| i \ | 44 A SECOND COURSE IN MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS I.C.BURKILL, FRS. Maser of Petroue, Cambie ; AND H.BURKILL nies of Shield i al watts?) \ om. \ ome | 1 PEGI) guxsorecn OENTRAY * Bia ae De 7 Goss CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1970Puig by he Sate of Cane Unis Pre ‘Amin Ranch Ea Ne oi (© Canes Uneity P80 HIG OR he Una Petig He, Canter (Gin Gs Uae | CONTENTS Preface pose vit o Sers 4xo FUNCTIONS ' ELEASASTe TE daa eich a Rowe ns Merare Seaces 1" 2S. 22 Nas). 2),23,Opmand ose 925 Not Sei Somrcheani aetna d Lusrts 3 Tne Spaces RE AND Z 6 mb Ss po my tara Usironst Convencenee 13 ‘Yoong 10 $2: Rape sare yn Integration 19 1.7 Remap Ses p19, 62 Fue pope Neon Fetes of todd vrcion'y 1&3 napeins ool ti Functions Fro R* 10 2° ww 13 Some mage 6 dent once pF Thing ancyIerecrts ne 8 age 246 9, Founter Sentes 239 Stinnett tenn or 94 come Fer scan wT, 10, Couruss Fewerion Tiron x8 SaaS ees 11, Courtsx IwreoRaLs, Caucuy’s Turon 388 pac 17 anes dos pce ps 1 ey rears Feamon ise its Chapt erenfer cnc 36E Ts Hao: SHER Gia Gere ra i anata cae Sy apd itp eH Ste eras 12, Expansions, Sisovtateries, RESIDUES 381 Saou ora tee pH: Ewen a na Sa 18, GENERAL Tuwonums, ANALYTIC Fuxctions 400 121 Repl fon ec by i We 82 BAPAtilncoss pat Nowe pte mmnen na 14, Apptications 70 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS 416 recon gee aegstenst immaresiiaeese Solution of Esercees 453 References sm Index ey PREFACE “This course of analysis is intended for mathematical speci in {eit second and third years at Universiics, We asume familial {sith the concept of a Knit adits applications to ifnte series and to fe eifeentel and integral caluls. The contents of Fis (Course in MatetizalAvalsi by ope of vs C.C.B), which donot ‘Gelude Cauchy sequences, upper and lower limits or uniform em ‘Rrpenc, form a suitable foundation for this book. From time to Tine we shall need t0 refer 10 a basi work on analysis and for Mmpueliy we shall refer f0 the Frat Course, shortening it tle wel, "An undergraduate afler his first year should be ready fora moe abstract seting and prepare to think ia mec spaces instead ofthe Eucidean ine or plane, The study of meric spaces provides not only 1 incurs of unifying diferent topes ia analysis but also @ natural Tin with topolony. ‘Chapters 1-9 concentrate on general analysis and real functions ‘and 10-14 on eomples functions, These ist five chapters are legcy independent of 69, and the reader who wishes to reach Cavehy’s theorem quickly neds litle more than §8.1 and $8.2, “Afr careful thought we decided to treat the Riemann and Riemann Stlijs integrals uly (chapters 6 gpd 8) and to eave the Lebesgue integral out For many purposes th Riemann integral i ‘Rieear, and the inchasion of an adequate account of Lebessue ‘Rtnsure and inepration would impair the balance of the book, “We ave vey grateful fo Dr L, Mitsky and to Profesor GB, H. Reuter, ich of whom has ea the entire manuscript. The final form hit owes prest dtl to ther are and vanes snd to the experience ‘ebich they gained frm their on teaching, 4B, Ages 1968 =1 SETS AND FUNCTIONS 1A, Sets and nombre I has been recognized since the later per of the nivetsonth cctury that the idea of number (el and comple) nd therefor ll nals, is based on the theory of set. In moder analysis the ependones is expt, for the language and algebra of sets are in “he readers likely tobe fila wih the intuitive notion ofa set, and with the basie operations on sets. In this setion we therefore confine ourslies to ing the terminology and recaptulating the results that wil be used subsequently. The notes atthe end of the ‘haplerrefer to books which develop set theory systematically fom ‘xpily sated axioms “There are synonyms forthe word set suchas eollcion and space The members Of a set ae also ealled its elomencs or pets The statement that a belongs to (ori member ofthe set is writen aed. a doesnot belong to we write aga We denote by othe empry set, namely the set which bas no members, Inclusion of sets. Suppose that every member of the set A aso Delong tothe st, i. tht xedwxel. am ‘Then we say that A is contained in B and write ACB ot BDA; the set is said tobe a subver of 8. Note that any sets subset af itself. Also the empty set isa subst of every st; for (111) logically equivalent to a and, when isthe empty set, this implication clearly holds for any se.a sr15 AND FUNCTIONS ba IA Band BS Avie, xedoxeB, then A and B have the same members and we write AB HA Band A + B, we can call Aa proper subset of B Union and intersection. Given say 180 ses Ay B, the set which conta ofall the elements belonging to 4 o to B (orto bot) is ‘alle the anion of and Band is denoted by . AUB. “The sat consisting ofthe elements which Belong to both 4 and 2 ie led the ierseton f 4 and B and is denoted bY ANB. “The sets A,B resid tobe dijon i they have no elements fn com- mon, ie.itanB= &. ‘heaven 1.1. The following kdentes hold for ony ses As By C. (@ AvB~ BUA, AoB= BOA ( Av(BuC)=(AUBUC, AnBnG = AnBNC Gi Av@ng = AvHndvo, An (GUO = (AnBuCAne Proof. We sllsrate the argument used for establishing these identities by proving the ist result in Gi Tete be any clement of AU(BQC). Then xe or xe BNC. If xed, then veAUB and X€ AUC, $0 that x (AU B)N(A UC) fave BivG, then xe Band x6 Cs0 tat again xe (4 8) (4 UC) ‘We have therefore shown that, Av(BnO < AUB) VO a) Now ket ye(4uB)O(AUC). Then yeAUB and yedue te Rotowsthat ye a or thaty'e Band ye C ie thaty€ Arye BNC. Hence ye Au (BO) and so (UuBn(ave = AUC, as) she ineusion relations (112) and (113) now yield the roqired saentty. | uM sere ann mowers : “The laws of operation with U and mon sts have ve ikeness to those wah + and x on numbers. In fet U and o have replaced the sian for sum and product frmely used inthe algebra of ses ‘The Eksnes is only pata: the deaiy A UA ~ A has no analogue numbers the second lain theorem 111 (i has an analogue, but ot te is “the dfstions of union and intersttion previously given may be centred IF isan anbitrary colton of st the union of these set, denoted by uA isthe set consisting of al those elrents which belong toa Test one Uribe sls. The iterscetion of tests of ©, denoted by A Jsthe set contog ofthe cements whic belong to all th sts A ‘Ne rguie one mere operation With sets IF 4, Bare ay ¥o 5, the deren a isthe set consisting of those elments which belong to 4 but not to Note thatthe definition doesnot equteB to bea subset of A. ov era pavicularly important ease ooeurs when all sis under con~ firaton ae subsets ofa gen st X. Then the st X— A is called the complemen! of (relive to 2) and we sll denote it by Clearly (4 = A ‘Theorem 12, Foran} colection of subsets ofa set X, (YA Dee mt DA = “The proof set to the reader. ‘Thosaom 112 shows thatthe operations (J and (1 are comple- nena and that an slsbraeientityivelyng U and will admit Brn dat entity obtained by interchanging Us 0. For examples lc pait of ints in Boren 1.1 the second follows from the first ‘Weshal taker granted thatthe readers une with the systems of yal and complex mumbers. There are well known and simple ‘hethods for obtaining the complex numbers from th real number. Ta our purpose sony nesesary to postulate the existence of the Solem of rat numbers as one sastying estan aons whieh aresive ip 1 (11-12) and terse inthe oes the ed of the Soper Hovetr, possi contat he el neste ‘much more priv objects. Agin th nae eontain soos eee cn he ebsee "ie set tvs aor wl dnote by he st oom ranbersby2, Os ote rion eli Bokeh ces Or the points auc tht a << bile) The dad need pein such tat a + ¢ Dis writen). The see sed Grane banda << bar orienta djana(a tf He whete Inala, o) eons a the pons seh ats s'@ Concent Bog interpretations acy ote easton (a2) (oe ay (—®, a), Finally, (~20, 00) is Rt, » 1. Powe tt os OAVB= Aw ADD, WAND=~An ACR 2 Prove tat (von (Cvayntau = wnquien yan 23. Show tnt A= = 402" Mens or teri pow hat OU-BN(A~O)= 4-(BVO) = 4-P)-C: @ A-MUUI-O) = 4-905 Gi) -OnW-) = Wnsnci © U-O6-0 = usc. 4: Prove tat O4-Bne=uno-una; @ U-muC~ WvE)-~BIG=e~ », 5 Prove tat OUD Be Aw Aree a; WU-mua- soar a & Tesgnmorifireee dt Rotts, Bl ned as tes ofelonens 4 Acrin B,bt ma in ih. Sow tak ABD=A-BVB-4) = AUD-UDB= MU AeU DY. Dede that O4ab= 504-0 WHOM AD 1 Prove tat WAab= 004 HMAHRC~AAWEO 1) sens ano unens 5 OUamac~Unoa@ncr A BNC=4UQ)ABUO~C~ 5; GUA. BUAaO= AUBIO NU VBC) 9. Sowtat — AACA Dw ABC= BAD, 10, When sae st one with een deman), etey Ee "Show atts 4, Bare Gi, then isin = avaislanay 1.2, Ordered ats and Cartesian prods ‘Ase with elements 0b often dented by the Symbol (eB ok a2 ‘The notation eal fora number of comments (@ Insuch listing of elements immaterial whether a particular clement appears once or several times. This convention is ure a ‘atte of convenience, For instance i allows sto denote the st roots of complex quadrats equation by (8), whether ab oF ant, i) The order in which Bee written in fe 8,6, sSgifeanee, For example f, 8) = Gi) Ie is important to distinguish betwoon the object o and the set) the st whose only member is Thus these (2) has one flement, while as none, “The notation (1.21) has a useful varant. Given a st X, denote by PQ) a statement, which i either tre oF fae, about the element {Of X Theat ofall 6 for which PC) i tris writen has no tre x1POn), or sinply 1PC9) it the identity ofthe seis ea from the conten. eZ) =O) = as W weries == 2 (i (ee lac 6B mab ‘The notion of a set does not involve any ordsting among the foment. For insane inthe seo, 8), and b have the same status.6 sens ano FUNCTIONS ba. “The ordered pir (o, 8s the et (0B) together withthe ordering ‘st 1, then bY Thus (@ 8) and (, a) are diferent less a = (The ‘Context wil determine whether the expression (o, 2) stands for an trdered pair or an open interval.) “Se intatve coneept of an ordered pai (2, 8) may be formalize vy the definition G, 5) = (a, fy (Gee exercise 105), 1) “An ordered st (ty 2) oF any Hite number n(> Hof elements is defined in simile way. Defaition, Given the nonempty sete Xs product po ts the coleton of all ordered sts (s)he that M6 Xi on ne = =X the se (1.20 it denoted by X%5 X01 taken to 1 Xe thle Crtesion 2a For m > 1, R* = Rx XR (factor) i the set ofall ordered sete Gin son) of foal munbers, We define an intersala Ras se Boles where I ouy Jy ae intervals in, For example fo, Be dis the fet of points (tsp) eR auch that a Y's injective, then f+ X-»f(4) is bitive and ft: (0) ¥ is a funetion from Yt For example the function f: Rt > R defined by Soy= ne ante en 501) ghey 10) =4(!~1) Ie ie clear that, fas an ivers, then f+ as an inverse and yh Inverse images. Let f: X-> ¥ be an arbitrary function snd let E be any subset of ¥. We denote by f(E) the set (ee xs). “This sot ig called the icerse nage of E Its important to note that the definition of f-Y2) does not presuppose the existence of the inverse fonction *. However, whan does exit, then (6) isthe Jima of E under fis the function ia 6) on .7 the, for exsinpl, £°O,1D D: the fmetion £1 doesnot exist. Composition of functions, Given the functions f: XY and 2g: YY, the funtion hz > W defined by Hs) = a{f(0)) (EX) {scaled the composition of ¢ and f and i writen go For three functions f2%,> Xn fai Xe> Ny fete early ve Ko(hof) = GreADoh ‘50 thatthe expresion foo has a meaning, The proses of com: postion may be extended to any numberof fonetions For a nonempty se 4, dente By 1 ths lewis faction on Aefined by L@=x (eA, now, f: > Ys any funtion, Poise he irof = and, when fs bijective, Of = iy Sof a, ae 13 | wunertons ° Theorem 131, the ction f X-» sce od thre afin 2 > Xsuch tht g0f = ty, then fl bietce and ¢ = @ ate finsinf: X= Vice aif te tong: ¥-> X issue that fog = iy, ther Proof EI) =f), then 0) = a1) = ¥ und 80's injetive as well surjective, We now have € = £0ly = g9(f0F") = wofof (i) g~ ixog = (Popes = f40(fo8) In theorem 1.31 (i) the Bestiveness of fs nota eonequence of sujetveness, itis in part (), For instance et X Y= (c) and let fg be defined by fta) =f) = e, 810 is surjective and fog = fy, but fis not bijective the funtions fx ¥, g: ¥-> W ace bioive, then go: XW is bijective, I follows from theorem 1.31, of it may be Proved direct, that Gwopyt a s-tog- estrieton and extonson of factions. Suppose that X, > X, and that f:¥,—> ¥, 2X, Yate funetons sth that /(3) = gs) for ail-ve Xy Wethen sy tat gs the entrition of fo Xq and tat fs dan extension of gto Xj. For example et fy: RY > RE and f: Rt» RE beeiven by fa) =m, d= [x] Gee RD, ‘The function g: (0 c) > R¥ defined by sQ)== (30) ie the retistion to (yee) of both fad Jes and ff are both cxtsnsions of gto vere 10) 1, Show hat ah} = 0 ee sand te © uae UxQuEo, (Ans = UxCnBxO, © UBC = Ux0)-040)0 21s asp roxerions us 2 Prove that A) = Bx Aifand aly IEA = Bs Arad A neces he ane se we anchecb? 