Allegory:

Eliza Doolittle isn't a conventional protagonist. She lives her life in poverty,
selling flowers in the slums of London, and clearly does not possess the air and grace of
England's upper class at the initiation of Pygmalion. In short, Ms. Doolittle represents
the lower working class, or proletariat, of English society, whereas the distinguished
Higgins is a renowned professor of linguistics in academia and one of the upper class,
though some of his manners leave room for doubt as to the elegance he upholds
matching his societal status. Through education, Eliza's tale is an allegory for the rather
Marxist belief that the poor can uprise and retaliate against the rich through education
and upbringing rather than be doomed to a life of poverty assigned at birth. This idea is
further reinforced in the character of Alfred Doolittle, Eliza's father: as a joke, Higgins
sends Mr. Doolittle to lecture fine gentlemen as a famous orator. He, too, ends up
unwillingly successful in life, supporting the allegory prevalent in this story of the
proletarians' ability to attain power in society's fragile social constructs.
Allusions:
As a phonetics teacher, Higgins makes allusions to renowned, classical authors
whose works he thinks a disgrace for Eliza to be uttering in her Cockney drawl. In Act I,
Higgins tells Eliza, "A woman who utters such depressing and disgusting sounds has no
right to be anywhereno right to live. Remember that you are a human being with a
soul and the divine gift of articulate speech: that your native language is the language of
Shakespear and Milton and The Bible; and don't sit there crooning like a bilious pigeon,"
to which Liza retorts with her infamous, "AAA-OOOO-WWW-OOO!" Shakespear, of

course, refers to the great works of William Shakespeare, whereas Milton alludes to
Paradise Lost's John Milton. The Bible obviously refers to the sacred text of Christians.
Antagonist:
Though there isn't a clear antagonist in this play, the root of Eliza's problems are
caused by misogynistic society. Eliza is impoverished, sneered at, and ridiculed from
the very beginning of the play. As she attempts to sell flowers in Covent Garden to Clara
and her mother, Clara attempts to dissuade her mother from purchasing the flowers off
of a poor street urchin (Eliza), and when Clara's mother does not comply, she speaks in
a hostile manner to Eliza. In Act I, Clara's mother tells Liza to keep the change she
provided her through their transaction of buying flowers, but Clara rudely voices her
opinions that allowing Liza to keep the change is wasteful and unnecessary. When
Higgins and Pickering actively work to coach Eliza on how to infiltrate upper-level
society, Eliza is pitting herself against the antagonist of this play, and in fooling the highclass members of England, she succeeds in showing just how delicate and gullible the
bonds of social hierarchy are.
Burlesque:
George Bernard Shaw makes extensive use of burlesque, both high and low,
throughout the novel. By seeking to ridicule upper-division society, Shaw makes use of
low burlesque, and by making Eliza out to be more than she is (a poor flower girl), Shaw
is using high burlesque. This device is the key reason Pygmalion succeeds so well as a
comedic play: by teaching Liza to break the crude ways of guttersnipe lingo and adopt
the lofty means and mannerisms of high class society, many situations are created that
bring laughter to readers, for they can see the stark clash this effect creates. Similarly,

when Eliza fools Higgins's old student into thinking that she is a Hungarian princess, it is
a cause for celebratory amusement on the audience's part as they watch the seemingly
impenetrable rich crack under the influence of a diligent phonetics student.
Cacophony:
The entire first half of the novel makes extensive use of cacophony as Higgins
first mocks Eliza's thick Cockney tones. Though cacophony is harder to seek out when
reading the play as opposed to hearing in a film adaptation of Pygmalion, the
cacophony is most prevalent in the first act, when Eliza first speaks. Shaw phonetically
writes out Eliza's words, saying that she sounds as if she is saying, "Ow, eez ye-ooa
san, is e? Wal, fewd dan y' de-ooty bawmz a mather should, eed now bettern to spawl a
pore gel's flahrzn than ran awy atbaht pyin. Will ye-oo py me f'them? [Here, with
apologies, this desperate attempt to represent her dialect without a phonetic alphabet
must be abandoned as unintelligible outside London.]"
Even after Eliza becomes a fine young lady of upper-division society, Higgins will
find bone to pick with her on the way Liza pronounces words or forms grammatically
incorrect sentences. During the confrontation in which Miss Doolittle chucks Higgins's
slippers towards him, her fury causes her to slip and use an incorrect verb tense, which
Higgins hastily and reflexively corrects. As the play progresses, the use of cacophony
diminishes, but it never quite goes away to maintain the comic effect and remind
readers of Liza's true origins.
Characterization:
Miss Doolittle, Professor Higgins, Mr. Pickering, and Mr. Doolittle are all
boisterous and vibrant characters both following caricatures of London society and

