid-relief lines. Thus, it is recommended that rupture disks be installed as close as possible to, if not
directly on, the heat exchanger.
Liquid-filled systems, especially
those filled with an incompressible
liquid, such as water on the LP side,
can experience a very rapid highpressure spike upon tube rupture.
Even a rupture disk may not be able
to respond. Multiple disks at different
locations on the exchanger itself may
be required. Depending on the toxicity, flammability and reactivity of the
fluids, consideration of tube-rupturerelief contingency may be advisable,
even if the 10/13 rule is followed. The
acoustic pressure wave that occurs
49

RECOMMENDATIONS ON DYNAMIC MODELING FROM API-521 [1]

one-dimensional dynamic model can be used where the approach is to simulate the pressure profile and pressure transients
developed in the exchanger from the time of the rupture. These methods generally include the dynamic model of the tuberupture relief scenario and the response time of the relief device, the accuracy of which is critical in calculating the accuracy
of pressures generated. The opening time for the device used should be verified by the manufacturer and should also be compatible
with the requirements of the system.

This type of analysis is recommended, in addition to the steady-state approach, where there is a wide difference in design pressure between the
two exchanger sides [for example, 7,000 kPa (~1,000 psi) or more], especially where the low pressure side is liquid-full and the high-pressure side
contains a gas or a fluid that flashes across the rupture. Modeling has shown that under these circumstances, transient conditions can produce
overpressure above the test pressure, even when protected by a PRD (pressure-relief device). In these cases, additional protection measures should
be considered.

in the case of incompressible-liquidfilled systems results in a waterhammer-type effect that cannot be simulated with the dynamic simulation
tools commonly used for analysis of
these scenarios. Sometimes a rupture pin is also considered, allowing
faster open times than rupture disks.
Typical opening times for relief devices are 50100 milliseconds (ms)
for spring-loaded pressure safety
valves (PSVs) and around 110 ms
for graphite rupture disks [5].
The capacity of a relief device handling high pressure-rise rates can be
estimated using Equation (1), taking into account the pressure relief
devices (PRD) opening capacity
(OC), set pressure (SP), allowable
overpressure (AOP) and relief-valve
opening time (T).
OC = SP AOP/T

(1)

For example, for a PSV with a set

pressure of 5.5 bars, with 10% overpressure allowed, and an opening
time of 100 ms (0.1 s), OC = 5.5 bars
0.1/0.1 s = 5.5 bars/s.
The blocked-in pressure-rise rate
(where no credit is taken for any
flow out of the exchanger) calculated in dynamic runs can be compared with the PRD opening capacity to determine the suitability of the
selected type of relief device. If the
PRDs opening capacity is lower
than the blocked-in pressure-rise
rate, the device may not be able to
open sufficiently in time to capture
the pressure rise.

Relief-device sizing
The steady-state calculation procedures described previously are
applicable to tube-rupture flow estimation. However, sizing of the relief
device itself and its inlet and outlet
lines requires relief-flow estimation.
The API-521 [2] guideline states that
50

for steady-state relief device sizing, PRD size should be based on

the gas and/or liquid flow passing
through the rupture.
The volumetric flowrate of the LP
fluid equivalent to the volumetric flowrate of the HP fluid passing through
the rupture location should be used
when the fluid properties at the relief location are significantly different
from those at the rupture location, or
when the relief device is located at
some distance from the exchanger.
Alternately, API-521s recommendations with regard to dynamic modeling are shown in the box above.
In summary, API-521 recommends
that for exchangers with differential
pressures of less than 70 bars, reliefdevice sizing should use the tuberupture flow estimate. For exchangers with differential pressures greater
than 70 bars, use a dynamic simulation of the system to estimate relief
flows and relief-device sizing.
Other situations where a dynamic
evaluation is sometimes considered
are the following:
Exchangers with liquid-filled shells
Sizing of relief piping, because
steady-state methods can lead to
oversized relief piping, especially
for short, sharp-peak relief flows,
as pipe holdup effects are not
considered
Long shells with baffles on a
tight pitch
For existing units where the overpressure protection was mounted
on the relief piping
For existing units with high differential pressures where a relief valve
was used

Examples
Several tube-rupture dynamic-simulation studies are presented in the
following sections. Cases 1 through
5 are recent tube-rupture studies
that utilize commercial dynamic-simCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ulation software. In these cases, the

heat exchangers LP side is split into
several volume segments to facilitate
the observation of the physical phenomena occurring during the rupture
event. The details of this approach
are discussed in Ref. 6. Cases 6 and
7, as reported by Ennis and others
[7], are also discussed here for comparison with these results for liquidfilled tube-rupture cases. Table 1
gives a summary of the cases.
Case 1: Natural-gas propane chiller.
Natural gas is cooled in a chiller to
reduce the hydrocarbon dewpoint,
where liquid propane evaporates at
1 barg and 24C on the shellside.
The natural gas is on the tubeside
at 68 barg pressure and temperatures around 16 to 20C. The exchanger in this example is specified
as type AKL based on Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
(TEMA; Tarrytown, N.Y.; www.tema.
org) standards. TEMA exchangertype codes, such as AKL, provide
a shorthand for basic designs and
manufacturing methods of heat exchangers. For more information on
TEMA standards and codes, see
Specifying Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers, Chem. Eng., May 2013,
pp. 4753. Dynamic evaluation of a
single-tube, full-bore rupture in this
exchanger indicated a slow pressure-rise rate of 0.16 bars/s in the
shell, as the pressure rises from 1
barg operating pressure to 17 barg
relief pressure in 100 s. A springoperated safety valve is adequate to
protect the LP side of the exchanger
for this scenario.
Figure 2 shows the exchanger
shellside segmentation considered
for the simulations. Figure 3 shows
the temperature, pressure and flow
transients for the run. In this run, the
rupture was considered at the extreme left of the exchanger in segment V1. The gas cools as it expands

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FEBRUARY 2015

PSV nozzle

V1

2,530 mm

1,830 mm

Vapor nozzle

V2

V3
Inlet nozzle

V4

V5

V6

Inlet nozzle

5,200 mm

FIGURE 2. This schematic shows an exchanger shellside segmented into several volumes to facilitate
the observation of the physical phenomena occurring during the rupture event. In this case, HP gas flows
from left to right, the propane liquid level in the shellside is 1,800 mm and the tubes are not shown

at 67 barg flows on the tubeside

of the exchanger, which is TEMA
type BEM. Dynamic evaluation of a
single-tube, full-bore rupture in this
exchanger indicated a relatively slow
pressure-rise rate of 0.92 bars/s
in the vapor-filled shellside, as the
pressure rises from 8 barg operating
pressure to 17 barg relief pressure in
9.8 s (Figure 4).
A spring-operated safety valve is
adequate to protect the LP side of
the exchanger. The dynamic simulation indicated that a PSV size based
on the tube-rupture flow is inadequate to limit the pressure rise to be
within the required 10% overpressure. The PSV size was increased,
and while this leads to an increased
peak relief above the tube-rupture
flow, the peak pressure rise can now
be contained to the prescribed limit.
Case 3: Natural-gas heating with
LP steam. This studys work [8]
focused on HP natural gas on the
tubeside of an exchanger heated
with condensing LP steam on the
shellside in a TEMA-type BEM ex-

20

10

18

20

16

30

14

40

12

50

10

60

70

80

90

100

50

100

150
Time, s

200

250

Flows/pressure

Temperature, oC

on the LP side upon flowing across

the tube rupture, resulting in its temperature dropping to 67C immediately after rupture, and subsequently
increasing as the shellside pressure
rises. While the fluid temperature in
the shellside is estimated to drop to
a minimum of 48C near the rupture
location, direct impingement of the
rupture fluids on the intact adjacent
tubes, shell and tubesheet is possible. Conservative design practices
led to a selection of the minimum
design metal temperature (MDMT)
for the exchanger based on the
minimum rupture fluid temperature.
These calculations did not consider
the thermal inertia of the metal mass
in the system, inclusion of which can
allow a higher MDMT selection.
Case 2: Natural-gas-cooled refrigerant condenser. A propane-refrigerant-based natural-gas dewpointing
plant utilizes the cooled, dewpointed
gas to condense refrigerant discharging from compressors. Refrigerant at 58 barg condenses on the
shellside, whereas HP natural gas

Rupture temperature, oC
V1 bulk vapor temperature, oC
V6 bulk vapor temperature, oC
V1 bulk liquid temperature, oC
V6 bulk liquid temperature, oC
Tube rupture flow, kg/s
Relief flow, kg/s
V1 vessel pressure, barg
V6 vessel pressure, barg

0
300

FIGURE 3. Case 1s tube-rupture event occurs 18 s into the run, while relief flow starts at 118 s into the
run. Note that the temperature rises in segment V6 due to pure compression without exposure to cold
rupture fluids
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

changer. The natural gas is at 113

barg pressure and the temperature
ranges from 3.2 to 80C. The LP
steam is at 3.5 barg and 147C. The
set pressure on the relief device protecting the LP side is 5.5 barg.
Dynamic evaluation of a singletube, full-bore rupture in this exchanger indicated a shellside pressure-rise rate of 5 bars/s, increasing
from 3.5 barg operating pressure to
5.5 barg relief pressure in 0.4 s. Upon
relief valve opening, the pressure-rise
rate drops to 0.27 bars/s. It was determined that this pressure-rise rate
is acceptable for the installation of a
spring-loaded relief valve. The study
also indicated that the PSV set pressure should be set lower than the
exchanger design pressure, as the
pressure near the tubesheet can be
higher than at the PSV inlet due to
inlet line losses.
Case 4: Hydrotreater effluent
stripper-bottoms exchanger. A hydrotreater effluent stream is cooled
against the stripper bottoms stream
of the unit in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger. The exchanger comprises two shells in series, with the
HP hydrotreater effluent on the
tubeside at 158 barg and temperatures of 275310C. The stripper
bottoms pressure on the shellside
is 1719 barg and the temperature
is 230290C. The shellside design
pressure was originally selected as
128 barg, based on the 10/13 rule.
Dynamic evaluations for single and
multiple tube-rupture scenarios were
executed [6]. On tube rupture, a very
rapid pressure rise in the liquid-filled
shell was estimated at 74 bars/s,
with pressure rising from 18.9 barg
operating pressure to 23 barg reliefvalve set pressure in just 55 ms.
Peak pressure rise in the shell protected with one, two or three springloaded relief valves was estimated.
The dynamic runs indicated that the
peak pressure rise can be limited to
37.7 barg, 50.1 barg and 81.4 barg
using three, two, and one PSVs, respectively. Thus, a significant margin
for shell design-pressure reduction
is available below the originally selected design pressure of 128 barg.
The study showed that despite the
rapid pressure-rise rate, PSVs with
a set pressure selected well below
the design pressure to capture the
pressure rise can, in fact, be used to
lower the LP design pressure.
51

20.00
18.00
16.00
Rupture flow, kg/s

Flow and pressure

14.00
Relief flow, kg/s

12.00

Shell pressure, barg

10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00

10

20

30
Time, s

40

50

60

FIGURE 4. For Case 2, this transient diagram shows the exchanger LP shellside pressure rise on tube rupture, rupture flows and relief flows, for a PSV set pressure of 17 barg

Case 5: Liquid propane cooled by

natural-gas condensate. A propane-refrigerant-based natural-gas
dewpointing plant uses natural-gas
condensate to sub-cool liquid refrigerant. Liquid propane at around 58
barg pressure is on the tubeside,
and HP natural-gas condensate at
43 barg flows on the shellside of
the exchanger, which is TEMA type
AEL. The condensate state is twophase, vapor-liquid in and out of the
exchanger. Dynamic evaluation of a
single-tube, full-bore rupture in this
exchanger indicated a fast pressurerise rate of 65 bars/s in the liquid-filled
tubeside. The pressure rises from an
operating pressure of 7.2 barg to 17

barg relief pressure in 0.15 s.

