VOLUME 26

AMCAP JOURNAL 2001

A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

among Latter~day Saint and Non~ Latter~day
Saint College~Age Students
ANNMARIE CARROLL, B.S.

Brigham Young University

and
DIANE

SPANGLER, PH.D.

Brigham YOImg University

Several sociocultural factors have been shown to impact body image. The purpose ofthe present study was to determine whether the sociocultural variable of religion, specifically represented by the Church ofJesus Christ ofLatterday Saint (LDS) religion, affects body image in college-age students. Questionnaires assessing body image and
beliifs about appearance were administered to male and female LDS and non-LDS students at Brigham Young
University, University of Utah, Boston University, and California State University at Fullerton. Results indicated that male students, regardless of religion, were more satiified with their bodies than their female counterparts.
Within-gender comparisons indicated that LDS men had higher body satiifaction on allsubscales than non-LDS
men. In contrast, LDS women did not Significantly differ from non-LDS women in mean level of body satiifaction. However, among LDS women, those in Utah differed from those in other states in appearance evaluation,
overweight preoccupation, and beliifs about appearance. Regression analyses revealed that beliifs about appearance
were a strong predictor ofbody image for both men and women, but that religion predicted body image only among
men. Possible explanations and implications of these results are discussed.
- - -

ody image has been defined as the perception and

evaluation of one's own bodily appearance as either
positive or negative. Some theorists have hypothesized
that for some individuals a large portion of their self-concept is based upon body image, and have thus suggested
that body image plays an important role in many aspects
of these individuals' everyday lives (e.g., Geller, Johnston &
Madsen, 1997; Rodin, 1993; Spangler 2002; Vitousek &
Hollon, 1990). Hesse-Biber, Clayton-Matthews &
Downey (1987) found that poor body image was associated with low levels of self-perceived physical attractiveness,

-----------

self-acceptance, social self-confidence, popularity with the

opposite sex, assertiveness, and athletic ability.
Additionally, other investigators report that those who
- - - - ----------

AnnMarie Carroll, B.S., is a recent graduate of Brigham Young University.

Diane 1. Spangler. Ph.D., is on Associate Professor of Psychology in the
Department of Psychology at Brigham Young University. Portions of this
work were supported by a grant from the Office of Research and Creative
Activities. Brigham Young University. Address for correspondence: Diane
Spangler PhD, Dept. of Psychology, BYU, 293 Taylor Building, Provo, UT
84602 email <[email protected]> (801) 422-6475
6

ANN MARIE CARROLL &

BODY lI\iIAGE SATJSFACTION

DIANE L. SPANGLER

behavior and eating disorders, it is crucial to understand

the factors related to body image dissatisfaction.

have higher levels of satisElCtion with their appearance had

more social activities. greater satisfaction at home, and
were more likely to believe that people value each other
(Rauste-von \;Vright, 1989).
Body image, particularly body image dissatisfaction,
has also been consistently linked with eating dysfunction. Indeed, several theorists posit that dissatisfaction
with body shape and weight are prominent factors in the
etiology of eating disorders (e.g., Bruch, 1962; Cash &
Deagle, 1997; Monteath & McCabe, 1997; Spangler,
1999; Stice, Shaw & Nemeroff: 1998), and a number of
studies have documented poor body image as a prominent risk factor for disordered eating (see Cash &
Deagle, 1997, for review). Moreover, studies of the obese
by McCarroll-Bittel (1993) found that poor body image
hindered weight loss, while improvement of body image
played a significant role in helping obese people lose
weight. From these studies, it appears that a key to maintaining healthy body weight and eating patterns is to first
develop a positive body image.
Research during the last two decades has documented a
rise in concern about body in,age and in weight preoccupation to a level that some term an obsession (Rodin,
1993). Girls as young as eight years old report dissatisfaction with their weight and shape, and 50% of nine-yearolds as well as 80% of ten-year-olds have dieted in an effort
to change their physical appearance (Council On Size &
\;Veight Discrimination, 1996). A study of girls ages 13 to
16 found that only 23% had never dieted, 40% were classified as "dieters;' and 16% were "often" or "ahvays" dieting
(Strong & Huon, 1998). Of adult women in the United
States, 48% report a negative body image, 63% were dissatisfied with their current weight, and 49% report being
preoccupied with their body weight (Cash & Henry,
1995). Surveys document that body image dissatisfaction
is also frequent in men, although less prevalent than in
women. In a study conducted in 1986, 34% of men reported a negative body image, 41% were dissatisfied with their
current weight, and 44% were preoccupied with concerns
about their body weight (Cash, Winstead & Janda, 1986).
By contrast, in 1972 only 17% of men were dissatisfied
with their appearance (Cloud, 2000). This increase in
body dissatisfaction and weight preoccupation parallels a
rise in eating disorders (see Stice, 1994, for review),
as would be expected because body image dissatisfaction
constitutes a risk factor for eating disorders. As
body image dissatisfaction is a major predictor of dieting

