Research Methods Information Booklet
Research Methods Information Booklet
Research Methods Information Booklet
PSYA1
Research Methods
Information
This booklet belongs to:
INTRODUCTION
Psychologists are scientists. Research Methods are the tools that they use to study the mind and behaviour
scientifically. Because psychologists investigate so many areas of thought and behaviour they need a wide
variety of methods to ensure that there is always one that is appropriate to their needs. That said, no single
method is perfect and as a student of Psychology you must learn to critically consider the choices that
researchers make. You will use your knowledge of the concepts within this topic to help you evaluate research in
the other five AS topics (Cognitive, Developmental, Biological, Social and Individual Differences).
This topic is the area of AS Psychology that gets the closest to what psychologists do in real life it shows you
how a study evolves from an initial idea to a piece of published research which has the power to change the way
society thinks and behaves. It is a terminology-heavy topic which means it can seem like you are learning a
foreign language at times this terminology is however necessary as it allows psychologists to communicate
their meaning to other researchers in a quick and precise way.
THE 9 METHODS
A method is how you go about doing something. It usually means you are carrying out a procedure in a
systematic, ordered and logical way; for example when carrying out a chemistry experiment or baking a cake.
There are nine main research methods that psychologists use which you must learn about.
1. QUESTIONNAIRES
AO1
A questionnaire is a self-report technique which allows participants to directly provide information about
themselves. They consist of a set of pre-written questions which can be printed and given to participants face to
face, or can be posted, filled in by phone, completed over the internet, or simply left in public places.
Questionnaires are useful for surveying attitudes, opinions, beliefs and behaviours; they also offer some
flexibility as questions can be quite broad and invite participants to answer in their own words (open questions)
producing detailed qualitative data, or they can be quite narrow with forced choice responses such as tick boxes
(closed questions) producing easy to analyse quantitative data.
Good questionnaires will avoid vagueness/ambiguity (for example, Do you drink coffee often? can be
interpreted differently by different people whereas How many cups of coffee do you drink every day? is much
clearer), double-barrelled questions (where two questions are asked in one and the participant is left unsure
how to answer if they are only permitted to give one response e.g. Do you think crime is due to bad housing and
poor education?), leading questions (where people are encouraged to give a particular answer creating possible
bias in responses e.g. Many people think abortion is wrong: do you agree?), they will also avoid the use of
overly complex phrases or technical jargon which non-psychologists may not understand. Finally, they will have
the questions arranged in a logical order to avoid extraneous variables such as demand characteristics.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
They are highly replicable because it is easy to ensure
procedures are the same for all participants this
allows researchers to check findings for reliability.
They are time (and therefore cost) efficient, as a large
sample of participants can be reached quickly and
easily; a large amount of data can be gained.
Investigator effects are reduced because researchers
dont need to be present to administer a
questionnaire; this improves the validity of findings.
WEAKNESSES
People may modify their answers to show themselves
in the best light (dishonesty/social desirability bias);
this reduces the validity of any subsequent findings.
Participant samples may be biased towards more
literate people this reduces population validity and
means the sample is unrepresentative.
Because researchers are not always present,
participants are unable to ask for help with unclear
questions and may also miss sections/pages out.
2. INTERVIEWS
AO1
An interview is another form of self-report technique which allows participants to directly provide information
about themselves. Here the researcher asks participants questions verbally about the topic being researched,
usually face to face.
In a structured interview the interviewer has a pre-written set of questions which they do not deviate from; all
participants are asked the same questions in the same order. In an unstructured interview the interviewer may
have a few general questions in mind but there are no set questions; there is instead flexibility to pick up on
issues in the participants comments and for them to expand on their responses.
When designing an interview, researchers must consider the categories of data required by their aim and must
generate an appropriate set of questions, they must also decide whether to use a structured or unstructured
interview. In addition they will consider issues such as social desirability, bias and ethical issues and will decide
how responses are to be gathered during the interview (i.e. whether the interview will be recorded or whether the
interviewer will make notes throughout).