A rupture disk was selected as the
relief device. Dynamic simulation of
this scenario was carried out, and
shows that the peak relief flow on
disk rupture in liquid-filled systems
can be an order of magnitude higher
than the associated tube-rupture
flow driving the event, as shown in
Figure 5. The dynamic model was
used for sizing the rupture disks inlet
and outlet lines based on the transient relief flows, with the criteria that
the LP side must stay below the allowable design overpressure.
Accurate modeling of this system
involving two-phase choked flow in
pipes is a challenge, even with the

1,000

18
Rupture flow, kg/s

16

Relief flow, kg/s

Pressure

12
10

10
8

Pressure, barg

Mass flow, kg/s

Closing thoughts

14

100

6
1
4
2
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6
Time, s

0.8

1.2

FIGURE 5. Case 5s rupture occurs 0.05 s into the run, followed by rapid pressure rise to rupture disc burst
pressure of 17 barg at 0.2 s. Initial relief flow can be seen to be significantly higher than the rupture flow
52

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

advanced dynamic simulations packages available commercially. A commercial simulation model, which uses
a momentum conservation equation
based on Darcys law, was used in
this study to model the rupture disks
inlet and outlet lines. The exchanger
tubeside was modeled using three
volume segments, one each for the
channels, and one to account for
the volume of the intact tubes. Figure 6 shows the simulation process
flow diagram (PFD) used for the
transient analysis.
Cases 6 and 7: Liquid-filled exchangers in an ethylene plant. Ennis
[5] presented dynamic simulation results for two liquid-filled exchangers,
the first with liquid propylene, and the
second with methanol on the LP side.
Table 1 provides further system details. For both exchangers, the HP-LP
pressure differential is >70 bars. The
study used models that solve onedimensional partial differential equations for the conservation of mass and
momentum for the liquid-filled riser to
the PSV attached to the exchangers.
This method is a more rigorous approach for two-phase pipe flow than
available in some dynamic-simulation
software packages.
The blocked-in pressure rise calculated was 28 bars/s for the propylene-filled system, and 64 bars/s
for the methanol-filled system. PSVs
were proposed as the relief device for
both cases. Note that as in Case 4,
the PSV set pressure was significantly
below the LP design pressure, allowing pressure to rise to above 10% of
the PSV set pressure.
The following are some conclusions
that can be drawn based on the information presented in this article:
Dynamic simulations can allow for
more accurate PSV sizing for tuberupture scenarios than steadystate methods
Based on dynamic simulation
studies, PSVs can be used to
protect liquid-filled exchangers
with high pressure differentials of
over 70 bars
Dynamic simulation should be considered for evaluating tube-rupture
scenarios of liquid-filled systems for
relief-device selection and sizing,
even when exchanger differential
pressures are less than 70 bars, if
the exchanger LP side is not pro-

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FEBRUARY 2015

Tubesheet stub

FIGURE 6. For Case 5, the heat exchanger's LP

side is segmented into three volume elements: V1
(inlet channel), V2 (tubes) and V3 (outlet channel)

Tubesheet stub* VLV-100

Rupture
TEE-101

Tubelength* VLV-101

Rupture disc
0.00 %
0
kgh
RD tail pipe Relief
To RD*

To header

Rupter disc
PIPE-102

PIPE-100 Refrigerant*
Refrigerant

q1

q3

V2
VLV-105

q4
0.000 kw

L1

Tube-rupture relief
scenario evaluation not
required1

YES

Uprate LP side

NO
Is HP-LP design-pressure difference
> 70 bars?

L1-1 q6
-190.0 kw

L2

Perform dynamic
evaluation
YES

YES

Is the LP side
liquid-filled?

NO3

Perform steady-state
evaluation

NO2
Notes:
1. Evaluation may still be required for reacting systems
2. As illustrated in Case 4, even for scenarios where the HP-LP pressure differential is <70 bars, dynamic simulation may
be required if the LP side is liquid-filled. The pressure rise could still be too rapid for the PSV opening capacity. Even if a
rupture disc is installed, inlet and outlet line sizing based on steady-state tube-rupture flow calculations may not
be accurate
3. As illustrated by Case 2, dynamic simulation can allow for more accurate PRD sizing

FIGURE 7. Based on API-521 guidelines, this decision chart for evaluating tube-rupture scenarios can help
engineers determine if steady-state or dynamic evaluation is most suitable
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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V2-1
V3 (outlet channel)

shutdown valves (ESDVs) on tube

rupture will give the fastest, and
thus most conservative, pressurerise estimate. Hazard analysis
should, however, consider the impact of actual ESDV closure rates
on the system beyond the ESDVs,
especially for liquid-filled systems,
which see very rapid pressurerise rates
For further guidance, Figure 7
presents a decision chart for evaluating tube-rupture scenarios based on
API-521 guidelines. Figure 7 and the
cases discussed above show that
dynamic evaluation can lead to better relief-device selection and sizing,
and materials selection for various

YES

V3-1
VLV-103

VLV-107

NO
Is it cost-effective to uprate the LP side to 10/13
of HP design pressure?

V3

V2 (tubes)
V1 (inlet
channel)
VLV-102

To HX*

tected by the 10/13 rule

Line sizing for the rupture disks
inlet and outlet should be based
on the transient relief flows, with
the criteria that the LP-side pressure rise is limited to the allowable
design overpressure
Dynamic simulations allow evaluations of suitable exchanger minimum metal design temperatures
Dynamic evaluation of the heatexchanger tube-rupture scenario
is often simplified by looking at the
exchanger in isolation from the
larger system of which it is a part,
since the assumption of instantaneous closure of inlet and outlet
isolation valves and emergency

Is the LP side protected

by the 10/13 rule?

V1
VLV-104

To RD
To HX

ESDV-1

Refrigerant
18.10 C
7.230 barg
19.71 MMSCFD
43,279 kg/h

Temperature
Pressure
Molar flow
Mass flow

RD inlet pipe

FEBRUARY 2015

L2-2

ESDV-2
q5
0.000 kw

L3

Refrigerant out

Refrigerant out
Temperature 12.37
Pressure
6.700
Molar flow
19.73
Mass flow
43,337.2

C
barg
MMSCFD
kg/h

conditions, including some that do

not require dynamic evaluation under

the API guidelines.

Edited by Mary Page Bailey

References
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII,
Div. 1 (2008) UG-99(b).
2. API Standard 521, Pressure-relieving and Depressuring Systems, 6th Edition, January 2014.
3. API Standard 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation
of Pressure-relieving Devices in Refineries Part I
Sizing and Selection, 8th Edition, December 2008.
4. Darby, R. Size Safety Relief Valves for Any Conditions,
Chem. Eng., Sept. 2005, pp. 4250.
5. Offshore Technology Report-2002/023, Testing and analysis of relief device opening times,
Prepared by PSI (Pipeline Simulation and Integrity) Ltd for the Health and Safety Executive,
U.K., p. 65.
6. Urdaneta, R., and Lenferink, J., Dynamic Simulation
of Tube Rupture in High-Pressure Heat Exchangers
of a Hydrocracking Unit, to be published in Hydrocarbon Processing.
7. Ennis, C.J., Botros, K.K., and Patel, C., Dynamic
model for a heat exchanger tube rupture discharging
a high-pressure flashing liquid into a low-pressure
liquid-filled shell, Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries, pp. 111121, Vol. 24, 2011.
8. Ha, H., Dynamic Simulation Analysis for the
Tube Rapture of a Natural Gas Heater in LNG
Plant," 64th Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada,
October 1922, 2014.

Author
Soumitro Nagpal is a senior process engineer with Fluor Daniel
India Pvt. Ltd. (Building 8B, 3rd
Floor, DLF Cyber City, Gurgaon,
Haryana 122002, India; Email:
[email protected]) with
24 years of work experience in
process development, design, engineering, and management. He
has wide-ranging experience in
process modeling and simulation, and is a Fluor team
leader for executing dynamic simulation projects for the
oil-and-gas and power industries. Soumitro is a graduate of Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
(B.E.) in chemical engineering, and received a Ph.D.
from the University of Utah.
53

Feature Report
Part 2

Thermal Design Guidelines

for Optimizing Shell-andTube Heat Exchangers
Ensuring optimal performance of shell-and-tube heat exchangers requires
knowledge of the controlling fluid, correct exchanger geometry and configuration,
as well as proper fluid placement
Satyendra
Kumar Singh
Simon India Ltd.

IN BRIEF
MAXIMIZING U
CORRECT FLUID
PLACEMENT
MAXIMIZING EMTD
MINIMIZING SHELLSIDE
BYPASS

ptimizing the thermal design of a

shell-and-tube heat exchanger requires minimizing the heat-transfer
area for a given heat duty while
remaining within the constraints of given
shellside and tubeside pressure drops. The
general heat-transfer equation is shown in
Equation (1), where the heat-transfer rate (Q)
is given in terms of the overall heat-transfer
coefficient (U), the heat-transfer surface
area (A) and the effective mean temperature
difference, (T)e.
Q = UA(T)e

htd/kt = 0.023(Ret)0.8(Prt)1/3(t / wt)0.14

(2)

Where:
d = Inside diameter of a tube
kt = Thermal conductivity of the tubeside fluid
t = Viscosity of the tubeside fluid
wt = Viscosity of the tubeside fluid at the
average inner tubewall temperature

(1)

For a given Q, A can be minimized by maximizing U, (T)e or both, subject to the constraints of the shellside and tubeside pressure drops. Additional design constraints
may stem from other factors, such as flowinduced vibration, space limitations, and
standard tube lengths and diameters as
specified by the Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association (TEMA) [1].