FACTORS RELATED TO BODY IMAGE

Culture
Levels of body-image dissatisfaction have been shown
to vary as a function of culture and subculture. Within
the United States, body image dissatisfaction is highest
among Caucasian-American women, whereas AfricanAmerican and Hispanic women consistently score higher
in positive body image than Caucasian Americans (Gray,
1977). Similarly, body image dissatisfaction and eating
pathology have been shown to be significantly higher in
the United States as compared to several other countries,
particularly non-Western countries. Additionally, in persons immigrating to the United States, positive carrelatiOl,s between degree of Westernization and body dissatisfaction and eating pathology have been found (see Stice,
1994, for review). Becker (1995) has explained such findings as demonstrating that cultural-specific aesthetic and
moral ideals regarding the body are developed by cultures
and that cultures vary in their values and expectations for
body shape and weight. Additionally, within-culture variation can occur where the culture assigns different standards and values to the body for particular subgroups
within that culture (e.g., ethnic minorities or women).
Media effects
One factor strongly linked to body image dissatisfaction, which may also mediate cultural differences in
body dissatisfaction, is the degree of exposure to thinideal media. At present, the Western female body ideal
is considered ectomorphic or thin. This has changed
from a past body norm for women that was more voluptuous. The media in Western cultures have portrayed a
steadily thinning ideal of the female body (e.g., Garner,
Garfinkel, Schwartz & Thompson, 1980; Stice, 1994).
An example of the media's portrayal of an increasingly
thinner ideal body size is evident in beauty pageants. In
the 1960's, the average Miss America contestant weighed
93% of her expected weight for her respective age and
height category. In contrast, in 1988,60% of the contestants weighed only 85% of their expected weight. Several
additional studies report a significant decrease in the
average body mass index of women models and actresses over the last two decades (Levine & Smolak, 1996;
7

AMCAP JOURNAL 2001

VOLUME 26

Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson & Kelly, 1986; Wiseman,

Gray, Mosimann & Ahrens, 1992). Beginning in 1980,
the average female model was consistently at least 85%
or below of her expected body weight (Wiseman et al.,
1992). A body weight this low (85% or less of expected
body weight) constitutes one DSM-IV criterion for
anorexia nervosa (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). Thus for the first time in history, the weight
norm for women as presented by the media fell within a
clinically-significant, dysfunctionally low range.
Exposure to such thin-ideal media has been consistently shown to increase body image dissatisfaction,
increase weight concerns, and increase dieting among
women (Irving, 1990; Levine & Smolak, 1996; Posavac,
Posavac & Posavac, 1998; Stice & Shaw, 1994; Stice,
Spangler & Agras, 2001). In addition, Turner,
Hamilton, Jacobs, Angood, & Dwyer (1997) found that
women who viewed fashion magazines endorsed a lower
ideal body weight than those who viewed news magazines. Those persons who viewed fashion magazines as
compared to those who viewed news magazines were
more likely to be frustrated with their bodies after viewing the magazines for only 13 minures. Posavac et al.
(1998) suggest that the effect of thin-ideal media exposure on women's weight concerns results from a social
comparison with standards set by the media. According
to Posavac et al. (1988), as women are repeatedly
exposed to increasingly thinner female images in the
media - many of which have been altered by computer
- they believe they ought to look as theses images do
and become increasingly dissatisfied with their own
bodies as they compare themselves to an unattainable
ideal. Thus, pressure to comply with the thin-ideal
"norm" set by the media causes many women to develop
body dissatisfaction and consequently resort to
unhealthy eating behaviors.

group than in older adults (Gray, 1977). Furthermore,

college-age female students have been shown to have
higher rates of eating disorders than the general female
population (Schlundt & Johnson, 1990). Some have
suggested that this may be due to pressures young
adults feel to establish themselves materially and socially during these years, making them more self-conscious
about how they appear.
Gender
Confirming within-culture variability in body expectations discussed above, gender appears to significantly
contribute to body image, where men consistently
report greater satisfaction with their bodies than
women. Muth & Cash (1997) found that women have
more negative body image evaluations and have a
stronger investment in how they look. At all age levels,
men were on average more satisfied with their bodies
(Rauste-von Wright, 1989). Eighty-four percent of
women surveyed about their dieting behavior expressed
a desire to lose weight compared to only 45% of men
(Hesse-Biber et al, 1987). Women typically want to
weigh 3.25 kg less while men want to weigh on average
0.75 kg more (Dolan, Birtchnell & Lacey, 1987). When
compared with men, physical appearance seems to have
a greater influence on self-esteem for women (HesseBiber et al., 1987; Rodin, Silberstein & Striegel-Moore,
1984). Women are more distressed by a weight gain of a
few pounds than men are, tend to weigh themselves
more often, and are more likely to seek medical help to
lose weight (Hesse-Biber et al. 1987).
There are several possible reasons for the existence of
a gap in body image satisfaction between men and
women. One explanation is that the media plays a role
in influencing stereotypes of men and women. A content analysis of magazines showed that women's magazines contained 10.5 times as many body weight related
articles as men's magazines (Anderson & DiDomenico,
1992). These media messages and models emphasizing
thinness for women demonstrate the different weight
and body expectations that society has established for
men and women.
Evolutionary theorists also hypothesize that gender
differences in body image satisfaction occur because
women tend to base their ability to attract a mate on
their physical appearance. According to this theory, the
more a woman believes she can use her body to attract

Age
Body satisfaction tends to vary as a function of age
and developmental stage. Teenagers are significantly
less satisfied with their bodies than pre-adolescents
(Brodie, Bagley & Slade, 1994). Furthermore, Gray
(1977) found that adult (non-adolescent) individuals
tend to have more positive affect about their bodies
than adolescent individuals. Research specifically related to college populations has shown that body dissatisfaction and body image concern is higher among this
8