AO2
ADVANTAGES
May be more appropriate than other methods for
dealing with complex/sensitive issues the researcher
can gauge if the participant is distressed or not.
Because the researcher is present, interesting issues
(as well as any misunderstandings) can be followed up
immediately.
Lots of rich data is gathered (especially in unstructured
interviews) compared to e.g. a questionnaire, as there
are far fewer constraints in place.
WEAKNESSES
Like with questionnaires, what people say they will do
is not always what they would actually do in real life
social desirability in answers reduces validity.
There can be low inter-rater reliability between
interviews (of the same participant), due to interviewer
effects of age, gender, ethnicity, personality etc.
Interviews are extremely time consuming to prepare for
and conduct; detailed data sets (particularly from
unstructured interviews) take time to analyse.
3. CASE STUDIES
AO1
A case study is an in-depth study of just one individual (or a particular group of people, an institution or an
event). They are useful as they allow researchers to investigate unique cases in a lot of detail often the
research has a narrow focus on just one aspect of behaviour and is longitudinal (taking place over many years).
The case study method often incorporates the use of other research methods as techniques, for example
researchers may give questionnaires to their participants, they may interview them, they may observe them, they
may conduct experiments with them or they may conduct a content analysis on diaries/letters/school or
employment records etc. The parents, other family members, teachers, managers, colleagues of the main
participant may also take part in the research.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Case studies allow researchers to investigate topics
that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Unique cases can challenge existing ideas and
theories and also suggest new areas and/or
hypotheses for future research.
Complex interactions can be studied (using a wide
range of techniques), rather than simple cause-andeffect relationships being found.
WEAKNESSES
Because only a limited number of people are
investigated, it is difficult to confidently generalize the
results to the population and to replicate the research.
There are often significant ethical issues with case
studies due to the nature of the participants e.g. if
they are very young and/or have a significant disorder.
Data and subsequent findings may be unreliable due
to subjective and/or biased recall and/or interpretation
by the researcher, if they become too involved.
4. OBSERVATIONS
AO1
An observation is where behaviour is watched and recorded. In a naturalistic observation the researcher
observes participants in their own environment, without manipulating the situation in any way. In a controlled
observation the researcher actively manipulates variables and the observation would therefore usually take
place in a specially set-up environment e.g. within a research laboratory.
Before any observational study takes place, the researcher has to decide on the particular behavioural
categories or events to be investigated. In an unstructured observation (naturalistic or controlled) the researcher
will not decide in advance exactly which behaviours they will record and will instead attempt to record a
continuous stream of data, focusing on eye-catching or unusual events.
In a structured observation (naturalistic or controlled) the researcher decides in advance exactly which
behaviours they will record; these are operationalized and a behaviour checklist is created. A behaviour checklist
usually takes the form of a tally chart observers count frequencies of the behaviours seen during the
observation and record these in the relevant place on the tally chart, totals are then used to draw conclusions.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Naturalistic observations have extremely high
ecological validity; if participants are unaware they are
being observed their behaviour is completely natural.
Observations allow researchers to investigate topics
that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Observations are a useful preliminary research tool;
researchers investigating new areas can use them to
produce hypotheses for future studies.
WEAKNESSES
If participants are aware they are observed their
behaviour can quickly become unnatural, which
massively reduces ecological validity.
There are many ethical issues with observations if
participants are unaware they are being observed
(informed consent, confidentiality, right to withdraw).
Low reliability observed situations are often unique
and therefore difficult to replicate; observers often
disagree on judgements (low inter-rater reliability).
5. CONTENT ANALYSIS
AO1
A content analysis is where a researcher quite literally analyses the content of something, usually in order to
transform complex qualitative data into quantitative data so that conclusions about patterns may be drawn more
easily. This method can be used as a technique when applied to other research methods, for example a content
analysis can be used to transform the qualitative data of an interview transcript into quantitative data.