The tubeside fluids Reynolds number (Ret)

and Prandtl number (Prt) are defined by
Equations (3) and (4), respectively.
Ret = tud/t

Although U can be increased by increasing the shellside or tubeside heat-transfer

coefficient (hs or ht, respectively), it can be
increased substantially only by increasing
the heat-transfer coefficient of the controlling
side, which is the side with higher thermal resistance or a lower heat-transfer coefficient.
Some general guidelines for determining the
controlling side in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger are given in Table 1.
The heat-transfer coefficient of either
side can be increased by increasing the
velocity of the fluid in that side, or by lowering the tube diameter for given process
conditions, as is evident from the basic
equations in the following section.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

(3)

Where:
t = Density of the tubeside fluid
u = Velocity of the fluid in a tube
Prt = Cpt t/kt

Maximizing U

54

Tubeside heat-transfer coefficient. The

tubeside heat-transfer coefficient (ht) is given
by Equation (2), which is a form of the Sieder-Tate equation [3].

(4)

Where:
Cpt = Specific heat of the tubeside fluid at constant pressure
All of the physical properties in Equations (2),
(3) and (4), with the exception of wt, are referenced at the average of the inlet and outlet bulk
temperatures. By incorporating Equations (3)
and (4), Equation (2) becomes Equation (5).
ht=(0.023t0.8u0.8Cpt1/3kt2/3)/
(t0.33wt0.14 d0.2)

(5)

Equation (5) clearly indicates that

an increase in tube velocity increases
the tubeside heat-transfer coefficient.
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FEBRUARY 2015

The tube velocity can be increased

in the following ways:
i. Increasing the number of tube passes
ii. Reducing the shell diameter and
increasing the tube length, thus
reducing the number of tubes and
the flow area
iii. Increasing the tube pitch while
keeping the same shell diameter
and increasing the tube length,
thus reducing the number of tubes
and the flow area; however, it is to
be noted that tube pitch is generally
specified as 1.25, 1.33 or 1.5 times
the tube outside diameter, posing
limitations to the possible increases
in this parameter
iv. Reducing the tube inside diameter;
however, tube diameters are standardized per TEMA standards, and
therefore, variation of this parameter is also limited [1]
It is also apparent from the same
equation that reduction in the tube inside diameter increases the tubeside
heat-transfer coefficient, whether or
not it results in an increase in velocity. That is, even if the velocity in the

TABLE 1: GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING THE CONTROLLING SIDE IN AN EXCHANGER [2 ]

Controlling side
Non-controlling side
Condensing hydrocarbon

Liquid water*

Condensing hydrocarbon

Boiling water

Boiling hydrocarbon

Liquid water*

Boiling hydrocarbon

Condensing steam

Single-phase hydrocarbon

Condensing steam

Single-phase hydrocarbon

Boiling water

Single-phase hydrocarbon

Liquid water*

Gases
Liquid water*
*Includes cooling water, demineralized water, boiler feedwater and so on

Cps = Specific heat of the shellside

fluid at constant pressure
ws = Viscosity of the shellside
fluid at the average outer tubewall
temperature

The tube pitch, Pt, is the product

of do and the pitch ratio, r, which is
typically 1.25, 1.33 or 1.50.

De is the shellside equivalent diameter, and is four times the hydraulic

radius (rh), which is the ratio of the
free area (Af) to the wetted perimeter
(L). Equations (7) and (8) define De
and rh, respectively.

From Equations (10) and (11), De is

given by Equation (12).

De = 4rh

hsDe/ks = 0.36(GsDe/s)0.55(Cps s/
ks)1/3(s/ws)0.14
(6)
Where:
ks = Thermal conductivity of the
shellside fluid
s = Viscosity of the shellside fluid
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

rh = Af/L

(8)

Gs, the mass velocity of the shellside

fluid, is the ratio of mass flowrate
of the shellside fluid (W) to shellside crossflow area at the center of
the shell (as).
Gs = W/as

(9)

All of the physical properties in

Equation (6), except for ws, are referenced at the average of the inlet
and outlet bulk temperatures. Equation (6) is valid for Reynolds number (GsDe/s) values between 2,000
and 100,000, and for a 25% cut
segmental baffle [4].
For square and rotated-square
pitches, Af = Pt2 do2/4, and L = do,
do being the tube outside diameter
and Pt the tube pitch. Therefore, from
Equations (7) and (8), De is given by
Equation (10).
De = 4(Pt2 do2/4)/do

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De = 4do(r2 /4)/

(11)

(12)

From Equations (6) and (9), hs is

given in Equation (13).

(7)

The tubeside heat-transfer coefficient can be increased by:

increasing the number of tube passes; reducing the shell
diameter and increasing the tube length; increasing the tube
pitch while keeping the same shell diameter and increasing
the tube length; or reducing the tube inside diameter
tube is kept constant by reducing
the tube diameter and increasing the
number of tubes, it leads to an increase in the tubeside heat-transfer
coefficient.
From the above discussions, it can
be concluded that the tubeside heattransfer coefficient can be increased
by: increasing the number of tube
passes; reducing the shell diameter
and increasing the tube length; increasing the tube pitch while keeping the same shell diameter and increasing the tube length; or reducing
the tube inside diameter.
Shellside heat-transfer coefficient.
The shellside heat-transfer coefficient
(hs) is given by Equation (6), based
on Kerns method [4].

Pt = rdo

FEBRUARY 2015

(10)

hs = 0.36(W/as)0.55De0.45ks2/3Cps1/3
s0.08 ws0.14
(13)
It is implied from Equation (13) that
an increase in De decreases hs, and
vice versa. From Equation (12), it is
evident that De is directly proportional
to do for square and rotated-square
pitches. The same is true for triangular and rotated-triangular pitches.
Thus, a decrease in tube diameter
lowers the equivalent diameter, and
thereby increases the shellside heattransfer coefficient. From Equation
(13), it is also evident that increasing
the shellside crossflow velocity (decreasing as) increases hs. Equation
(14) expresses as in terms of Pt, the
shell inside diameter (Di), the baffle
spacing (B) and the clearance between adjacent tubes (c) [4].
as = DiBc/Pt

(14)

The clearance between adjacent

tubes is given by Equation (15).
c = Pt do

(15)

From Equations (11), (14) and (15),

as is given by Equation (16).
as = DiB(1 1/r)

(16)

From Equation (16), it is seen that

55

the shellside crossflow velocity can

be increased (as can be reduced) by
lowering Di, B or r. Thus, the shellside velocity can be increased in the
following ways:
i. Reducing shell inside diameter
ii. Reducing baffle spacing
iii. Lowering pitch ratio; however, tube
pitch is generally 1.25, 1.33 or 1.5
times the tube outside diameter,
limiting the flexibility in lowering
this parameter
Based on the above discussions,
the shellside heat-transfer coefficient
can be increased by lowering shell
inside diameter, baffle spacing, pitch
ratio or tube outside diameter.

Correct fluid placement

In order to maximize the heat-transfer coefficient, the allowable pressure
drop of each fluid (hot or cold) should
be utilized to the maximum meaning that the calculated pressure drop
should be as close as possible to the
allowable one. This requires correct
fluid placement in terms of the shellside or tubeside of the exchanger,
subject to the constraints described
in this section. Further, it may not always be possible to fully utilize the
pressure drop of both fluids. In such
a situation, the pressure drop of the

the fluid, the fouling tendency of the

fluid, design pressure, design temperature, flow-induced vibration and
so on, which may dictate the placement of the fluid otherwise (differently
from the viewpoint of the minimization of heat-transfer area).

Maximizing EMTD
EMTD can be maximized by selecting the proper exchanger configuration. This is particularly important in a
temperature-cross situation that is, if
the hot-fluid outlet temperature is lower
than the cold-fluid outlet temperature. If
there is a temperature cross, EMTD is
significantly reduced if there is deviation
from pure countercurrent flow. In such
a situation, maximizing EMTD should
be the key objective. EMTD can be
maximized by providing multiple shells
in series or by selecting a configuration
wherein shellside and tubeside flows
approach pure countercurrent flow
[1]. Thus, the following guidelines can
be applied, based on TEMA heat-exchanger type standards:
i. For TEMA E shells, one tube pass
with countercurrent flow yields the
maximum EMTD
ii. For TEMA F shells, providing two
tube passes with countercurrent
flow maximizes the EMTD

The shellside heat-transfer coefficient can be increased

by lowering shell inside diameter, baffle spacing, pitch
ratio or tube outside diameter
controlling fluid should be fully utilized in order to maximize the overall
heat-transfer coefficient.
Sometimes, maximum utilization
of the pressure drop in the tubeside
requires an increase in the number
of tube passes, which reduces the
effective mean-temperature difference (EMTD) if the shellside has one
pass. In these cases, interchanging
the sides of the fluids, subject to the
constraints given below, may allow
utilization of the pressure drops in
both sides with one-one countercurrent flow (one pass on the shellside
and tubeside with flows in opposite
directions), resulting in the maximization of EMTD. The combined impact
of U and EMTD should be seen, and
the option resulting in the minimum
required heat-transfer surface area
should be chosen.
There may be some other constraints, such as the corrosiveness of
56

iii. For TEMA G and H shells, EMTD

can be maximized by providing an
even number of tube passes, that
is, 2, 4 or 6 passes
iv. For TEMA X shells, as the number
of tube passes increases, the flow
approaches pure countercurrent
flow, with the shellside and tubeside
fluids entering from opposite ends.
This means that if the shellside fluid
enters from the top, then the tubeside fluid should enter from the bottom, and vice versa. Thus, EMTD
can be maximized by increasing the
number of tube passes to the extent possible (constrained by tubeside allowable pressure drop) and
making the two fluids enter from
opposite ends
v. For TEMA J shells, pure countercurrent flow cannot be achieved,
as the shellside flow is divided into
two streams with opposite flow
directions. Hence, the maximum
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

achievable EMTD is less than the

maximum achievable EMTD for E,
F, G, H or X shells. Therefore, this
type of shell is not preferred in situations where maximizing EMTD is
the objective. A J shell is generally
used when minimizing the pressure
drop is the objective
However, sometimes other constraints may not allow a configuration with pure countercurrent flow,
and force the provision of multiple
shells in series. For example, if the
tubeside fluid is cooling water, more
than one tube pass may be required to ensure sufficient velocity to
minimize fouling, but if there is a temperature cross, this can significantly
reduce EMTD with one shell pass.
Therefore, the use of F, G or H shells,
or multiple shells in series, is desirable in such a situation to maximize
EMTD. The shellside pressure drop
may be too high to select the F shell
configuration. In such a case, multiple
E shells in series or the use of a G or
H shell may be the preferred choice.
Also, F, G and H shells may not be
appropriate because of potential
thermal leakage through longitudinal
baffles (if uninsulated). If the reduction in EMTD due to thermal leakage can more than offset the EMTD
gain due to pure countercurrent or
near-countercurrent flow, again the
preferred option is the use of multiple
shells in series.
If there is no temperature-cross
situation, the reduction in EMTD due
to deviation from pure countercurrent
flow may not be that significant. Therefore, the combined impact of U and
EMTD should be seen. For example, if
the tubeside is controlling, U can be increased significantly by increasing the
number of tube passes. However, for E
shells, this will lower EMTD due to deviation from pure countercurrent flow.
So, if the increase in U more than offsets the reduction in EMTD, the number
of tube passes should be increased to
the maximum. Otherwise, a single tube
pass should be provided to achieve the
maximum EMTD.