ANN MARIE CARROLL &

BODY IMAGE SATISFACTION

DIANE L. SPANGLER

dissatisfaction among LOS persons. LOS members are

simultaneously commanded, "be ye therefore perfect"
(Matthew 5:48) and to be self-disciplined. The directive
for perfection and self-discipline may be misapplied and
lead LOS persons to be overly critical of themselves,
including their bodies. Thus, the pressure to be perfect
may cause LOS persons to be more critical of their bodies than non-LOS persons.
There is also a phenomenon somewhat unique to the
LOS culture, and especially at Brigham Young
University, where a great deal of pressure is put on LOS
young adults to get married. At the 1963 commencement address, university president Ernest L. Wilkinson
presented a quote attributed to Brigham Young: "any
unmarried man over the age of 25 is a menace to society:' Another president of the LOS church, Harold B.
Lee, has said, "No man who is of marriageable age is living his religion who remains single" (Lee, 1973, p. 99;
quoting President Joseph F. Smith, 1919, p. 272). In
some preliminary interviewing of BYU students, it was
found that many young women feel this pressure to get
married causes them to almost abuse their bodies in
order to fit the ideal body shape. Consistent with evolutionary theory (noted above), they believe that to attract
a mate, they must look a certain way - which is usually
perceived as conforming to the media-portrayed thinideaL A study in the general population conducted by
Berschied & Walster (1972) supports this perception.
They found "an unexpectedly high correlation between
physical attractiveness and a woman's social experience:'
In blind-date tests they conducted, the more physically
attractive the date, the more he!she was liked, irrespective of other characteristics such as a higher intelligence
level or an exceptional personality (Berschied &
Walster, 1972). Additionally, in a meta-analysis of studies examining the relationship between women's physical attractiveness and social success, Feingold (1992)
reported that attractive women were perceived as more
sociable, dominant, mentally healthy, intelligent, and
socially skilled than their less attractive counterparts.
Thus, if it is the case that women in the marriage-imperative LOS subculture believe that marriage is dependent
upon appearance, then their concern for appearance may
be particularly heightened.
The objective of the current study was to determine
whether the sociocultural factor of religion had any impact
on level of body image satisfaction, and specifically to

others, the more she will be satisfied with her body

(Koff, Rierdan & Stubbs, 1990). In contrast, men's social
status is hypothesized to be determined predominantly
by income and occupation. In summarizing 30 years of
research, Powers (1971) found that in the United States
women typically seek mates with good earning potential, while men seek mates who are physically attractive.
According to evolutionary psychology, this is due largely to the different role that each parent plays in raising a
child. Fathers typically invest more indirect resoutces
such as food and money, whereas mothers tend to invest
more direct physical and psychological resources (Eagly
& Wood, 1999). As a result, to ensure their survival and
their reproductive success, the two sexes developed different criteria for mate selection and mate attraction.
Religion
While there exists a great amount of research on some
sociocultural factors that influence body image, little to
no research has been conducted on the effects of religion
on body image. Given that research has demonstrated
that other sociocultural factors have a large impact on
body image, it is also possible that religion affects body
image. For example, religious subcultures may develop
their own norms and values about the body that could
counteract or moderate the effects of mainstream cultural values or norms about the body. Various religions
have viewed the body as ranging from "carnal and devilish" to "holy" and a "temple of God:' Religion often prescribes body rituals of what to wear and how to look.
Many religions also have rules about how and what to
eat. Thus there are several avenues by which religion
could impact body image, weight preoccupation, and
eating patterns.
Research on body image within the Latter-day Saint
(LOS) community is particularly sparse. LOS doctrine
teaches that bodies are a gift from God, that gaining a
body is one of the primary objectives of mortal life, and
that the Lord "looketh not on the outward appearance"
but "looketh on the heart" (1 Samuel 16:7). However, it
is unknown whether these religious tenets affect actual
body image of LOS church members. Due to these prescribed beliefs, one might expect to find higher body satisfaction and a more positive body image among LOS
persons.
However, other LOS subculture factors may negate
this proposed positive effect or even lead to higher body
9

AM CAP JOURNAL 2001

VOLUME 26

of (dis)agreement with statements on a 1 (d1iflnitely disagree) to 5 (dejlnitely agree) scale. Four MBSRQ subscales
(described below) were used in the current study. The
numeric responses for each scale were averaged so that
the possible scores for each scale ranged from 1 to 5.
Factor analytic studies have confirmed the factor structure and construct validiry of the MBSRQ, and several
additional studies have shown the MBSRQ to possess
convergent and divergent validity as well as internal consistency and test-retest reliability (see Cash, 1994, for a
review of the psychometric properties of the MSBRQ).
The four subscales used in this study were:

compare LOS and non-LOS students on levels of body

satisfaction. Additionally, LOS students in Utah were
compared to LOS students outside of Utah to determine
whether there was any difference in body image within the
more LOS-dominate subculture of Utah. Based on past
research findings, it was expected that female students regardless of religion - would have a more negative body
image and grearer body dissatisfaction than male students.
It was also hypothesized that LOS female students would
be more critical of their bodies than non-LOS women due
to the real and perceived pressures to attract a mate.
METHOD