The process of content analysis is extremely systematic. First the researcher decides what material to sample,
they then decide what type of themes/categories might emerge from these materials and create a coding system
based on these. A sample of material is then collected and analysed using coding units e.g. researchers may
note each time they find a certain word/theme/character. By counting the frequencies of occurrence of each
coding unit numerical (quantitative) data is obtained; statistical analysis can then be carried out.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Studies can easily be replicated by accessing archived
materials and repeating the analysis; therefore
findings can be tested for reliability.
As a method, content analysis has high ecological
validity because it is based on real communications
which have been gathered in natural settings.
Content analysis is an effective way of presenting
qualitative data in a way that is easy to understand.
WEAKNESSES
Validity can be quite low; in identifying coding units
researchers may be inconsistent or impose their own
meaning on the data (subjective judgements).
Content analysis can be extremely time consuming
both in terms of the preparation needed and the time
spent on analysing large volumes of sample material.
There are ethical issues with content analysis as
participants are often unaware that their materials are
to be used as part of the research.
6. CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS
AO1
Correlational analysis is a statistical technique used for investigating the strength of the relationship between
two variables; it usually involves the researcher collecting two sets of secondary data i.e. no hands on research
takes place. The analysis will show either a positive correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable
increases), a negative correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable decreases) or no correlation.
Correlations can be illustrated visually (using scatter graphs), or numerically (through correlation coefficients). A
correlation coefficient is a number which ranges from -1 to +1; it shows the exact direction (sign) and strength
(number) of the relationship.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
They frequently utilise pre-existing or archival data;
because participants/facilities are not required they
are relatively time (and cost) efficient.
Correlational analysis allows researchers to investigate
topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Correlational analysis is a precise method it can tell
researchers the exact strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables.
WEAKNESSES
It is impossible to establish cause and effect between
variables we can say that they are related but we do
not know in which direction the relationship functions.
Inaccurate conclusions are commonplace the media
and/or policy makers may infer something different
than is there (ethical implications re: misuse of data).
Can only measure linear relationships (i.e. clear
positives or negatives) does not detect curvilinear
relationships (e.g. where positive becomes negative).
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Isolation of the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable means that cause and effect
can be inferred with reasonable confidence.
Strict controls and well-documented procedures mean
other researchers can quite easily replicate laboratory
experiments to check findings for reliability.
As the research takes place in a designated research
facility, specialist equipment can be used to deepen
our understanding of behaviour e.g. MRI scans.
WEAKNESSES
The artificiality of the research context usually means
participants do not demonstrate real-life behaviour
this dramatically reduces ecological validity.
Demand characteristics are likely participants will
look to both the researcher and the research situation
for clues about how they are predicted to behave.
Laboratory experiments are impossible to use in
situations where it would be inappropriate to
manipulate the IV for practical or ethical reasons.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Ecological validity is higher than in a laboratory
experiment, due to the real world setting. This means
findings relate better to real life for generalisation.
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared
to a laboratory experiment if participants are
unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
As the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable is still isolated we can still
determine cause and effect in most situations.
WEAKNESSES
The researchers control over the environment reduces
in the real world; more extraneous (later confounding)
variables greatly reduce the validity of results.
If participants are unaware they are taking part they
may become distressed by manipulations of the
independent variable - it is impossible to debrief them.
Because the researcher has no real control over the
participants who take part samples may be biased (e.g.
on age/gender) so population validity is reduced.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate
topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate using other experimental methods.
Ecological validity is extremely high compared to e.g. a
laboratory experiment. The researcher is able to study
completely real problems and situations.
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared
to a laboratory experiment if participants are
unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
WEAKNESSES
The researcher has no control over the environment;
extraneous (later confounding) variables greatly reduce
the validity of results they cannot be eliminated.
Ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality
and right to withdraw are breached if participants are
unaware they are taking part in the research.
As the natural events psychologists wish to study are
rare (even one-offs) it is often impossible to replicate
the research to test findings for reliability.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Once a researcher has decided that they will use an experimental method and they have written a hypothesis,
they have to decide which experimental design to use.
An experimental design is a decision about how to allocate participants to different experimental conditions.
Every experiment has two conditions: an experimental condition (where participants are exposed to the
independent variable in order to see its effect on their behaviour) and a control condition (where participants
are not exposed to the independent variable but otherwise have exactly the same experience as the participants
in the experimental condition, in order to gain a baseline measurement of behaviour so the researcher can
assess if anything has in fact happened in the experimental condition).
CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P4
P5
P6
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Because each participant only takes part once,
researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus
materials e.g. word lists. This makes for a fairer test.
Order effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or
learning are reduced because participants only
experience one condition this increases validity.
WEAKNESSES
More participants are required than in other designs,
as the sample size is halved when the participants are
split. This makes the design expensive to use.
Because results from different participants are
compared, individual differences may negatively affect
the results and therefore any subsequent conclusions.
CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P1
P2
P3
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Far fewer participants are required than in other
designs, as the same sample is used twice. The design
is cost-effective; only one set of participant expenses.
Because results from the same participants are
compared, individual differences do not affect the
results or any subsequent conclusions.
WEAKNESSES
Participants experience both conditions, so order
effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or learning
negatively impact on results and conclusion validity.
At least two sets of stimulus materials are needed
this can create extraneous (even confounding
variables) e.g. if word lists differ in difficultly.
NOTE order effects are a significant issue with the use of repeated measures design.
One technique used to overcome order effects is counterbalancing this is where the order of the conditions is
mixed up, so that 50% of participants experience the experimental condition followed by the control condition,
whereas the other 50% of participants experience the control condition followed by the experimental condition.
Although this does not eliminate order effects (as all participants are still experiencing both conditions), it does
mean that any order effects are now equal across both conditions, so their negative effect is greatly reduced.
CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P4a
P5b
P6c
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Because each participant only takes part once,
researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus
materials e.g. word lists. This makes for a fairer test.
Order effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or
learning are reduced because participants only
experience one condition this increases validity.
WEAKNESSES
The process of matching participants is difficult, time
consuming and may be inaccurate/incomplete;
participant variables are never fully eliminated.
If this design is used, attrition by just one participant
will mean the loss of valuable data from the whole pair
from the research; this is not cost or time effective.
Details
These are variables which the participants bring into the research with them,
which complicate the relationship between the IV and the DV, as they result in
different participants performing differently within a study. For example: age,
gender, intelligence, mood, level of motivation, personality.
SITUATIONAL VARIABLES
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
Making sure conditions and materials are the same for all participants is
effective (known as standardisation); using standardised instructions with all
participants so that everyone undergoes the same procedure also helps.
These are clues in the research environment/tasks/instructions which help the
participants to work out what the research hypothesis is this can make them
alter their behaviour (to avoid appearing disruptive or psychologically abnormal)
so that it becomes artificial and therefore less useful for research.
INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS
AO2
ADVANTAGES
The chances of selecting a biased sample are relatively
slim, because everyone has a chance of being
selected. This improves population validity greatly.
-
WEAKNESSES
It can be difficult to obtain a list of the entire target
population; even if you can, not everyone you select
will be available and/or willing to participate.
Even though this is a random method, a representative
sample is not guaranteed there is a chance some
subgroups may be overrepresented or not selected.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
This is a time (and therefore cost) efficient technique,
as participants are readily available sample sizes can
be larger as the expenses per individual are smaller.
-
WEAKNESSES
Samples are likely to be skewed in terms of participant
backgrounds; an unrepresentative sample lacks
population validity and findings cannot be generalised.
