Chapter 5: Mass Wasting

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Describe the basic processes, functions, and influences of

weathering.

Explain the main influences of weather determine the main

influences of mass wasting.

Describe the various types of mass wasting processes.

Compare the difference between fast and slow subsidence.

Determine ways mass wasting processes may be limited.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

Recently Utah has experienced a few deaths from either

avalanches or rock falls. What is the responsibility of
individuals versus government land use policies in regards
to these hazards?

Weathering
Weathering is the process that changes solid rock into sediments. With weathering, rock is disintegrated into smaller pieces. Once
these sediments are separated from the rocks, erosion is the process that moves the sediments away from its original position. The
four forces of erosion are water, wind, glaciers, and gravity. Water is responsible for most erosion. Water can move most sizes

of sediments, depending on the strength of the force. Wind moves sand-sized and smaller pieces of rock through the
air. Glaciers move all sizes of sediments, from extremely large boulders to the tiniest fragments. Gravity moves broken
pieces of rock, large or small, downslope. These forces of erosion will be covered later.
While plate tectonics forces work to build huge mountains and other landscapes, the forces of weathering and mass wasting gradually
wear those rocks and landscapes away, called denudation. Together with erosion, tall mountains turn into hills and even plains. The
Appalachian Mountains along the east coast of North America were once as tall as the Himalayas.
No human being can watch for millions of years as mountains are built, nor can anyone watch as those same mountains gradually are
worn away. But imagine a new sidewalk or road. The new road is smooth and even. Over hundreds of years, it will completely
disappear, but what happens over one year? What changes would you see? What forces of weathering wear down that road, or rocks or
mountains over time?
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering, breaks rock into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are just like the
bigger rock, just smaller. That means the rock has changed physically without changing its composition. The smaller pieces have the
same minerals, in just the same proportions as the original rock.
There are many ways that rocks can be broken apart into smaller pieces. Ice wedging, also called freeze-thaw weathering, is the

main form of mechanical weathering in any climate that regularly cycles above and below the freezing point. Ice wedging works quickly,
breaking apart rocks in areas with temperatures that cycle above and below freezing in the day and night, and also that cycle above
and below freezing with the seasons.
Ice wedging breaks apart so much rock that large piles of broken rock are seen at the base of a hillside called talus. Ice wedging is
common in Earths Polar Regions and mid latitudes, and also at higher elevations, such as in the mountains. Abrasion is another form
of mechanical weathering. In abrasion, one rock bumps against another rock.

Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a mountainside or cliff.

Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water collide and bump against one another.

Strong winds carrying pieces of sand can sandblast surfaces.

Ice in glaciers carries many bits and pieces of rock. Rocks embedded at the bottom of the glacier scrape against the rocks below.

Abrasion makes rocks with sharp or jagged edges smooth and round. If you have ever collected beach glass or cobbles from a stream,
you have witnessed the work of abrasion.
Now that you know what mechanical weathering is, can you think of other ways it could happen? Plants and animals can do the work of
mechanical weathering. This could happen slowly as a plants roots grow into a crack or fracture in rock and gradually grow larger,
wedging open the crack. Burrowing animals can also break apart rock as they dig for food or to make living spaces for themselves.
Mechanical weathering increases the rate of chemical weathering. As rock breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area of the pieces
increases. With more surfaces exposed, there are more surfaces on which chemical weathering can occur.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the other important type of weathering. Chemical weathering is different from mechanical weathering
because the rock changes, not just in size of pieces, but in composition. That is, one type of mineral changes into a different mineral.
Chemical weathering works through chemical reactions that cause changes in the minerals.
Most minerals form at high pressure or high temperatures deep in the crust, or sometimes in the mantle. When these rocks reach the
Earths surface, they are now at very low temperatures and pressures. This is a very different environment from the one in which they
formed and the minerals are no longer stable. In chemical weathering, minerals that were stable inside the crust must change to
minerals that are stable at Earths surface.
Remember that the most common minerals in Earths crust are the silicate minerals. Many silicate minerals form in igneous or
metamorphic rocks deep within the earth. The minerals that form at the highest temperatures and pressures are the least stable at the
surface. Clay is stable at the surface and chemical weathering converts many minerals to clay. There are many types of chemical