1. The Appearance Evaluation scale (APPEVF) consists of

Participants
Participants consisted of 307 LOS and 190 non-LOS
students selected from Brigham Young University, the
University of Utah, California State University Fullerton,
and Boston University. Both LOS and non-LOS students at each university were sampled. Students were
taken from different parts of the country and different
universities in order to compare LOS students' perceptions of body image to non-LOS students, and to compare students in Utah to those outside of Utah. Of the
participants, 268 were women and 229 were men. Sixtyfour percent fell between the ages of 18-21, 27% between
the ages of 22-25,7% between the ages of 26-29, and 2%
fell in the category of 30 and older. Ninety-three percent
of the participants were single, and 7% were married.

seven items that determine satisfaction with one's

looks. Higher scores indicate a more positive feeling
about appearance, whereas lower scores indicate
greater unhappiness with physical appearance. The
internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of the
Appearance Evaluation scale was .88 and the I-month
test-retest reliability was .86 (Cash, 1994).
2. The Appearance Orientation scale (APPORF) includes
12 items that measure the extent of investment in
one's appearance (e.g., time spent in grooming behaviors). Higher scores on this scale indicate greater time
and effort devoted to grooming and greater investment in appearance. Lower scoring subjects are less
concerned about and less invested in their physical
appearance. The internal consistency of the
Appearance Orientation scale was .86 and the 1month test-retest reliability was .89 (Cash, 1994).

Procedures
After permission was obtained from instructors, participants in courses that fulfilled General Education
requirements received a packet of questionnaires to
complete on a voluntary basis. They either completed
and returned the packet at the end of the class period or
took the packet home and returned it the following class
period, depending upon the instructor's wishes. General
Education classes were chosen to avoid any bias that
could arise from sampling participants that were largely
from one particular field of study.

3. The Overweight Preoccupation scale (OWPR) assesses

level of fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, and eating restraint. A higher score in this area indicates a
greater level of preoccupation and concern about
becoming overweight. The internal consistency of the
Overweight Preoccupation scale was .74 and the 1month test-retest reliability was .84 (Cash, 1994).
4. The Body Areas Satiifaction scale (SATIS) measures
degree of (dis)satisfaction with specific areas of the
body (face, hair, torso, muscle tone, height, and
weight). Individuals rate their satisfaction with each
body part on a 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied)
point scale. The internal consistency for the Body

Measures

The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire

(MBSRQ) (Brown, Cash & Mikulka, 1990) is a 69-item
standardized, attitudinal assessment of body image
composed of 10 subscales. Respondents rate their level
10

ANNMARIE CARROLL &

BODY IMAGE SATISFACTION

Areas Satisfaction scale was .75 and the 1-month testretest reliability was .80 (Cash, 1994).

Table 1

13.66

2/4

DIANE L. SPANGLER

ANOVA Analysis

,-----------_._---,' -

In addition, a fifth scale was also used:

Scale

~APPEV-;--

F
df(b, w)
- - - - i - - - - - - ----

. -

~--

5. Beliefs About Appearance Scale (BAAS). The BAAS

(Spangler, 1997) is a 20-item, self-report scale that
assesses the degree of endorsement of beliefs about
the consequences of appearance for relationships,
achievement, self-view, and feelings. Higher scores
indicate greater endorsement of beliefs that positive
feelings, self-worth, and interpersonal and work success are dependent upon appearance. Degree of
agreement with statements about appearance in each
of these domains is rated on a 5-point scale ranging
from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). This scale possesses acceptable internal consistency (coefficient alpha
= .95), test-retest reliability [r(9-month) = .74J, as
well as convergent, discriminant, and predictive
validity (Spangler, 2002; Spangler & Stice, 2001).

APPORF
,,--_ .. -

SATIS

15.56

_ .. _-

t__
i..-----

-r --- . ------ - - ---I

p

(3. 489)

019l1

043
.j

(3. 465) .

.OO.O~

(3, 463)

.OO~

(3, 486)

..

OWPR
.

BAAS

._:~~~J
3.52 I

_____ ~_. __,__J._~

.000 :

.015J

APPEVF = Appearance Evalulltion Scale; APPORF = Appellrancc Investment

Scale; SATIS = Body Srltisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Scale;
BAAS = Beliefs About Appearance Scale

Between-Gender Contrasts
Men versus Women, The planned contrast comparing
men and women (regardless of religion) revealed significant mean differences on every scale (see Table 2).
Specifically, men had more positive feelings about their
physical appearance and were significantly more satisfied
with their bodies than women. In addition, men had
lower levels of appearance investment and weight preoccupation, and were less likely to believe that their success,
happiness and self-worth were dependent upon their
appearance than were women.
LDS Men versus LDS Women. Furthermore, when comparisons were nude between LOS men and LOS
women the differences became even more pronounced
in beliefs about appearance. LOS men had more positive feelings about their physical appearance, and higher
body satisfaction than LOS women. LOS men also had
significantly lower levels of weight preoccupation and
markedly lower levels of beliefs that their success, happiness, and self-worth were dependent upon their
appearance than LOS women, but did not differ from
LOS women in the amount of time and effort devoted
to appearance.
Non-LDS Men versus Non-LDS Women. In contrast,
comparisons of non- LOS men with non-LOS women
revealed that non-LOS men and non-LOS women did
not differ in their level of beliefs that their appearance
was central to their success, happiness and self-worth,
nor did these non-LOS groups differ in their levels of

