Natural Gas Production
Natural Gas Production
Natural Gas Production
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Module Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SECTION 1 GAS EXPLORATION
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seismology as an Exploration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
4
5
8
SECTION 2 DRILLING
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Pre-Drilling Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Drilling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Drilling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Well Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
SECTION 3 WELLSITE FACILITIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Wellsite Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Testing & Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Freezing & Hydrate Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Measurement & Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
SECTION 4 PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Gathering Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Low-Pressure Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Corrosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Regulations & Operating Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Review 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
PLEASE NOTE
Operations personnel use a combination of skill, knowledge, and
technology to accomplish specific goals. A key objective of the Gas
Controller Training Program is to promote an understanding of
theoretical basis for operational decisions used on the job every day. This
training program enhances job-related skills by providing relevant and
current information with immediate application for employees.
Information contained in the modules is theoretical. A foundation of
basic information facilitates an understanding of technology and its
application. Every effort has been made to reflect pure scientific
principles in the training program. Nevertheless, in some cases, pure
theory conflicts with the practical realities of daily operations.
Usefulness to the employee is our most important priority during the
development of the materials in the Gas Controller Training Program.
STUDY SKILLS
Each of the modules in the Gas Controller Training Program is
designed in a Performance Based Self Instructional format. This
means that you are responsible for your own learning and for
ensuring that you are ready to demonstrate your knowledge and
skills. Our focus is on the performance of the necessary skills and
demonstration of the knowledge needed to perform your job.
1. The modules are designed for short but concentrated periods of
study from ten to forty-five minutes each. Remember that
generally one week of self-study replaces 10 hours of in-class
attendance. For example, if you have a three week self-study
block, then you have to account for 30 hours of study time if you
want to keep pace with most learning programs.
2. When you are studying the module, look for connections between
the information presented and your responsibilities on the job.
The more connections you can make, the better you will be able
to recall.
3. There are self-tests at the end of each section in the module.
Habitually completing these tests will ensure your knowledge of
the information. Use the test to measure your understanding. If
you have an incorrect answer, check the information in the section
of the module to find out why the error was made. Remember,
you are responsible for your own performance.
4. Start studying each section of the module by reading the
objectives and the introduction. This provides both the focus for
your learning and a preview of the test items.
5. Each module is prepared to adapt to a number of different
learning styles. Some learners will proceed directly from the
introduction and objectives to the review questions. Then they
will study any topic that is missed. Most learners, however, work
from the introduction through to the end of the text in a
systematic way. Whichever way you choose to learn, you are free
to use the materials as you see fit.
6. Every module has a performance based test. Each item in the test
is related to an objective for each section. To prepare for the test,
you should ensure that all section reviews are completed and
understood. Many learners review the material in the module
before taking the test.
7. To aid your understanding and enhance your time in the learning
activities, new terms, concepts and principles are printed in bold
face along with their definition highlighted in italics. These are
also listed in the Glossary of Terms supplied at the end of the
module.
8. To prepare for the Performance Based test, many have had
success by reading the module Summary and Glossary. Items in
the Glossary are cross-referenced to the place in the module
where they were first introduced. This way, if there is a topic or a
definition that you do not recognize, you can easily find it in the
module.
INTRODUCTION
Natural gas production is a complex process. The first step in the
process is exploration for subsurface hydrocarbons. Once library and
field research locate potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, drilling is
required to confirm their commercial viability.
Drilling activities include pre-drilling, drilling and well completion.
A variety of equipment is available for both conventional and
directional drilling. Gas wells are eventually abandoned when
compression to gathering system pressure is no longer economic.
Gas production involves installation of wellsite facilities that process
the gas before it enters a transmission pipeline. Wellsite equipment is
usually required to separate liquids from the gas, dehydrate the gas
and/or compress the gas to gathering system pressure. Wellsite
equipment is also required to measure and control gas flow. Field
treatment facilities are configured to transport field gas to a
transmission system or to a gas plant for further processing, while
avoiding transmission problems, such as hydrate formation.
Corrosion is another major concern in the gas gathering system.
Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction, and can be
prevented using various methods including cathodic protection. All
phases of natural gas production are governed by legislation,
regulation and/or accepted operating practice.