possessing a charming quality of their own that makes them into memorable characters.
For instance, Miss Doolittle is a resilient and diligent soul who proves that with hard
work, almost anything is achievable. Her optimistic endeavors and skill in picking talents
up, such as fooling the rich and nice handwriting, are traits that anyone would be
fortunate to have; her distinct temperament as a flower girl waif and elegance as a fine
lady are so contrasting that it sheds hope and amusement on readers. Though she
eventually becomes a respectable member of society, there are traits of her old self that
can never quite be eradicated. For instance, she maintains a strong, stubborn will and
sense of self-respect despite the flack that Professor Higgins throws at her.
Professor Higgins is a memorable character in the way he so harshly treats
others. His abrasive wit and commentary is insightful and efficient when teaching, but
also hurtful. Higgins, though, shows off his soft side after he realizes how badly he has
hurt Eliza, though he refuses to alter the way he treats her or others in general. On the
other hand, Mr. Pickering, Higgins's foil, is a kind and gentle man who serves as the
good cop to Higgins's bad cop; he is often the one to calm Eliza down and tone down
the sour notes of any complications that arise in the play. Lastly, Mr. Doolittle, though
only a minor character, also proves his worth as a memorable character in that he has
unique viewpoints on how to live life. He does not believe in a life of living as a rich
man--all Alfred Doolittle would like to do is squander the few coffers he has on drink and
live as a poor, borderline beggar. The insights that Doolittle provide are not conventional
to how most people think, making him, who only had a small part to play in Pygmalion,
remain an impressionable person.
Climax:

The apex of Pygmalion occurs after the grand soiree during which Eliza fools
Higgins's old student, Neppumuck, comes to an end. At home, Higgins and Pickering
jabber on incessantly about how accomplished and smooth the entire experiment they
had set up of turning any common guttersnipe into a fine lady had gone. Eliza listens in
quietly at first, but grows increasingly frustrated as no mentions or verbal accolades are
given to her. Eventually, it all becomes too much: Higgins refuses to acknowledge even
Eliza's presence in the room, and even goes as far to claim he was bored with all of the
evening's events. Eliza loses her temper, throws Higgins's slippers at him, and a
shouting match ensues. Higgins even loses his temper, almost physically harming Eliza.
After the conflict ends, Eliza runs away from Higgins's manor, leading in to the
denouement of the story.
Complications:
Most complications in Pygmalion arise from banters between Higgins and Eliza.
As a strict, overbearing, and pompous tutor, Higgins is often insensitive in his words and
demeanor. These are factors that mount to the growing strife between teacher and
student, especially as time progresses and Eliza realizes that she is skilled at adapting
to the way words are pronounced properly by upperclass elitists. Without any words of
encouragement or acts of compassion/kindness, Higgins eventually loses the respect of
Eliza. This is evident in the sequel of Pygmalion, where Higgins and Eliza are shown to
be at constant strife to the point where the gentle Pickering even has to plead Eliza to
be kinder to Higgins. Perhaps the biggest complication that arises in the play is the
scene in which Eliza, enraged at not having been praised for her splendid act of pulling
off the role of a Hungarian royal member, throws Higgins slippers at him and a loud