Data Analyses
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the means on the subscales of the MBSRQ and the
BAAS between fout groups consisting of: male LOS,
male non-LOS, female LOS, and female non-LOS.
Several planned (a priori) contrasts were made between:
(a) men and women; (b) LOS men and LOS women;
(c) non-LOS men and non-LOS women; (d) LOS and
non-LOS men, (e) LOS and non-LOS women. An
additional independent t-test was conducted between
LOS students in Utah versus LOS students in other
states. Finally, a regression analysis was performed to
determine whether religion or other demographic variables predicted body image satisfaction and appearance
orientation. The order of entry of variables in the regression equations was: age, LOS status, state (living in or
outside of Utah), and beliefs about appearance (BAAS).
RESULTS

ANOVA
The overall ANOVA was significant for all subscales of
the MBSRQ and for the BAAS, indicating the existence
of group differences on all measures. Table 1 displays the
overall ANOVA F-values and their respective p values.
Results from the planned contrasts are presented below.
I I

AMCAP JOURNAL 2001

VOLUME 26

-------------~----------

subscales of the MBSRQ and on the BAAS. Specifically,

LOS men were significantly higher than non-LDS men
in positive feelings about their physical appearance, were
significantly more satisfied with their bodies, and invested more time and effort into their appearance. LOS men
were also significantly less preoccupied with their weight
than non-LOS men. Scores on the BAAS indicated that

body satisfaction. However, non-LOS men were less

preoccupied with their weight and invested less time
and effort into their appearance than non- LOS women.
vVithin-Gender Contrasts

LDS Men versus non-LDS Men. Significant differences

were found between LOS and non- LOS men on all the

Table 3

Table 2

ANOVA Planned Contrasts. within gender

ANOVA Planned Contrasts. between gender

[--I

-1.-------I

APPEVF

[APP_O_R_F

~_mean(Sd~'=~lj

Scale

Men (n = 229) vs.

Women (n = 268)

SATIS

Men
Women

3.16 (.40)
2.99 (.40)

4.54

Men
Women

3.09 (.39)
3.18 (.36)

-2.42

Men
Watnen

3.60 (.60)
3.30 (.68)

Men
Women

1.88 (.72)
2.70 (.95)

--

LOS Men (n = 155)

Women (n = 152)

"' LOS
M,"
Women

I.

I'

~,IAPPOR!'
, SATIS

.000

Men ,
Wonlen

-9.93

.000

r OWPR

Non-LOS

"5.37

---.:J

APPEVF
(n=152)
I (n=116)

,BAAS
[

-.92

.358

3.76 (.56)
3.31 (.67)

5.95

.000

--

BAAS

1.77 (.70)
2.72 (.95)

Men

20.62 (12.69)
25.98 (16.51)

W0111Cn

--

--

__

f----------

Men
Wotnen

APPORF

SATIS

OWPR
----

BAAS

3.07 (.3a=1.62
2.97 (.38)
--

I
I

('3~)--1-_---2~031.,-----

.019

Men

3.44 (.64)
3.29 (.69)

1.52

.129

Wonlcn

Men

2.01 (.74)

-5.21

.000

97

.043

.001

.049

_-_._-------

-196 ;

I
!

WOI11:~-..l---_--

LOS
Non-LOS

3.00 (.42)

LO~1_

---

LDS
Non-LDS
---

OWPR

LO,~

.55

~97 (.38)

3.19 (.37) I
3.12( 3~5)1'
3.31 (.67)
3.29 (69)

,---

.34

.731

.21

.836

.37

.712

---

2.72 (.95)

_L

.326
_

APPEVF = Appearance Evaluation Scale; APPORF = Appeanmce Invest",ent

Scale; SA TIS = Body Satisfaction Smle; OWPR = Weight Prcocwpotion Scale;
BAAS = Beliefs About Appeara"ce Scale

WOtnen
2.68 (.96)
- - - - - - - - - f-------~f------~f - - - - - - -

.28

-1.

'I'

-----~--~'-----_...

~__ _ _N_on- LOS lu2'!.~~(l5.97)

---

-2.35

3.46

3:~4~___1

LOS, 20.62 (12.69)

Non-LOS, 24.79 (14.40)

----------- ---------- !

3.76 (.56)

1.77 (.70)
2.01 (.74)

.002

I~;s Non-~~~~9::~~.~~~_

3.04 (.39)
3.17 (.35)

24.79 (14.40)
24.15 (15.97)

JOsh

APPORl'
___ ~~I~r::>.S

SATIS

~.O~~

Men
Women

Men
Women

....j

j __

3.15
3.04 (.39)

-3.13

3.11

----

--.J

.000

-9.45

Non-LOS Men (n=74) vs.

Non-LOS Women (n=116)
APPEVF

'

3.25 (.44)
3.07 (.37)

-----_---------1-----------,----

"-.000

3.15 (.39)
3.19 (.37)

Men
Women

---

OWPR

LOsl,,---

Non-LOS

----_._-----

-1.67

Men

LOS
Non-LOS

LOS
Non-LOS

325 (.41)
3.00 (.42)

Men

APPEVF
(n=155)
(n=74)

..L~an(~_
--,------

--------

f~:;, ;:::- I

Women

SATIS

f-------

.0~6.