This module provides a comprehensive overview of the process of
natural gas production. Controllers can apply this knowledge of field
production and treatment to optimize pipeline operation.
MODULE GOALS
SECTION 1
GAS EXPLORATION
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
SEISMOLOGY AS
AN EXPLORATION
METHOD
Figure 1
Seismology in the Field
An explosive charge is detonated and several detectors in the area record the
sound waves reflected off layers of rock in the earths crust. A computer is used
to generate a 2-D or 3-D picture of the underground strata.
OTHER
EXPLORATION
METHODS
SURFACE GEOLOGY Surface geology is the oldest method of oil exploration. Its accuracy,
however, is limited. In the early days of exploration hydrocarbons
were found at ground level. Wells were then drilled at that point.
Other surface features, such as salt- or sulphur-water seepages are
also indicators of oil and gas possibility.
GRAVITY SURVEY Gravity meters are devices that measure variations in the earths
Figure 2
Gravity Survey and Gravity Meter
Variations in the earths gravity can indicate locations of gas deposits. Some
features in the earths crust tend to increase the earths gravity, while others
make it weaker.
MAGNETIC SURVEY
Both ground and airborne radar accurately map features of the earths
RADAR
surface and provide clues to the nature of the underground formation.
Radar can pierce cloud cover or dense jungle foliage to produce good
quality images of the earths surface.
Infrared sensors are devices that sense minute changes in
INFRARED SENSING
temperature. Carried aboard aircraft or satellites, infrared sensors
gather various types of information. Infrared sensing can detect water
intrusions, faults, and buried minerals.
REVIEW 1
SECTION 2
DRILLING
INTRODUCTION
After completing this section of the module, you will be able to:
OBJECTIVES
Identify the procedures involved in pre-drilling activities.
Recognize and compare techniques used in conventional and rotary
drilling.
Identify the components of a typical drilling rig.
Compare vertical, horizontal and slanted drilling operations.
List four procedures of well completion.
PRE-DRILLING
ACTIVITIES
SITE PREPARATION must provide enough space at the site for such facilities as:
10
DRILLING
METHODS
11
Derrick
Runaround
Traveling Block
Gooseneck
Hook
Swivel
Rotary Hose
Stand Pipe
Drilling Line
Kelly
Dog House
Rotary Table
Derrick Floor
Draw Works
Diesel Engines
Rotary Drive
Pump Drive
Mud Pumps
Shale Shaker
Mud Tanks
Mud Tank
Figure 3
Conventional Rotary Drilling
12
When tripping out, the pulley system pulls two or three 30-foot (9 m)
joints of drill pipe out of the hole, depending on the size of the
drilling rig. Each joint is manually unscrewed from the joint below it
in the drill string. With manual guidance, the pulley system then
carries the joint to a rack where it is carefully arranged in the exact
order in which it was removed from the hole. The process is then
repeated until all the joints have been removed from the hole. To trip
the drill string back in, the process is reversed as one by one the
joints are lowered into the hole.
In turbo-drilling, the mud drives a turbine or turbines attached to the
TURBO-DRILLING
drill bit. The result is that the bit can have a much higher rotational
speed, and the penetration rate is increased. This method is also used
in directional drilling.
One disadvantage of conventional vertical wells is that they come
into contact with only a small portion of the reservoir. Wells may
also be drilled horizontally, on an angle (slant) or curved (whipstock) when it is not possible to locate the drilling rig directly above
the reservoir, or for environmental or other reasons (see Figure 4). A
horizontal well can produce several times as much oil and gas as a
conventional well because it traverses a greater distance through the
reservoir. Directional drilling also means that fewer wells are needed
to produce the same amount of oil and gas.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
Figure 4
Directional Drilling
The figure shows from left to right, a conventional well, horizontal well, slant
well, and whip-stock well.
13
DRILLING
EQUIPMENT
CONVENTIONAL Drilling the hole into the ground is accomplished by a rotating drill
DRILLING EQUIPMENT bit, which cuts into the rock (see Figure 5). The cuttings are then
removed by the fluid circulating system. There are several types of
drill bits. The most common are steel-toothed rotary bits, polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits and diamond bits.