weathering because there are many agents of chemical weathering. Water is the most important agent of chemical weathering. Two
other important agents of chemical weathering are carbon dioxide and oxygen.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY WATER
A water molecule has a very simple chemical formula, H2O, two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. But water is pretty
remarkable in terms of all the things it can do. Water is a polar molecule; the positive side of the molecule attracts negative ions and
the negative side attracts positive ions. So water molecules separate the ions from their compounds and surround them. Water can
completely dissolve some minerals, such as salt.
Hydrolysis is the name of the chemical reaction between a chemical compound and water. When this reaction takes place, water
dissolves ions from the mineral and carries them away. These elements have undergone leaching. Through hydrolysis, a mineral such
as potassium feldspar is leached of potassium and changed into a clay mineral. Clay minerals are more stable at the Earths surface.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. This makes a weak acid, called carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid is a very common in nature where it works to dissolve rock. Pollutants, such as sulfur and nitrogen, from fossil fuel
burning, create sulfuric and nitric acid. Sulfuric and nitric acids are the two main components of acid rain, which accelerate chemical
weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY OXYGEN
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that takes place when oxygen reacts with another element. Oxygen is very strongly chemically
reactive. The most familiar type of oxidation is when iron reacts with oxygen to create rust. Minerals that are rich in iron break down as
the iron oxidizes and forms new compounds. Iron oxide produces the red color in soils.
Now that you know what chemical weathering is, can you think of some other ways chemical weathering might occur? Chemical
weathering can also be contributed to by plants and animals. As plant roots take in soluble ions as nutrients, certain elements are
exchanged. Plant roots and bacterial decay use carbon dioxide in the process of respiration.

Influences on Weathering
ROCK AND MINERAL TYPE
Weathering rates depend on several factors. These include the composition of the rock and the minerals it contains as well as the
climate of a region. Different rock types weather at different rates. Certain types of rock are very resistant to weathering. Igneous rocks,
especially intrusive igneous rocks such as granite, weather slowly because it is hard for water to penetrate them. Other types of rock,
such as limestone, are easily weathered because they dissolve in weak acids.
Rocks that resist weathering remain at the surface and form ridges or hills. Devils Tower in Wyoming is an igneous rock from beneath a
volcano. As the surrounding less resistant rocks were worn away, the resistant center of the volcano remained behind.
Different minerals also weather at different rates. Some minerals in a rock might completely dissolve in water, but the more resistant

minerals remain. In this case, the rocks surface becomes pitted and rough. When a less resistant mineral dissolves, more resistant
mineral grains are released from the rock.
CLIMATE
A regions climate strongly influences weathering. Climate is determined by the temperature of a region plus the amount of
precipitation it receives. Climate is weather averaged over a long period of time. Chemical weathering increases as:

Temperature increases: Chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher temperatures. For each 10 degrees C increase in
average temperature, the rate of chemical reactions doubles.

Precipitation increases: More water allows more chemical reactions. Since water participates in both mechanical and chemical
weathering, more water strongly increases weathering.

So how do different climates influence weathering? A cold, dry climate will produce the lowest rate of weathering. A warm, wet climate
will produce the highest rate of weathering. The warmer a climate is, the more types of vegetation it will have and the greater the rate
of biological weathering. This happens because plants and bacteria grow and multiply faster in warmer temperatures.

Factors that Influence Mass Wasting

Once rock material has been broken down into smaller, unstable pieces by weathering, the material has the potential
to move downslope called mass wasting (also called a landslide). Before looking into the various types of landslides,
the factors that influence them must be examined.
STEEPNESS OF SLOPE
There are several factors that influence mass wasting, but ultimately it is a battle between friction and gravity. If the
friction on a rock is stronger than gravity for a particular slope, the rock material will likely stay. But if gravity is
stronger, the slope will fail.
The steeper the slope, the stronger the friction or rock strength must be to resist downslope motion. The steepest
angle a slope can be before the ground will slide is about 35 degrees, called the angle of repose. Many times we will
cut through a slope to make room for a road or other forms of development. So to help prevent the slope from sliding
along these cut areas, retaining walls must be build. More on this later.
COMPOSITION OF SLOPE MATERIAL
Another factor that determines mass wasting is the slope's materia. Mass wasting is more prone on slopes that contain
clay and shale. Without going into great detail here, the shape and composition of individual clay particles can absorb
water and prevent water from peculating through the ground. A layer of clay on a slope can prevent water from