shouting match with much loss of temper on both ends initiates. Ever since that
moment, Higgins and Eliza no longer have the friendly, albeit strangely acerbic,
relationship of before; they remain in touch and assist each other, but are still bitter and
unkind to one another.
Crisis:
In the case of Pygmalion, the crisis is identical to the climax, as both are the
points of highest tension in the play. However, the crisis can arguably also extend to a
few scenes after the climax, in that after Eliza Doolittle leaves Higgins's home and finds
herself with Freddy, Higgins especially, upon discovering Liza is gone, goes into a
frantic mode of worry and desperately tries to find her again. The search for Eliza is
another point in the play where there is high tension; however, there is arguably more
action when the climax occurs, making this the true and central crisis present in
Pygmalion.
Denouement:
The falling action begins when Eliza is found to have been residing at Mrs.
Higgins's dwelling all along the timespan during which Higgins was frantically searching
for Eliza. As a jab to Higgins, Eliza showers Pickering with praises and thanks him
profusely for all his help in teaching and transforming her from a flower girl into a fine
lady. Similar to Eliza's demeanor the day before, Higgins becomes immensely frustrated
and both Eliza and Higgins go for round two in their heated argument that had started
the day before. Alfred Doolittle suddenly comes looking for Higgins and further
antagonizes Eliza, causing her to slip and utter a frustrated cry as she used to during
her days as a poor flower girl. The confusing denouement all leads up to the somewhat

unsatisfying conclusion of the story, though the sequel answers some questions readers
may have at the end.
Dramatic Irony:
The biggest example of dramatic irony in Pygmalion is that all the audience is
aware of Eliza's origins. Readers, from Act 1, are aware of how Eliza originally speaks
and what her upbringing was like, especially as the play goes on and we are introduced
to Alfred Doolittle. The rest of the upper-class world, however, is unaware of Liza's
origins. Higgins, Pickering, the audience, those living at Higgins's place, and Mr.
Doolittle are perhaps the only people who know of Eliza's origins.
Effect:
The central meaning or theme in Pygmalion is that anyone, despite his or her
origins, can rise to a better place through perseverance, skill, and learning. Education is
the key to opening doors of better opportunities: both Doolittles prove this in
Pygmalion.It can be argued that in Alfred Doolittle's case, though, perseverance was not
a factor leading to his success--instead, it was luck (or, in his point of view, a fall of
fortune) that Higgins recommended him as a great orator. However, Doolittle continued
to work as a speaker despite hating it, indicating he did, however little, put in some effort
to maintain where he was stationed in life after Higgins forced him into the field.
Foreshadowing:
One instance of foreshadowing occurs in the first act, when Eliza encounters
Clara and her mother for the first time. It is raining in this scene, and everyone has a
rigid sense of who should be associating with whom: Freddy's (and Clara's) mother is
concerned with how Liza seems to know her son's name and Clara is disdainful towards

Eliza. This initial encounter, along with the falling rain and thunderstorm, serves as a
foreshadow to the fact that the rigid social constructs will be broken by Eliza via Higgins,
who stands nearby as a notetaker.
Irony:
As given in the example for "Dramatic Irony," the biggest instance of irony in this
play is the fact that the audience is aware Liza is really just a common flower girl who
was barely scraping by instead of a rich duchess of refined social manners. However,
other instances of irony in this play include Higgins's demeanor and Alfred Doolittle's
eventual rise to richness. Higgins, as Eliza's tutor and a member of upper-class England
himself, is actually seen to have atrocious mannerisms. His table manners are ghastly,
he swears constantly, and he is, in short, quite a rude person to all whom he meets.
Though he spites Eliza for losing her temper and being vocal about her complaints, he
is perhaps the biggest hypocrite of all. Alfred Doolittle, as a "dustman" (essentially a
garbageman of the time period), is expected to act crude and uncultured, but the irony
of the situation in his rise to the upper class is that it is exactly these mannerisms that
make him so appealing and popular with orators and speakers.
Metaphor:
Higgins and Eliza, with their relationship as professor and pupil, are essentially a
metaphor for control. Throughout Pygmalion, it is implied that education is the main
reason for success. Higgins is a successful man because he is a professor of phonetics.
Neppumuck is a foreigner, but receives high societal status because of his studies in
linguistics. Eliza, at the beginning of the play, has no power whatsoever: she is poor,
uneducated, messy, and naive. Higgins exercises total control over her: he brings her