Figure 5
Drill Bit
The roller cone bit shown is one of the most common types
of drill bits in use today.
14
15
Figure 6
Mud Circulation
The rotating drill bit cuts the subsurface rock into fragments called drill-cuttings.
The weight of the mud prevents pressurized formation fluids from coming to the
surface unexpectedly. Clean mud is then stored in mud pits or tanks before
being pumped back into the drill hole.
More typically, from an upright rig, the first part of the hole is
vertical. Then it kicks off or is deflected so that the bit may end up
several hundred metres offset from its surface entry. Several wells
can be drilled from one site. When the degree of deflection results in
a quick turn, it is called short radius. A gradual deflection gives a
long radius.
16
HORIZONTAL
In this type of drilling, the drill string does not rotate. Instead, the
mud drives a directional motor, or turbine, which in turn rotates the
bit. Special gyroscopic compasses and electronic instrumentation
track and control both the location and direction of the drilling tool
(see Figure 4).
A blowout is an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids
BLOWOUT
like oil, water or gas. BOPs are required during drilling to reduce the
PREVENTION
possibility of a blowout occurring. A BOP is an arrangement of large,
high-pressure valves at the top of the well, which when closed, form
a pressure-tight seal to prevent the escape of fluids from the well.
A kick is an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a
well while drilling. A kick can occur if the pressure in the well
relating to the head of the drilling fluid (mud) is less than the
pressure of the formation. A kick can lead to a blowout if not
controlled quickly.
The possibility of fire is an ever-present concern on a drilling rig.
Crews must be trained in fire prevention and fire fighting. However,
in the case of a large or uncontrollable fire resulting from a blowout,
a specially trained crew must be brought in to extinguish it.
When dealing with formations that contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
any escape of gas presents a particularly hazardous situation. Also
called sour gas, H2S is an extremely toxic gas that is also flammable.
In low concentrations, it smells like rotten eggs. Larger concentrations quickly overwhelm the sense of smell. The result can be
unconsciousness and death. Rig crews are therefore trained in the use
of H2S detectors and Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA).
17
WELL
COMPLETION
Once the reservoir destination area has been reached, the well is
tested and then prepared for production if found to be commercially
viable. Part of well completion is preparation for long-term
operations during production and for eventual abandonment of the
site. The start of the well-completion process is testing to determine
the volume and pressure of the gas.
While the well is being drilled, cuttings and fluids coming out of the
DRILL STEM TESTING well with the mud are examined by geologists and geochemists to
WELL COMPLETION for production. This is called well completion (see Figure 7). The
drill string is replaced with steel casing that lines the total length of
the well bore. This is cemented in place by forcing cement down the
casing and back to the surface through the annular space around it.
18
Figure 7
Well Completion
This figure shows casing, tubing and a Christmas tree installed at a well. The
gas production is normally taken from the casing. An intermediate casing is
often used to avoid problems in formation pressure during drilling operations.
19
Figure 8
Perforations
A perforation gun blows holes through the casing and cement, allowing gas to
enter the well casing.
Sometimes gas in the formation may not flow readily due to poor
permeability. If the formation is reactive to acid, a process known as
acidizing is employed. In acidizing, acid with preferential reaction
to the formation rather than to the casing, is pumped down the
production casing, through the perforations and into the formation.
The acid etches channels in the formation and increases porosity.
Another process used to increase permeability is fracturing, whereby
a specially blended high-pressure liquid is pumped into the
perforations, breaking up the formation much like driving a wedge
into the formation. Fracturing is followed by the addition of sand or
other granular material, known as proppant, to the fluid. The porous
material holds (props) open the fracture when the pressure is
removed. The propped-open fractures enhance gas flow.
20
WELLSITE
PREPARATION
WELL ABANDONMENT
CONSIDERATIONS
21
REVIEW 2
22
23
SECTION 3
WELLSITE FACILITIES
Wellsite facilities control gas flow from the wellhead and treat the
gas by removing entrained liquids and particulates. Wellsite gas is
usually treated before entering the transmission pipeline.
INTRODUCTION
After completing this section of the module, you will be able to:
OBJECTIVES
Identify the features and functions of a typical gas wellsite facility.
Describe three common methods of gas dehydration.