4.87 '

Men ~2.71 (13.55)

Women 25.:.~7 (16.24)

BAAS

APPORF

.000

S"""'--

OWPR

APPEVF

I----~-----

.776

APPEVF = Appearance Evaluation Scale; APPORF = Appearance Investment

Scale; SATIS = Body Satisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Scale;
BAAS = Beliefs About Appearance Scale

12

- I

UODY I!vlAGE SATISFACTION

ANN MARIE CARROLL &

LOS men were significantly less likely than non-LOS

men to believe that their success in either relationships
or ">lork \vas dependent upon their physical appearance
or chat positive feelings and self-esteem were dependent
upon their physical appearance. Table 3 lists the means
and standard deviations in these subgroups.
LDS lVomen versus non-LDS lVomen. In contrast to the
men, no statistical differences were found on any of the
1\1BSRQ subscales or on the BAAS between LOS and
non- LOS women. Table 3 lists the means and standard
deviations in these subgroups.

DIANE L. SPANGLER

feelings of body satisfaction and positive feelings about

one's appearance, greater investment in appearance, and
lower weight preoccupation. Having lower levels of dysfunctional beliefs about appearance (as measured by the
BAAS) was associated with higher body satisfaction,
and lower investment in appearance and lower weight
preoccupation. No other variable consistently predicted

Table 4
Scale means ofLDS students in Utah versus ourside ofUrah. by gender
r-~---

Scale

!
i

111_\SD~Ju __~_J

df

Men

l\Jlean comparisons of LDS students in Utah versus

outside Utah

LDS Men in Utal) versus LDS Men outside of Utah.

Comparisons of LOS men in Utah with LOS men in
the other states revealed little difference. LOS men in
Utah scored marginally higher on the Appearance
Evaluation scale than men in other states. No statistically significant differences were found on any of the other
subscales. Table 4 lists the means and standard deviations in these subgroups.
LDS \V<Jmen ill Utah versus LDS Women outside of Utah.
Analyses comparing LOS women in Utah to LOS
women in other scates revealed several differences. LOS
women in Ucah invested significantly more time and
effort into their appearance than LOS women in other
scates, and reponed a greater level of preoccupation with
weight. Scores on the BAAS indicated that LOS women
in Utah were significantly more likely than LOS women
from other states to believe that their success in relationships and work is dependent upon their appearance and
that the occurrence of positive feelings and self-esteem
are dependent upon their appearance. Table 4 lists the
means and standard deviations in these subgroups.

APPEVF
Utah
(n=99)
(n=56) Non-Urah

3.31 (047)
3.17 (.35)

1.975

APPORF
Utah
Non-Utah

3.14 (.39)
3.13 (.33)

.300

3.78 (.56)
3.75 (.54)

.224

Utah.!
Non-Urah

1.72 (.61)
1.79 (.77)

152

.051

SATIS

Utah
Non-Urah

_.-

--

OWPR

-----------[
BAAS

Urah
Non-Urah

152

137

_.- ._- - - - - -

-.569

137

.823

.570

-~-~

20.66 (12.54)
20042 (13.13)

.111

152

.912

.1061

J48

.915

150

.008

Women
I

APPEVF
(n=94)
Urah
(n=58) Non-Utah

II
i

3'~ (.16) ---2.99 (.37)

APPORF
Utah
Non-Urah

3.26 (040)
3.09 (.32)

SATIS

Utah
Non-Urah

3.29 (.64)
3.33 (.71)

-.339

143

.735

OWPR

Utah
Non-Utah

2.87 (.97)
2.53 (.89)

2.152

142

.033

BAAS

Utah
Non-Utah

28047 (17.37)
22.02 (13.71)

2.347

148

.020

2.710

_.-

APPEVF = Appearance Evaluation Scale; APPORF = Appearance Investment

Scale; SA TIS = Body Satisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Scale;
BAAS = Bdie}s Abo"t Appearance Scale

Regression Analyses
]vIa/e. Four separace regression analyses were conducted for each of the four MBSRQ subscales used as
dependent variables. Predictors were age, LOS status,
scate (i.e., in or outside of Utah) and BAAS scores,
respectively. As shown in Table 5, the overall models ( F
values) were significant for all four regressions. For men,
LOS status and beliefs about appearance (i.e., the
BAAS) were significant predictors of appearance orientation, body satisfaction and weight preoccupation.
Specifically, being LOS was associated with greater
13

AMCAP JOURNAL 2001

VOLUME 26

_.._ - - - - - - _ . _ - - - - - - - - - - - -

one's appearance, as well as lower levels of investment in

grooming and lower weight preoccupation.

MBSRQ subscales in men.

Female. For women, the only variable that predicted
body image satisfaction and related variables was beliefs
about appearance (see Table 5). Having lower levels of
beliefs that success, happiness and self-worth are
dependent on appearance was associated with higher
body image satisfaction and more positive feelings about

DISCUSSION

Consistent with previous research, women in the

present study regardless of religion had a more negative

Table 6
Correlations between variables, male participants

Table 5
Regression Analyses

~~~-TPredictor

----l

~-P~-EVF

40~~7
PR~~ 11

) 6
= .18,

-.

LOS
ST ATE
BAAS

~<~OO~2)-4.94,

I
I

"(42SS) 7 92
=. . ,
, R'= .12

~T ATE

i
BAA~
-

-1~ - 241
-2.06
04

i - :::

-.1/ (.06)
00 (.OS)
29 (.00)

-2.42 I
01
0.;0;t--{'98
4.47
.00

-.14(.06)
-.22 (.09)
-.04 (.08)
-.29 (.00)

-219
-310
-0. 62
-4.49

.01 (.10)
.21 (.00)

-.19

03
.00
.S41
.00

;:~fl :~~

0.17
3.0S I

.87
.00 ,

(.0m-) ----=0:31 [

'6~;31

APPO~F--- AGE-----:

-.08 (.03)

-1.3S.18

F(4,2S7)=6.21,
000
~~~ 13