4: Show hat ho) = a. 4. Let @ bea colton of aie of set X, Prove ht, for any feeon fey ONY A= BIA WILDE N76. Show tha iit tn dey Bo In ja hat ites ocotahene a nary, (AED LOD) 6 Stow tat f+ Fis any nto, then = MA-B)> 0-FO) foal wets A, Bf Xs and that my hl for all 4, Bian oly i 2. Let € be a collestion of sts of «set. Show that, or any fnton ie, OF = BAO OLY B= O FO. 8, Show ha XY any cto, hen £4C~) = F4O-IAD) forall was ¢, Dot 9. Show that: X- Ys any eto, then OPI? A, WIEBE D forall sabes of Xan sets of Prove ao hat n(n Dols focal ifand only fine andi i ny bo fora BHF aly Eplssogeave | 10. Te funetons fs Me poston jaof tM Seine a Site 1H. Le be ston om X10 eased of 2 A) and we ay when Gye k Tio aon anid oe ? aomnerie aky = i) mtv ky 0989 = 2s {Seuss the fone argent Theron i Saou 0 be symmeic spline Wing rsa nase vee owe Myre Ba fs Nace Mea sch tn te i ae ot ee: Show tt 14, Sinilaiy of sts I there i a one-to-one correspondence between two sts A,B, ies if tote exists bijection fs» B, thn the two ses are sid to he'indlar and we wee fw B, jee pan Wis easy to see that similarity has the folowing thre properties: (A A (eexviy); (i) IPA ~ B, then B~ A Gymmetn)s Gi) iA ~ Band B ~ G,then A ~ C (rant If we conn ourselves toa given collection & of sts, then simi- tac is elation from t9 and, ia view of (i) above itis an teuivalencereltin. The reader has probably met such relations in tthe branches of mathematics, particularly algebra. Tite ses ave similar i and only if they ave the same number of cements This implies} in particular, that a finite set eannot be Similar toa proper subet of ise, We shal ee tht joie sts fvayscontain prope subsets to which they ae similar (Ieorem 142, olla). A simple example is the folowing. Let A be the st of al Soges and fet be the set ofall even integers. Then A ~ By since the funtion given by y= 2s (red, ©) establishes the required ‘one-to-one correspondence. "Ast which s ilar to the (1,2, of postive integers sid to be countably (or enuneral) innit. Such a sti therefore one that ean be atanged a8 sequence. A set is called countable if tis titer finite or countably init. ‘We now show that there are init sets whieh are not countable Theorem TA. The set of ral moder i the interest (0,1) nor countable, Proof. Suppose that the real numbers inthe interval (,) do forma countable set, This sti certainly infinite and ean therefore be arranged as a sequence A 0 ty ‘Now sepresent each number a, as an nfnite decimal Oy = Oat fn which recurring 9° are not used. Such a representation is uniques, Delne 1 when ye 1 Dl Then = OPPs isa rel number between O snd 1 which dies from a, ia the mh ecinal place. Hence Bis note of the numbers ay, a 8 this contadets the orginal assumption that ll real numbers inthe inteval (0 1) appear isthe sequence (7). |2 sere axp vuNenions wa CCountabiy infinite sts ae the “smallest” ifnite sets inthe sense ofthe theorem below Theorem 142. Beery inte so contains a countably nt subset Proof. Let be an infinite et. Take some element of A and call ita. The set A ~(o) is nat empty; denote one oft elements bye. ‘This process may be continued indefinitely: a the nth Ame se) cannot be empty sine i infinite, The st foe Iafnite subset of. | is countably CCorottary. Every infinite set contains a proper subset 10 which iti Snir. Proof. Let A be an init set and let 5 = fa, 0} be a count ably infinite subset of 4, The function A=» Aa) deine by foo x= ay = 12,00), |v itxea-s is bjction, Thus 4 ~ A=fa). | fo) = “The next theorem is frequently wee, Theorem 143. Esersubet of acount et i comb Proof. Let A be countable stand le Bbe a subst of 4. When B is finite there i nothing to prove, Assume therefore thst is ifinte, 40 that A is infinite and, being countable, ean be arcanged as a sequence (a) Since every set of postive integers has a lest member, there isan element a, of B with lest slim. Next Ista, be the clement of B~(a,) with east sufix me The procedure may be repeated indefinitely since Bis aot inte, The sequence tas Oa aay ‘consists of elements of and in fat, exhausts For take any sement of B. Its of te form a, singe ism mem of 4, snd ius here fore occur among the first elements othe sequence (141). eice is countable. | Theorem 1.44, Te set Pf al ordered pir (p, 9 ef pose integers ir countbe | | 2 ee : Pr Te doen ol tw open Be any C..0.3.09.0 anaxan.. 0.0.3.0... ray be arranged as a sequence in several simple ways, Parhape the ‘Sinplest the enumeration by diagonals Ds D425 GDI (3) oat D013, Exerc, Sho that these P(e» 2) ofa ordre, ‘sei counadle Theorem 148, The union ofa countable collection of eouseble sts fs comrable O95 potaposive Proof. Let (Ay A of countable set IP Body } be a finte or countably infiteeoleston Ben dua > D, thon the, ar mt aint and ya UR c «4, (The non-committl notation li used since the numberof ses ‘may be fnite or infite) By theorem 1.43 each of the set 2 is oun, Theor if isnot empty isekments maybe arareed ina possibly termin Now letS bethe subset of hick eontsink a pir(p. 9) fond only ith, is either infinite or has at east g member. By theorems 143 and Ltd Sis countable Since there is an obvious oe-fo-nne ertesp- ence betwsen Sand C i Tllows that Cas countable | Theorem 146, (0) The et ofall aiona nunters i countable (8 heat ofa ration mre lot coal‘Proof. A given positive rational number i uniquely representable inthe Toem pig, where, ate coprime positive ineprs. With this number we now associate the ordered pair (pq). Thus the st of postive rational number is similar toa subset of P* and is therefore Countable Prt () now fllowe easly by use of theorem 145 Since the set of real numbers in 0,1) snot countable, by theorem 1.43 the set RU of al real umbers cannot be countable now the set of irational numbers were countabs, () and theorem 145 would how tobe countable | tnstead of onsidering ll ational and eational pumers we may reset ourselves to those any given ntera. 1 follows inet from theorem 13 thatthe analogue of (holds. The analogue of (i ean then be proved as before by using exereise 2 below, eee 1) 1. tet Cea count Show tC aye et, te anda, Bis an cot thn 22 Soom that tite pen inert nae sii. 3) Sow that al open ern ae it (i) Show tal enn ae i 4, Leb come altn of i te a a A fe Sw are 4 Show thts he se ya est thn 0 AHA Farle itis tet on me thn Oem) 15, Le beth st ofall que of rads. Using the bina eres tea ats poe tat 9 ite to eva ©, Shaw na tint 9° 9 and deuce ht ie set 4, on feed = Ren pt ~ vith integra count icone, Dede st te et of algae naers hint Citra mmr a amr whch foo an alga ezine costes) 47. 1d R( 6 <8) beth tof toe eal mmr in (1 wh 0 notte erm a oto aK ae 14) sores 1s S.A ve of el numbers sh that eve ret a otose ems are tnt neni convert, Sow hat Eis coms Fen ast A, dete by fu te wt of bss ofA Gace 9 and Siow "ets neem ten Za hag 2 ene Gh tea county ite, tea Za RS EA SSP SF cu ty sitar to tof gos fo. Show tht any easton of dit pen ines of Rit countable 1a Sten at ean a the ton fd Reto Desa terse natin af comb ined and ei ota pt et i fy fem) Bie eich f { NOTES ON CHAPTER 1 nk i ac i tov fo ae sete ay eae i at hn, Conacher a sna et 8 Meter nat 1 nmin by en of oui, NN: Bl by seal nat pala to ot oad we et fain of Nt on tN ostomy aly web THe conan, Th rea ra eo comes an aa Se abate Ol arse ne ara bef tod SS Banc tayo ots wy ofS ot i Bal To on puma ahd GT. Keeton. Amore ena Tere Nel iy Halton Nabe St Te sand Nie ariag pam the monet ds dt 1 etc 1 pro ie ol of pr ai Ata rT mrs by 8 up of Frechmatenatans weilng 2 se FN Borel hs tn spring sos et {Bid eat Gn 199) cole, a te ye otal nner oer with peas eee sa an ren io, Oe FA: Shae Ronin aba ie oni! se z ier folowing ena rama mbar he TRS Palatine proto 08 2 al giheoeares= be i Gabvve ts ane0 le = oe RL Sper 2 et aii 8 ah at rena and6 sere AND ruxtrioss ‘AS. Forney ra umber ei el bench ata = 0 Forever el mumbo ee han , fee eel tuber seh ‘Ks! +t)e aot be ‘Ot; For eves to we mamta one and only ne of ark anh boa OF Ite > bandh > g thine > « 3. Item hier ates bias iaho > 0 ten ae > Be. Wha gies the al minor ec rom ete Oded ls IE ce noc of ie ah hat LU = Rand ‘mumteror far las meme “The consteton of whe nly eines se not suring, a mace tena The at sop oto obs tata ioe erent tinny fda neo only te machinery tay Ges Fontan, iis Nae Sr Thay) other pony 0 tesla Wah theo il nomber, but sure ne moe tan me sl oper {ean ion). Ths apres b aeped ty L We Cohen amd GE {eRe Nur Se E Land (Pantene) and HA. “Thonton ie Manter Sion Tae age aw sear son thas or Broce sto he fps (0 22) en toe ronal nr ‘Avtss sagen havea ot an re it wen dss ot, homers + yen Cashy le fnaanena sequen re wha y Cohn apd is by thant This poc 20's in th hae the eed of ‘Spc nce tic candy mated tone of th coneis of that per, METRIC SPACES 2. Metros ‘Chasis nasi deats with ets of pins in and funetons defined con Bucdean space or the complex plac, wi in more recent cclopmnts prominent parts are pte als by othe types of spn These pes ead o theories ith many sia ete The ‘esa is thatthe spaces share the sae undeyng structure. Ts therefore both laminating and alo eeonontal af for to develop funy pets of nai pneral sng wich oles spect Cases the various spices of partular imports. A fundaentl property which these space hve in common stat nal of them {het «distance between aay two pints We now lay dav the conditions which sucha ditancefsetion or matric it sly. Defniion. Suppose that X tsa (ronempty) set an that p ea real ‘led fnction om Xx X with the flloning thee properties MI. 65,9) 8 0 for all xy €X amd ple,y) = O if and only If sey M2. ptrs3) = aba) forall x.y Xi M3, p(s)2) © C43) +0052) for ally, 2€X Che triangle Imequaiy- The fiction pe caled a metre or distance on X; and X, taken together with the mere p, i called a metric space whic we denote bye. "The notation (Xp) emphasizes the fet that the set X and the metric p have equi shares inthe constuction ofthe met spac. A piven set may’ give rte to many diferent metic spaces by having Aiferent metic associated with il Neverteles, when itis clear ‘hich mete is being used we may, To? brevity, write rather than (0%) for the mete space. (Any set en be upped wit a met {2 exer HOO say esha met but no ery iterating oo. (Tie mec ical th dete ene)DDO ln) Rawr 6 ernie sacs pa (i On he wana meri given by a2) = bh “Tae mal msc oF edt 2 flow. ad, P= Onin DER ow aot tah en er ion a te wn mei on 2G 9) aa Pa = +8 (Seon « (Sel er) by satng bth sis 0.12) waaay onary et Slesvan = aovanes > = We AB, wn Ane we Ba and, “Theo, dened by (ca et "iui gue Ubu), nore pis the sl met, cae mimes Elian ace "Ga So Ft comes sane, he ulti ofthe ame fom a at on Wee niyanle Set taney ta Hes2) = [ene] = W=X4O-Y- sf wher eguipgd wih hvu matic, 7 and are essen the same eiomces in whch ony te ntti Se ee if ound es fn on the nes, 1nd soeeenerdr i gyn sp Leh Cnty pts th rope and M2. follows fom he ngs su 1) + 20 Flim x5 = Since p(s) i area number, we ae able ose the concept of convergnce in 1, We cou replace (214) by the phrase ‘ven Ooo there isan ny seh hat pig 3) < fr n> ny This fom. ofthe dsinton reduces tothe Tamar defition of «convergent Sesuence of real numbers when (Ys! wi ts stl met ‘ere. Prove hata segues canst conver owe tnt iis arations omme 24) Then, as nore, srk same fete) te" (6 Yo 1,21 with 9) = 4p, OD ee re by f= eee exe. Then bok were fo=x exe Renn 1x2, 0 < Aea-so) yoe < x01) «201 dso Ho) <20%-1)40 a8 noe20 erate araces a ‘When the metres p, © on a set X are such that a sequence cone verges in (X,¢)iPand only if it converges in (X, 0), then pand are sid to be equtalent mets. We shall see, a8 the theory develops, that. change toan equivalent metre preserves many’ ofthe properties of a metrie space. ‘A sulicient, though not necessary condition forthe mets p, ¢ to be equivalent is the existence of strictly positive constants 2, sash at ote 3) & 068 9) < spls,9) forall 1,» X, (See exercise 2(), 7) rere 20) 115 the funcon p ven by sy) [7] mers on Go) (=, 2, ot espinal eine nen de aaa 7 9, ft Show tat pf mei on 2.28 nonempty st and p bea aha faction on eh F @ os,9) = OM and only tx = y; and 0 9) 5 He. 70, 2 forall sy 26% Prove that psa mae on [Mabie lose Sonia / nts el se settan ea igtort Fa nob © A rernaienmetinncsntyayncen now / 90-0. —LhLhmrs—~S~—s—sSsS sta 9, # aunt mets, 7. Pg hat the met on a eine he ae cota PrA> Dassen, 9) ol) a9) forall x,y. Give an example to show tat he sor i, 4 | 4 ab i i | ' ! \ L 2a ermies a 8. On Me andr a od by. ats.) = mann bmn 9) = bimnbt bem So at ahr ei wich sve 0 om tera th “compar esesof pons in sey x0) & ete) < he 0) 1 sonics 9, Dest ede meticea (17, useton(), ove tha and theialmaieg on re aot eta tt, Lt Cet st ofl futons otis on he eal, and ene ner He) 90, Ue (fv9-era s0 [ora nhs o> a Pers 12 tate na Conaedty vitew @drerh 0 (aia) @arees Hom Vg Ortsxens { 0 Ortexey, ‘Prove ht he eee cones in (Co) ann (C2), bt nn (05 ‘nha (canes {tot (Cy) nC). UW. et ier ged) be any mei spe, Very hl macro Xen aan 59% ae DP De £48.) » Wing) en 7 6.9) = eB White = GAY = Oi on PD A IEE H that eo eS eile 22. Noms ‘The theory of vector spacesis ply algebraic and partly analytical, ‘Weneed only the most base aebrae ideas and these ac, no doubt, ‘known to the reader. But, larly to fix notation end terminblogy, ‘we formally define a vector space, Definition. Lt ¥ be a nomenpty set ond suppate that (D0 any tro elements xy of V there corespons an element ia V, called ter im,ee 2 ernie pacts pa hich te denoted by x+y: and (Uf any real amber ond ony xin To correaponds on element ¥, called the seaar produt of = nd ech ts denoted by 2x, (Thus dion isa function on 7» ¥ into ‘and scatat multiplication is @ fonction on Rx into ¥) Sippose to that te foloing condition ae satisfied. xty 748: x44) = Gat (3) thre isa element OV (he zero element) sich that x forall se; “i to esr clement x6 V there corresponds ay element —x6 suc hat =-¢(=3) = 95 © ad) = As . © l= x O Gps = ashe: (© eet) = axsoy. ‘Then ¥ Gogsther with the operation of alton and solar ma- plcation dined n V) scaled a veto (rina) space over Ror a eal vector space. The solar product is formed with comples numbers ad the same ares ten Ved beaver 28 fcompex vector space, "The simplest example of wal veto space i R* with addition ‘and velar mltpliation defined by Gee 840 = OHI . vy) = (en ‘A moze sophisticated example Bla, 8); here fg and af are define wy G9) =O), NO = VO) EXD. ‘We shall assume the. elementary algebraic properties of vestor spaces. Some of these ae ven in exercise 20) 1 Defwition, Let V bea vector space. The rel valued fition |. on V is called a norm on ¥, and Vis called a normed vector space, NI. [af > O forall ¥ and [x = Offend only fx ~ 0 N2 fet yl < bx] +p forall se 75 Ni. fed els or ce number a and all x Vo iy easy to sce that, in a normed vector space, a metre p may be éefined id 63,9) = eat str ons 2 aa 72 a theres in tions GN) of $21 a aoe fom 2 act ance in i al nr is 98 OY We 2G HD Ln = 7, Yo L be derivable from 8 none tne and in 8h ‘However, « mesic on a vector space Heed Rot ‘orm fre exereise 20,2) ‘More specialized than space. vi ern 2 arene wep oye Bea pe tant 8 AEE pata a Hele Se at fs Ya rien at ieee nm esti aoe nn et cits Set ei i stn Te we atldent it ‘normed vector spaces are inner prodict red sector space and spose that Manet in P there i ssoiated & erika ihe following condtons ere ays sgt “the Sncguaity (2.13) cam now be ween 88 xy