Define two sampling techniques used to analyze gas quality.
Explain the importance of measuring and controlling sulphur
content and dew point in natural gas.
Name three methods of freezing and hydrate prevention.
Identify the purpose of three types of control devices at a wellsite.
25
WELLSITE
FACILITIES
PIPING instrumentation (see Figure 9). Regulations stipulate the distance that
the wellhead must be located from the vessels. The pipe connecting
the wellhead to these vessels is above ground. It must, therefore,
contain an expansion loop. The expansion loop ensures that the pipe
does not suffer excessive stress from expansion and contraction due
to temperature change.
26
Figure 9
Typical Wellsite Facilities at a Gas Well
Piping is shown in green, and instrumentation in blue.
27
Figure 10
Liquid-Gas (2-Phase) Separator
GAS DEHYDRATION (A more complete drawing of the glycol dehydration system is shown
in Figure 14 later in this module). Both the separator and the
dehydrator have a pressure relief valve and a drain. The pressure
relief valve opens automatically if the pressure in the vessel exceeds
a safe limit. The drain is usually used only to empty a vessel
completely for maintenance purposes.
Gas leaving the separator and/or dehydrator is measured by an orifice
flow meter. The gas then flows through a pressure control valve
before entering the pipeline. The pressure control valve ensures that
the pressure of the gas entering the pipeline does not exceed the
pipeline pressure limits. The controller for this valve may be pre-set
or may accept input from the flow meter and from the Control Centre.
28
Gas separation and dehydration facilities can be located either at the STORAGE & DISPOSAL
wellsite or at a location central to several wells. Separators
OF PRODUCED LIQUIDS
accumulate a quantity of water and/or liquid hydrocarbons. There are
several options for the removal of these liquids. They may be stored
in tanks for periodic removal by a tank truck or pumped through a
pipeline for injection into a disposal well. Alternatively, the liquids
might be treated to separate the heavy hydrocarbons and water. The
water may be injected into an oil reservoir to enhance recovery.
Natural gas is mainly methane but also contains particulates, water
and heavier hydrocarbons. Heavier hydrocarbons are those with five
or more carbon atoms in each molecule. Often, these heavy
hydrocarbons are called pentanes plus or C5+. Many of these
hydrocarbons were in a gaseous state as a result of the elevated
temperatures in the reservoir. At the surface, these C5+ hydrocarbons
cool and condense into liquid. These liquids may cause further
problems, such as hydrate plugging. The gas is treated to remove
these hydrocarbons. Removal techniques may be applied at the
wellsite, field compression station or at a gas plant.
GAS TREATING
29
CYCLONE SCRUBBER motion (see Figure 11). The gas is forced to change direction to exit
the vessel. The entrained liquid and solid particles, with their greater
inertia, are unable to change direction and are forced to separate from
the gas stream and fall to the bottom of the scrubber.
Figure 11
Cyclone Scrubber
FILTERS Filters work by passing the gas through a medium with very small
passages (see Figure 12). Any particle that is larger than the size of
the passages becomes trapped within the filter and is removed from
the gas stream. The filter must be occasionally cleaned or replaced.
Filters are normally used to remove solid particles. Some, known as
filter/ separators, are designed to remove liquids as well.
30
Figure 12
Particulate Filter
Gas enters the particulate filter at the inlet. Each of the filter tubes in the bundle
is encased in a filter or sock. Passing through the filter passages removes any
particles that may be entrained in the gas. The filtered gas exits the filter
through the filter tubes to the outlet chamber. Pressure gauges are provided to
indicate the degree of filter plugging by monitoring upstream and downstream
pressure.
31
LINE HEATERS Just as raising the temperature of water prevents it from freezing,
Figure 13
Line Heater
Gas is burned in the fire tube to heat the glycol/water bath. Gas is circulated
through the hot bath in a bundle of tubes. This transfers the heat of the burner
to the gas to help prevent hydrate or water formation.
GLYCOL DEHYDRATION In glycol dehydration, wet gas (gas containing water vapour) and
a glycol solution are contacted in, counter-current flow in a packed
vessel. Normally, di-ethylene glycol (DEG) or tri-ethylene glycol
(TEG) is used. As shown is Figure 14, the gas enters the contactor at
the bottom and naturally rises, while the glycol enters at the top and
naturally falls. The water entrained in the gas stream is absorbed by
the glycol solution.