Minimizing shellside bypass

Shellside fluids have the tendency to
bypass the tube bundle if the clearances are not properly defined. Bypassing leads to poor heat transfer
due to reduced EMTD, resulting in a
higher heat-transfer-area requirement
for the same duty. The three main types

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FEBRUARY 2015

of bypass behavior are as follows:

i. Between the tube bundle and
the shell
ii. Between the baffles and the shell
iii. Through the tube-field passpartition lane, in the case of multiple tube passes, when the
pass-partition lane is parallel to
shellside crossflow
Another type of bypass through
the baffle hole (between the tube and
the baffle) is not as harmful, as it
does participate in heat transfer. The
first type of bypass is more likely to
occur with floating-head exchangers
(TEMA P-, W-, S- and T-type rear heads
[1]), and can be minimized by providing
sealing strips.
The second type of bypass can be
minimized by minimizing the clearance
between baffles and shell, or increasing
the baffle spacing or baffle cut. However, an increase in baffle spacing or cut
must be done carefully, because this
can lower the shellside heat-transfer coefficient. The third bypass type can be
minimized by providing seal rods in the

pass-partition lane.
Edited by Mary Page Bailey

Content Licensing for

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Marketing solutions it for:

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For more information on TEMA heat-exchanger

types, see Specifying Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers, Chem. Eng., May 2013, pp. 4753

Tradeshow/POP Displays

References

Radio & Television

1. Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers

Association, 8th Ed., New York, pp. 25, p. 27, 1999.
2. Ludwig, E.E., Applied Process Design for
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Vol. 3, 3rd
Ed., New Delhi, Gulf Professional Publishing,
p. 95, 2001.
3. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. and Harriot, P., Unit
Operations of Chemical Engineering, Fourth Ed.,
Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Book Co, pp.
304305, 1985.
4. Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, Singapore, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., pp. 137-139,
p. 838, 1965.

Author
Satyendra Kumar Singh is general
manager
(head
of
department) Process at Simon
India Ltd. (Mehtab House, A-36,
Ground Floor, Mohan CoOperative Industrial Estate, New
Delhi 110044, India; Phone:
0091-9811-293-605,
00911142-602-307; Email: sty_
[email protected]; [email protected]). He holds a
Bachelor of Technology (Honors) in chemical technology
from Harcourt Butler Technological Institute (Kanpur,
India) and a Masters of Business Administration from
Indira Gandhi National Open University (New Delhi,
India). Singh is a Chartered Engineer (India) and a Fellow
of The Institution of Engineers (India). He has over 22
years of experience in engineering consultancy and engineering procurement construction in the fields
of petroleum refining, petrochemicals, oil-and-gas,
ammonia and chemicals.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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57

Engineering Practice
Flare Consolidation Considerations
Consolidating multiple flares can help mitigate emissions and maintenance
Chris Ng and Zubin Kumana
Siemens, Process Safety Consulting

istock.com/hhakim

any petroleum-refining
and petrochemical facilities have experienced
tremendous growth in
recent years in response to increasing demand for fuels and chemical
precursors. Due to environmental
regulations and economic considerations, it is frequently more desirable to increase the throughput
on an existing facility rather than to
build a new plant. As shown in Figure 1, the total crude-oil processing
capacity in the U.S. has increased
steadily as the number of operable
refineries declined over the years
[1,2]. The expansion of these facilities has typically resulted in an array
of independent flare systems built
to meet the requirements of specific
expansion projects.
Flare consolidation is one attractive solution that is based on a holistic approach to updating the existing infrastructure to meet growing
demands. Integrating separate flare
systems into a single flare network
can be an economically and environmentally viable solution to meet
challenging operational and regulatory requirements.

The benefits
Generally speaking, independent
flare systems could be integrated
through the installation of crossover piping jumpers at appropriate
location(s) between the main lines
or headers of two existing systems.
The rationale and engineering requirements for these modifications
are described below.
Though many factors can affect
the sizing of flare systems and relief
headers, it is usually a type of utility
failure, such as total or partial power
failure or a loss of cooling water flow,
that dictates the design basis of the
disposal system. In most petroleum
58

refineries, either partial power failure

or cooling water failure is typically the
controlling scenario.
Such events are generally localized to a particular area of the plant.
For instance, if a chemical facility
has three independent cooling-water
systems, the loss of any one system
should not result in releases throughout the entire facility.
Thus, the availability of a plant-wide
flare system can provide increased
relief capacity for such scenarios to
support the expansion of processing
capacity. Since safe operating limits
can be set by relief- and flare-system
capacities, a well-implemented flare
consolidation may lead to an increase in the plant capacity through
modest upgrades to debottleneck
the flare systems.

Ease of maintenance
With a single large network of multiple flare systems servicing an entire
facility, some of the system capacity
gained may allow for any one of the
multiple flares to be removed from
service for maintenance without significantly impacting the operation of
the facility.
With independent flares, flare
maintenance would require a
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

planned shutdown of the affected

units; whereas emergency flare
maintenance would require either an
unplanned shutdown or turndown of
a portion of the plant. In both cases,
production would likely be curtailed
and would thereby result in higher
overall costs.
The ability to perform emergency
or scheduled maintenance on the
flare system with minimal impact on
operations could lead to a significant increase in overall up-time for
many facilities.

EPA requirements
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA; Washington, D.C.) has
released a National Petroleum Refinery Initiative to encourage refiners
to make a commitment to emission
reductions. Since 2000, 109 refineries in 32 states and comprising over
90% of the total U.S. refining capacity have agreed to comply [3]. As
part of this initiative, a covered facility may not emit more than 500 lb of
sulfur dioxide in a 24-h period during
non-emergency situations, based
on Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)
Section 304.
One option to minimize emissions

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FEBRUARY 2015

n U.S. operable crude oil distillation capacity (million barrels per calendar day)

250

18.0

230

17.7

210

17.4

190

17.1

170

16.8

150

16.5

130

16.2

110

15.9

90

15.6
15.3

70
50
1987

(Raw data from www.eia.gov, ref. 1 and 2)

1990

1993

1995

OSHAs PSM standard

The consolidation of multiple flare
systems into a single integrated
network requires a thorough understanding of the design basis for the
flare systems. There is no reasonable
means of combining multiple independent systems without a concrete
and well-documented design basis
for the flare systems, which in turn
is part of the process safety information requirement per the Process
Safety Management (PSM) Standard
29 CFR 1910.119(d)(3)(i)(D) [4] of the
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Admin. (OSHA; Washington, D.C.).

Methodologies
All credible flare loads should be
considered to ensure that the modified system can safely, economically
and efficiently handle the expected
loads. It is also necessary to understand the current layout of the flare
system to optimize flare header connections. A thorough understanding
of the current system and the proposed changes allows the designer
to confirm that the modified system
can operate safely and to validate
that flare maintenance requirements
can be met.

Identify and document

All potential loads to the flare system must be analyzed and documented. The loads can originate
from a variety of sources (such as
relief valves, control valves, bleeder
valves, emergency shutdown [ESD]
systems and so on) and can enter
the flare system due to a variety of
causes. To ensure that the system
is adequately sized, all emergency
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

U.S. operable crude oil distillation capacity (MBPD)

Number of U.S. operable refineries

Number of U.S. operable refineries

is to install a flare-gas recovery unit

(FGRU) for each flare system. The
consolidation of multiple flare systems into a single flare network could
significantly reduce the cost of compliance as a single FGRU unit could
be installed to service the entire facility (or two FGRUs could be installed
to improve availability). A simplified
diagram of flare debottlenecking options using this approach is shown
in Figure 2. In addition, consumption
rates of various utilities, such as air,
steam or fuel gas to support normal
flare operations, could be reduced
if a cascaded or staggered flare arrangement was adopted.

1998

2001
Year

2004

2006

2009

2012

15.0
2014

FIGURE 1. In the U.S., the total crude-oil processing capacity has increased steadily as the number of
operable refienries declined over the years

loads (due to area fires, power failures, cooling water failures and
major equipment failures) must be
considered, documented, and evaluated. To properly size the FGRU
and isolation seal drums for compliance with the EPA requirements,
releases during routine operations
and maintenance must also be accounted for and documented.

Develop a model
Evaluation of the location of the existing flare headers on a plot plan or
other facility map will allow for a quick
overview of the system connections
and aid in the design of proposed
crossovers. Once the consolidated
flare system has been developed, a
hydraulic model of this flare network
can be developed to verify that it
can handle the expected loads adequately. Three types of modeling
will be necessary: emergency load,
non-emergency load and maintenance load.
Emergency load modeling. A
standard method, such as the one
outlined in American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 521 [5], is applied to ensure that the system can
handle the expected emergency
loads. Critical items to verify include
the following:
1. Backpressure limits To ensure
that the relief capacities for individual sources will remain adequate
despite the pressures built-up in the
disposal system
2. Header velocities To ensure

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FEBRUARY 2015

that there are no localized areas of

high velocity in the flare network that
could cause mechanical problems
due to excessive momentum forces
or acoustically induced vibrations
3. Flare equipment sizing To ensure satisfactory performance of all
relevant flare equipment, such as
liquid knockout pots (for vapor-liquid
separation), flare seals (including
seal height evaluation), flare tip performance (in terms of flare radiation,
noise, flame stability and so on), vaporizers and heaters and more
4. Mechanical limits of the header
To ensure that the flare header itself
can adequately handle the expected
operating requirements
5. Liquid removal facilities To ensure that the integrated flare loads
will not result in excessive mechanical stress due to undesirable flow
patterns (such as high-velocity liquid slugs)
Non-Emergency load modeling. All releases to the flare system
during normal operation or routine
maintenance of the facility should be
accounted for. Critical items to verify
include the following:
1. FGRU To ensure that the normal
flare loads from all sources such
as leaking relief valves or normally
open vent lines plus intermittent releases during maintenance (equipment blowdown), and operations
(backpressure control valves, startup/
shutdown requirements, purging)
can be handled by the FGRU. This
information is used to generate the
59

Flare 1

Process unit 1

Process unit 2

Other units

Flare 2
FGRU
Flare 3
New process
unit

Other new units

Flare debottlenecking option(s) shown

as black/dashed

FIGURE 2. A single flare-gas recovery unit (FGRU) could be installed to service an entire facility, as
shown in this simplified diagram of flare debottlenecking options

sizing parameters for the FGRU (especially the compressor).