-.01 (.OS)
-.07 (.OS)

-0.14
-1.11

.89
.27

-0.41
-0.42 I
0.661

.68
.671
.SI

,LOS
STATE
1 BAAS

BA~S_\

_---~

..-

APPEVF

--

APPORF

.26**

--

SATIS

.52**

.17*

--

OWPR
EOC

-.17*

.17*

-.21 **

--

BAAS

-.14*

.27**

-.33**

.24**

AGE
LO.S
STATE
BAAS

-.03 (.08) ,
-.04 (08) I
( )

__

~~O
~~~!.07 (.07)
0.97 '
.00 (.ll)
.01 (.ll)
.5S (.00)

-0.44
O.ll
10.28

APPORF

SATIS

OWPR
EOC

BAAS

--

Correlations between variables, female participants

. 60
.00

.27l~00)4.S~00

LOS
STATE

:t

R'= 21
OWPREOC
F(4,243)= 27 lS ,
000
~~= .31
-_ ..

---IAGY--jlf.Q2(.OS)

F(4,24S)=lS.16,
p<.OOO

APPEVF

Table 7

-.03 (.OS)
-.03 (.OS)
-.33 (.00)

-O.4S '
-0.S2 i
-S.61

.7S

: LOS
'. S.T
. ATE..
BAAS
I

-~ATIS

Scale

*p < .OS
**p < .01
APPEVF = Appearance Evaluation SC<lle; APPORF = Appear<lnce Investment
Scale; SA TIS = Body Satisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Scale;
BAAS = Belie}s Auout Appearance Scale

--I

Women (n=268)

APp~~~--rAGE

~<.OOO

- -~:~~ ~::~ ,~~

AG
LOS
. STATE.
BAAS
I
I

~--- -~
'I

-;(~PR~~cllg~-I-~n~ll
R2= .09.

08 (04)
-.IS (.06)

I,

[1

ISATIS
, F(4202) 10 6S
'. p<.OOO =
. ,
R'= .18

Men (n=229)
AGE -LOS

'~\~~~;il8 I~~:S
r'(
['

Beta (stderror)

Scale

APPEVF

APPORF

SATIS

OWPR
EOC

APPEVF

--

APPORF

.16**

--

SATIS

.63**

.06*

--

OWPR
EOC

-.33*

.3S*

-.41 **

--

BAAS

-.33*

.28**

-.44**

.5S**

BAAS

l'OlO
.33
.96
.91
.00

--

-.

APPEVF = Appecmmce Evaluation Scale; APPORF = Appeamnce ],westment

Swle; SA TIS = Body Satisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Swle;
BAAS = Beliefs Auout Appe<mmce Scale

*p < .OS
**p < .01
APPEVF = Appeamnce Evaluation Scale; APPORF = Appeamnce Investment
Scale; SA TIS = Body Satisfaction Scale; OWPR = Weight Preoccupation Scale;
BAAS = Beliefs Auout Appearance Scale

14

ANNMARIE CARROLL &

BODY IMAGE SATISFACTION

DIANE L. SPANGlER

In contrast, comparisons of LOS women to non-LOS

women revealed no statistical difference that would
indicate that female LOS college students have a more
positive or more negative body image than their nonLOS counterparts. It appears that for LOS women the
pro-body LOS doctrine does not have an impact on
body image as it does for LOS men. The lack of a "doctrinal" effect for LOS women may be because the ambient culture, with its strong emphasis on thinness for
women, negates the positive impact that LOS pro-body
doctrine could have on LOS women's view of their bodies. It is also possible that the emphasis on mating in the
LOS subculture and the strong emphasis in Western
culture on the importance of physical appearance for
women's social status and marriageability interact,
resulting in LOS women being more critically focused
on their bodies which negates the potential positive
influence of LOS pro-body doctrine on body image in
LOS women. Indeed, LOS women were more likely
than any other group to believe that their interpersonal
success, happiness and worth were based on their physical appearance.
Also consistent with this interpretation, LOS women
in Utah reported being more preoccupied with their
weight, spent more time and effort on their appearance
and grooming, and were more likely to believe that their
happiness, worth and interpersonal and work success
were dependent upon their physical appearance than
LOS women living outside of Utah. In contrast, comparisons of LOS men from Utah with LOS men from
other states showed little difference. The differences
found between LOS women in Utah compared to LOS
women in other states could be due to the large LOS
population in Utah which may amplify the LOS directive to mate above that found in other states. Therefore,
as evident in the current pattern of findings, LOS status
does not differentiate level of body image dissatisfaction,
level of dysfunctional beliefs about the body, or level of
weight preoccupation among women, but living in Utah
where the LOS subculture mating pressures are
arguably stronger does.
The dominant LOS culture in Utah may also affect
how LOS women in Utah perceive their gender role.
Utah is well-known as a more conservative state. As a
result, women in Utah may be more likely to adhere to
a more "traditional" female gender role. The gender roles
purported in evolutionary theory, that women primari-

body image than theit male peers. However, religion

(i.e., being LOS or not) was significantly associated with
the pattern of differences between men and women.
LOS men and women differed primarily in their views
of their body such that LOS women were significantly
less satisfied with their bodies than LOS men and significantly more likely to believe that their success, happiness, and self-esteem are dependent upon their physical appearance than LOS men. In contrast, non-LOS
men and women differed primarily in their investment
in appearance such that non-LOS women were more
preoccupied with their body weight than non-LOS men
and invested more time and effort into their appearance
than non-LOS men.
The pattern of differences within gender were also
associated with being LOS or not. For men, results indicated that male LOS college students had a more positive body image than their non-LOS counterparts.
Specifically, LOS men had higher satisfaction with their
overall appearance, greater satisfaction with their individual body parts, were less preoccupied with body
weight, and were not as likely to believe their interpersonal or occupational success nor their personal worth
depended upon their appearance than non- LOS men. It
also appears that LOS men tend to put more time and
effort into their appearance than their non-LOS male
counterparts. Regression analyses confirmed the significant contribution of being LOS to the prediction of
body image for men. These findings suggest that the