32
Figure 14
Schematic Diagram of Glycol Dehydration
The rich glycol (containing water) leaves the contactor at the bottom, while
dry gas exits at the top and leaves the system. The rich glycol is heated in a
reboiler so that the water it absorbed vaporizes and is vented to atmosphere.
The lean glycol is then re-circulated to the top of the contactor to begin the
cycle again.
SOLID DESICCANT
33
TESTING &
SAMPLING
Quality analyses are done at both the wellsite and at a remote lab.
Operators collect gas samples at the wellsite and send them to the
lab in a sample bottle. A sample bottle is a container, normally
constructed of high-strength steel, which must be able to withstand
the pressure of the pipeline.
Gas samples are taken by attaching the sample bottle to a pipe
nipple. Opening valves on the nipple and on the sample bottle
enables gas to flow into the bottle. When the pressure in the bottle
reaches the pressure in the pipe, the valves are closed and the bottle
removed. This sample is called a spot sample.
In some instances, it is desired to obtain an average sample over a
period of time. In these cases, an automatic device allows small
amounts of gas into the bottle over a specified period of time, until
the pressures have equalized. This is called continuous sampling
and gives a sample which is representative of the period over which
the sample was drawn.
Sulphur content in natural gas leads to corrosion of pipelines.
SULPHUR CONTENT Pipeline companies specify upper limits for the amount of sulphur
that can be present in gas. Sulphur is normally removed from the gas
at a gas plant rather than at the wellsite. Chemical and electronic
means are available for determining the amount of sulphur in the
gas. However, electronic methods are now more common. Sulphur is
most often found in natural gas as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) or sour
gas, which is extremely toxic as well as corrosive in the presence of
water. All facilities have H2S alarms to warn workers to take
corrective or emergency action if H2S concentrations exceed a preset limit.
The dew point is the temperature at which liquid condenses from the
DEW POINT CONTROL gas at a given pressure. The gas stream usually has different dew
34
Figure 15
A Device to Determine the Dew Point
Ice forms when water is cooled below its freezing point. Ice deposits
in a pipe or pipeline can partially or completely block the flow. Water
expands when frozen and can burst pipes if allowed to accumulate.
Hydrates may form when natural gas and water exist together under
certain conditions. Hydrates are not a chemical compound. There are
no chemical bonds between the gas and water molecules in hydrate
molecules. Rather, hydrates occur when hydrocarbon molecules
occupy spaces, or voids, between water molecules. Hydrates have the
general appearance of packed snow. The problem caused by hydrates
is a partial or complete blockage of the pipeline.
FREEZING &
HYDRATE
PREVENTION
35
ADDITION OF point of water. They also serve to reduce the temperature at which
INHIBITORS hydrates form. Examples of inhibitors are methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. If inhibitors are injected into the gas, the formation of
hydrates may be prevented. These substances exhibit a preferential
attraction to water molecules, preventing the water molecules from
freezing or forming hydrates. A disadvantage of the use of inhibitors
is the cost of the injected substances, which are not normally
recovered.
MEASUREMENT &
CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
PRODUCTION RATE Regulatory bodies normally stipulate the maximum rate at which a
CONTROL well may produce. The operator, too, may wish to control the rate of
production. Production rate control may be implemented to reduce
entrainment or to comply with contract restriction. With low or
depleting pressure or at very high flow rates, heavier hydrocarbons
vaporize into the gas stream. If not removed, these heavy
hydrocarbons create operational problems. Flow controllers at the
wellsite are used to restrict the rate of gas withdrawal. These
controllers may be instructed by local setpoints or by an external
signal from a Control Centre or office.
36
Figure 16
Pressure Control Valve
A pressure control valve has a controller, which determines the amount of
throttling necessary. This controller can receive input from multiple sources,
such as pressure taps, flow meters or a remote Control Centre.
37
Figure 17
Pressure Relief Valve
When the pressure at the valve inlet exceeds a limit (set using the screw
shown at the top) the valve is forced to open. This prevents the pressure in a
vessel from rising so high as to cause the vessel to rupture.