There may be ethical issues with this technique
regarding consent and right to withdraw if participants
feel obliged to take part (e.g. students of a lecturer).
AO2
ADVANTAGES
This technique can sometimes be the only way of
locating a particularly niche group of participants who
are difficult to identify using the available information.
-
WEAKNESSES
Only atypical members of the target population
respond i.e. the most co-operative and motivated. This
reduces population validity and generalizability.
Only people who see the advertisement have a chance
of being selected this may reduce the overall size of
the sample which reduces the significance of findings.
AO1
QUANTITATIVE DATA is information that can be analysed numerically (quantitative/quantity); it is behaviour
measured in numbers/quantities and arises from questions such as How often?, How much? How long?
AO2
ADVANTAGES
This form of data is very easy to analyse using a range
of descriptive and inferential statistics, tables and
graphs. Patterns are easy to see.
WEAKNESSES
Reducing complex human behaviour to numbers
oversimplifies reality lots of rich, useful data is simply
lost.
AO1
QUALITATIVE DATA is information that is in narrative form (qualitative/qualities); it is behaviour measured in
words and arises from questions about ideas and/or feelings e.g. Tell me about or Describe
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Capturing the complexity of ideas/feelings in detailed
responses means that lots of rich, useful data is
retained. We get a good overview of human behaviour.
WEAKNESSES
This form of data is very difficult to analyse using any
descriptive or inferential statistics, tables or graphs.
Patterns are tricky to see.
AO1
This is the arithmetic average; it is calculated by first adding all of the data scores together and then dividing this
total by the actual number of scores:
E.g. 2 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 10 = 30
30/5 = 6
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Uses all of the data i.e. takes all scores into account
WEAKNESSES
Is not always an actual score (e.g. 2.4 children)
2. THE MEDIAN
AO1
This is the middle score or value, found when the data is turned into an ordered list:
E.g. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11
=6
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Unaffected by extreme scores
Relatively quick and easy to calculate
WEAKNESSES
May not be an actual score if theres an even number
of scores
Not good for small data sets where there are large
differences e.g. 1, 2, 1000, 1001 = 501
3. THE MODE
AO1
This is the most commonly occurring/most frequent score:
E.g.
2, 2, 2, 5, 6, 9, 11 = 2
If there are two scores which are most common the data set is bi-modal
If there are three or more scores which are most common the data is multi-modal
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Is always an actual score
Is not distorted by an extreme value
WEAKNESSES
Sometimes a data set doesnt have a mode, or has
many
Doesnt use all the data
AO1
This is difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data; it is calculated by subtracting the lowest
score from the highest score:
E.g.
6, 10, 35, 50 = 50 6
= 44
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Easy to calculate
Takes into account extreme values
WEAKNESSES
Ignores most of the data doesnt reflect the true
distribution around the mean
Easily distorted by extreme values
2. STANDARD DEVIATION
AO1
This is the result of a calculation which measures (collectively) how much individual scores deviate from the
mean, and presents this finding as a single number. It tells us how much data is spread (dispersed) around a
central value (the mean).
A large SD score tells us there was lots of variation around the mean/scores were spread widely i.e. that
participants in the sample were all responding very differently.
A small SD score tells us that scores were closely clustered around the mean i.e. that participants in the sample
were all responding in very similar ways.
AO2
ADVANTAGES
Precise, as all values are taken into account
WEAKNESSES
Not easy or quick to calculate
AO2
ADVANTAGES of transforming data
Patterns are easier to see; statistical analysis can be
carried out
Data is easier to summarise and present
CONCLUSIONS
and finally!
Once the research process is over, the researcher can make conclusions about what they have learnt about the
mind and/or behaviour (note here they refer to people, not participants as they are at that point attempting
to apply their findings to their target population).
Often their findings will be formatted as an academic report, which may be submitted to a journal for peer
review. If published, other researchers can then read about and debate their findings and/or replicate their
research eventually their study might get to you as part of a psychology course!