feol < BIDE aly hole ifand iy one of rascal mati of he ote.Pa erate spaces pa Proof. Since 0.y x4 0.Take (ee execie 20,6), we may assume that = PH, a= ae Then 0.6 [Arty = (ies). Ube) = APE + Ax.9) +209) +b It ale at pp, at —2) fe + be Moreover [Awa] = 0, je Pty = 0, if and only ify = ax for some number = | eas 2) 1. Show that the ftowins i adn ves pce: (t= 0d) crear a0 8s 9 Sp dentes ea He army, mee 2 Tove tat the dtete ti oon oe anton (oF 21) emt te eed rom a no 3. Two gern on a vector space a eae i ey ie sociale ais Red tryed Ton ont ae Mh be ete focal eV, (Comat ease 20,7) 4. Show tat if a armed vitor spc, an an prodaet eis thn Salus a 5. Jee Tee une = Gu ns mnt "ch that Boor Vey tp wen He) ny! even fea mete on 7 tat ts is rm anos tha oh nor the evaponds ti nme Bl (6 Svow that nan nna rod pe =0.¥=0, Petplte bey! = 203149, ‘ace : wonsts as The sequent (x) (2) ln the nored vector space ¥ conve 0.) ‘prion sara guess Cl comers to Pree. ee eastern 204 roe se that f posit a ner produ, hen 2, Alera iio ofr pad space, Let V be x compe a) vor Specs ad pte tah ery ordered pi (9) st cements oY thse ‘Sloe amp ea) aumbwe ry seh tha p12 rats ab TStvavse Vina Osnds.s's ovfund ooh f=. Show tin fs ~ yee wa or on 23, Open and closed sets In this setion we consider subets of xed metric space (Xp). ‘We shall ws the aymbol 2 forthe metre space es well asthe set without reiterating that pis specif Let ae and ltr be a postive real number. These of points = such that fe 3) < recalled the oper all with centre a and radius sve shall denote i by Dl@:/). In RY, Bfe:7) is the open interval Gen a+n, In Re and in Z an open ball usualy caled an open hse Defivion. Given a subset B of X Coch may Be X isl, the pot C24 ies to be lit point af EW, fr ecery€ > 0, there isan ‘ee Ech that Os fe, Bler6)~(0) conti a point of E “A limit point eof canals be defined by eter ofthe following ‘vo conditions: {) Every open ball B(: contains infinitely many point of E. Gp There fea sequence of points x, such that x, 4 ¢ and ‘His clear that a pointe wid peoprtes (or (isa int point of E. Conversely, fs imi point of then for every m,there ia point se B such that 0 plex.) < Mn and s0 (i i satisiod. Alo (i implies. "The canitions () oF (@) show that a finite set eannot have afi point Anifnite et may oe may not hae a init pot, For example the subst (1,2, 3, ) OF has mo limit pont ‘isimportant to note that a imi point of aset Emay or may not belong to 2 For instance in, Eis the terval (0,1), then exery point in the interval 0 1] Timit point of.26 erate sracts Ba [A point c of Eis std to be an ftlated point of Bits not a iit point of E Thus, ie ian olted point of B, there ia 2 > 0 such that Bte: 8) contains no point of B ater than Deftion, Given ase E © X, the point ce Eisai to bean interior point of Ef thre is @8 > Osuch tha Be: 9) = 1A pins ta pen al a) aac pins of Bl For soo oN ORS se cee rerand pes) ten Ha,s) < arsed) < stor tnd xe Bar. Teor Be 1) Bir Le. eam ter pont of Bi = $25. The eo int poi of £3 a: he tf ntsor oins| orn). th torr of ep ei it to =z. 12 AAC i ahs coming fhe pois esac att < ol <2. These ot eat pains te solo usta fe fl 62 Tes of mere pois Exe 20% the st fps 4:9 ech tat y= oad ‘open andthe st By offs hat = 0 ‘any metic aac heey stn the whole spac are bh pe a oan tnd the eon cet that re bh open nt cnc ees SER tatngy, in acsary mle space tet ay be ate. For Ftace Leese ines enh be oan es of eesti open on ise Te questo han pain 3 ii The property of ting open oe lsd (orn) snot icf a ee RiPete to hese ot whch fs repr as sole and the See wit with eentowed. or tance (fae open nr cst ESSisto rt equppes nih teal mete Ou oud set EL Hwtuesune marctandarasutset of (0,0), wee he ere tn bot open and wed "A convenient characterization of cloied sets is embodied in the folowing res. Theorem 231. Anecesary and suficint contin forthe set F to be dosed is that, whenever (2) ita convergent sequence of pots iF, Tim x46 F ‘Proof, Fist suppose that F is closed and that x_-+34 where aye Floceveryn fy = forall stent large, then fron, eP; otherize wis Hint point of Fand again x F "Next, let Pave the property described in the theorem. If Phas no lint pints, then Fis closed. If F has a limit point, then thee is a sequence (x) of ponte in P such that x, >and 50.6 F. | Theorem 2.32. () The set Gin X open if end only G' (= X~G) elsed, (G) The set Fin X te closed f end only PP’ (= X= Fs open ‘Proof. We ned only show that () i Gis open, then Gs closed and (if Fis elsed, then Fis ope. () Let be open. If Gas na limit points, then Gis closed. 1G ‘nasa timit ponte then. every open ball fc «contains points of ence e cannot be an intror point of Gand, since Gis open, e¢ 6. ‘This ee. We have therefore shown that G” contains al its init pits2 ernie sracss bs (© Let F be closed, IF Fis emp, then Fis open. IF Fis not empy lex be any point of F,Sioe Fis closed and x ¢ Fit follows Uthat xis no a Limit point of F. Henes there isa lx 8) feof points of Fie. theresa Bx 8) = #. Ths the arbitrary point x of Fis an interior point of | We have stressed the fact tha a. given se i open or closed (or ith) only with respect tthe mee space in which ts embedded {is therefore of interest to note that, ifp and are equivalent mets fon X thon the metric paces (X,) and (X,o) ave the same open fd the same closed ses. Th converse also holds. Both statements follow easily from the lst evo theorems "The next theorem conostne collections of open or closed sts “These ealltons may be fie o” infnite and need not be countable ‘Theorem 2.33. () The union of any election of open ses open. (G) The itersecton of any collection of closed set i closed. Proof. () Let @ bea callction of open sets GIF x€ UG then there isa member of 8 sy G?, such that xe G*. Since G* is open, ‘iso interior point of O*, ke thee is a8 such that Bx: 2) = 6" Bs 8) = Y 6. and vo also Hence an inter point UG This shows that UG pea (i) Let & be a collection of closed sets F, We could sow dietly hat) F contains al is Hn points; but, tts the we of complements in proving “ual results for open and closed se, we ‘se () as follows ‘Since Fis open, whenever Fe, by Os BP {is open. Hence, by theorem 2320) Fis closed. | Theorem 2:34. (i) The intersection ofa fnite collection of open sets eopen. The union of a rite colletion of eosed setts close. ‘The proot is att the reader, sto cinatinisssiiapas 2a foray AND cLoseD sts 2 reshe, Give expe of () agus of ope sts vos inteton snot ‘hot on os saguene fons soe whose ion bt cod 1et(Y,2) bea subspace af the melee spac (1%). Then (Y, 0) has ‘open and closed sets and, although a set which i open (lose) in Y of couse, generally sot open (losd) in X, the elationship be- teen open and closed sts in 2 and in Ys very simple Theorem 2.35, Let (Ye) be a metric subspace of the metre space (ep. Tien set Us open in (2 €) If and only af i ofthe form ¥'0 G, where G is open n (Xp). A similar result ios for closed Proof. First i is open in X, then elealy every point of Yn G ‘is an interior point of Ya Gin Y. ‘Next, let E'be open in Y. Thea, for every xe E we can find a2, such that y€E whensver ye Y and o(8,9) < 8 IC now Biv: 8) denotes an open ball in Y, the set G = Bos) i open in and B= ¥ 0 G. ‘The result for closed sts may’be deduced by the method of taking complements. | Corollary, If Y $8 open tu X, then asset of ¥isopen in ¥ if nd only fit is open in X If Y le closed n X then a subst of Yi close in Y and only if is else in X. Defition, Let B be on sult of X (The interior of E, denoted by Bl th e of interior pont of B. (G) The clonure of B, denoted by B, ithe won of E and the set of lint pointe of E. "Thus Eis these of x such that every BGs 6 contains at ast one point of E or, equivalently, xe B if and only ifx isthe limit of a Sequence of points in B. For allemative definitions of the notions ofitetior and closure see exercise 210), 6. ‘Theorem 236, For any at Bin X,B° i open and Ei close. Proof, IC E* is empty, itis open. Es not empty, It x be any point of £% Then there is 2 B(e:8) © E. Every yes @) is an Inteio point of B(%78) and so of E, Hence Ix; 8) © E* and there- fore xs an interior pot of E*.YIDIIIIIG, > Per) » arnre spaces ba ‘It may be shown directly tht Bis lose. The result also follows feom the identity w-er which is easily proved. (Soe exercise (9,7) | Cen ad cll oo tren ei te re aati: =o: Fant arte sede pit oft in ct Deb a oa and ne Sr te Lal ete eect te tet ae ak ob the aot ot cae cialipstal ktaom oe pra asp Liar ADR Tan =A = ae a ae [Sue genset prea ae peeeeres Baers 210 1. Show tt fer infinitetX may be eure wh tcp wich such Thar Yise hn pane CP. ‘roe tan any mss (X tele bal a, 2 < rites rove ta ound, ed et fel manbers conti is open an ia uF sev tty et 8 SS ovr coespoding 10) a8 Claes vant eiics, Show that ee have tii Pad CE 8 rt aces (F1), sie a eaten a a eon De RE peged, sel mene 2D ast mininmtet rote dein sf sie 9s aman Di te sores ON CHAPTER 2 rns dal se ae he ee ee ero ange men” Ei), whieh ee nkawos ne (gown) =e)” 5 rel. ‘gn G22) the bay De NTE es ni a own Sse “fea sat Soon oon an, tle an 4 aa" sh Heer 888 2 ant Fas oi Gee Hae nee egh2 00 rath ;_SRetataei a om ‘ Tittiewood and Pol "requis3 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS ON METRIC SPACES SAL Limite ‘The notion of continuity is based on that of init and we frst 4efne the limit of «fonction whose domain and range ein arbitrary metric spaces. Defion. Let (X, 0) and (Y, 0) be mene spaces Let fhe a function with domain © and wits range in Y. Suppose ese that ts init point of Band yo Y. We then say FO) 99 a 8-935 oF Ti fo) = Uealoene > 0, there ina 8 > Och that (0), 1) < € whenever we E and 0 < plx, x) < & Note, () Tis relevant whether Belongs to the domain E of | (i) When X= ¥ = R* (or 2) the above definition reduces tothe standard definition ofthe init of a real (or complex) function, ‘Eerie, Show tht 8 fncton cant conversa pot to mote ha one Mains Oxey= (0) Wits Btn? = 28 1.2.03. (© wit 8 = 2871 yx) ~ 0, ey sin) es note, o Let E be these of rational numbers and let be deBined on Eby the Se) = ta fe copine ness and g > 1, We shall show that, fo very ¢€ Given « 2.0.4 a ier ah tha i < Denote the tof (a ite mabe of mace of a Hans thee et 8 ck ee Inert (e350) and Get) contin no tember: of Qt Tov shone 0 lena] © oas(jntcdce aa swe 2 (i Xe B= H=(0,0), Y= we Eastbay 8 TS OD) = Be ‘hen lets = bt oe bt on ek Bled =e Laterbeeenty ai a ‘Thon im, 5 oe ma et Fa iy = ms we baer lx #0 hem) = Se p8 ~ Ta upstate teed nara <8 ‘ab iae= {Wh ee fea eos cnt on ‘The mei pb ace anal on CLL ben oy be BD 30, B00 ‘Tefen om E601 ven by Me) wo~ [one "trian fin 9 = en mH) = Yury = CLM inco-wor=fie- [a =| a — soit = Diesen ASC tte gota ots gta a Bare by men of th nin cig a Whats Jess obvious, and more interesting, i hat the opposite statement i also true { Theorem 3.1. Let (Xp) and (Y, 0) Be metric spaces. Let f be @ aneton with domain E.=X and ith range in ¥ and suppose thet ‘a tnt pola of E. Then f(s) > yoas x» yf od only If forever? sequence (53) In E(6} sich that y+, U5) > Yo a > Proof. () Suppose that fe) > y4 88 3-3 Then, given € > 0, here is 8 Ouch that. UU) 9) < € whenever xe F and 0 pls) < & BIBLIOTECA CENTRAL graye 7MM continuous FUNCTIONS ON METRIC sPAcES DS "Now, if (is any sequence in B~fx) such that > there is an integer ne such that Oe sy) <8 for n> Me “Therefore etftvy).99 <€ for n> my ie, M5)>y 8 Ne. {Gi Suppose that, whenever (x) 6 in E(x) and > Pos) TP foe yeas x Ay then there isan € > O with the property that there no ® > Ouch that of), 3) < e whenever v= End “US poss) © 2 Therefor, given any m thee isan x E such that 0-< pls) < Yor and 017%). 90 > & ‘Thus there is e sequence (5) in Bf} such that x, > 9 and “Fos ye Ths contradiets ou orginal hypothesis and 3 f(3)> ye onl For functions with ves in a-normed vector space ¥ there i 8 might be expected, an algebra of Himis. Let fg be such functions fefned on subeet E of X. Also suppose that has limit pot snd that >I EO HH OS HOH Whee 9, sare sel or complex valued fonctions on F aod Go) 8, HO) FP as x thes HO) + HO)EC) > eet Bee on 4 CV possesses an inner product, then aso S10) 8) > Yo28 en andi Vis Ror 2, fOata) > y%0 ou) provided that 20. “These reults may be proved directly or they may be deduced, by means of theorem 3. rom the corresponding rets on sequences (exercise 20,8) Brera) 1 Te el ao Finton fon (0,0) so sn 3% Show at nf do ot = sanars s (yse) be mt spc. Lt {8 fneton with domain © X ant suppor thats lt pm of Sow tat if ‘Pa Jao efor very tence in B=) eh at ities (5 cnr emesis Oa eat tT re Stee se ero aan ys es me sak Ee KY pe peste Pe ante Sy Beso yies tnt plt of Bank 0) run > Sw ty en igs hah Fe seedy ete pic 2) bene thbovny Comte Samoa whlch Ms we 5, Poet the tenets (1) hl ude the condor ven athe Sede seston. ‘32, Continuous functions “The definition of continuity which we shall now give is a natural generalization ofthe concept familiar in elementary analysis. Desfition, Let (X,0) and (¥, 0 Be metric spaces. Ten the fetion FW Vis sald to be continous atthe point x08 XI, givene > 0, thoreip@8 > 0 such that AU Sled) < «whenever Hs) < or (0.0) “ITT Saar as of set sal be conto on that et. “The dfition implies hat fis continuous ate lnit point x5 of ™ FO)>fed a8 x9 nd that fis continuous at all iolted plats of X (or if x isan Fvolated point and 2x euficiently smal, the only point x such that 15,29, is tl Tetfbe a function whose domain i subset X; ofa metic space (4p) When considering the limits off we are interested inthe init points of and these ned nt belong to %, However, for questions ‘ot continuity, only the points of the domain %, of fare relevant, Since Ny endowed with the metric induced by (1, ), i itl a rere space, itis therefore simplest in this eontea to eat Xs the36 continuovs runerions ow meTaic sracrs 82 Fundamental space. This, in fat, what we did in the defstion of ceontinty. ‘Msratins. The fonction f€iuseton (1) oa p32 whos donne he {stot ratfoval nutes, cantor vere Jy wh ania see yn [I Men tra Ty tea xis air then f comtinoat aa iatlonl pins nd cating ata aos! “The tencton 8: 40 1}-» C1 of ation Gi) on p32 coinees| on if Th alow fom teat AGED Ror Z) are continuous st xq then fg is continuous ato; #0 is fg HP Je an Hamer product space, and/igisconinvousat api is or Zande) + 0. Al this is obvious when x isan isolated point of Yand otherwise follows from the comesponding rests on iit, In the next theorem Wwe return to functions with aritary ranges. The resale contrasts With exerise 3¢) 4 Theorem 8.21. Let (X, 0, (F.2), 2) be meric spaces and ter him go: X-> W be the comportion ofthe fictions f2¥ > ¥ end 8: Y—> WI is cominnous atx, al is contin a ~ Jy then i continuous ot xe Proof Given ¢, there san 9 sch that rGg0),g00) <€ whenever (7.9) < ‘There i now a 8 sch that (sto).flea) ¥ tobe continous et ‘he pont x1 that xy“ x inlien f.) Sed “The root is similar to tha of theorem 3. The theorem may also ‘be deduce from theorem 34, but slight complisatons aris, since rmoners of the sequence (x) may now be Xe “Theorem 322 shows that the introduction of equivalent metrics in the domain or the range ofa function does not affect the propesty of continuity: if py are equivalent metres on X and ¢,2y are ‘quivalent metres on Y, and iff: X - Y