38
REVIEW 3
39
40
SECTION 4
PRODUCTION FACILITIES
SECTION 4
INTRODUCTION
After completing this section of the module, you will be able to:
List the components and functions of a typical gathering system.
Identify the need for and types of pressure control.
Relate the causes of gas pipeline corrosion to their methods of
control.
Identify the typical operating practices specified by regulations.
OBJECTIVES
41
GATHERING
FACILITIES
Figure 18
Typical Gathering System Configuration
42
LOW-PRESSURE
PRODUCTION
CORROSION
CONTROL
Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction. An electrochemical reaction occurs in a chemical cell such as an electrical
battery. Three elements are required to cause corrosion.
First, an anode or an electron donor is needed for an electrochemical reaction to start.
Next, a cathode or an electron receiver must be present for an
electro-chemical reaction to continue.
Finally, an electrolyte or a medium through which ion transfer can
occur completes the requirements. For corrosion to occur, all three
must be present, along with an appropriate conductor. In a
laboratory setting, such an electro-chemical reaction can be
demonstrated (see Figure 19).
43
Figure 19
In the laboratory beaker, two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The
zinc anode corrodes, while the iron cathode does not. The conventional electric
current flow is from the positively charged cathode to the negative anode
through a conductor. The flow of electrons is in the opposite direction. The
anode, as the electron donor, is negatively charged. The cathode, as the
receiver of the electrons, is positively charged. The result of the donation of
electrons by the anode is the formation of free ions of zinc. These negatively
charged ions move through the electrolyte to the positively charged cathode.
The anode, therefore, corrodes as a result of the electric current.
44
INTERNAL CORROSION
PROTECTION
EXTERNAL
CORROSION
PROTECTION
45
Figure 20
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
An external DC voltage source (converted from AC power lines by a rectifier)
impresses current on the pipe via the anode bed.
46
Figure 21
Sacrificial Anode Protection
A sacrificial anode (zinc) provides the current, protecting the pipe from
corrosion.
47
REGULATIONS &
OPERATING
PRACTICES
Regulatory bodies keep track of all oil and gas pipelines and
facilities in their area. Such factors as pipe specifications, maximum
operating pressure, location, and other operating practices may be
controlled by regulatory bodies.
LICENSING & without a license or permit. In this way, regulatory bodies ensure the
PERMITTING correct procedures are followed by the companies that own and
operate the facilities. Accurate records must always be kept for all
oil and gas pipelines and facilities.
Facilities and pipelines are required to have signage. The names of
SIGNAGE the owner and operator of any facility or pipeline must be displayed
on all signs, along with an emergency phone number at which the
operator may be contacted. Regulatory bodies may also require
wellsites and above-ground facilities to have their location posted. In
Western Canada, which is the source of most Canadian production
gas, the location is identified by a series of numbers called a legal
subdivision or LSD. In Eastern Canada, locations are given by
townships and concessions.
Pipeline signs must indicate the contents of the pipeline (e.g., Sour
Gas, High Pressure Natural Gas, or Crude Oil). All posted
information must be centrally located and accessible to operators and
potential users. All signs must be kept in good repair and be clearly
legible.
If any pipeline operation or associated equipment poses a threat to
human safety, that information must appear on the sign. Warning
signs are required for high pressure pipelines and sour gas pipelines
because of the hazard presented. Signage is also required at cathodic
protection stations.
48
All oil and gas companies are required to have a written emergency
ENVIRONMENTAL &
plan to cover various situations including environmental incidents.
EMERGENCY PLANS
Emergency plans specify the personnel responsible for particular
actions. Notification and evacuation procedures for residents in the
vicinity of any facilities must be included in the plans. If human life
or the environment is threatened, it may be necessary to implement an
emergency procedure immediately. The plans for these procedures
must be known in advance.
Training for emergencies is also required by law in some areas, and
sometimes mock emergencies are staged. Mock emergencies serve
two purposes:
to practice the procedures that are in place, and
to find ways of improving the procedures.
Most oil and gas workers are trained in fire-fighting, first aid, CPR
(cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and H2S procedures to protect
themselves and their co-workers in the event of an emergency.