2. Seal drums To ensure that excessive or insufficient pressure will
not disrupt the liquid seal in the seal
drum and result in unintended release from a flare stack during normal operations. Consideration must
also be given to ensure that the sealing fluid does not freeze.
3. Liquid knockout While most
FGRU compressors can handle limited liquid on the inlet, large liquid
flow to these compressors should
be avoided.
Maintenance load modeling. Evaluation of both emergency and nonemergency loads to ensure that all of
the established limits would not be
exceeded and that the facility could
be operated safely should an individual flare (or portion of the header)
be removed from service for maintenance reasons.
The results of this modeling could
lead to the modification of the consolidated header design or flare
operation in areas where facility upgrades are planned. The changes
may include the allocation of larger
diameter headers, adding mechanical supports, modifying relief devices
or flare equipment, adding process
safety systems, implementing operational changes, training and so on.
The flow distribution and flow pattern of the flare loads throughout
the integrated flare system must
be evaluated, because consolidating flares could result in areas of increased corrosion or erosion rates,
temperature-induced embrittlement,
mixing of chemically incompatible
fluids, or a host of other operational
60

or safety concerns.
Fluids follow the path of least resistance. Sizing a flare header that
is too large could result in overloading one flare stack in a consolidated
system even though the total system
may have sufficient capacity. Additional modeling, such as Flare Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) may
be required to account for the time
dependency of flare loads or the statistical probability of various emergency scenarios.

Other design considerations

While the multiple benefits of flare
consolidation have been described
above, other design considerations
could preclude its implementation. In
particular, segregation of relief streams
could be necessary due to incompatible functional requirements in terms
of operating pressure, temperature,
fluid composition, or physical properties of the relief streams. Issues such
as corrosion, toxicity, reactivity, phase
change, and flow pattern of the combined relief streams upon flare consolidation should be evaluated.

downs or turnarounds, installing a

dedicated FGRU for each flare, and
other options each have their own
limitations or drawbacks.
When implemented properly, a
flare consolidation program could be
an economically attractive solution
that allows facilities to maximize the
utilization of their disposal systems
while maintaining compliance to
regulatory requirements of the EPA
and OSHA. Sound engineering is required to ensure that environmental
impacts and maintenance concerns
are not mitigated at the expense of

facility safety.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey

References
1.Energy InformationAgency,www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/
leafhandler.ashx?n=pet&s=mocleus2&f=m
2.Energy InformationAgency,www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/
leafhandler.ashx?n=pet&s=8_na_8O0_nus_c&f=a
3. www2.epa.gov/enforcement/petroleum-refinerynational-case-results
4. Process safety management of highly hazardous
chemicals, Title 29, Part 1910.119, US Code of
Federal Regulations
5. Pressure-relieving and Depressuring Systems, API
Standard 521, 6th edition, January 2014

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank our Siemens (and old
Berwanger) colleagues who have contributed invaluable insights in pressure relief and flare design over the
years. This article would not have been possible without
their support.

Authors

Concluding remarks

Chris Ng is a technical advisor

at Siemens, Process Safety Consulting (4615 Southwest Freeway,
Suite 900, Houston, TX 77027;
Phone: +1-713-570-1204; Email:
[email protected]). His expertise includes process design
and safety, steady-state and dynamic modeling of multiphase
flowlines and process unit operations, process hazard and risk analysis. Ng has executed
upstream and downstream design projects for major
operating companies. He has a B.S.Ch.E. degree from
the University of Western Ontario in Canada, and is a
licensed professional engineer in Texas.

While flare consolidation may be

driven by environmental or regulatory
considerations, a properly consolidated flare could provide additional
flare capacity, improve operational
flexibility, and result in operational
savings for the whole facility.
Multiple independent flare systems are not always practical, and
there may be more than one option
to eliminate the need for flare consolidation. However, performing flare
maintenance only during unit shut-

Zubin Kumana is a consultant

at Siemens , Process Safety Consulting (same address as above;
Email: zubin.kumana@siemens.
com). He has a solid understanding of relief device sizing and installation codes and standards,
including ASME, API, and Design
Institute for Emergency Relief Systems (DIERS), and has performed
projects for many of the major domestic and international oil and gas companies. Kumana holds a B.S.Ch.E.
degree in from the University of Florida, is a certified
project management professional, and is a licensed
professional engineer in Texas.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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24742

Solids Processing
Bulk Solids: Optimizing Screw Conveyors
Despite their apparent simplicity, the complexity of these conveying systems
demands proper design and an understanding of the underlying principles
Alan W. Roberts
TUNRA Bulk Solids Handling Research Associates
The University of Newcastle (Australia)

crew conveyors play a major

role in a wide variety of industrial operations that involve the handling of bulk
solids. While their use is generally
limited to relatively short conveying
distances, their versatility in being
able to provide reliable operation for
conveying over a wide range of elevation angles from the horizontal to
the vertical is well established. Despite their apparent simplicity, their
mode of operation is far from simple.
For this reason, it is important that
conveyor designers, manufacturers
and users have some understanding
of the basic mechanics governing
their performance. This discussion of
screw conveyor fundamentals draws
upon background research that is
presented in Refs. 17.

Background
The earliest form of the screw conveyor dates back some 2200 years
Sc

rew

dia

me

ter
D

1, and in this case, the screw flight

projects beyond the casing at the
lower or intake end (this projection is
referred to as the choke). The screw
must be immersed into the feed
material at least to the level of the
lower end of the casing, otherwise
the conveyor will not elevate the bulk
material. Better performance can be
achieved by employing an efficient
forced-feeding system.
One widely used screw conveyor
configuration is a design in which
the helical screw flight rotates in a
U-shaped, trough-type casing (Figure 2). This design is limited to relatively low angles of elevation, low
speeds and low fill ratios. Owing to
the low bending stiffness of helical
flights [7], hanger support bearings
are necessary, especially for long
conveying distances. This explains
the need for low fill ratios to protect
the bearings from contact with the
bulk material.
However, support bearings are not
necessary in the case of shaftless
screw conveyors (Figure 3). With this
design, the helical flight is supported
on a plastic, wear-resistant liner attached to the inside surface of the
casing. The helical flight needs to

FIGURE 2. A U-shaped, trough-type screw conveyor requires support bearings, but allows for
longer conveying distances and lower fill levels

FIGURE 3. The flights on a shaftless, screw-type

conveyor have robust construction, which allows
them to resist damage by torsional wind-up

th L

Bla
thi de
ts cknes
s
Pitc
hp

Bearing

to the time of Archimedes who developed the helical screw conveyor,

mainly for pumping water for irrigation purposes. The Archimedean
screw conveyor consists of a helical screw flight that is attached to
a cylindrical casing, so they rotate
together. Its conveying action by,
positive displacement, could only be
achieved at low elevation angles that
restricted its use mainly to fluids or
free-flowing granular materials.
Modern screw conveyors overcome this limitation, allowing bulk
materials to be conveyed over a range
of elevation angles from horizontal
to vertical, with a design that forces
relative motion to occur between the
rotating helical flight and the casing.
In most cases, this is achieved by
the casing being fixed and the screw
rotating within the casing, as shown
in Figure 1.
Practical limitations require a liberal
clearance between the flight and the
casing, and this has been shown to
be beneficial rather than detrimental
to performance. The conveyor may
be gravity fed, as shown in Figure

C
len hoke
gth
lc
Bearing

Screw flight

Minimum immersion
level in feed hopper

Height of lift H

Len
g

Cor
dia e or s
me ha
ter ft
Dc
Rad
i
cle al
ara
Par nce C
tica
l pa
th

Angle of
elevation
Bearing support

FIGURE 1. The enclosed screw conveyor with

fixed casing and rotating screw is a versatile
conveyor, which is widely used throughout the
chemical process industries, to provide bulk-solids
conveying over a wide range of elevations and
speeds
62

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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FEBRUARY 2015

NOMENCLATURE
A

Cross-sectional area of material, m2

ts

Thickness of screw blade, m

Radial clearance, m

VA

Absolute velocity, m/s

Screw diameter, m

VR

Relative velocity, m/s

Dc

Core or shaft dia., m

VL

Conveying velocity component, m/s

Gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2

VLt

Maximum theoretical conveying velocity, m/s

Variable height of material across the screw surface, m

VS

Screw velocity, m/s

hav

Average height of material on the screw surface, m

VT

Rotational velocity component, m/s

Kv

Pressure ratio from Equation (24) = 0.4

( p) /(2 ) = axial velocity of the screw, m/s

kF

Stress ratio, deined in Equation (12)

Screw helix angle, deg

kj

Stress ratio = 0.4

Effective screw helix angle, deg

ks

Stress ratio, deined in Equation (13)

Included angle of the segment of bulk solid, deg

Length of screw conveyor, m

Non-dimensional screw ill capacity per pitch

Rotational speed of screw, rev/min

Offset angle or slope angle of surface, deg

NS

Speciic speed number, dimensionless

Inclination angle of conveyor, deg

NT

Non-dimensional torque parameter

Drive eficiency

Vortex index

Fill ratio or fullness

Power, kW

Volumetric eficiency

Screw pitch, m

Helix angle of particle path, deg

Phic

Casing friction angle

Effective helix angle of particle path, deg

Phis

Screw surface friction angle

Friction coeficient for bulk material on casing surface

Volumetric throughput, m3/h

Mass throughput, ton/h

Friction angle for screw surface, deg

Qm

Equivalent friction coeficient for trough

Qt

Maximum theoretical volumetric throughput, m3/h

Friction coeficient for bulk material on screw surface

Inside radius of the casing, m

Re

Effective radius of screw, from Equations (9) and (21), m

Ri

Inner radius of radius of light, m

Ro

Outer radius of light, m

Radial position, m

Torque per pitch, Nm

Tsh

Torque due to material contact with shaft, Nm

Tsp

Torque per screw pitch, Nm

Tt

Total torque for U-trough conveyor, kNm

be of heavy cross section to resist

the torsional, wind-up deformation
imposed by the conveying action.
The need to limit the fill ratios of Ushaped trough conveyors is necessary to prevent throwback and a
loss in conveying efficiency.
This article provides an overview
of key performance and design aspects of enclosed screw conveyors.