is contiouous at with respet io p and e thea fis also continous at with sespect top ‘Theavem 223. Let (Xp) and (Y, 0) be melee space, Each of the Jellowing’condtons fs necessary and suffices for the fonction Px ¥ tobe continuous on (© Whenever G is open in Y, the NG) is open tn X. (i) Whencoer Fis elsed in Y, then fOXE) elas bX. Proof. () Fist suppose that fs continuous on X and thatthe set Gis open in ¥. x fore xed,38 cowrmwuous runcrioss of meme HACE BE Tithe e716) inept hen tis ao open IEPO) isnot emp, ret boay on of points Then ge Gand, ce Gis en, ther iane sch that yeG whenever of fd) <€ ut snes fis eontinsos atx there fa Buch that (fs) fle) <€ whenever 5,3) <8 Hence GEG whenever 3) <8 le xefMO) wheneier Aix) < “Enis shows that 3 an nein point off}. flows that FO ivopen'n X Leet ssbose iwhenererGisopen inthe XG) openin ste any pnt of and take any pole e:The open ball ‘ufcxitedisopen in Y and so, by hypotbess, tbe sei *1@(093 9) Sees Tis st alo contains t and therefore theresa 3 > 0 eb Ih ce ps(ayted:e)} whenever A) <2 e— DEBYLDie) winner (3.29 <8 ia offi flaa) < whenever (8,20 < 2 “Thos is continuous tnd 0 on X i) This par follow fom () teeth of comple snes, it Etsany set of % PAE) 0 PE) = a and FAB) U SAE) = XI “ante theor hve mags mayo be eplaed by et nage iene ue tht 3) 8 open ast Yvhenve Ss ope. {Gone lathe fonction dfned on p37 wil sate tis (Greets 30) 6 bat ts nsteutve to employ alo more common Hace examples, For insane the fancton J with domain? and rane RBWEOEY pay = x= N-2) nap the open interval (1) ont (0, Next, , wih domain (ea, s) and range [~4, 3) be defined by 10) = Ta “wis funtion maps the else inter [1,2 on tetera 8} whic isnt eosin [fe aa continous Functions 2s We have previously mentioned tata bijective continuots function “f:Ohsp) 2 (2) need not be such that f-:(Y, 0)» (9) is cone tinoows, When fi continuous, Fs called fomeomorpi. (Note that then fs aleo homeomorphism) Two metric spaces are said to be homomorphe if there exists homeomorphism on one into the other. If 1(%,)=(Y,2) is a homeomorphism, then, by theorem 423, maps open (lose) ses in ¥ into open (sed) sets in ¥ and thete fa bjoation between the open (respectively closed) set in thet spaces. TA bijective funtion f: (> (Ye) such that Hts. fxd) = a 5D for all xy x46 Xs elled an tomy. Te plain that an isometry isa homeomorphism, Two metre spaces are called isometric if here txts am isometry on one into the other. Such spaces have intial inet properties although their elements may be of ently ferent Kinds, For instance Ri iometre with the subspace of CTD, 1] consisting of the funstions 4 (eo < A < ce) defined by $0) =x @exeD, ‘Another example ofan fometsie pais provided by 2 Linear fuetons, We briy considers class of functions which plays an important part in modern analysis. Deftion La be rel compe) ome et ses et ey egieay Flea.) = afr) +aaferd Jor elt 2 s0¥ onal om) mb Se ee esx th m0 a Llrrtr—C oe rti“‘“ mest yea GS Lay meh Neale ft si te oa te snonlyti > waa Abs axiom)eankm Aloisi Ge ean fF inthe wboi of fia oy in mand h(n oc ie, ‘tess and sie cnn fr tobe ete Go that et a {ainsi fonction rat m= ad 4 has mtn tak edt 0 tis easy tose that a lineeFanetion on Rint Ris continoous st all points ofits domain (ee exercise 36), 8). A consequence of the theorem below is that any linea funtion ether i everywhere continuous or is mower ontinuous Theorem 3.24 Let VW be normed sector spaces. Ifthe function J: "OW tslinar, he the fling te satemens are eal. fs contin on V. (i) Theres pon m6 Vo whieh conus (i) [ACOs i bonded for 3 V1, Proof. (i) = @). Take any €> 0. Since fis continuous at 3 thereisa 8 > Osieh that [~ mf < Binples LAG) slr « Tet ebe any pont of Vand ake any x auch that [xd < 8, Then Jometa)=nd m. Woy = Cbs) %q then Ih = Uren ln nisal Urea = Me » 1 Hence snot contsuous at 0 sa ‘coninuous ruNcrioNs a Gi) = GD, LEU = sup CIM Ls. Sinoe /() = 0 the inequality oot < Nba shows that fis continuous at 4. | Given the normed vector spaces V, , denote by L(V, W the set of continuows linea functions on V into W With the ual interpre= tation of addition and scalar mukiplcaion of vector valued functions, (7,17) isa vector space. Moreover itis easly verfled that the casation = sup VOOET ents) 0.2 defines «norm o8 LV, 1). ‘ores. () TaG.2) the symbol] is used in thee iene senses. @ = ppifo : i) For al ¥, x + nen Wa st Theorem 3.25, (ois te matrix of ie fnction fe RR, hen i ee axon < Ut < (3 3 eh) 62) Proof Let x be ay pont of Rand ft y= fo). Applying Cavs’ inequality 2.13) 1 621) we have riootrh« (Sat) (Sar 8 in. jr < (3 Sot) ag ‘This proves the right-hand inequality in (3.23). ah 15h Netuifegh = mse Tah ne eh cee nienph combi anda other compaens 0. Then [= 1 and UG = iy Hate laos | veer Prove honda of hacen 32 to! wing te et pa psec. (re te matics Sow tf» scons te on eon Ue Satan gael nh ee Ila kes omen card faye 3. Comte sn fon a ei ae (wih icons a Ponselndentet fo Sharh ornan BaD0 op ) ‘continuous runerions ox mrratc sraces 2 “4. Let. X Ye sina inlet an spose tha emetic ar oh J that (9) ba 0 it pies while (Ye at lest on it poet. Stow that, Pena Ti beat to fe emuons op Mbt sat femnuns fins (HOF areas honeonarie) Ove as esimne fateh» freon J Jeon spac (Ke ee ae deren st X Let HOW) te the ony fenton even Wy 169 = x Stow that 7s» Nansen FandccitZ nea qual meics Gen eal tshow Oat whe rot eget oy be cntnoae wast beg enti he fron wih domain X= (0, DUB 3 and moos. ¥ = 2 on at penn and ld ach at Toot open Y anf) inte In a Te ation gw domain (2, ) ad ang 2) fen by Hi) = Gee Sow ht tere ae pn zed) st In (29 whsh ae nape bye to 25 tae nt open lot 99, Let (0) be me pace an tf fe Be tons on Xt The iason 2 Upson en Reve $0) = G0 fle. Proetitsisconineost pointy ¢ Yaad onli fareonsinoats Bao ters, show ta ery Hines fcton oa no Fs 9 Let) (¥,0 (;2 bemee spces, To efi sotto cing Bane i tts ee oft ean maison HY o vee 2 i 7 (acy 308 Yond eK 48% de th tne ¢ 09 X a8 bony 1O0= Key (EX, WO =Luy) WEN ‘Show tay contac af (3 theme ae contin 8 Fe Seer Cease an expe teow tm Amy becomes ‘Bipty witht wn coins 3 Ge 4 WL tev fa eine ein and define the norm on D by: = V1 = mph) em. Le f+ RU be thea nts end by £8) = #0 GED, ‘Show dat J not conus a cakrmvous ruNciows a 1 Te ines fein J > i DY Pls on 3) = anche ped U/L 2) U7 9 evo snd. Hg Y= Losi = lt. ese hl he continous oes then Wal» eve an ecm of Hoar fntion fh at Wat 1 43 Connected metre spaces Ta the classical account of continuity the more striking results, such as those relating to bounds and intermediate values are proved for continuous functions defined on finite closed intervals. These results do not hold for arbitrary continuous Funetions, but they ean be regained by suitably restricting the’ domain, The theme of the remainder of this chapter isthe relation between the structare of a nett space and the properties ofthe continuous funetions defined "We remarked in chapter 2 that there exist metie spnces (X) in ‘which sets other than 3 and X are both open anil closed. A space in-which there are no such sts is ealled connected. Since est is both open and closed if and only if its complement is bol closed ‘and open, the condition for a space not to be connected is that itis ‘the union of two nos-empty, disjoint open sets. The notion of con- ‘nectedness can slso be applied to subsets ofa space. The subset E of 1X is siid fo be connected if the metrie space (E, 2) is connected, ‘where is the metre induced by (Xp). Ia view of theorem 2.35 we ‘may therefore formulate the definition of connectedness in the following way. Definition, Let (X,p) be a metic space. {The open subset G of X (hich may be X itself) is said to be connected if there do not exist to nonempty open sets Gy, Gy such us GnGe= 6 and G.UG,=6. (i) An arbitrary subset B of Xt said to be connected I there donot ‘exist ope sets Gy Gy such that GnE+ a, ONE 2, GNGAE= %, Gv? Ee44 coxtmwuous suNettons oN sieraic sPActS BS Is eear that part () isa patioular eas of pact i. Note that by definition, the empty set is eonsecid. The appropriateness of the Word “connected” is shown by the ext two theorems Theorem 3.31, A necessery and suflent condition foro non-empty set in Bt be connected i thai i on eral Proof ‘Necesty. Let E bea non-empty stn R? which i not an interval ‘Then there are thee real numbers , Buch that a'< q < b and a5E, beE while g¢ E. The set G, = (—20,4) and Gy = (42) fate open and inferset sinc the containa, brespctvly. Alsacleatiy GnGnE= so and GUG,> E. ‘Therefore ig not connected Suficieney. Let The an jnterval and let Gy, G, be open ws whieh Intersect, but are such that GnGnr= ‘Take a point 0 G,nJ and a point be G,f Since a + 5, we may suppose that @ < &. Then [a,b] is « subinterval of J. Letw be the ‘upper bound ofthe et Gf 2). Sine a, bare interior pointe of G, and Gy respectively and GG, sem fll tat Perens Te now @ is any postive number suck that acudeussH. Let ae (1 Since ae H, we may assume that a6 GC snow any set of €, 06 Fand E © Hs that GnE+ 2, GNGNE= 6, GUG,>E [ASE is connected, we must leo have G0 = ©. It follows that Gn = 0, which is contradiction. | Theorem 3.3%. Any st ina metric space has a wnigue decomposition into components Proof, Let Ebe a set in a metic space. For any x, denote by G the union of al the connected subsets of E which contain x. Since {69 is connected (oe exercise 30,2), Gis not empty and, by the lemma, Cis connected. C is aso a component. For if Cis a con- rected subset of E which contains C., then C contain x and so, by definition of C., C, > C. Finally it i elear that any component of E awe. | Corollary 1. An open st in RY or Z te the union of countably many adjtut regions roof. Let, G be an open sot in RY or Zand let Cbe a component ‘of G. Ire, then Cy = C. Also there a 8 such that B(x; 2) © G tnd, since B(x; 8) i connected (Ubeorem 3.32); B(xs) © C, = C. ‘Thus C is open, ie, C is 8 region. Tt now follows from exercise 2(@), 5th the st of components of @is countable | Corollary 2. An open at in R2 the union of countably many open bntercae Theorem 3.34 Ifthe doman of continous faction i comected, then 20 te the rong ‘Proof. Let (0), (2) be meric spaces and suppose that the funtion f: A> Y is continuous. IF fCX) isnot connected then ‘contains open eubsel GG, which intersect f(X) and are such that GnG.nfX)~ 8 and GUG=sW. 31) sete 33 ‘connor METRIC saci ” By theorem 3.23, 4G) and /-AG) are open. These ses are also nonempty, since G,fX) and G,n/(X) ate non-eraply, Moreover, by Q3), ! PAGAL) = @ and FAGIUSAG) = X and so X's not connected, Hence if is connedted, then s0is/(ND. | Corollary, If the domain of © realzalued, continuous frcion 8 connected then he range i ax interel. ache, Prove tal he eal enon fi asians on the ier 8 Frente ths itraevery ve ten an). CTsinemediate ‘tere ot dsl aaj tore 36 1.C1) ut 39 an ‘Suppose that £< Xn ¥ and that the metres p,¢ oa 2 ¥ respectively are ERMRNE ES See e timed ae Cep Hanlon eet Soe /, 2. suo ttn ay metic ps, at contin of Soe oes coon y dist st nlc si ft han ne pte an wed wy 2 Pow hata mete sae (19) connect and en fis en sbs ‘ih pt tone 8 an 4. Show hati te spas fail mrt ony contet es re thoxe isin fing os ‘i rove hat, set Eo eae comes, hen Es a com SLB noes, eos comecel 6 Show that heconinetsofa cad net of wt space are cls Are ‘he componet an open suit necesriy op 7, Showa tebe, pir =1 9 «NUM I0-< x <1y = a8) of conoce, 34, Complete mere spaces ‘Renders ae familar with the ea of @ convergent sequence. We now introduce a closely elated concept, Definition. The sequence (x) of points in the metric space (Xp) int to be a Cauchy sequence glen e > 0, there sen ny such hat Plsng%) <& wlenener m2 > Me48 cosrinuows ruNerioNs oN METRIC smAcES BA ‘Theorem 3:41. If (s,) it a concergent sequence ina metic space (ah thon i sa Cauchy sequence Proaf. Lat lim xy = x. Given €> 0, there is an ny such that lg 8) < € far n> my. IP NOW mm > Hy Ply $5) $ He +A 3) < 26 | “The converse of theorem 34 is not true in every metic spac. For intange ifs the interval (, 1) of then the sequence (1) fsa Cauchy sequence, for, when € > 0, al 1 2, Another subspace of in which the converse of theorem 341 fils i the meri space of| rational numbers. (See exercise 3(,2) Definition, Let (X,p) bea meric space. A subset E of X (which may be X tcf said tobe complete eer) Cauchy sequence in E has @ init in B.A X is complete we say tha the mere space (X0) it complete. Net (i any ei sp he ony mi compete ice tents no cue secu) (i) Hs nowerpy st En he metic pae (4) compe if an li sheets subspace (2) of (0) como ‘Weshallestablsh the vital result that Ris complete, Fest we prove ‘lemma which has independent intrest. Lemma, Beery sequence of real nunbers hava monotonic subsequence, Proef, Let (%) be any sequence of real numbers. We eal x, 2 tetrace point ify & 85 for an > P. TF eher ae inniely many terrace points, let x, be the fist, the second, and soon, The sequence (5, is lay dcresing here are finitely many terrace points (perhaps none), take a nego» $0 that for 8 > ys a erace point, Thee is now fa yy > >» such that 3 > xy, Again there is 15 > rs auch tht Toy hg and continuing inthis way we obtain an increasing sub- sequence @,). | ‘We do nat need the fl stength ofthe lem, bat only te special cease that a Bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence. 34 cconmere wera spaces ° ‘Theorem 342. The space R (ith ts usual neti) ts complete Proof Let (xa) bea Cauchy sequenee in RY, We fist show that (6) is bounded: Since there san integs such that erin] <1 whenever n> py ie follows that al faa all < [l-41 whenever > p Thus fo all, Isl < ma (Bo Bal gl 4D. 1t now follows from the lemma that (s) has & bounded, mono- ‘onic and therefore convergent subsequenc, sty (x). Suppose that Bor koe, We sal show that xy + 28 n>, Take any postive € Sinee (2, # Cauchy sequence, there i an integer n such that, brant] < for mn > te [Also since y+ hare fan ateper seh that Imgnal <6 for £2 ke ‘As ra > k, we then have, form > ma Ga fd, Heemal & banal ls —al <2 Thus sy +208. | Corollary. The spaces R* end Z (vith ther usual metres) are com plete, Proof. We nee only consider R* Let (x) bea Cauchy sequence fn REA, CE on El ten Vi Eul sob AG) Ula Eu and o each ofthe sequences (a3, (Enis Cauchy sequence in RS Therefor, by the theorer, thee are Teal umber yay 6 a Ba Bacon Er we ten have 103) [bo 6+ Ib 6 ‘nd, since the right-hand side tends to a5 r+ co, it follows that aoxasr+e, | asr-s oad = GyeYES oo 3d 2779 99 99999999 999D5999509 so —_conrinuous ruxcrions ov weraic sracts D4 ‘Theorem 341 and the fact that R¥ and Z aze complete may be conned ia the following statement. A necessary and sifcent sutton for the sequence) of lor complex munbers fo cOWerze seas loon > 0, there i am integer my such that [=a < 6 Taree >, in classical analysis tis i refered to as the (General Principle of Convergence abate of metic spaces here san intimate reltion between the propetis of being complete and of being dose ‘Theorem 343, Let (X, 9) bea meine space and et Ebe a subset of X- IAQ IE ts compet, ten Els closed. GB ip Xis complete ond Es closed hen Eis comes ‘Proof, () Let (bea equsnce of points in E which converets twa pointe X, By theorem 3, (xxi Cauchy sequence Xand wei Sins Eis complete, it follows that (x) converges in, i {hat we E.Theorem 231 now shows that Bis ose, id Let () bea Cauchy sequence in E, Since (x) isa Cauchy seshace in Kand X's complet, there is an xX so tha > % By theorem 231, x6. | ‘Several important metfe space have funetions a thir elements. “Wershall now consider two such spaces whieh we have previously set in specialized form. Tat Gira) be a metic space, The subset B of Y is sid to be iaceast there is an open Ball that contains E; and, i X & an vesmtany st the function #: X > is called bounded i he aubset Gn) af le bounded. We dnote by CY, ¥) the st of Pounded $0) Socom Xan Yad ws define the usual met pon BOX 1) by Hig. y = HOE. HOD. GF EBS When is tbo equipped with a metric, so that continuity 00 X has TrRet ag, we denote by CU, ¥) the subspace of B(X, ¥) consisting Pike bounded, continuous functions on X into Y. The usual metic or Gae yy i the one induced by (BUY, ¥9,0), When ¥ = Ry Seo, an CL, Yar sly writen BUX) ahd UX) rept AACihuve also previously used, and ve retain, the notation Blo B) Bou Cle 8 foe BX) and CCX) when Xs the interval fo, Bl ‘Theorems 344s 17 X ts any set and (£1) bra complete metre #906, then BCS, ¥) i compete a ‘couriers merase spaces s ‘Proof. Let) Bea Cauchy soqunce a BC, Y) and let x be a wat ee se 1, Y) and let xbe any wea bgt AG #0) ~ fim #469 we). Paes : 760), 8460) <1 ean, ieee cane a els ace laa G0, dy) & & whenever n> Me prs. a) <€ whenees n> He Thus Cera yo te pace OX) canoe Trem a 10 ny mele sc and (2). compete ‘metrie space, then CCX, ¥) ts complete. 7 ss ‘Prof (i) ia Cvhy eit So (EY) and 3 ao 220 ny hon 3a pe Be 7) mc at $e > $95 n> 0, We have to show that ¢ is continuous on X,52 corinwous ruNcTIONS oN wrETAIE SPACES Bt Let x be an arbitrary point of X and take e > 0. There fan m maa da) = sp AH BOD <5 and, since is continuous here is «8 > O such that ‘Gals $2) <6 whenever OC 3) « 4 Hence, whea of 2) < 2 rd BOD) & GE). Balsa +B. HD+ AAA, BOD ek “Thus # is continuous at and, since xy was an atitrary point of # iscootinuous on X. | Corollary 1. If (X, 2) 8 ny merle space and (2) i @ complete ‘metic pace, then C(X, Yi lose in BUY, Y), Corollary 2, If (X, 0) is any meee space, the space (Xs complete ‘Wie end this section with a result that as many appliations in analysis. Definition. Let (Xp) be a metric space and let 2: XX be a Sanction mapping 3 ino ise f now there isa non-negatioe nucer He Tae that cgay, a(e) < hots, 2°) forall ,x!©X, then called contraction mapping. ‘Carly a contraction mapping is continuous. ‘Theorem 346, (aaaeh’s fie point principle) 12 ia contraction ‘mapping on a complete metre space (X, 6), then the euaton 3) has one en oly ne solution (ie. the mapping ©: X=» X Teaver one ‘and only one point schange). Proof, Let xy be an sity point of Xand define the members of the sequence (x, by the recurrence relation Sen MG) (> OL Then Ploy Sn) * EL MS) 6 Wik a) 6 Feta) a compare aerate spaces a and a4) © Be 3) Rol) +5 A pba 8) 6 Hpk aL ot RY fe < pete. Since k* = 0 as n-» 0, (x) i therefore a Cauchy sequence and X, being complete, contains a point x such that x, > x. Now, sine © is continuous, by theorem 3.22, 5) + 909, But also = gas > and threore D(s) = x "To prove the uniqueness ofthe fixed point, suppose that OG) =x and Q(x) = x. Then Pha, X) = HOC), OE) 5 eke») and so, since & < 1 lx, x) = Oye x = x | Many theorems on the existence and uniqueness ofthe solutions of eilferetal, integral and other equations ee traiionlly proved by varios devees involving sucesive approximations. The esence| of these procedures is embodied in Banach’s fixed point principle whose use therefore greatly simplifies theclssiel profs Weillustrate the method by proving a theorem oa implicitly defined functions, ‘Theorem 3.47. Let (sy) beam interior pont ofa set la R* and suppose that the faction fs E-> R* sages the following conditions, (0 fou) = 0; (i) fis continous nan open st G containing (x 3); ip, exits andi contioue a (3) and es) + 0. Then there exit a rectangle BEN = bpm Fe] xD Pine and continuous fneton 9: M > N such thar = 9) ie the only soliton Ing iN ofthe equation fx) ~ 0 Proof. Pat = 8° Feo‘ ‘ oO os is 54 continuous rowerions on wernic sracts BA Since f, continuous at (J theres estate contained in in whieh aff < en) ‘Using the conditions () and) we can now ind pose number ee Fsuah at, ore = [2,200 loftsss0l < 48 es) —By theorem 348, N= by=A.zo4 is complet, Hence, by eovems 344 and 345, tespages BUM N), CUAL), capped with thei url mers, are complete, Let be the mapping on BM, N) ‘sind by OG) = x where 1G) = $Oo)—af6 96) (AD. [Note that, ifs continuous, hen 8 als continuoes. We isi show tat maps QE, N) io isl Let = 0, M). “Then fore, we have, by the mean vale theoce, Q499(=9 = HOD afls VOD= HE) Ore cue > O ch tat UUs) whenmer sxe END Prove ht i 9 ei Prove hat) i Cael ssuece ia he pce fan mutes Sow She ha fo evy ip a aw ep tad 8 Sea) <1 Gobe c= Eun), Dede that es ot aoa and tat is wo compete 2 Lt Db the sac of el fants diferente o 0,2 ad lt ete ‘ts on iad by 2) Sham at (Dp) tomas 4: Me tie # on ea by ed caver aT ‘Sho hae (0) nt compe EyDemei ga at Xu eq, Ar 0 an) cy 5.0 ove at he netin of any elon fen at f= 2G Fe a i te amir cnt ta of mei AEG ea ma se ie te date) de att : AE ps 0MAR Cnr inaction there. 0) cost mai sac an (Fi 1 oncing sams of toa amy, cso erin such p) 99 as sn, thon fi Fs consis of eat one pit Stow tif any on fh conditions OCP scone, (i) Fisclond, (947) >0 init Fm tec (Ge an example ofa sequence, an fenton fn 01 eh tha 8.692 td forever xe Ih ba Rate 2 Let, Wbenorned vet spucs Post cmp, then LH 1) Note tt he mt on Landon CL) eed eo, ‘ip ony seat conan tthe two sacs sa fanson 8! Poe seh tht 8G) = der allxe 7) 1, oa wn (tion coh ea a iota (grby Aba aves) < bforovercband uN Stel ioe css ‘roe ta quan 6) base ey oslo ie 1, Prove he lowing pit fasion aren He Ste te sip fr bn(cans) of Band sappoze Uae te forton 1: SR sais te ng eo: Gh Piscontinour: (By Jest Sana eee constants my sh ta Dem fia) y and so fla) = y, Le. x = f°Q). Therefore every con- ‘vergent subsequenes of (5) converges to x = /-1Q) It thea follows& ~—contisuous ruNertons on mrrate smAcet [86 by the compactness of X Gee exercise 3(/),4) that +, oF Pd =O). ‘Second proof. This is shore, but more sophisticated, Let F be a closed set in X, By theorem 3.63 (i), Fis compact and, by theorem 3.6, (Fi compact. The, by theorem 3.63), /(F) elosed in ¥. Thus (F-)-1(F) (be /(F) is lose in ¥ whenever Fis ‘owed in X. Therefore, by theorem 3.23 Gi), continuous on Y. | ‘An immediate corollary isthe well known theorem (C1, theorem 39) that a sirely mowaonle,eontiuous, real fanetion on an ineral Tia @ continous inverse ‘The property of uniform continuity, possessed by real functions continuous on a closed interval, was briefly discussed in Cl G38). It wae used to prove that « continuous fonction ir intagrable, We now consider uniform continuity in the general sting of metric Spaces ‘We rosa that, when (Xp) and (¥, 0) are metic epaces, the function f= ¥-> Ys continuous atthe point ee if, given there iad auch that ef, f10) < € whenever plsye) Owith the property that, to every 8 > 0 there correspond points sve X such that hs) <@ and o(ft0),f0)) > ‘Thos there ate sequences (x) (y,) of points in Xsuch that, Alva In) < Un and oC ft. fOW) > & Sinee X is compact, the sequence (x) contains convergent sub- sequence (x) with limite, say. We have He § Oh BDH A) 0, Hence x, >2 and Jat and, since Fs continua, Poy) Fad M4) =f, Thos eC). /0%4)) >. Gon6" cowrimvous runertons ow MEPwIC sPAcEs [86 However (sy 3)) ia subsequence of the sequence (ry, 74) and therefore ora) fUin) > © for eveyk 66 ‘As Q61 and Q.69 are incompatible uniformly continuous, | ‘A singe example (or nts a soto finton on 8 noncompact et) sow tha th eondson ofthe bt harem ot sea fr ular om Barciae 30) 1. Temes pon et Xare aan rove at, ) eam ian cay Oe) compact 1 Trove without oxng barr 345, that acompset out ofa me spaces one ‘Let Tits usa mia 9 beh anton ine by 4) for 3 2, Show tat he banded a eed st G1) ot compet @ Let6ea tes seuens na compat mete pce Show tha vey come (ot seganae ere at eat oe) amerps toe pt % ea > 5. Prove that the lteetion of any ealeton of compact subs of ‘trace compact (Show fs ise inerenon oa compl set ‘Sed sts compact) (i Prove that te in ofp, Ste numberof comput bse of «mete sone is omc : 6 Sow tht ina compact metic sac, every citing eqs of non rope, else sis har apni itaectin (sexes 307 1. Tee ston a)» Ri continous, and fla) Tax 0. rove af ‘uly costo 4, The ral anton fh ko 0) a ied by 0) = 2200) = in, Fish Gets} eor GG) 0 Which ar omy conto on.) ‘ton manele leper t Meech Rena cada iy he cll cal aye> 0, are ewe weeded ede that fee esp Wl moe eis ote Incas anayss and tetra al fton fee ie ie ab tke army) see's Dever ue ii tara eet hae gape The ‘omenetre enon tofunionson Rt ad tosonpl uncon, "ers ener wh he cna iw con 0.9 wi ot bowser fng-sisbline nd expesive sede erronly em ‘2 Ths cone wil make cla he tarpon Intends (The Yor ace ‘eeniology forthe futon fare ae) i ise eee Marne Choc em roo [i08, cov= [08 beeen <0. Ser hon ent 1. A tt Tr pEtinpat tins eg Rw a oe i Cae (ori nition of te er) of Essex 30,7.) Sow alta STF Pees my ed de ho 87 ed 12, Ins sei pce (4) te oe been te pat ¢ ad he bt Both, die by 2 dete by 2) int 6 Prove that the fnton fen by $0) = ls. B) Is worm continous on, Po ali tht , £) = Ost nd ony xB 13. Ina mise 9) he dar btn he bss A Bol Hy eo DeAa Ds lnc by) HA) = al. rove tai 4, Bar compact hr are pints @¢ A De Buh tht A.B) = Habs Prove tht in (vith va mai 4, = 0 for some aearbe it oecf theses 4, Biscompic an he ter ctl 1H. Let (5) bea ei inc A Bb di bse of X and spo ‘tacoma Bs compact he oe ote, Prove at oa.) 0, (Gh Got ect a est pots 0 4, Be Basch a 8) =D Give an exile of mete ace (9 with Coin, coved sets uch tat ae) = 0. 37. The Helne Borel theorem Tn theorem 3.62 we considered a property which was evidently lowly sated to that of compactness and we proved thatthe t¥0 ‘ein fact, equivalent. In this suction we shal establish character- faation ofan ently difereat Kind. Defition, A collection of of sts A is sai fo bea covering of set ey Ee UA58. continuous ruNcTIONS on mezmre spaces 8.7 ‘he covering is fief has afte umber of members only. When Eand the sets dof allie ina metric space, the covering ssa tobe open if eery set A of I open. Ua and oh, ore both covering of Band sy © of, we say thet sf, 45, reatvey 0, a ueocering of . Msratns (© Inzet £ = HOSTVand et Ae ~ 1; Then Eis coved byte es Ae Geb. (6 Te interval 1s over byte ope tras = 9 @exen (9 The ot C0, avd yt ee c= (Ie BD Nsw HO) 1,64 # Blouse) te. Hew 60) > 6 Hence (¢) cannot have a convergent eubsequence (For such sub= ‘sequence would have to be a Cauchy sequence). This contradils the hypothesis thats compet. | aa {THE ONE-nonEL THEORE ° emma 2, Let E be a compact set in a metric space (X, 9) ond let ‘be an open covering of E. Then there i a psitce nanber such thet, or exery 8B, the open ball B(x) it contained in some mend Gor. ‘Proof. Suppose thatthe lemma is fale, Then, for every, there is an x, © such that B(x I/) is ot contained in any Gof 8. Since Es compact, (a) has a subsequence (,) which converges tos Point x ©, Let G* bea member of 9 which contains. Since C= Is open, tere isa & > 0 such that Birt; 28) © 6 For ll slicintlylepevalues of & iy 4) < & Hence there is san integer r sch that Migs) <8 andr > Uh When 6 Bea We | ‘ A899) < ASD Heh a8) < 28 he B(x"; 20, Therefore BG 1A) © 9:28) = OF, This isa contradiction, since the lrg; 1s) wer chosen ta be open balls mt lying in any member G of | Theorem 3.7. (Hcine-Borel) A set in metric space compact and only esery open covering ofthe se contains afte sbevering Proof, © Let Ete a comput set in a metric space and let @ be an open covering of E By emma 2, there isan a > O such that, fr every © BBs) is contained in some Gof 8, Having chosen, we ean, ty emma id points ny cy Sch hat Be § mesa, Non, fr ach wah at 1 pte sa member 0 9f seh it Begs Gy Tn reba, 0 80 (Gy G,) a fie subooverng.70 continuous ronerions on MERIC spaces BT i) Let be a noncompact set in a metric space. Then, by theorem 3.62, £ eontaine an infite subset D which as no fimit points in E Therefore to each point e€ D ther corresponds an open Ball Gz B(csr) such that O.0.D = fe} Moreover the open set G = (By is such that Gu D > E. Therelore @ = (Qu(GJee D} is an open covering of Z, But the only member of F which contains a given point c© D(= E) it G Hence every sobcovering must con tain the inflate collection (Ge € D} and so contains no fie subeovering. | — aaces 3) 1 Ase Bina ao sae tcl ty Boe ba he oper wich wet seselsctal ce enna ay ts pce 8 ee a ze bi mesa, ‘Prove that fly bounded ets ound pd show, by means ofan example, ‘Dav found a8 nnd poe oy bounded 2. Lt Ebe a ttl bound st ina see pce Show ta gen aseqence Gan a gs hh tah Sa = 1) tec) mtaequee of. (0) 203) ein am open al ts rove tl (in) ta Canby stance "Boiuns dela st w a ete sce compet Wand only ay ‘onde and compe 28, Prove thom 3.66 by maf te Heine Boe sere, “4 The funtion fff) 8 a 1 be nresing at the pa xe thee egy > och at for f19 <0 when we G20, a} MTB eb 20 0 fb Show tat feces a very point Bh sess TO te Attn» Caesy ec it Qa atl ec) sch at en ay inion o> hes eh at Teams < wheter mat sine the equaogs of to Cauchy teens (nn Qt he ging ofthe pot of theorem 93: (e) = te) nat sD nn ‘he cance close geese hs ave en eal oh maners We Apter y se ete If non es Bc hands wich conta the eqns (x. eed the corerpoting el ons ‘utes, Now, hovenee hmm gel he themes et sat ‘hehe pation it lets et ao eer “hea stp to cine heb oper with el ours I 9¢ ino eal nbs an a, be, Gn Oye yen ert) = C9) Std Gaya) (ed We etre debe a9" and S20 poset ‘mn Contain the Catelyseqbencs 0) 2nd rea Aso 2x tnambisouy, fied tothe rei amber eae (nd The defi when x40 a ue onl oy. Mc (Wa) 0% te hr rail mer > Och at fs > Foal enya EA) wore a hve would ev a saben (ting Oa hs, insur, mou py te Cech sequen td ro Ths (Wl {ow tty I eh (eats OF andes Oa then Ce) and 1 ae re Cay eqs arene doe be {hs eal mtr contig (hs nwt poet i a ees fea eli racn awh Sant 9 Ge sa ‘ah aonb farm of 1) hat ide Ohne thre 2 fon &'5'0 seh tat 1 Fah sticey ea 6) a ‘ational > Och tat xy <= oral sanyo ee ny eo oe meet secoring a6 (Dor G held or tesa ater Hod for a Cauly ‘Suc ino). Chay +> Ov ieand nsec Oh We dion Soy ryt ex Iie a american O1-03 ooo) ily we dene he mods 9 el ar by (one va inp mite to vey tat he bition etn te aia pmers and te conespondag ra rane tes prereset ton nd fr ii) ae ronal name, then OG aa, Gott. (ate a, (ootes ° 2° B yt scoring a y Moroves, by @) a0, bait = be o Te be cording a 2 ‘At hs wage we could deo te elementary analy of rel mumters on atalino omer cgine aed aly as (vih now te al a. Taking thr devant for gamed we nek So Ui eof re ratio al miner, en aye one hte asta ("ef lana mbes Sch tins, Tne coral of ean een (OU, gta ee cel mmber an 3*