filtering through the slope. Instead, the water stays near the surface and saturates the ground. This can cause the
surface layers to lose friction and slide.
Editors Note: I found an interesting website where the go over a particular landslide that occurred in Australia. Which
due to its relatively low elevation is not a common occurrence. The website goes over the how the slide happened and
who it effected. http://landslideinthredbo.weebly.com/the-thredbo-landslide.html
WEIGHT AND FRICTION OF SLOPE
A third factor that influences whether a slope will fail is the load or weight of that slope. Adding weight to a weakened
slope can obviously cause it to slide easier, especially on steep slopes. This added weight tends to occur by building on
top of weak slopes, increasing the steepness of the slope, or over-saturating the slope.
Friction has been mentioned as a factor several times already, but there are a few more things must be said here. As
already noted, as long as the friction along the slope is stronger than gravity, the ground is unlikely to slide. But if that
friction is weakened, slope fail becomes more likely. There are several other ways friction can be reduced along a
slope: wildfires, removal of vegetation, or adding too much water.
Gravity is probably the ultimate driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity pulls all things on the planet toward
the center of the Earth. Without gravity, mass wasting would not occur. But unlike many of the other factors, humans
have no influence or control on gravity.
REGIONAL CLIMATE CONDITIONS
A region's climate can also determine the likelihood of a landslide. Climate is based on temperature and precipitation.
Mass wasting is prone in the spring-time when snowmelt, water saturation, and runoff is greatest. Also the type of
climate will help determine the type of mass wasting. Humid climates tend to have slides, where water-saturated
slopes fail and fall. Drier climates tend to have rocks that fall; especially early spring. Canyons and places prone to
wildfires tend to have debris flows.
WATER CONTENT WITHIN SLOPES
The amount of water in the soil is a major factor in the stability of a slope. When you build a sand castle, water is
needed to build the walls and towers. That is because water has surface tension and is attracted to each other. This
allows you to build towers greater than the angle of repose. So a little water can actually prevent slopes from sliding.
But too much water lubricates the individual grains of sediment decreasing friction between each grain, so the
possibility of mass wasting increases. The increase of water within the soils can come from over watering, pipe or
swimming pool leaks, or prolonged stormy weather. In Utah and many mountainous regions, spring runoff of snow melt
increases the water content within the soil. The following is a video from the USGS of the La Conchita, California
landslide in 2005. Notice how well it flows down the mountainside. There are two reasons why this landslide occurred.
First, this slide occurred on the same slope as a previous landslide in 1995. But the 2005 slide was also influenced by
the fact that above is an orchard that was over-watering the vineyards and over-saturated the soil.

Finally, gravity is the driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity pulls all things on the planet toward the center
of the Earth. But unlike many of the other factors, humans have no influence or control on gravity. For more
information on what causes landslides in Utah, click here.

Types of Mass Wasting

ROCK FALL
A rock fall are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a rock falls through the air until it comes to rest on
the ground - not too complicated. In Utah, they are common in the spring and fall because of what is called freezethaw weathering. In the daytime, temperatures in the spring and fall tend to be above freezing, which allows liquid
water to enter cracks within rocks.
At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the water within
the rocks freezes and expands which causes the rock to break more.
The following morning, the ice will melt and go deeper within the
crack to refreeze later that night. This freeze-thaw action over time
can cause rocks to break off and fall to the ground. The debris that
accumulates at the base of these steep slopes is called talus.
But rock falls can also occur when heavy precipitation is falling on
a steep slope, causing the rocks to lose friction and fall. The
YouTube video on the right is a rock fall captured in Taiwan in late
August 2013, following heavy precipitation in the region.
ROTATIONAL SLIDES
Rotational slides occur when the a landslide occurs in a curved
manner concave to the sky. When this type of slide occurs, the
upper surface of the slide tilts backwards toward the original slope
and the lower surface moves away from the slope. They are
common when the soil tends to be deep in clay or soft sediment
deposits. The video on the right is a large landslide again in Taiwan
in early September 2013 following every rainfall. Needless to say,
they were having a bad few days in the region.
TRANSLATIONAL SLIDES
Rather than rotating, a translational slide occurs when slope failure occurs parallel to the slope. Often times the
slope failure occurs on soil composed of clay or shale, or along old fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes
translational slides dangerous is that they tend to flow faster and travel farther than rotational slides. The most
expensive translational slide in U.S. history actually occurred in Thistle, Utah in 1983. The Utah Geologic Survey also
provides a Google Earth file that looks at the Thistle landslide.
DEBRIS FLOWS
Debris flows are one of the most common, but most dangerous of the various types of landslides because of their