into his home, provides clothes for her, dictates what she wears, feeds her, tutors her,
etc. However, as Eliza grows more and more educated, she realizes that she, too, is
entitled to begin exercising her control over Higgins and others. With her new skills as a
fine lady, she takes control of young Freddy's emotions. She even threatens to teach
others what Higgins has taught her, knowing that she has a keen ear for phonetics.
Mood:
The mood, or author's attitude towards a subject, is often amused in Pygmalion.
Assuming that the narrator is George Bernard Shaw himself, the narrator is oftentimes
whimsical (as when he first introduces Liza and pokes fun of her Cockney speech). At
times the narrator, like Higgins, can seem a bit pedagogic as he takes on a tone of voice
as if he were lecturing the audience on events occurring in the story, but overall, the
mood of Pygmalion is light-hearted, amused, playful, and informative.
Plot:
The rundown of Pygmalion's plot goes as thus: Shaw uses the situation where
Eliza is selling flowers to Clara's mother as anexposition to her character, Higgins's
character, and other rich people (i.e. Clara/her mother) of London. The introduction
further highlights Liza's poverty, and her wish to become a learned woman by Higgins,
who is a renowned professor of phonetics. We are introduced to Liza's father, Alfred
Doolittle, who shows readers even more about Eliza's upbringing. The rising action of
the story describes all the lessons and preparations Liza and Higgins do in order to get
ready for Liza's big test at a fancy soiree. Meanwhile, Freddy falls deeply in love with
Eliza and Higgins hears warnings from his mother and others that what he and
Pickering are doing to Eliza could possibly hurt her in the future if he does not have

plans with how he will deal with her after the "experiment" is over. The climax occurs
when the bet is won and Liza pulls the wool over the rich's eyes; she has convinced a
trained linguist that she is a Hungarian princess, and Higgins rejoices. However, his
insensitivity hurts Eliza, and she abandons Higgins's home, meets Freddy, and goes off
to Mrs. Higgins's home. The denouement begins when Higgins, frantically searching for
Liza, finds her at his mother's place, and Alfred Doolittle makes another appearance,
describing what his life has been like ever since Higgins played a prank on him,
elevating him to high level society. The conclusion occurs when Higgins and Eliza have
yet another argument, and Eliza finally realizes that she has enough knowledge and
power to threaten Higgins that she will teach his secrets to other people. She refutes his
offer to go back to his house, and marries Freddy.
Protagonist:
It is clear that the protagonist of Pygmalion is the one and only Elizabeth Doolittle
herself. The story revolves around her: her struggles in becoming an educated woman,
learning affluent phonetics, and dressing with refined tastes. We begin with Eliza's
origins and end with Eliza's status in life after becoming a fine lady.
Sarcasm:
Shaw's first use of sarcasm is anything but subtle--he utilizes a minor character
named "Sarcastic Bystander" to move the action along. His seven total lines of wit are
on par with Higgins's retorts: when Higgins categorizes him as a man from Hanwell, he
sourly shoots back his insincere thanks at having been schooled by Higgins, whom he
thinks is a cop. Other instances of sarcasm are often used by Higgins; for instance,
despite the fact that Eliza is a skilled and diligent student with a keen ear, he still treats

her poorly, calling her baggage that could/should be thrown out. He even goes so far as
to call her a squashed cabbage leaf. Despite all his name-calling, at the very end of
Pygmalion, it is clear that Higgins does respect Eliza for her worth as a person and
student even if he does not show it. Higgins's use of cruel sarcasm also serves as a sort
of sadistic means of pushing Eliza to study harder.
Satire:
Essentially, the entirety of Pygmalion is a satire of English society. The very
notion that a common girl from the gutters of London could pass of as an elite member
of society serves as Shaw's satirization of the shallowness and gullibility of the upperclass members of society. Higgins, as a member of upper-class society, also serves as
a satire in that his demeanor is not one of a fine gentleman. Higgins is prone to
swearing, insults, rudeness, and abrasiveness towards others. Liza, too, serves as a
sort of satire on the brash character associated with the lower class--her thick Cockney
and constant unintelligible moan of "AAA-OOO-WWW-OOO!!" are evidence of this.
Through poking fun at rigid English social hierarchies, Shaw is demonstrating there is
much wrong with how society is structured and how inflexible it is.
Setting:
As depicted above, Pygmalion is set in early 20th century London, mostly in
Professor Higgins's living quarters. The very beginning of the play starts off with many
of the characters mingling about Covent Gardens, the only location in the play where
readers hear a variety of varying accents, including where we first meet Eliza. The rest
of the book takes place in upper-level society where Higgins brings Eliza. These places
only contain characters and people who speak proper "upper-class" English; we no