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Oa YS RK 9) aod pte = ye Sie ue setlk cue yt foe % th ral ational mamBerw* (Which cst 6.) sch tat Tp cen has cs rte port conseuenes ©) I 5550 1,2, aera Poin viol br thn a a ny Un ‘Suppor hat mm Cen ay rea nor et 0%, (the ia read a mur ich tho" < cB 9 Dan ea Iga oyu May Tico ty a ete ye fora Tht 234th epost ipiste flows inmindyfon (© rel ana gene (8) Cel een anol the ee Ping altro Gx) Caney see "Te poo srt that of 0). ©) Yay relat, 2a Pong Sy thn So “Toke any "real stnber ct > OY, By (there are real atonal nibs alts ‘Ghath aro yore e,Sce Gira Cah segura, He Bie reat kon om gee Bf eto mr, Then sas (950) €¥" tnd =p em ti dtnitn oneal smog ie mune epi! ie nec apcntost ey ce, 2) ae there the rea ain! mr ore ‘Wot now 1 prove te findaental theorem of th rset hry,(00) Bry Comey sec ofl made camer ‘ead pr) of pot there Lat) ay Caney seas fal mabe By (0 foreach n hr ral ail mur ee ondng trol mmr so at Since et a Cauchy sequences there. By (90 Cay Spi gf cal be SRS eins ve man 9 3 recat ft Iowa wu-o ‘Wet shows sh nih the wal met the tt of 0 numb on piston ote seo fel ational mnt. Seo beepers acon Fare in th rot of tcc 3a coatd te oa gution of apne the there, ie real nunber ae ped tah ns eation ed fs el "ata namber hing sed te ppose, eed ho lege be ed, We spread te ton i amas Ta pr 833 tno dente th al sumbet wich were former miten €% 16350, eal 24 and so a Cushy eqns By (0, (comes tn yey an forall Henge ) for evey Yo Le ne U, Bly eee theets a sue at snd 24 U Hee isthe lst meintr of Ui ath spre o "Couty Deiskinds aoe ns coment of 1) From fis pin ths dopa of tas flows the sre Ener whather cole Cah sgusce ae te fa dns sl ners Te two tthods Sik login tnt at ct of theron! mu mt esas frequen elas of Cay segues), bt te et i the ame, sce Presl the sane toe hl for ew eo 4 LIMITS IN THE SPACES R' AND Z 41, The gmbols 0, In this chapter we shall develop the theory ofsaquences a sties ‘of real and complex numbers, building upon foundations sucha are laid im C1. We start by defining three symbols Which consTbute to Drevty of statement ‘Suppose that (s,) and (e) are sequences of real numbers, () When 1, >"0, we flat the magnitude af x, t that of & by vo deinitions © Here isa v Kesuch that, bral < ey Ke forall, we ite x, = G) earn, we write, = ote @ thane, we write = he (Ot) means hat bounded. gen at feo, 25 00, = 5, a= a ‘Ober too that x, = Of) an that Ode nara oo = ‘The notation lends itself to an extended usnge. We ean wit, for a (7) +040) = Of0, 497). am This means that, a given sequence (x) satis, = O(4) and a given sequence ()) sisi yy = Oras then gs Oly 8) Note that, if 0g = ty the relition (4.1) becomes (0) +040) = OF0).16 wr I THE SPACES at AND 2 tat We ate also able to express concisely a number of other steps hich could oocur inthe manipulation of sequences, suchas 0%.) +000) = OC), 2, O(w,) = OC) edo) = oto), #01 = 060, ng Hbotn) ~ He “o demortra how theese en testo 8 ‘mes not mate vet he eran ofS "We haven = (e218 > 3, 2 conver. (ABO ition exresn tt does oly an upper brand, cn eer abs civerance Howse how eae aheces tk We have defined 0, , ~ for finctions of the integral variable as n> co, The definitions are adaptable to Funtions ofthe eon: Yinuous variable x asx tend either to co, ~20 orto finite limit rons \ Aron 8m eins = O00, RES Oit ee Mah ete a ins aot onsin y= Assasins Oh Joes = veces a) 1. Find wheter he ations x = 0 = 6, a mph cones Doty ron basen CoS at So eas ont the Oe SHE an x= ones ws See aroues vi om Bes omee. ots, whee 1 Som (sete ncaa Ye < [” asgdece > 0) Jaw hi if = w and y= 01) hen nn Show i ha he ingots re Oi) cena Be sted Showa ty Ot) an8 2, < sh alten edema 5 Eeabsh he following rato, © Assoa bed) = #4 OG, © Asx tay = Hoax sot. G9 Asx san S-eo4 ote) 6 Prove hat fr > 4, 3nd ede that, a >, th ae of he inal & + OU, Hee Sy hneengigto Szm (te i a fon fo) pose nd ing, hn 3 so [se ens oti auch that 0 1 (Ch, 14}) 42. Uppor and lower Knits So fin this book (and in C1) the symbol co hs only occured in the designation ofan interral(such a8 0 < x < co) or a4 part ofthe Phrase ‘x, oo I is now convenient to extend the usage, Ror instance We shall use ‘lim.x, = 20° to mean the stme Iniig te ‘— ©07;0F sup xy = "ta mean tha (ist hounded atone Other phrases involving Karu since (ts Suan Sere} > Ginn Zana) {Gn fact Km ax (Fy Ky) Hence ey ted citer C0 finite ii or 19 22, Moreover Kye» =a i and only Hf sy > eo. For if X,—> —1o, then, sen any number K, however lege, thee is a8 my Such that, < —K Torn > ye Hop, forn > my Ky = sup <—K snd so Ky > ~co, On the other hind Ky > ~c, then xy > —0, fince 4 % Ke ee 1 (x) is ot bounded above, hone of the sequences (4.2) is bounded above, ie sup x, = 2 for lin Defiton. Let (4) bea sequence of rea! muers Wes) ie bounded above, cae {x called the upper limit (or init superio) of, and we whte fms =A. or limsupx, =A. 17 ($n boumded aos, we write Ti: co or limsup, = c. aa ‘ureun ano Lows Los » 1 () is bounded below and hy y+ are the infima of the sequences (4.2), then ky < Kyo fF all and ke tends to a finite limit unless > 2, Weare therefore ld tothe following deftio, Definition. If) 8 bounded below, A= lim Got) {called the lower Limit (or limit nferion of (x) and we write im xy =A or limit x, = a. 1 (5) not bounded belo, we write Jims, = 20 oF Hija We have Tim of xy < lim supe my 2 sup xj and limint (=x) = tim sp (428) since inf (>) = —sup in Note tht the upper and lover Hints jn 4.22) and (4.28) need not be fit ‘A convenient characterization of finite wpper and lower iis is gven inthe next theorem Theorem 4.21. (0 The marer A ts the ypper lint of the sequence (4) if and only Sheivene > 0, @) 3 < Ae for ail sfcionty large mand (@) an > Ane for ify many m (The munbor 2 the lover Hint oF te sequence (x) and only Maivene> 0, (0.4 > Ane forall afcemy large mand (8. < Abe for infitly mony m. Proof. (@ Necessity. Suppose that A = tim up xy = lim Ky, where 1K, = sup x- Thon, shane > O, there is 1 such tt Ky < Ate and so sy < Abe for me N» Lars He SPACES WAND 2 Ba ‘This (0. To prove (8) we need ony show that, given any integer», there isan m > p such that x > Ae Since Kg) deteass, Ky > A for all m. So, by the dsiiion of Kyra thee isan n> pi such that Ba Kysmes Ane This gives ©, Sufficiency. Suppose that (a) and (8) hold. By (0), Ky < Aste for n Niby@)K, > A~cforalln Thus K, > Asie. A ~ limsup {) This Follows from () snd (423). | Corollary 1. The sequence (x, ends to Las -+ co Ifand only 7% vim int im sup sy = Proof (Mite x, rf then, givene > 0, thre fe. such that leecx elie 2 for > W. Hence = lim sup and I= tim it fim sup xy = limit x, = f then (0) and (6) show that (4.24 lds fr al sufieientl lagen, Therefore x > as n= 2 (Finnie. %y-> 20 if and only sf liminfx, = 60, Als lim inf x, = 00 implies lim sup 4 = oo Jy-e ~ 00 ifand only itlim sup sy = —eo;and im sup» implies limintx, = 2.) | Corollary 2. A im sup x, whey frit, the largest nomber whch the nit of subsequence of (3): 1 = lim i, hen fits the smallest such mabe ‘ “ Proof. The conliions (a) and (2) show that, for every «> 0, there are infinitely many seh that A~e < 3, < Ase, Prom this follows that there is 4 subsequence (s,) with limit A, Also (x) eannot have a subsequence converging to a number A" > Ne The statement about love limits is proved sinilaely ot by wee of 429, | ‘The analogue of corollary 2 for infinite wpper limits is that lim sup x, = —co if and only i» ~ a0; and lim sup x, = 2 it and only if there sa subscquence of (x) which diverss 10 9, The ay vresn axD Lowen Lams a Sirs statement has already been proved; for the proof of the second sce exercise 40), 2. There is simlarcharacteiatioa of innit lower limits Macrame ———~ (0 > (1s i y= in sp 26 = (a, = al: hn t= in 6p 25 ~ 2 (id a, = nt +17 en ax, = 0 en sp 24 (6) a= To ning = i ope = = ‘A proof ofthe completeness of R! was giten in theorem 342, but ‘more natural proot uses upper ad lower limits Tet (x) bo a Cauchy sequence. Given ¢ > 0, there is an N such a rete] <@ for mn > N, ‘Thos Ayre ey < aye for mW and so xy~€ 6 hy 6 lim ky lim Ky 6 Ky © aoe Hence lim if and im sup, are ite and 0 < lim sup mim iat x < 2 Since is abiary, lin sup x, = lim int and by theorem 421 coro I, (5) comers | ‘We now turn to fnetions of continnus variable for which we define upper and lower ints aco (or ~2) and ata pont First spose that fis detined onan interval (0). If bounded above in some inter X, 2), we dfine Jim sup fa) ~ ti gp 0: ft bounded above in every itera, 2) we write lim sup fis) = ©. ‘The dain of lim a (is sar Next let be defined on (0M, 0)U (a+), sy. IF ts Domed above ia some set (a~9, 2) (a), we define Jim sp f(s) ~ Jim (sup fl0)i IS i bored eboce in evry se (00, )U(0, 29), ewe lim sup fs) = 2.2 LIMITS IN THE sracns #8 AxD Z a ‘The anslogues of theorem 421 and corollary 1 are Tet to the reader. IMiatravons © insypsins = 1 ini = —1 timp sia) = Timi 9 = i is = ope = 0 ers 0) (0) if aa onl imine) an insu (6) ae 2. Prove that im sup x. = oo if and only if a subsequence of (2) diverges to 20} fa that im inxs and only ia sbsequnce a (x) verge to 20 2,2 0, 09 bw ean of eh i fr ale Pow © imint x < tim af) Hsp x < Hu re 4. Show tat, iG), ar Bounded sequences, thn tin in i ey) < Hine i sp, 6 Tinsup (#99) fm sup 2 09 Construct sequen (9) (for wih rt equates aca teary ep 5. The sequens (1) are non septve a bound. Fel cain of Inequaties a 4th products in pos of sims end re a xp awh Stet neualiia coc at every sep, 6 @Letyy-ny > 0, Prove hat” {@)it tim iat ye, then mint (ay) = yin 9 if im int = 2 (2, he in a i) = 2 (2); (© iti sop mis ine, tea tin sup (29) = yin sp: (iti spy 0 (=e), then i sup 7.) = (-2) Show that, (9 eed nat be, 0. {iy Let yep O Drove ha i Ge Bounded hen limit a) = yi sup sg ensue) = yin iat. 7. The function f:R-> Ris comtouos an nsressng, Prove tht i (x) Sry Bounded seuence of eal namber, then fax) = i in fe, fin sp) = tn sep flr) 5 goose 4a . slat Jen AND LOWER LIMES 6 wore (i) an abitray segues of reat marbes and (eI sequence of Yost fe ch tute Prove at tiniat < tim int timsup?t « Hs 9. Let (nbs a equenee of lumber. Show thst (0 twin tina = im sup EEE tins tx, > Ofer al (in, « amin eH su Hs wy 4 li int < in sep omen TDN ota = meme) (eeversse4e0, 9); omnes i OD = me 11, Onesidt ape ad over int. Suppose tat the real fancton fis dafined ine tera af 17 unoundes above in every interval G28 owe By oeree me deine i SB lon sup 0) and he so onesie oes re ie say Prove tay, deed 0a (e—,)U (a0, ap 8» max ms in sa ine) = min in 0, in in 1, Semon. The futon ffa6]-> Ri sd 10 be wee semicon vos a the ait eC, 0) FO > tins 0; fi sid oe ower cecantimous a He « init 0 Senicaninty a, bis ed byte fh ppotteonesded wer and loves tt ‘Sow thi Is wpgee (oes) semi-continuous nf 0, thes fis bounded stove (ilo) an ats i sypenan Cat),o {LIT IW THE SPACES 2 AND 2 wa 15, Por the fenton 1o,8)- #8 dine =) rte = yin fons MEN ¢E (6 an eine Vo, Bf, DM, Bae comspontng on "Drove if Df) » Ofor a thon fines 8. (Ps ae ‘fco'> 0't o,8} and we execs 3g, 4) Show nso tha te conan Dla) 5 On ob does nt enare ht stn nh 4.3 Series of complex terns “The funiiae tests of Cauchy and d*Alembert for series of positive terms (C1, 88) may be stengtened by the we oF upper a Tover limits. 115 also convenient to have these tests in @ form in which they apply to series of complex terms, and ensure either absolute convergence (and so convergence) or divergence Theorem 431. (The 100% est-Cauchy.) Let Bi, be a series of comple terms. () Aflim sup lng < 1, then Ba, concergesabsoltely (i) If lien sup lug > 1, then Bay cers. Proof. () Let Tim sup ju, |t" = A and take ¢ $0 that (0 <)A N.SinceO < ¢ < 1, Ze convergesand so, by comparison, lu converges, ie. Bn, converges absolutely. (Gi) Suppose that lim sup lv > 1. If the upper imi is ifnite, [ugh is unbounded. Otherwise we again appeal to theorem 421 In citer case we see that there are infinitely many n for which IuP® > 1, oF lial > 1. Therefore uO and so Eu, diverges. | Theorem 4.32. The ratio test Aembert) @) im sup leyysfee| = 1, then Zn, conrerge abso 6) Wb ata >, show Serge Proof. © Ili sup logy] < € < Uy there is am NV such hat leas]