Design standards for pipelines and facilities have been developed by
organizations such as the CSA (Canadian Standards Association),
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), API (American
Petroleum Institute) and ANSI (American National Standards
Institute). While these bodies have no regulatory authority in
themselves, national and provincial/state laws usually require
adherence to their standards. These standards specify minimum
requirements for designs of pipelines and facilities. For example, if a
pipeline of a certain diameter is to be built to a certain design
pressure, the standards specify the grade of pipe that must be used. If
the pipe is to be used for sour gas, or at low temperatures, then the
standards specify special materials for pipe and fittings.
GENERAL DESIGN
STANDARDS
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50
REVIEW 4
51
SUMMARY
SECTION 2 DRILLING
Drilling is necessary to confirm the accuracy of exploration work.
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Directionally drilled wells may produce more oil and gas because
they travel a greater distance through the reservoir.
Drilling equipment includes the drill bit, drill string, swivels, and
kelly. Rotary drive for the system is provided by motors. In turbodrilling, mud is pumped down the hole to drive one or more
turbines.
Liquids may be separated from the gas stream. These liquids may
be transported from the wellsite via truck or pipeline.
53
Hydrates form when water and natural gas exist together under
high pressure and low temperature conditions. Hydrates can be
avoided by heating and/or dehydrating the gas, or by adding
inhibitors.
54
Corrosion can occur on both the inside and the outside of a gas
pipeline. Components of the gas can combine to form corrosive
fluids.
55
GLOSSARY
acidizing
a process whereby acid with preferential reaction to the formation
rather than to the casing, is pumped down the production casing,
through the perforations and into the formation. (p. 20)
annulus
the space between the drill pipe and the outside of the hole. (p. 15)
anode
an electron donor necessary to begin an electro-chemical reaction.
(p. 41)
blowout
an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids, such as oil,
water or gas. (p. 17)
blowout preventer (BOP)
a type of valve attached to the top of a wells surface casing that
serves to protect the crew and the environment from possible
spewing oil and gas. (p. 12)
cathode
an electron receiver needed for an electro-chemical reaction to
continue. (p. 41)
Cathodic Protection (CP)
an external anti-corrosion method relying on a source of electricity
that reverses the normal flow of electrons from an external anode to
the pipe so that the external anode corrodes instead of the pipe.
(p. 43)
coatings
substances such as paint, enamel or tar used on the outside of buried
pipe to prevent external corrosion caused by contact with
groundwater and soil. Common types of paint used in coatings are
fusion-bonded epoxy and extruded polyethylene. (p. 43)
continuous sampling
a sampling procedure consisting of allowing small amounts of gas
into a sampling bottle over a specified period of time to achieve an
average sample. (p. 32)
corrosion inhibitors
chemical substances that are introduced into the gas in order to
prevent corrosion inside of the pipe. (p. 43)
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de-gasser
a piece of equipment that removes any gas from the drilling mud.
(p. 15)
de-rated pipe
pipe whose maximum pressure rating is less than its actual capacity.
This pipe is used as a safety measure in environmentally sensitive or
populated areas where a pipeline leak could cause major damage.
(p. 47)
derrick
the visible portion of a drilling well. Also called a rig. (p. 14)
de-silter/de-sander
pieces of equipment that remove the very small cuttings passed
through the shale shaker. (p. 15)
development well
a well drilled in an existing field to increase production. (p. 11)
dew point
the temperature at which liquid condenses from the gas at a given
temperature. (p. 32)
drill bit
a rotating device that cuts into the ground and loosens it, so that the
cuttings can be removed by the fluid circulating system. (p. 14)
drill collar
heavy section of pipe just above the drill bit that adds weight to the
drill bit to help it push through rock. (p. 15)
Drill Stem Testing (DST)
a procedure carried out after a well is drilled to determine its
commercial viability. (p. 19)
drill string
the length of pipe that goes from a drilling rig down to the drill bit in
the ground. (p. 15)
drilling mud
a circulating fluid that removes cuttings and provides lubrication to
the rotating bit during rotary drilling. (p. 11)
drum
central piece of equipment of the drawworks, on which the drill cable
is wound. It controls the raising and lowering of the travelling block
and the weight of the drill-pipe on the bit. (p. 15)
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dry hole
a well that is not economically viable. (p. 20)
electrolyte
a medium through which ion transfer can occur. (p. 41)
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
a mandatory, pre-drilling report detailing all potential impacts of
drilling on a given site. (p. 10)
exploration well
a well drilled to detect the presence of gas in a rock formation; also
known as a wildcat well. (p. 11)
fracturing
a process in which a specially blended high-pressure liquid is
pumped into the perforations, breaking up the formation much like
driving a wedge into the formation. (p. 20)
glycol absorption
a method of dehydrating gas in which the molecules of one substance
fill the gaps between molecules of another substance. (p. 29)
glycol dehydration
a process used to dehydrate gas in which wet gas and glycol are
contacted in counter-current flow in a packed vessel. (p. 30)
gravity meter
a device used to measure variations in the earths gravitational field.