Enclosed screw conveyors

Referring to the enclosed screw conveyor shown in Figure 1, the conveying of bulk materials is characterized
by particles moving in a helical path
of the opposite hand to that of the
screw. The conveying action and
throughput is dependent on the
braking effect imposed by the casing friction. This braking effect helps
to control and reduce the rotational
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

3.1416

Bulk density, ton/m3

Stress on screw light surface, kPa

Normal stress of material on screw light surface, kPa

Friction angle for screw casing, deg

Friction angle for screw surface, deg

Angular velocity, rad/s

component (or vortex motion) of the

material that is imparted to the material by the inclined surface of the
rotating helical screw flight.
The conveyor throughput is also
influenced by the degree of fill or
fullness of the screw. As the rotational speed of the conveyor increases, the losses due to the vortex motion decrease, up to a limiting
value, making for a more efficient
conveying action. However, when
gravity feed into the screw intake is
used (as in Figure 1), the feedrate is
often insufficient to match the potential conveying capacity, and a reduction in fill ratio or fullness of each
flight results. The overall efficiency
of the conveyor can be improved
by using a forced-feeding system to
overcome this problem.
Conveyor throughput. Figure 4

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shows a graph of throughput versus speed for a screw conveyor

with a 0.165-m dia. and 0.165-m
pitch helical flight conveying wheat
at three angles of elevation 30
deg, 60 deg and 90 deg. Over the
lower speed range, throughput is
nominally proportional to the speed,
but then becomes quite non-linear
and is limited with further increase
in speed, sometimes reaching a
maximum and then decreasing.
Figure 4 also shows the maximum
theoretical throughput, Qt, for the
conveyor running 100% full with the
bulk material moving axially without
rotation. While this is not possible in
an actual conveyor (because of the
influence of the friction due to the
screw flight), it provides a basis for
the determination of the conveying
efficiency.
63

80

50
40

60
40
20

20
p = D = 0.152 m
C = 0.097 m

200

400
600
800
Conveyor Speed, N, rpm

1000

FIGURE 4. This diagram of conveyor throughput

for wheat shows conveying performance as a
function of rotational speed at three elevation
angles
Q = Qt

(1)

Where:
Qt = 60 ND

C
(1 + 2 ) 2
D
4

(2)
(

DC 2
)
D

p
D

tS
D

(3)

Effect of conveyor diameter

Corresponding speeds. Corresponding speeds are given by a
non-dimensional, specific speed
number, NS, which is defined by
Equation
(4):

N 2D
Ro
=
g
1789

NS =

(4)

It follows from Equation (4) that

screw conveyors
of large diameter

attain their maximum output at lower

speeds compared to conveyors of
smaller diameter [1]. For example,
for a scale of 4:1, the characteristic
performance of the larger of the two
conveyors would occur at half the
speed of the corresponding, geometrically similar conveyor of one
quarter the size.
The mass throughput of a
screw conveyor, in t/h, is given by
Equation (5):
Qm = Q = Qt

20

40
60
Specific speed, Ns

64

VR

(6)

40

80

100

20

40
60
Specific speed, Ns

80

100

FIGURE 5. In this illustration of volumetric efficiency, fullness and losses due to rotation
for a screw conveyor handling millet seed (p = D), one can see that efficiency decreases with an increase in inclination angle

The conveying efficiency, VR, accounts for the rotational or vortex

motion, while the fullness is a measure of the average height, hav, of
material on the screw surface. This

is shown in Equation (7):

F

hav
p

(7)

Figure 5 shows the performance results of volumetric efficiency and fullness for an enclosed screw conveyor
with gravity feed handling millet seed
[1], for two angles of elevation (90 deg
and 30 deg). The graphs are plotted
against specific speed. As would
be expected, V and F are significantly higher for the 30-deg angle of
elevation than for the 90-deg (vertical) angle of elevation, due to more
efficient gravity feeding at 30 deg.
Rotational losses (defined by F
v) show that the losses over the
range NS = 0 to 20 are greater for
the 90 deg angle of elevation than
for the 30-deg angle of elevation. For
NS > 20, the rotational losses are approximately the same for both elevation angles. It should be noted that
for the same conveying elevation
height, the 30-deg conveyor needs
ho

VA

to be, nominally, twice as long as the

90-deg (vertical) conveyor.

Throughput analysis
Discussed next is the case of the
vertical screw conveyor. Further discussion of this topic can be found in
Refs. 3 and 4.
Conveying action within a vertical
screw conveyor. Figure 6 shows
the velocity diagram for a particle in
contact with the screw surface at a
particular location. VS is the screw
velocity due to its rotation, VR is the
relative velocity of the particle with
respect to the screw surface, and VA
is the absolute velocity of the particle
defined by the helix angle .
The velocity diagram shown in Figure 7 shows the absolute velocity resolved into two components the
useful conveying velocity VL, and
the wasteful rotational component
VT. Since the helix angle of the
screw flight varies with the radius,
being smaller at the outer periphery
and larger at the shaft, the angle
will also vary in the radial direction
from the outside of the flight to the
shaft. This means that the rotational
velocity VT, in theory, will vary with
the radius r (Figure 6) from the shaft
to the outside. The variation in VT
VLt

(5)

Volumetric
efficiency of an en
closed screw conveyor. The volumetric efficiency of a screw conveyor
is the product of the conveying efficiency, VR, and the fullness, F, as
indicated in Eq. 6:

60

20

0
0

Volumetric efficiency
Fullness
% Rotation = fullness
volume efficiency

80

30

10

INCLINATION ANGLE = 30 deg

100

Volumetric efficiency
Fullness
% Rotation = fullness volume
efficiency

80

Efficiency, %

60

100

EFFICIENCY, %

70

Conveyor throughput Q, m3/h

INCLINATION ANGLE = 90 deg

30 deg
60 deg
90 deg
Qt

VR

VR

Vs

VA
VL

Ri

(a) Conveying Action

Ro
(b) Sectional View

FIGURE 6. This velocity diagram for particles in

contact with the screw and material profile demonstrates the mechanics of conveying action
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Vs

VT

FIGURE 7. This velocity diagram depicts the

useful conveying component VL and wasteful
rotational component VT

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FEBRUARY 2015

0.7

0.6

0.6

Experimental points
20
10
0

10

20

30 40 50 60
Specific speed, Ns

70

80

Ri3
Ri2

(9)

The helix angle of the screw flight e

corresponding to Re is defined by
Equation (10):
1

(a) Casing friction Phic = 30 deg

p
D

Ro
Re

20

40
60
Specific speed, Ns

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

80

It may be shown that the relationship

between the specific rotational speed
NS and the helix angle e defining the
effective absolute path is given by
Equation (11):
NS =
2

Ro
tan
1+
Re
tan

(11)

e
e

kF sin( e + s )
e + S + e)
C cos(

kS

Where:
kF = (1 c k S )

kF

1.0

(12)

and:
(13)

p
kS = 2k j
D

1
Ri2
1
Ro2

100

0.3

(b) Screw surface friction = 20 deg

0.1
0

NS is the specific speed defined by

Equation (4). The coefficients kF and
ks in Equations (12) and (13) take into
account the bulk solid stress fields
within the screw space and depend
on the internal friction of the bulk solid.
The angle e increases with increase
in speed of rotation approaching, asymptotically, a limiting value defined
by the helix angle of the screw and
the friction angle of the bulk solid
in contact with the screw surface.
That is:
NS

90O

(14)

The helix angle o at the outer periphery adjacent to the inside surface of the casing is obtained from
Equation (15):

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tan

20

40
60
Specific speed, Ns

80

100

FEBRUARY 2015

= tan

tan
Ro
1+
Re
tan

(15)

Figure 8 shows the predicted and

measured helix angle o at the outer
periphery of a vertical screw conveyor conveying millet seed [3]. The
results show the significant increase
in path helix angle o as the speed
increases, approaching asymptotically the limiting value defined by
Equation (14).
Conveying efficiency. The actual
conveying velocity VLe at the effective radius when expressed as a ratio
of the maximum theoretical conveying velocity VLt, provides a measure
of the conveying efficiency allowing
for losses resulting from the rotational or vortex motion. It may be
shown that:
VR

(10)

Helix angles of the particle path.

The relationship between the helix
angle of the particle path and the
speed of rotation of the conveyor
has been studied by Roberts [13].

Phic = 20 deg
Phic = 25 deg
Phic = 30 deg
Phic = 35 deg

0.4

0.2

(8)

In Equation (8), Cv is the vortex

constant, and n is the vortex index.
It has been shown by Roberts [2,
3] that n 0, that is, the velocity
component VT is approximately
constant and, in fact, does not vary
with the increase in radius from Ri
at the shaft to Ro at the outer periphery. This is because the choking
action in the feed zone prevents slip
back in the central region adjacent
to the shaft. As a result, the height
h of material on the screw flight is
approximately constant and does
not vary with the radius.
Effective radius. To determine the
conveying efficiency, one must first
determine the variation of the path

helix angle
as a function of the radius and rotational speed of the conveyor. The analysis may be simplified

by lumping
the rotational mass and
resultant forces at the effective radius Re defined by Equation (9):

= tan

0.3

0.5

FIGURE9A (LEFT) AND 9B (RIGHT). The effect of screw and casing surface friction shown here demonstrates the advantage of low screw friction and high casing friction

2 Ro3
3 Ro2

0.4

0.1

with radius describes the vortex motion in the screw and is expressed by
Equation (8):

Re =

Phis = 20 deg
Phis = 25 deg
Phis = 30 deg

0.2

FIGURE 8. This graph shows the helix angle of the

particle path at the outer periphery as a function

of specific speed for a vertical screw conveyor
handling millet seed (p = D). The figure demonstrated the benefits of increase speed in improving conveyor performance up to the limit defined
by Equation (14)

VT r n = CV

0.5

Conveying efficiency

Predicted

30

0.7

40

Conveying efficiency

Helix angle of path, o

50

VLe
tan e
=
VLt tan e + tan

(16)
e

Influence of screw and casing

friction. The performance of screw
conveyors is significantly influenced
by the friction generated between
the bulk material and the screw and
casing surfaces. Figure 9a compares
the conveying efficiencies VR for a
vertical screw conveyor for three
friction screw surface angles s
= 20 deg, 25 deg and 30 deg for
the casing friction angle c = 30
deg. Figure 9b shows the influence
of four casing friction angles c
= 20 deg, 25 deg, 30 deg and 35
deg for the screw surface friction angle s = 20 deg. The results
clearly show the advantages of low
screw surface friction and high casing friction. Once the casing surface
friction exceeds the internal friction
of the bulk material, failure and rela65