Me i 4 | | Thee, st |< Neves] < oo and 0144-0, | | taser = det arise. Goon exam of ¢conergnt sri Sn ith Tit sup yl > By exercise 406), 9608, ! Hit gta Hi int fu lim sup lub! < fi sup lust “Therefore theorem 4.32 follows from and is weaker than theorem 431. (See exercise (0), 2) Evers 4) 2, ne cam to how tha when mst «the ares Ss may sch ths im sup yf = Lor Ki if [rt 2. Give an example of w srs which theorem 43 shows to consrze and to ich torn 32 not apleable Ghe a comeponding sae 2. The sequence i) of al aur isch that im sup, = 0, Show taf oot tan teres a 1. mestgt the comergeee ofthe see whose mh tems ae LODE sp, gy ODM! oy, 0 BE so, ay COE re, 5. Show that he complex series, aoe : 6 ind a the sl vals for wish theses Sh? comers, 7 Finale pi of omen mber a for which he seissa DIDS "6 aware ne mtr seaces at AND # wa 44, Series of postin tems In this section all series have postive terms. Although theorems 431 and 4.32 are wfbl for such series, more debenle teste are sill, “The proof of the Ist two theorems wee 8 companion principe, Ingroduoed ia Cl, in whic th tes of given series are compared With those of Series whose convergeace or divergonce is kav, ‘We may also conipe ration of tems Theorem 4th. I forall n > N, Ea, diverges, then Yu, also diverges, “poi enh Bet fLmoa. So both converge or both diverge For the nxt theorem ool, write loge ‘were fog,x = lg x lop low) (> 2), Theorem 442. (The logarithm see.) Each ofthe srise ta 1 Zim lag alogmlogs m loam OR comerges if > Land verges if < 1 ‘Proof. Kemust be supposed thatthe summation starts with a valve ‘of (cy ) lege enough forthe rpssted logarithms tobe dslined, “The value ofthe associated integral ee oi 0083 8 Wetec and is ‘As N+ o, the integral tends to co if < Vand toa fie Timi iF kent ‘The next theorem aries from the application of theorems 4.4 to the st two series ofthe logarithmic sae ‘Theorem 443, Ratio test of Gauss) Iii possible ro write deo fso(), hore pis a constant, thn Pag converges If w > | and diverges wel. Proof Suppose w > 3. Let 1 Tanddveraeork & L(Compuewith3-tand og") 4 Bnd al the poive yale of for which te sees an 5 The condensation et. The eqance a) psc and easing an p san Fraps peter tan Prove tte Sot comes oot es, (Ou ro 6 Let ube dvs ste psn meant 2 tt Shaw ‘vn converge: aris 3a of pst tris, comet ees Engin hte Given eso! mis Sof pov ems conse 8 dvs srs Ess otpsine tm ch thi ln 2 9. Gingn an ieensng equace .) wits ing, ~ costes comeeet oo Sn atch tht Sa be am nike cle of erat (nmr) si of pose tery exch "ering Converging) more sow tnn theo Sere ite Sens ae yf trultegO Co) a non Conia aa eh des ee ‘erp me Stan eey sr he sel 48, Conditionally convergent ral series ‘A conditionally convergent sis is one that converges, but not sbuolutely twas shown in Cl (03) that rearrangement of terms does not effect the sum of an absolutely convergent seis, but may change ‘te sum ofa conditionally convergent ons. A moe previ sfatement 's possible Theorem 4.51. (Riemann) Let be real and Ea contonally con agent Then the terms ofthe seves canbe rearranged tha the sur ofthe first n terms tends to any gleen lint or as eign vpper and lower Tinie or tft. roof. Denote the positive terms in 2, nthe onder in which they appear by yey and the negative tras by Wy Wy. The the series Zo,, iy both diverge; for if both converged, Se) would converge tnd i one converged and the other diverged, 2, would diverge We shal rearrange the sces fo converge 16 a given sum, Take ‘he smallest number of&'s for which oj e,+.-+8, > f Then take for the next terms ofthe rearranged series jst enough ws, starting with wy fo make the total sum f. Then take more v's in oder From apy to ia the sum > t Since, and Ev, diverge, this process can be continued indefin- itely. Let y be the sum ofthe fst» terms of the series so constructed “To prove that 4,->1 we remark that [ff & bly Where ty is ‘he fina term ofthe lst complete block of positive of negative terms included inf and uy» O25 ca,*” istes aw tite SPACES AND > Bs Inview of theorem 4.2 corollary 2 its easy to mosily the process so tha (bus any assigned upper and lower limits. | “The tess ofthe last two cections are used for proving sbsolute convergence of serie whoee trms are nt al postive. Theor 4.53 land 4.5 below are often useful for establshing conditional con ‘vergence, These theorems depend on the following simple deat. Theorem 452 (Pata summation) If oy dy yo By PE ny bers eds, = $04 (8 = Yeon the 2 aE he ap = HOO BDF Allo Proof. Each sie ie s0-+(4-8) Pou Hb —Sp eet 1 0, 3 > Oa yn ae aye mates Sian! BSH EM KM dah ten fo aot ty 0. By 0), there isan 17 sch tha [| <1 Toeall Then lease tau Basal < 20 ny the last eoralary, legutancton gupta & 28g forall p > 1. Since, 0, the sequence (1), where Thersfore, = Baty is a Cauchy sequence. As 2! is complete, lim iy exists, Le. Zar, converges. | “he aerating wis ier (C19) i te sec ese a ncivetieata ts Tha 454 (Me) Lt 78 = 1,3) Bere IE ‘p Secon i uot nosto nt oded socom rf, Wecan poe ain hem 4 tthe tal sms of sae fons Gy igus Alsaaly wo dete 34 Tees hae rom (i nda ny Lat = oy that scar) h monte nd fens 0, By, Bas comer Ao 69, wie 5. 3 nis bounded and, ty teem 433, aor comer | ramp 3 (0) is meootni ed ends 0, they Zsa conver for sted Siena comer sy, Powb, or t= Gn 3 Tis 5 amv feedemconte na] Seee|-[M Tins 5 5 cna = [tot Sewn Ora "Tie temple hequenty mn deatng the conerrar of « power ster at por on ce amversns Bras 40 1. amine for ones he sls whose eas ae bie © Cm @>0, @ oo stn io BA on o ©) Deve an end, (0 (ape, oo @ Mew aro.o ans ns nite emacs #8 AND 2 bs 2 Fal he al ales of wh he tie. 0 Shit att taal san ‘the ead valor of © = 0,31, 42,9 and cena frat ) Seo ders > Land (i) Hae caer 0 dos Sie) for # > Dedoce tht hr rea ber a > ~1 sch tat So, comers for The en) mont ad coma 0 li ve at he Sem isc dat Hens,» Ul 6 Enalsh Deki extensin of Abas theorem 4S that, Sth the Seanad cnt ame thn Sy comes Si nd pms "Tn ral funcion fon Uy) # ach tha JG) > O for x & Hand fix) +0 sve tet fo) 20/0) 0b + nba mers tna a in des decomp Surin, thes Scns lf tr de. So Lal lim i ld 0 «Ho sup (ual (min a) =, ons a (8) wn > 9, nina) = 0 iS i) =. 1 Te res $n comers absolutely and the srs Fr comers. et ty (0 O12 451 conDirtonatty convexornr nzaL senits 93 weet = Baton Eo dt a (ts theorem 37 of Cl, Ee _ & ) (e. ‘} (O'Ths order song he pet es rd he ode aman te nebtve seme renin change Fell HOt thst rape postive andy a NBs, ek 0) Prove tht he sum of the esis og £8, The sae a een an x ~ He Show ts se wang in then hsm oh sei eines by Sk neem of tie tha nee tem folowing wo pate ons, santerent 46, Power sees Jn C1,§5. and $56, iewas shown that every power series Eoy2" has a radius of eonvergeace X and that R= Us floc If Sis lit exists, By sing upper limits we ean give simpler prot of the frst result and we can sharpen the second. Theorem 41, (0) sim sup lg) = 0, then Baya concerges aout forall lim sup lag = co, then Eo" converges for z~ O only. (il) 170 = lim sip la," = 02 nd 1 Reel ' iia Tl ‘hea Soy2* converges absolutely fr |z| < Rand derges for |e| > Re The radia of eoncergence of Eay2* is therefore B, where Ris called i te ease () and On le ease i, Proof, (For every so, by theorem 4.3 in sup lye fi a a2" Converges absolutely forall(rt urns THE SPACES HAND 2 Be (i For 2 + 0, limsup a | tim up oy" = 20 and 50 ‘Eaqz* diverges forall: #0. i Hr [s< R, then lim sup [aye = [im sup Jal!" < 1 and so Za,2" converges sbsolte!y fe] > R, then lin sup [ae"P" > 1 and so Zaye" diverges. | ‘Theorem 4.62. The power series Sa,2* and Say have the same adi of eonsergonce Proof. By exercise 40) 6, tim sup [nay = i sup Ja Since tn = 1 | Corotars. (Ail he series obtained by difereniatng a power series erm by term any nunbers of tines have the same ras of conergene (i) As resl holds for integration eerene 4D 1. ind he ome) aes of far whi th following pone si cone, o (5). wes Sake | of 603 (lot) = ean “0 | co $5 Secs | svar boty fo = 15 Cine <1 <2} — 40, vownr sons 95 (lo pote Gi stow tat OIAt usa alan dts (2) 0st) © Neti) scars 4 esp th converges fe pegs rs § settee) be). Feder tereD 4 The power ses Bae ber hnve ai of comers RS rpc Show sat te ais of eonease To (a4 min, $I {9 S Winston esl avout 7 when BST (Sho that he of comers To of © aby a eat RS hare ‘os inerpeed sof RO, Const nate wih T, > Ul) Sho hae the rcs of eomerpnce Ty ef Ey lent abe is att min 8), Const an spe a wich Te > min, 5) The gis eof oot al ot deni Prove tat 2 ben |a-a(Bae)-al 0, tere i ok thet gaa -< © whoneer on >. 86 inns mv THE SPACES st AND 2 7 we then write Ken 28 a8 mn OF li a Mervin ® tin 5 doe na ont or It is natural to te to relate the double init {wo repeated limits fm (lim and im (Hi in Wh the Theorem 471, Af lion ing exist and fr each, HOLS eit, ‘en i (in eit od a1 ide Proof. Let lin gu = 3 Ad lim Sng Ya ). Given > 0, there ran sch hat, nx <@ for mn > B, am ‘Also, given my there is Pn) such that Bae=nal <€ for n> Pla any ‘Now take m > N. If > max (N, Pt) (4.11) and (472) both hold and give Das] <6, Thus yy a8 > 00, | Note that the existence of Tim, doesnot ensure he existence =m. ‘Fcorem 4.1 hasan immeiate corollary. Theorem 4:72. Suppose tht () for each m, lity exists and, for Of Tig for any mC och nL yg es, fi neni To le (i yy i (i yy) ext andar oa ‘ustration Gi) shows that fm (im gg) and Tn, Hin an) ay well exist without bsing qual. The inversion af succesive Ling operationsis generally a deiate matter tee ison simple eitvion, of monotonisiy, which we now give an ounte AND agrEATED Ltrs ” Theorem 4.73. Suppose thar each yy i real and tht, fr each m, Sigg iterensesdereases nithnand foreach increases deereate) vid fone of the ints Tin, i (Hin) Sim, Lin 0) exit then the other wo alto eet and alte lint are ep Proof. We may assume that increases With m and (Suppose that X85, 8 22. Thea Ny < >To a, 2 Hence, foreach m, (Wnt Sap) sa Bounded increasing Sequence ‘and 50 Lim yy eX. Silay lim exists, Tt now Follows from Ueorem 472 that im (lim syd) nd im (Lim xy) exist and are eee ae ee (Gi) Suppose that im (Lim Yay exis Let Un Sug = Yu = 1,25) a= ¥ Since sg nereazes With me © fr al and sce ny inroads with m, ys increases with m also and so Ye Sp foeallm THUS ey ey fr al n,m Teg easy to 88 tha a hounded double sequence which increases with each index convergs (exercise 4(q), 3). Therefore Tir yi By (Dim (Lien) alo exists and all three iis fare equal. | ‘The notion of double limit is applicable to functions on R* (ie. fonctions of two contiauous real variables). Fora given fonction f, ‘we may consider fx, 3) a8 x, end to infinity oF Toa finite i ‘Aso one variable may be continuous, the other confined to integral ‘values. nal thes eases analogues of the last thre theorems hold Double series. Given th double sequence (i) of complex terms, vet of san = § Sey (un = 12,03 ayy 286m, 00, ey that the double series converges &: Bs a eS ° a 98 ‘ants iN He seAcES HAND 2 wr ‘Theorem 4.7, interpreted for double series, takes the following toms IF 3, ta owes oso fas, 3, omer sm 3, 15, (Fvn) emptor of er {73 ope a ne ee ek a LULrrrr—~—is——CsKS = Siro 3(S conerges, then all the series ). (Smal) «rm Ene E (Sm), comere and hace ese i, Pro a suport hey Lt Pan = lta! Haas Guen = HH te ce race tee ee ee sets ih fa eed oy oa compan leo 8 cae tae teens cere sey Tha, by esr Et )- BR) a convert ad have he ame. Ti sa for cone Wn te ny a coms tee nd agate ies [Pals [and be i 0m of sie (47) conn, hn th comping rs one ace and re scone Heeb tives theorem | Haan 88 an DOUBLE AND REPEATED List » rere 9) 1. Fd, when ty et, te doa it ta nd the repented iis in ak in (id of Seid ie on inchs, Cn oe wo, once, 0 ty, eocah (eed) 2 Ghean example an unkown covet dub saben 53 roe, without ing double His ta fs nets (st with {chan and non teatro oe of er Cline, im Cie od ‘mpi the existence ofthe other and also the eget af the ce iis 4 Gea pip of segret. Show hata seer a len sine ‘itn for he ample) duke ane) 9 coer at Bren # > 9, Tre anny Seek it [etal Ee 15, The dole sequnce (a) of el numeri ound and nics ares witch ni Prove that ie) come 6 Conparton ripe, Suppose that Stax Enea dobis ss of Dose 1 Hae fa and ka omer. Sow at 3 comers = 1.-The double eB ty competes Ha (cone billy _E elcome Sw that a assy convert dubs see comes 1. Sw at he db ese converges fan only i> Vand 9. Show hat edo sie Rem 1a resonant, $i iy 2h100 ‘tres 1 re sraces a! AND 2 wr rove that Ser Em Deduce that, teks 2, ime” 2 1M Leta be nonce comple amber ih tht ot el Show hat (aoa sn aa iio ‘seers about if and only > 2. (Fats presen wtb on wal ompes powers recede ope fo) ence prove tha, he ties Sue ant Bae a veri of comers (> 0), Ti sms ve dened 2) ad hsp. Ess as do We api ihe fom NOTES ON CHAPFEN 4 81, The et ushanatien to we he Ope sotto sno wn Land (87-198) Fu otemone ha) fad petal ls isa fen ah a ese el ert ‘wo Ieresing fcr wich tnd to ty. Sve GI lay, Bos 9 Andy (Camis, 13) 542, The upper and love Es of sequence of rst oumbers could be fined a he lags ad est nantes, respec, 10 way sobseqanes _tanerae ith stb provision for inne, Hower is procure woe ‘eure an inal proof th sch suaers exit. Te meted we hae soph, ‘hough es inti toa snp. Filer nay he es of it spears ip tay fos ach f whieh ie ‘sual eed india nhs bok we have sep dec fo sets in ic pce in of ene rom one sae eathen Shr intace car C. Th approach, apa fo aa Beste fo antral we ane san sop tr Sto {hs evra diferent ahs in which upper en owes his appear. Nowe ‘ni eatment of the lint proces posible et Xb a non-empty mA moment Se of ssl of cal a ‘Ble on Xie tolowng codon sr shied EL Abed then An Bes Ho Waar an bd te Be Begs: Date by F2, ees to ge examples (0 I0P, helo poste apr, thet shat PA sae Frm (i in he etton fa ses which comin ar 0) ie. {ih fat (tgp) bea matic sey kta ten ed nk pot of Ye and 25 24nheon Woy beled the coecton tl subset af ih cin a eB: ) = oe seme > TNR Re Bh on Se EA dn ty te et of fates &, oo B= We FD orm de F) toate on 5 Dow et ea arom se and et (Y, 0 bea metic pcs We then ty ips = {te 708 YH ran «> 0 rian 46 eh at 0) for ‘Either ys tin of ans of point na it {571s ta i ae seat ober lar sats: ee Ini, ae) orm we sin oe By torment concen nih py eas, ot sur pes Some ote prope aoa cite wih ni owence These my ferred bythe kmpeston af ite id reson a Y rally Fees tended, and fen on tet cape witha ster inne ton Hay = ap fo46F) esa bound elat uton ¢90 4nd it maybe shown ht in ts, whee te eon deen. Ths init ene ash per lini af eget ta igo = ti 0 snd insy leit = iota. nish we he note i nis aad con ‘ne oy of es eho topless ay ot [ound snp cant fei ths sting fines FS et ‘omar aie “Abia Amaas' (athe Gast 38 (eth 29) ‘Tegal teary fet ao enone nhc pt Sate oneal tery ft tebe by Er Mesune ia Siy ers ‘nas (ad by Re443. In C1 snd so far his book wo fra dftin of he ite ries nas appeared Toil hep we we ston D sy that he ses the oder pio suc) ‘There fs no confusion in practice in the double usage of the ymbat $n, ‘estas desianating the series formally defoed a (9) (without anya {nt wi comern nd sony se nah son ‘Sia remarks apply to double sees 5 UNIFORM CONVERGENCE ‘5. Poinise and wniform convergence Consider a sequence of funtions Ge X2Y Wah 2d whore (0) sa matee space, Fo the moment the space X need not cary a metre. Suppove that theres @ function f+ Y such that, for each nx, athe) fa) 20 157 -> eo, We then say that (converges toon X, or; mote speci- Sealy, (f) converges pointwise fon X. Inet o te X15 sub of Hand 0h is sl mei © Heya BE, tore Hoyo © fa8 feoeest His)Fod, whee 16) = 0 for 0 0, Spr We observe that in (i) the sequence of functions fw each cone tinaows on [0 1), has a imi neti which is discontinuous