(p. 6)
hydrates
substances that may form when natural gas and water exist together
under certain conditions. (p. 33)
infilling well
a development well drilled between existing wells. (p. 11)
inhibitors
substances that act as anti-freeze to lower the freezing point of water.
(p. 34)
kelly
the multi-sided piece of steel that is attached to the drill string at one
end and to the swivel at the other end. (p. 15)
kelly bushing
a multi-sided component that locks into the rotary table. (p. 15)
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kick
an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a well while
drilling. (p. 17)
line heater
a hot bath of water and glycol through which the natural gas pipe
passes. (p. 30)
magnometer
a device, often used in magnetic surveys, that can detect minute
fluctuations in the earths magnetic field. (p. 7)
proppant
following fracturing, the addition of sand or other granular material to
the fluid. The porous material holds (props) open the fracture when
the pressure is removed. (p. 20)
rectifier
a device that converts alternating current (AC) from normal power
lines into direct current (DC). (p. 43)
rotary table
a piece of equipment that turns the kelly, the drill string and drill bit.
(p. 15)
sacrificial anode
a form of external corrosion protection where a metal anode
(e.g., zinc) having a higher potential than steel pipe is used. This type
of cathodic protection does not require an external source of
electricity (p. 45)
sample bottle
a container, normally constructed of high-strength steel, used to take a
sample of gas from the pipeline. (p. 32)
seismology
an exploratory method that uses the reflection of sound or shock
waves to map the various layers of the earths crust. (p. 4)
separator
a piece of equipment designed to remove liquid from the gas. (p. 25)
shale shaker
a piece of equipment that removes most of the drill cuttings from the
mud. (p. 15)
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smart pig
electronic device that travels inside of pipelines to inspect and
provide an accurate and informative record of variations in wall
thickness and signs of corrosion at various locations along the pipe.
(p. 48)
solid desiccant adsorption
method of gas dehydration in which small particles of one substance
are attracted to the surface of larger particles of another. (p. 29)
sour gas (H2S)
hydrogen sulphide, an extremely toxic and flammable gas. (p. 17)
spot sample
a sample taken at one point in time. (p. 32)
spudding in
the drilling of a shallow, large-diameter hole lined with a casing set
in cement. As the first step in rotary drilling, it serves to prevent
contamination of near-surface formations that may contain water.
(p. 11)
swivel
an attachment to the travelling block that allows the rotating
equipment to turn freely without twisting the drill cable. (p. 15)
travelling block
the largest pulley of the hoisting system in rotary drilling, its hook
attaches to the rotating equipment. (p. 12)
tripping in or out
in rotary drilling is the process of lowering (tripping in) or raising
(tripping out) the drill bit in the hole. (p. 12)
turbo-drilling
a type of drilling whereby the mud pumped down the hole drives a
turbine or turbines that are attached to the drill bit. (p. 13)
vibroseis
a particular technique of seismology that uses a surface vibrator to
send low frequency sound waves through the earths surface. (p. 5)
well completion
the testing and preparation of a well after it is found to be
commercially viable. (p. 19)
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1. b
1. a
1. c
2. b
2. d
2. a
2. c
3. d
3. d
3. c
3. a
4. a
4. a
4. b
4. c
5. c
5. c
6. a
6. a
ANSWERS
7. a
8. b
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