longer meet any poor people and their "improper" accents. The setting is a large
reflection upon the type of characters and how cultured they are when they initially
appear in Pygmalion.
Simile:
Higgins is never gentle with his words, and the first instance that simile appears in
Pygmalion is when Higgins, still introduced as a notetaker, insults the poor, unassuming
flower girl: "...don't sit there crooning like a bilious pigeon!" he scolds her in the very
first act. Higgins is not the only one who utilizes similes, though: the narrator, assumedly
George Bernard Shaw himself, also has his moments when he takes a stab at Higgins.
In the introductory paragraph to act II, the narrator describes Higgins as "...rather like a
very impetuous baby 'taking notice' eagerly and loudly..." Even Mrs. Pierce uses similes
in her speech, as when she comments upon the fact that Higgins picked up Eliza as
simply as if she were a pebble on the beach.
Stereotype:
In some ways, all the characters in Pygmalion embrace stereotypes of their
respective social classes. Higgins, for instance, is highly educated, as a wealthy man is
expected to be, and rather snooty, for he speaks condescendingly to everyone he
meets. Eliza, in the beginning, is stereotyped into speaking with the thick Cockney
accent as a poor young woman of lower-end London. Alfred Doolittle, as a man lacking
class status, is stuck with the career stereotype of a dustbin and a heavy drinker. As a
lower-class woman, Eliza is more rough, independent, and coarse--conforming to the
rigid gender and class stereotypes of early twentieth century London. It is clear that the
ladies of higher rank are more docile, gentle, and feminine. Despite Eliza's origins, she,

too, eventually becomes a married woman, and is shown to be softer towards Freddy
than she is towards Higgins.
Symbolism:
The biggest use of symbolism in Pygmalion is in regards to the clothes that Eliza
wears. Her street-urchin-flower-girl getup is what we are introduced with her in, and it
symbolizes her place in society. As Eliza makes the transition into a more and more
refined young lady, she sheds the layers of her old life and adopts the fresh elegance of
the upper-class both physically and metaphorically: one of the first nice outfits that Eliza
wears is her Japanese lady outfit, and once she wore this, even her own father could
not recognize her since she was dressed and looked so fine. Even when she leaves the
Higgins residence, she is allowed to keep her clothes, symbolizing her absolute
completion into a refined lady, albeit a poor one.
Theme:
The central theme surrounding Pygmalion is that, through education, power can
be obtained. As shown through Eliza and her father, the poorest of the poor can still rise
to high levels of society and fool those who have known no other life than that of the rich
elite. Eliza fools even accomplished linguists with her mastery of phonetics; Alfred
Doolittle fools crowds as a renowned orator through his mastery of speech and rhetoric.
It's not impossible to change one's situation, Pygmalion argues. It's how one makes the
most of what he or she has in life to better one's own conditions.
Tone:
Overall, the tone of Pygmalion is lighthearted, slightly sardonic, and a bit
pedagogic. Higgins is a character that somewhat resembles a hyperbole version of

Pygmalion's author, George Bernard Shaw, and it shows through his writing. The
narrator and all other characters often like to educate each other on issues ranging from
phonetics, social conduct, how to deal with girls one picks up from the street, and
stories about aunts who overdosed on gin. Everyone has moments during which they
educate another character or characters about some topic or another. Despite the
didactic tone prevalent throughout the play, as a comedy, the book remains lighthearted, especially using dry, sarcastic humor as a means of poking fun of characters in
the play (especially Higgins), English society, and drastic contrasts set up for comedic
effect.
Verbal Irony:
One use of verbal irony in Pygmalion is when Higgins is test-driving Eliza's
mannerisms during the races. Eliza begins to expound upon her aunt's unfortunate
death, which is shrouded with suspicion: she says her aunt died of influenza, but in
reality, Eliza believes that someone murdered her aunt. It's a story that would be worthy
of horror-struck attention at any elite get-together, yet Eliza downplays the situation by
calling it "small talk."