speed and consistency. Debris flows tend to be a mixture of rock and water with two to three times the density of
flooding streams. That density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up objects as large as school buses.
Debris flows are most common at the mouth of canyons along alluvial fans. Lets first explain an alluvial fan. When
floods occur within the mouth of a canyon, either because of intense thunderstorms or snow melt, the erosive power of
the water can pick up sediment and boulders - a debris flow. Now once the debris flow reaches the mouth of a canyon,
the sediment gets deposited in a fan-shaped delta called an alluvial fan. The problem is that people like to live along
alluvial fans because of their scenic view on the canyon. Another influence of debris flows is wildfires. When a wildfire
strips an area of its vegetation, the bare soil is easily eroded away in either a thunderstorm or snow melt creating
these debris flows. Because of Utah's topography and tendency to wildfires, debris flows are quite common.

Image source: This image is in the public domain because it contains materials that originally came from the United States Geological Survey, an
agency of the United States Department of the Interior.

VOLCANIC MASS WASTING

Lahars were mentioned in the module on volcanoes, but in essence they are volcanic landslides. Recall that volcanoes
eject pyroclastic material ranging in size from ash to boulders. Now there tends to be two ways lahars occur. One is if a

thunderstorm precipitates large amounts of moisture on the pyroclastic material and the pyroclastic flow downslope.
The other option is if a volcano is snow-capped and the heat from the volcano causes some of the snow to melt and
mix with the pyroclastic material. What makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the consistency of concrete and
can travel hundreds of miles.

Limiting Mass Wasting Potential

DRAINAGE CONTROLS
ultimately preventing mass wasting is impossible because gravity will always exist, but smarter development can help
minimize the risk and hazards. One component in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that
water can cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope and put
a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at
the base of retaining walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Editors Note/News article: Here in Utah we are not immune to landslide that we are ourselves responsible for. At Kennecott Copper
Mine, despite all the engineering that they did to prevent any such slides, it still happened. At about 2,000 Ft. by 2,000 Ft. the slide
created enough problems and lost time for the mine that many were asked to retire early or not come back to work for quite a long
amount of time. Not only did it affect the company, but more importantly the people that made up that company and their families.
http://www.ksl.com/?sid=24748916
SLOPE GRADE AND SUPPORT
If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a home site, the slope may become unstable and move downhill. This is
particularly dangerous when the underlying rock layers slope towards the area. Ultimately preventing landslides is impossible

because gravity will always exist. But smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards created by
landslides. One component in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can cause
slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope and put a retaining wall
for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of
retaining walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Slope support is one of most common types of mitigation for potential mass wasting. As mentioned above, a retaining
wall can be built to support a steep slope. Next, the retaining wall must be anchored to the bedrock within the slope to
hold the wall to the slope. Another type of slope support is simply planting vegetation. The roots of vegetation tend to
grab and hold soil in place, so by planting various types of plants and trees can be a simple and cheap way to stabilize
a slope. For more on what homeowners can do to minimize your risk to landslides in Utah, click here.

Subsidence
Subsidence occurs when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact causing the ground surface to collapse.
Now there are two types of subsidence.
SLOW SUBSIDENCE
Slow subsidence occurs when the water within the sediment is slowly squeezed out because of overlying weight.