LOS subculture does have an impact on the body image
of the LOS male. Of all groups, LOS men had the most
positive views of their bodies and were the least likely to
believe that their success, happiness and worth were
based on their physical appearance. One possible explanation for these findings is that the pro-body principles
in LOS doctrine cause LOS men to be more accepting
and appreciative of their bodies, and less likely to view
them as a commodity for interpersonal, occupational or
esteem gain. Consistent with LOS doctrine, LOS men
may actually view their bodies as sacred and as gifts
from God, thereby instilling greater satisfaction with
their bodies. Additionally, LOS doctrine and scripture
which discourage vanity and de-emphasize physical
appearance as central to a meaningful life may have contributed to the significantly lower endorsement of
beliefs that appearance is central to success, happiness
and esteem observed among LOS men.
15

VOLUME 26

AMCAP JOURNAL 2001

ly nurture children and men primarily provide material

resources, are encouraged within the LOS community.
As such, these values may heighten "expected" gender
role conformity in women in Utah. Indeed, theorists
have hypothesized that physical appearance is central to
the traditional female gender role. Studies have documented significant positive correlations between an
individual's level of affirmation of the traditional female
gender role and level of endorsement of the thin-ideal
body type for women (Stice et al., 1994). Furthermore,
attractive women are rated as more traditionally feminine than less attractive women, regardless of the
woman's actual adherence to traditional female gender
role behaviors and attitudes (Stice, 1994). Thus, if traditional female gender role expectations are higher in
Utah, then it would be expected that greater conformity to central aspects of the traditional female gender
role (e.g., thin, attractive appearance) would also be
higher in Utah.
Another potential reason that LOS women in Utah
were more likely to have a greater preoccupation with
their weight and their appearance is that they were more
likely to believe that positive outcomes in relationships,
work, self-esteem and mood were dependent upon their
physical appearance than LOS women outside of Utah.
This difference in level of endorsement of such beliefs
appears pivotal because greater endorsement of such
beliefs consistently and significantly predicted a higher
level of body image dissatisfaction in both men and
women regardless of religion. In fact, the BAAS score
was the only significant predictor of body image variables in women. These findings suggest that individuals'
beliefs about the consequences of their appearance are
central in determining their level of body image satisfaction. This finding is consistent with other studies which
document that beliefs about appearance prospectively
predict level of body (dis)satisfaction, thin-ideal internalization, self-esteem, and engagement in dieting
(Spangler, 2002) and are an important risk factor in the
development of eating pathology (Stice, Presnell &
Spangler, 2002). Taken together, these findings suggest
that any variable (such as traditional gender role
endorsement or emphasis on appearance for marriageability) that increases the believability of dysfunctional
beliefs about the body (as measured by the BAAS) will
likely also increase body image dissatisfaction, thin-ideal
internalization, dieting and eating pathology.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Consistent with the growing body of literature

demonstrating the effects of sociocultural variables on
body image, this study found religion to have a significant impact on body image. As such, it would be valuable to conduct more research investigating the effects
of religion on body image. The current findings suggest
that religious beliefs and practices may have an effect on
body image to the extent that they either increase or
decrease the endorsement of dysfunctional beliefs
about the body regarding the degree of centrality of
appearance for relationships, marriageability, work, life
satisfaction, and self-worth. Oifferent aspects of religious belief and practice could be examined to determine which aspects affect body image positively and
negatively. The current findings suggest that LOS doctrine about the sacredness of the body may serve to
increase positive body image. In contrast, the LOS culture emphasis on mating and perceived centrality of
appearance for marriageability for women, as well as
strong adherence to the traditional female gender role,
may serve to reduce positive body image among women.
Such a pattern may not be evident in LOS men because
LOS culture emphasizes a mans ability to provide and
to achieve occupationally whereas LDS culture emphasizes a woman's role as a wife and mother. Given these
gendered directives in LOS culture, it may be that LOS
men are more susceptible to ideas that their marriageability, worth and life satisfaction are based on their
performance, whereas LDS women are more susceptible to ideas that their marriageability, worth and life
satisfaction are based on their appearance (i.e., ability to
attract a mate and maintain a relationship using their
appearance) .
Future studies could examine these hypotheses more
comprehensively by directly assessing attitudes about
gender roles and attitudes about marriageability in addition to body image and beliefs about appearance. Future
research could also explore the ways in which LOS status confers a more positive body image in men, and then
apply such findings to increase body image among LOS
and non-LOS men and women.
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18