35
Throughput
ho
30
FR

+s

P
25

FD

20

P predicted, kW

15

P measured, kW

Q measured, m3/h

10

1.0

Power

FA

FIGURE 10. Shown here are the forces acting on

bulk particles in contact with screw surface

tive motion will be governed by internal friction and not by surface or

boundary friction.
It should
be noted that the surface

friction angles for cohesive bulk solids decrease with an increase in normal pressure. It is important that the
surface friction angles be measured
and that the appropriate friction
angles corresponding to the pressures generated at the screw and
casing surfaces be used in the conveyor design.
Force analysis, power and torque.
The forces acting on particles in a
screw conveyor are shown in Figure
10. The bulk material at the outer
periphery in contact with the stationary casing exerts a force FN against
the casing, mainly as a result of the
centrifugal pressure. The centrifugal
pressure gives rise to the normal
pressure n acting at the casing. A
frictional drag force FD = c FN
acts in a direction opposing the absolute velocity. Here c is the coefficient of friction for the bulk solid particle on the casing surface. The axial
force FA arises from the weight of
the bulk material acting on the screw
surface plus the vertical component
of the frictional resistive force due
to the conveying action. FR is the
resultant resistive force due to the
motion of the bulk material relative
to the screw surface. The relationships for the force components are
given in Ref. 4.
Screw torque Tsp. The screw torque
resulting from the bulk solid on the
flight face may be determined from
Equation (17):
TSP =
66

L
F R tan(
p RA e

(17)

0.5

0
1000

0
200

300

400

500

600
700
Rotational speed, rev/min

800

Power, kW

Vs

Q predicted, m3/h

VR

Throughput, m3/h

VA

900

FIGURE 11. Shown here are the predicted and actual performance curves for a screw conveyor handling
wheat (D = 150 mm; Dc = 50 mm; p = 150 mm; L = 2.44m; = 90 deg; s = 20 deg; c = 25 deg;
kj = 0.45; = 900 kg/m3)

Shaft torque, Tsh. The normal pressure due to the bulk solid on the
shaft is shown in Equation (18):
n

= K gp

(18)

K accounts for the pressure distribution around the shaft. It is assumed

that K = 0.4
Torque due to the bulk solids moving relative to the shaft is provided by
Equation (19):
TSh = 2 Ri2

(19)

Total screw torque and power. The

total torque is T = Tsp + Tsh.
Power P is provided by Equation
(20):
P=

0.105TN

(20)

length of one screw pitch is usually

sufficient. However, as the conveying speed increases, a greater choke
length is necessary. The combination
of the fill ratio or fullness F and
conveying efficiency VR allows the
volumetric efficiency V = VR.F to
be obtained. Hence the throughput
can then be determined.
An appropriate forced-feeding arrangement may be used to meet
a specified throughput, particularly
when cohesive bulk solids are to be
conveyed. For example, forced feeding is utilized in the Siwertel-type ship
unloader, which employs a counter
rotating lower casing with feed vanes
that scoop the bulk material into the
screw intake. The screw conveyor capacity is controlled by the feeding device and not by the conveyor itself. To
avoid blockages in the screw intake, it
is essential that the conveyor speed is

Case study example

The procedures for computing the
throughput and power presented in
this paper are examined in relation to
the performance of an actual screw
conveyor used to elevate wheat. The
conveyor operates in the vertical position and is gravity fed. The predicted
and measured results are compared
in Figure 11. The agreement is considered to be quite satisfactory.
Feeding and transfers. Under gravity
feed, the feeding action in the choke
controls the conveyor throughput.
For low-speed operation, a choke
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Cyclical discharge
and feed

1
Q2

Q1

Q1

FIGURE 12. To avoid blockages at the transfer

point due to flow surges during a horizontal to
vertical conveyor transfer, the design capacity Q2
of the vertical conveyor needs to be greater than
Q1, the actual flowrate required

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FEBRUARY 2015

high enough for the fill ratio F < 1.

In multiple-conveyor installations
where transfers are employed, it
is most important that blockages
be avoided. As an illustration, the
transfer from a horizontal to a vertical screw conveyor as depicted in
Figure 12 is considered. Two design
conditions need to be considered.
First, the discharge Q1 from the
horizontal conveyor will be cyclical
at a frequency related to the conveyor rotational speed, as indicated.
Second, the conveying efficiency
of the vertical conveyor will be less
than for the horizontal conveyor. To
avoid blockages due to cyclical flow
surges, it is recommended that the
vertical conveyor be designed for a
capacity, Q2 1.2 Q1.
Of the various types and design
of mechanical handling equipment
employed in industrial operations,
screw conveyors, in particular, play a
major role. Nonetheless, their mode
of operation, while seeming to be
obvious and simple, is in fact just the
opposite, quite complex. To ensure

their reliability and efficient operation,

conveyor designers, manufacturers
and users must have some understanding of the basic mechanics
governing their performance, using
n
the concepts presented here.
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Note: An additional section on U-shaped
trough screw conveyors can be found in
the online version of this article, at
www.chemengonline.com

References
1. Roberts, A.W. and Willis, A.H., Performance of grain augers, Proc. Inst. of Mech. Eng.,176, p. 165, 1962.
Roberts, A.W., An investigation of grain vortex motion with
relation to the performance within vertical grain augers,
Proc. of the Inst.. of Mech. Eng. 178, p. 293, 1963
1964.
3. Roberts, A.W., The influence of granular vortex motion on
the volumetric performance of enclosed screw conveyors, Powder Technology, 104, pp. 5667, 1999.
4. Roberts A.W., Design and performance criteria for screw
conveyors in bulk solids operation, Bulk Solids Handling,
Vol. 22, pp. 436444, 2002.
5. Schlesinger, D. and Papkov, A., Screw conveyor calculation based on actual material properties. Powder Handling
and Processing, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 321325, October/
December 1997.
6. Roberts, A.W., Predicting abrasive wear in enclosed
screw conveyors, Bulk Solids and Powder Science &

Technology, Trans Tech Publications, Vol. 1, pp. 3243,

2004.
7. Roberts, A.W., Lateral bending stiffness of helical screw
feeders and conveyors, Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 26,
No. 4, 2006.

Author
Alan W. Roberts is the
founding director of TUNRA
Bulk Solids Handling Research
Associates (TBS) of the University of Newcastle, Australia and
is currently emeritus professor
there (Email: alan.roberts@
newcastle.edu.au). From 1974
to 1993, Roberts was dean of
the universitys faculty of engineering. He was responsible for
establishing the universitys research and consulting group
(TBS) in 1975. Over the past 40 years, this group has completed more than 3,500 projects in the field of bulk-solids
handling for industrial operators worldwide. Roberts holds a
B.E. (mechanical engineering with honors), a Ph.D. and
honorary D.Univ. and D.Sc. degrees, and has received nearly
a dozen distinguished awards from engineering institutions
worldwide. In November 2010, he was awarded the Peter
Nicol Russell Memorial Medal, the most prestigious award
of the Institution of Engineers Australia. He has more than
50 years of research and consulting experience in bulk solids handling and has published more than 400 journal and
conference papers. Since his formal retirement in 1994, he
has continued to be actively involved, both hands-on and
mentoring, consulting, research and student supervision.

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Product Showcase
Process
Technology
Pelleting

Advertise in
the Buyers' Guide

Buyers' Guide 2016

Contact:
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Tel: 512-337-7890
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New & Used Equipment

HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE PLUGS
SS 304,316,317, Alloy20, Monel, ChromeMoly, Titanium,
Brass, Steel, Duplex, A105... IN STOCK, MADE IN USA

JOHN R. ROBINSON INC.

Phone #1-800-726-1026
www.johnrrobinsoninc.com
[email protected]

Circle 244 on p. 70 or go to
adlinks.che.com/56194-244

HIGH SHEAR
MIXERS
Worlds Widest Selection,
Single Stage to Ultra-High Shear!
Scan to learn more
& arrange a
FREE trial.

KnightHawk Engineering
Specialists in design, failure analysis
and troubleshooting of static
and rotating equipment
www.knighthawk.com
Contact Jim Salter 281-282-9200
Circle 245 on p. 70 or go to
adlinks.che.com/56194-245

Circle 247 on p. 70 or go to
adlinks.che.com/56194-247

Free Tag Reader:

http://gettag.mobi

1-800-243-ROSS
www.HighShearMixers.com

WABASH SELLS & RENTS

Circle 246 on p. 70 or go to
adlinks.che.com/56194-246

Boilers
20,000 - 400,000 #/Hr.

Diesel & Turbine Generators

50 - 25,000 KW

Gears & Turbines

25 - 4000 HP

We stock large inventories of:

Air Pre-Heaters Economizers Deaerators

Pumps Motors Fuel Oil Heating and Pump Sets
Valves Tubes Controls Compressors
Pulverizers Rental Boilers & Generators

24/7 Fast Emergency Service

800-704-2002
Phone: 847-541-5600 Fax: 847-541-1279

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wabash

POWER EQUIPMENT CO.

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Circle 248 on p. 70 or go to
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-From 100 to 1,000,000 LBS

-The solution for problematic products
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the Classified
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

TEL:(914)381-7500 or Toll Free:1-800-AT ELCAN

20 MARBLEDALE ROAD, TUCKAHOE, NY 10707
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Circle 242 on p. 70 or go to
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ESSENTIALS FOR CPI PROFESSIONALS

Interested?

Liquid Cooled

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Software

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Tel: 512.337.7890
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email: dburleson@
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For more information on

classified advertising,
please contact:

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Circle 243 on p. 70 or go to
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FOR

CCircle 241 on p. 70 or go to

GASES & LIQUIDS!

Talk Directly with Design Engineers!