There are several examples of slow subsidence, but the best one is Venice, Italy. Venice was built at sea level on the
now submerged delta of the Brenta River. The city is sinking because of the overlying weight of the city and pumping
of ground water. The problem now is that sea levels are rising as glaciers melt and water expands due to global
warming. An example of slow subsidence in the U.S. includes New Orleans, Louisiana. As we all know from Hurricane
Katrina, the Mississippi River has a vast network of levees that prevent the massive river from flooding - most of the
time. But by preventing the spring-time flooding, we are preventing the river from depositing sediment onto the land.
Instead, the sediment is being transported to the Gulf of Mexico creating the massive Mississippi delta. Below is a
Landsat satellite image from NASA of this delta.
FAST SUBSIDENCE
Fast subsidence occurs when naturally acidic water begins to dissolve limestone rock to forma a network of waterfilled underground caverns. But if droughts or pumping of ground water reduces the water table below the level of the
caves, they caverns collapse creating surface sinkholes.
A dramatic example of fast subsidence occurred in Guatemala City in 2007 when a massive sinkhole formed 300 feet
deep. As noted above, the underground region surrounding Guatemala is composed of limestone that and a vast
underground network of caverns. It is believed that the water table has been dropping in the region and thus draining
the caves. Afterward the caves cannot support the overlying weight and collapse in.

Prevention and Awareness

DRAINAGE CONTROLS
Ultimately preventing landslides is impossible because gravity will always exist. But smarter development can help minimize the risk
and hazards created by landslides. One component in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can
cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope and put a retaining wall for support,
you may be preventing the water from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining walls that allow
underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Editors Note/Personal Experience: In my travels I have had the great experience of knowing many exciting and interesting people. While
I was in the Philippines I met many many of these people. One of which; Ill call Dodong, was one of these people. He lived in a town
called St. Bernard on the island of Leyte in the Philippines. He was a promising young man at the time (2006). He was set to finish high
school soon with top honors and was already planning on going to college. Which for this little town was a momentous happening. Most
people were rice, or coconut farmers. The town was very poor and in our day and age didnt even have maybe more than 2 computers
and definitely no internet access. It was in the mountains in a very rugged place. I still remember to this day, it was a Sunday morning
and my neighbor came rushing over to tell me what had happened. The towns over there are divided into what they call barangays.
And the farthest into the mountains barangay in St. Bernard was gone! Due to excessive rains that had fallen for the month up to that
date and a lot of illegal logging an enormous section of a mountain completely buried the whole barangay in the space of 10 seconds.
In some places the dirt rocks and mud were over 4 coconut trees tall. It was unbelievable. I rushed there to try and help with anything
that I could. It just so happens that Dodong lives in that barangay. Luckily and unluckily for himself he was visiting a distant relative in
the main part of St. Bernard at the time that it happened, however his entire family and friends and everyone that he knew was not.
Thousands of people perished, most trapped alive in schools and other buildings. The river was diverted and now flows in a different
path than it once did, and the site has been declared a national place of mourning for all of those that simply disappeared. Dodong, a
once promising and emerging leader in the community and one who just might be able to break the cycle of poverty that is so prevalent

in all of the Philippines. All those hopes and dreams disappeared with his family and friends under the earth.

SLOPE GRADE AND SUPPORT

If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a home site, the slope may become unstable and move downhill. This is
particularly dangerous when the underlying rock layers slope towards the area. Ultimately preventing landslides is impossible because
gravity will always exist. But smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards created by landslides. One component in
landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates
individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope and put a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering
through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Slope support is one of most common types of mitigation for potential landslides. As mentioned above, a retaining wall can be built to
support a steep slope. Next, the retaining wall must be anchored to the bedrock within the slope to hold the wall to the slope. Another
type of slope support is simply planting vegetation. The roots of vegetation tend to grab and hold soil in place, so by planting various
types of plants and trees can be a simple and cheap way to stabilize a slope.
Landslides cause $1 billion to $2 billion damage in the United States each year and are responsible for traumatic and sudden loss of life

and homes in many areas of the world. To be safe from landslides:

Be aware of your surroundings and notice changes in the natural world.

Look for cracks or bulges in hillsides, tilting of decks or patios, or leaning poles or fences when rainfall is heavy. Sticking windows
and doors can indicate ground movement as soil pushes slowly against a house and knocks windows and doors out of alignment.

Look for landslide scars because landslides are most likely to happen where they have occurred before.

Plant vegetation and trees on the hillside around your home to help hold soil in place.

Help to keep a slope stable by building retaining walls. Installing good drainage in a hillside may keep the soil from getting
saturated.

For more on what homeowners can do to minimize your risk to landslides in Utah, click here.

Editors Note/Video: This class has really forced me to try and look at all the sides when
looking at a particular issue. Especially when it comes to the social issues. I found this
video that talks about the ways that men and women are impacted differently in cases of
climate change and natural disasters.