Blower Cooling

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Vent Condensing

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109 124 139 154 169 184 199 214 229 244 259 274

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125 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305 320 335 350 365 380 395 410 425 440 455 470 485 500 515 530 545 560 575 590

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126 141 156 171 186 201 216 231 246 261 276 291 306 321 336 351 366 381 396 411

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127 142 157 172 187 202 217 232 247 262 277 292 307 322 337 352 367 382 397 412 427 442 457 472 487 502 517 532 547 562 577 592

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128 143 158 173 188 203 218 233 248 263 278 293 308 323 338 353 368 383 398 413 428 443 458 473 488 503 518 533 548 563 578 593

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129 144 159 174

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100 115

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26

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86

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27

42

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72

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102 117

132 147 162 177 192 207 222 237 252 267 282 297 312 327 342 357 372 387 402 417 432 447 462 477 492 507 522 537 552 567 582 597

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133 148 163 178 193 208 223 238 253 268 283 298 313 328 343 358 373 388 403 418 433 448 463 478 493 508 523 538 553 568 583 598

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Advertisers Index
Advertiser............. Page number
Reader Service #

Phone number

Advertiser............. Page number

Phone number

Reader Service #

Advertiser............. Page number

Reader Service #

Phone number

Abbe, Paul O. ..................... 21-D

Inline Industries ......................34

RedGuard ..............................28

1-800-524-2188

1-800-568-8998

1-855-REDGUARD

adlinks.che.com/56194-01

adlinks.che.com/56194-16

adlinks.che.com/56194-26

Badger Meter, Inc. ...............9-D

Kral AG ...................................37

Rembe GmbH ........................36

1-877-243-1010

1-704-814-6164

49 2961 50714

adlinks.che.com/56194-02

adlinks.che.com/56194-17

adlinks.che.com/56194-27

Berndorf Band GmbH ............ 13

*KSB AG ................................ 9-I

Ross, Charles & Son

Company .............................6

adlinks.che.com/56194-18

1-847-841-3300
adlinks.che.com/56194-03

BETE Fog Nozzle, Inc. ............17

Load Controls ........................67

1-800-243-ROSS
adlinks.che.com/56194-28

1-888-600-3247

Roto Hammer Industries Inc. .32

adlinks.che.com/56194-04

adlinks.che.com/56194-19

Brkert Werke GmbH ............ 14

Newell Rubbermaid..............4-D

adlinks.che.com/56194-05

adlinks.che.com/56194-21

adlinks.che.com/56194-29

Cashco VCI ............................25

*OHL Gutermuth .................. 21-I

1-785-472-4461

49.60 47.80 06-0

Team Industrial Services ............

SECOND COVER

adlinks.che.com/56194-06

adlinks.che.com/56194-22

Check-All Valve Mfg. Co. .......32

Paratherm Corp. ....................27

1-515-224-2301

1-877-789-0433
adlinks.che.com/56194-07

adlinks.che.com/56194-23

Chemineer ............................. 18

*Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. ... 4-I

1-800-643-0641

1-973-256-3000
adlinks.che.com/56194-08

adlinks.che.com/56194-24

Chemshow 2015 .................... 10

Quest Integrity........................36

1-800-477-7686

1-800-622-8326
adlinks.che.com/56194-30

YS Inc. .................................... 21
1-888-356-3343
adlinks.che.com/56194-31

Zeeco ..................................... 19
1-918-258-8551
adlinks.che.com/56194-32

adlinks.che.com/56194-25

1-203-221-9232
adlinks.che.com/56194-09

Chemstations .......................... 11

Classiied Index February 2015

adlinks.che.com/56194-10

Corzan HP Piping Systems ....26

Advertiser

Page number
Reader Service #

Advertiser's Product
Showcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Amandus Kahl GmbH

& Co. KG ............................68

Computer Software . . . . . . . 69

Phone number

1-216-447-7397
adlinks.che.com/56194-20

Dechema E.V. ........................ 12

adlinks.che.com/56194-11

adlinks.che.com/56194-201

Eastman Chemical Company...3

Applied e-Simulators
Software.............................69

1-800-426-2463

Equipment, New & Used . . . 69

adlinks.che.com/56194-12

adlinks.che.com/56194-241

Emerson Process
Management ...................... 15

Elcan Industries ......................69

Advertiser

1-914-381-7500

Phone number

Flexicon Corporation ....FOURTH

COVER
1-888-FLEXICON

adlinks.che.com/56194-242

Indeck Power Equipment Co. 69

adlinks.che.com/56194-243

GEM Valves ......................... 31

John R. Robinson, Inc. ...........69

1-678-553-3400

1-800-726-1026

adlinks.che.com/56194-14

adlinks.che.com/56194-244

Heat Transfer Research, Inc. .35

KnightHawk Engineering ........69

adlinks.che.com/56194-15

1-281-282-9200
adlinks.che.com/56194-245

* International Edition
See bottom of opposite page
for advertising
sales representatives'
contact information

Reader Service #

Vesconite Bearings ................69

27 11 616 11 11
adlinks.che.com/56194-247

1-847-541-8300

adlinks.che.com/56194-13

Page number

Wabash Power
Equipment Co. ...................69
1-800-704-2002
adlinks.che.com/56194-248

Xchanger, Inc. ........................69

1-952-933-2559
adlinks.che.com/56194-249

Ross, Charles & Son

Company ...........................69
1-800-243-ROSS
adlinks.che.com/56194-246

Send Advertisements
and Box replies to:

Diane Burleson
Chemical Engineering, 11000 Richmond Ave, Houston, TX 77042
E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 512-337-7890

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FEBRUARY 2015

71

Economic Indicators
2012

2013

2014

Download the cepci two weeks sooner at www.chemengonline.com/pci

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)

625

(1957-59 = 100)
CE Index ______________________________________________
Equipment ____________________________________________
Heat exchangers & tanks _________________________________
Process machinery _____________________________________
Pipe, valves & fittings ____________________________________
Process instruments ____________________________________
Pumps & compressors ___________________________________
Electrical equipment ____________________________________
Structural supports & misc ________________________________
Construction labor _______________________________________
Buildings _____________________________________________
Engineering & supervision _________________________________

Nov. '14
Prelim.

Oct. '14
Final

Nov. '13
Final

578.6
702.6
649.4
663.0
875.4
411.9
942.9
516.2
769.9
322.8
547.1
321.2

579.7
704.1
652.3
666.9
876.4
411.8
941.1
516.0
769.1
324.4
547.1
319.8

566.6
686.6
620.6
653.2
873.9
411.4
924.3
514.1
746.3
317.8
532.8
323.4

Annual Index:
2006 = 499.6

600

2007 = 525.4
2008 = 575.4

575

2009 = 521.9
2010 = 550.8

550

2011 = 585.7
525

2012 = 584.6
2013 = 567.3

500

Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been converted to
accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS

LATEST

PREVIOUS

CPI output index (2000 = 100) ____________________________________________________

CPI value of output, $ billions _____________________________________________________
CPI operating rate, % __________________________________________________________
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) ____________________________________

Dec.'14
Nov.'14
Dec.'14
Dec.'14

=
=
=
=

94.3
2,046.4
79.0
271.0

Nov.'14
Oct.'14
Nov.'14
Nov.'14

=
=
=
=

93.9
2,057.2
78.7
283.4

Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2002=100)* ____________________________________

Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) ____________________________
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) ______________________________

Dec.'14
Dec.'14
Dec.'14

=
=
=

102.5
157.5
109.3

Nov.'14
Nov.'14
Nov.'14

=
=
=

102.2
157.6
108.8

CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100)

CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS)

2300

80

95

2200

78

90

2100

76

85

2000

74

80

1900

72

J A S O N D

92.9
2,114.6
77.9
293.2

Dec.'13
Nov.'13
Dec.'13
Dec.'13

=
=
=
=

89.5
2,146.3
75.8
292.0

Oct.'14
Oct.'14
Oct.'14

=
=
=

100.9
156.2
108.1

Dec.'13
Dec.'13
Dec.'13

=
=
=

97.7
158.3
108.1

70

1800

J F M A M J

=
=
=
=

CPI OPERATING RATE (%)

100

75

YEAR AGO

Oct.'14
Sept.'14
Oct.'14
Sept.'14

J F M A M J

J A S O N D

J F M A M J

J A S O N D

*Due to discontinuance, the Index of Industrial Activity has been replaced by the Industrial Production in Manufacturing index from the U.S. Federal Reserve Board.
Current business indicators provided by Global insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.

CURRENT TRENDS

Now Available:

Chemical Engineering Features Report Guidebook- 2014

Feature R
e
2014 Com ports
pilation

Chemical Engineerings Feature Reports provide concise,

factual information that aids in solving real problems. The
practical, how-to orientation of these articles ensures that
they can be directly applied to chemical engineers daily jobs.
Each article applies to a relatively broad section of the chemical
process industries as opposed to focusing on just one niche.
25139

Find this and other related reference material at store.chemengonline.com

25277

72

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

he preliminary value for the November CE Plant Cost Index (CEPCI; top;
most recent available) shows a slight decrease from the final value for October.
The small decrease for November follows
a similar decline the previous month. The
index value remains 2.2% above its level
from a year ago at this time. Meanwhile,
updated values for the Current Business
Indicators from IHS Global Insight (middle) show an increase for CPI output,
but a decrease for CPI value of output.
Producer prices for industrial chemicals
were down in December 2014.

WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM

FEBRUARY 2015

Now Available in the Chemical Engineering Store:

Process Water and Wastewater Treatment

and Reuse Guidebook- Volume 2

This guidebook contains how-to engineering articles formerly published in Chemical Engineering. The
articles in Volume 2 provide practical engineering recommendations for process operators faced with the
challenge of treating inlet water for process use, and treating industrial wastewater to make it suitable for
discharge or reuse.
There is a focus on the importance of closed-loop or zero-discharge plant design, as well as the selection,
operation and maintenance of membrane-based treatment systems; treating water for use in recirculatedwater cooling systems; managing water treatment to ensure trouble-free steam service; designing stripping
columns for water treatment; and more.
Table of Contents

Process Water Treatment Challenges and Solutions

Water Reuse and Conservation in the CPI
Strategies to Minimize Wastewater Discharge
Strategies for Water Reuse
Wastewater: A Reliable Water Resource
Membranes for Process Water Reuse
Strategies for Controlling Membrane Fouling
Fact at Your Fingertips: Membranes
Facts at Your Fingertips: Membrane Configurations

Facts at Your Fingertips: Controlling Membrane Fouling

Biodegradation and Testing of Scale Inhibitors
Keeping Cooling Water Clean
Caring for Cooling Water Systems
Purifying Coke-Cooling Wastewater
Non-Chemical Water Treatment
CPI Water and Steam Chemistry
Designing Steam Stripping Columns for Wastewater

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20611

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+65
+27

2 2415 1286
(0)1227 374710
(0)7 3879 4180
6778 9225
(0)41 453 1871

CircleCorporation
13 on p.
or go and
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adlinks.che.com/56194-13
2015 Flexicon Corporation. Flexicon
has70
registrations
applications for the trademark FLEXICON throughout the world.

DD-0324

Flexicon's Project Engineering Division can assume singlesource responsibility for engineering, integrating, automating
and supporting your large-scale bulk handling project
and guarantee its performance

Greater efficiency and control than available

through diversified engineering firms,
dedicated equipment makers or in-house
engineering departments with limited time
and/or bulk handling experience