atthe point 1. In this example pointwise convergence is not a strong enough requirement to ensure that continuity i eatied over from the functions f, to the imi Function f “The central theme ofthis chapters the tansmision of properties ofthe individual funtion ofa sequence to the limit Funetion, For this investigation we define a mode of eonvergnc> of & sequence of functions, stronger than poitwise convergence04 vvtronn convenonnce Ist Defition, Suppose that fu: X-» ¥ 16a sequence of fnctions on a set 10.4 metre space (¥, 0). The sequence (fp) sa to converse uniformly 10 f2¥—> SUPA) %0 as n-ven, ony ‘Tre distinction betwen pointwise and uniform convergence then thats inthe former af), fa) tends to Das foreach separate ointxan, nthe ter, te wpm ofall tee vas tend is pin that uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence Go the same fit funtion station (i) show that eomvergenes nay eld at every point ofa et, ete (0,1) but sic, fr ee 2, AOD=F091 = 1 th comer ene, The tea oe conn (1) oer wel Cone- WH) sah tof) eu tran» He co ‘epi tormifan a ick poset hes A Se independent of x, such that 7 ks fo) «fost > Nankal sex We sat eine th Hons Gy i or enti ot convergence, Since X'© Rand Y = A they lend emsae fo a —rmC—C—— CE sesinee pp-nw frets 0 rowan avo onion convencnnes 8 ia poli converge dss ne epi unilnm convergence en the renac 7,6) fore ns ent Ii the “ltl nena the cane y= 3) 0 the cone rezG), Tn above 0-0) = (42. In any fine, sy Oa gp lNie)-fo] < £40 as woe, tnd wf» fio on Sonia Hower etc eo tak yal in Sine sup) =o, the converse uo ah ini tr). ip We have trex sown that he converse fe) not unm nf, Ts ht aan The in eon {Frac mpf oan aie pout anya oon he Coninoun caver y= = ne ine once pee sorrel yf) ey =f e004 I) tl be poe inom SA ta nq ondnots Raton ah tional ones nontrn, "he rene shui prove tnt ny nea =] ik exces the pit te eon ef i ioe, {ib Thi compete mae seh ee The on hetataninamt te pon nani jy = ew a BRU AH| w Efe Ga) and thé convergence i ot uniform106 bxtrons ConvERGENCE sa Each fis coninuoas everywhere inf, co) and go is f‘Thusuni- ormity of convergence is not & necessary condition for the Tinit ‘of continuous funetion (9 be continuous, Anse: sale iis he tons of nie an if overs te C52 est como and bound al eton on Many theme canes by i nist ow |" ¢o-vna| gveo Cipaehnm nc, tye ma voctncaatihagte ne ‘009 = os!) ecco, None eC y= pe Woh msi = wo foot) al <2ig0 as nee OF) Sever $6, nov ft i i se atc ag pease kane at Gin eel oy event nt ccaonoa/ Cig peru. 00) <2 He = wenly on Ce We ad thre fre ots () Inthe to pagans presting theorem 344 the ws metic the space B(¥,¥) of Bounded faeions J: > (2s 2) wes defn by ACs) = sp oLF. a0. “Ths, for functions in BCX, Y), niform converpnc sen with convergence nthe mt opace (CE, 13,7). 1, paral, Y's en Aa) = wp 1M) ~at0) ‘and, for bounded rel valued functions, uniform convergenge isthe same as convergence in the metic space (BLE), Sa] oWsrwist AND UNtFORN CONVERGENCE xor (@) Wehave assumed the set offnetions on X to Y tbe ind ‘yy positive integer which tends to co, T is easy to adjust she dsiniton of uniform convergence to cover, sty, a double soquerce Sndexed by (1) of # et of funtions determined by a continuous ‘arable which tends toa imi ot 1 2. {Q) Convergence and uniform conergence of series. atone sts $a of raoromp valued fonetions on @ set ¥ is a translation of the corresponding stent bout he segue wheres, = Ste Iesroion. Foe 1, He Be Sect on thet of complex numbers = sstshing el <1 97 es ‘Then = and $x, converges to 2a each point ofthe die fel « 1 “The convergece isnot unifoem because, for very mgheo-#o- gal | ‘ae ome rh ef 1°B wh ny a ica tiae “Theor St willshow ta ny pone srs conver iformy ona sed ca dei of samvergnee 0 roe, veer 509 1. The fantin fon Xu Y ars hat -*/ wllorly on X08 ff Tafa ow FS hat of wary 00 0 2, compe a otis fo gn sents ory 0 ow tals ug some kacefercrfs eiony on Pian st oper omy 007 2. The eqns, (gon (1, (hon, 10] a fied by f= min, 26) 08, b= rove tata he segs cm one hh of tem somes Sma 4 Exmie for wii sonvenae on. he ess cake Alay = =x), aks) = meer,10s vntron cosvencrnce isa 5 Let (9 te a sme caning of a the rats mutes ad 41,2... define the functions f, oR by 7 ' mi Be 1 tree 19-(0 ee rove ht (covers pint, i ot iol o vn {Is @ te he sto tol nuns in (1) an deine he st Bysoin = wen pa ae copie ponte acs Let esac ig ofthe mente of tnd, ors 12 dake oe uy = {0 oe @ aco. aly ono Show that ff 2, Examine for pointe and unio serene he sues compte fonctions ied ty Conteavtns _ he) ven that for eer continuous we a ton F 081.1 for which te eave) comers worl nn Als a hea ese wheter the sequence tonnes nel on. 001, Na gre by 0) = PO, ele) = KL XF, md = (Irth, Prove thi the series Si Em 3a al come points; whith oh ‘simvege nnn? Sh ets wi fo 9. Porn = 01,2, the nto Aen ‘Show that (7) converses unitary on, “These consis ofthe eal fection one Buch hat on 6 ) ets and iecomnaous and tm [econ ven Sa For = 1,2, thefinetion Rare died by 1461= [sents eo, Prove that he equenee (enor nfm 0 Lex. 1) be matic sacs. Lt bea set of ¥ ad x Doin of Xs Suppo that he fenton fs = Y emerge vnieasy Bieta tb 2% Veonvege unforsyon ry Alon a x Show tit if (6) comple, the he seaence a) omer 62] rRopenTins asSouED BY UNIFONAE CONVEROENCE 109 ‘52. Properties assure by uniform eomergence Iustation (i) of §8.1 shows that the limit funtion ofa sequence of continuous funetions may be dissontinuous. We now prove that ‘this cannot happen when the convergence is uniform. Theorem 5.21, Let (Xp) and(Y, 0) be metric paces. Let the sequece of fntctions f2 X-> ¥ concerge tof, aniformy an X.If esa point ‘Of X at which each fs continuous, thn is continuous a ‘Proof, (The argument ie essentially the same as was used in theorem 3.45} ‘Given e >, there im such that sup Go. fO) <6 Since fis continuous at, there sa 8 > Osuch hat etfs, flo) < whenever ps0) <8 Hees, if (8,9 <4, (M0, 19) & OUT) AO) HOU LA) LOO) 86 and 80 fi continvous ae. | Coretry. If the serie Sy of real or complex eed fncton con serge wiformly 10 3.08 (Xp) and each nis continous at , then Proof, Each #5 = tytou tis continous ate | ‘The hypothesis of wniformity of convergence which has been ‘proved in theorem 5.2 fo bea sufficient condition i not a necessary Eonditon, Ths is showa in illustration (i) of $5). We shall prove in theorem 5.35 that if Vis and ifthe sequence (/) is monotone, thon uniformity of convergence fs necessary forthe entity off ‘Repeated lint problems. In theorem 521 continuity of fate when eis a limit point of X, means that 5 lime) = SC. ‘The fe-hand sie is Jim tim f(s), where the ner Hii is i the etre and the outer inthe p mci, The term (2) on the right-hand side is lim (0), and, iFeach fs continuous at this isthe same as semen) JIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDD 10 vniFoné convERaENCE 2 ‘ence the conclusion of theorem 5.21 is that in whichever order the two limiting operations Jim and tim 213 apled 0) the rt isthe sane “he preblem of vesting the ints >and > cia a double sean ha already been dicated in G1 the solon ey Inte guns eng monte fn mane inn common application ofthe notion of norm ist july ths inversion ofthe order of petd lini. Theorems 522 snd S29 wll oid farther estos of thi The reader wil sce tit Anite o spe he rirary mete spaces con S38 to the space R'. 2 We cosiersequenss of rel funsons intpable over afte intra points omtergnt eqn ofthis nd eed thane 2 integrable ii funtion; and, even if he ii unton has an integra the equees of integral ned not comers tot “ojos the fiat statement we ake a sequne ofalons on (0.1 dined as ftlews I, seq consting ofa he tina mars of Th fof Then fbf whore 1 Stew y= zero i sis ition [Now each funetion fis integrable ove (0 1, since every Lower sum 58) is 0 and the upper sums S(2) tend 100 a8 the length of the largest subinterval of @ tends to 0 (ge Cl, 123). However fs not integrable over (0, 1] ee C1, 122), For the proof of the sivond statement take the sequence of funetions gon (0, 1] where B40) = xe £_->E pointwise, where g(s) = Ofor0 x < Ako oe es [leoode~ while ‘sa] Pnorenries AssuaED ay UNHFORME convEnoENCE 111 Tis et tothe reader to show that nether of the sequences (/), (.) converges uniformly (ef. exercises 5(@), 4, 5. ‘Theorem $.2, Let (fj) be sequence of rea factions integrable over ‘he ite intreal (a 8) If fof wniformy on (a, B,then (0 Ss integrable over (a, Dy and ofets | “BR, VEG~Fol| <6 for n> N O Forocxed, Sike)~€ < J) < Lo) ¥€ nso, when is any dssction of, 49, fy)—db-0) < 19,f) 5 Sf) < SB.fz)+A0-0). This SB,)-K8.1) < 919, f,)-AO,fa)#245~0). ut, since ff itegrable over, S12, fi)-AOR) <€ it the length ofthe lngstsubintrval of 9 is suiienly smal, For suche 510, )-49,) < d+20-0) and therefore fis integrable ove (a (i Forn > N, by C1, 1270), fmf = |[Le-n]<@-0.1 Conary Terme integration) If Eu, comerseswifory foban{a ond echt nerl nero) fens sinepate = foots ‘We note that uniform convergence snot necessary forte vai ‘of termby-term intgratign; this is shown by istration (i) of $5. ‘Theorem $22, proved for 8 ate intervals false for an infinite Interval. See exercise 5(8), 5) nthe last to theorems of this section we deal with sequences of| funetions diferentable ia an open or closed interval. When the1 unttons convexaeNcr 2 interval i closed, derivatives atthe end points are taken to be one- sided: i the intervat io, 8, /(a) nd f (6) are defined by 10) fig EMAL, 9) iS | 4 a | Tene s2h4 La eae gral ron dose | I | i ‘on afin closed intercel a,). Suppace that (fs) eontetger for at ‘east one x a, 6) and that (f) concerges wniforty on fa, 8 Then ©) Ue) concorgeswiformiy on fe, (0) FJ fs ifereniabte na 5} and, forall, 8 PO) = i 560. mf = ad lke any > 0 Sige (omer iri ob, tes an such hat LBB |Ab)=e091 (52H and therefore (2, UO)~Rt| < 26 for mn > ee When Ey fae any pon of Be have by the mea vale theorem forse CD) ~LAEN- CED -LAEI) = r- DGO-~LAD). where Ele ives 6 df and, forall mn 3, IGE ~ fol) lED Fol DI 21E~ Eile. (5.22) @ Wsyisa pont or wtih (05) comers there isan Wc shat Lilo Salidl < € for mn > (523) Now etx be any ot of 0}. By (£22) wth y= van = and by (2) ve have, for mon 5 max (N I), Vie)fi0 < le-ssde-e 42b—aje (52% Ad so inf) ext for all x0} Leting m-> in $28) ve 4 $5 that (7) comers uniformly on CG) Let ¢ beam Inn po flr a tke any 40 sch that 40 cab By (623, wih fs nand y= cw hv a mn PM Ue 4t) HO_fleoM~f0) fi a 6% G29 53] axorteries AsHURED ny usiroms ConvERGANCE 113 Since Sale# A ~falO) >Me+ DLO 10, (525 shows tht, for al 4.0 sh at he, [ead Met I|< me or n> M1526 By the dfion othe eva (2) threisann > Osuch hat eH g¢9| ce when 0 IH. G2 Then, by (520, (529 and (52D, Fes 1 eo L009) +1600-e00 ae ‘when 0 < [hl < 9. I follows that exists and is equal to #10) = lim flo, eis one ofa, the above proof applies exept that must be resirieted to ether positive or negative values respectively. | Jn dealing with open intrvals we can assume rather Jess than uniform convergence on the whole interval Theorem 5.23B. Let (f,) bea sequence of real fnction diferetable fn afinte ovine pen interval (0). Suppose that fy) converges Jor atleast one x (2,0) and that (f) converges uniformly on every “nite closed subinterel of (2). Then (i) Uf) converges sniformy on every Fite closed suberal of 2, i) Fm lea J frend ia (0, 8) ad, forall x68) = FG) = tim fe. Proof. Let xy be a point for which (f(0) convergs, let be any point of (a, 8) and et (2, be any finite lose subinterval of, 8. “Thote is now a frit, closed subiterval [9,9] of, 8) suck that xe ce(rd) and [afl

me (531 Prof © WC converges utr oon X hen, gen «> 0, he ‘is an my such that Lea. lars BULL] < Je when n> my 2nd (5.3 immediate coneues of hit (0 Suppose hat ory 2 0, ee ah ich hat he isan my sch hat 31) holt, Then, for eins te soqae U9) of ral eres nbs i Cas non ands Band Suc ans Tim 4G) exists. Thus there is a function fon X such that : HS) fo) forevey xe We stl sow at, funioty. Take ay > 0 a tm be ch hat (31) Rl, Now et x be any point of X. Then, when m, 1 > ty y " Led fO] < and so Wve. Sinoe this holds forall ¥, im Mal=L] <€ for 3 my SUpLAD=A09] <€ for n> ny ‘Therefore, + Funiformly on X. | | | I 4 | — 331 (ceetenta ron uxtrons convenounce Po 1k willbe noticed that the proof of the sfieney is mnsely part of the proof of theorem 148 on the completeness of the space BEY), ‘Wie shall now use theorem $31 10 establish a number of con- Aion ensuring the uniform convergence f series offunetions. ‘Theorem 52 (Weertran’s Mets) Let the fimetons ty te 00 be real or complex taled. 1, for eal, thre isa constant My such sat Ino] < Ay =, were 24, conserges, th Boy conserges (absolutely and) uniformly ond. Proof. Veh 4 = H+ sven ¢ > 0, there isan ny s0ch that Mysto My < € Whenever Im > > Me Hence, form > 1 > Me RP 9200] Mas Po My <6 2, Sines EA, converges, and so, by theorem 5.31, Ea, converges wniformly on X. | The Met snl fo sbslsy samen se wt te seco Theron 33 (Dit) eft, yon Karel eed eine oi 0) espe (0) = $f) mlb o£. ‘there is @ constant H such that |s,(x)| < H for all» and all x © X); (i) for each x, (o4(2)) #8 a monotonic sequence; ee tpeniy en rernts cone or Poot byte Dad l'se% aya) on teea] Let x= My te tree 9) er for 8% Solana LOR Thin’ een te Se 43 Tames Vase sA) + oot Aes) Ouag OD] & BHC a(2) Soca tts ces amt 08ue vnirosw conv mrosNce isa Similarly the series converges uniformly on Xy sd thee Xm Kyu (exerise Sl 1). | 3 fore on Theorem 5.4. (Abe) Te fnton ex satisfy the following conditions: . (9th series Sa) enters nifty on (0 foreach 3,69) ra mootne rc i) 246) tr eniorm omdavon Then Zen converges inary on Prof. Let M be sich that lo) BF for all 6 a Asin deo y Xand Yt sa oe and increases respectively . Hy riven > 0, tes ian such eat leant] < € forn> mu > O and all ve theorem 83, Hons) eu dni Pap] < eeaeC < elt form > Me p > and all xX, Hence by theorem 5.3, Za, con ‘ets uniformly on 2. Uniform eonvergease on see . noes ‘on X are real eared and 2. Thea, again by the eorolay to ‘The shove proot is inependent af theorem 53 argument usd to dedr theorem 4.34 fom th inp chy) tently spe and important cae of theorem 5.34 ccs ‘when ay(x) = a, (independent of x) and Za, converges 4 romp, The series $B When p > 1, by eho ae, ae When

285 when 0 < @ < $9 end the necesery condition Df theorem S31 snot sts, This sa recognized teshnique for ‘stablshing nonuniformity "Te lst theorem ofthe stionia partial converse oftheorem $21. ‘Theorem$.38 (Dini) Let (fe be a emergent sequence of el valued Fimctns on a eompact mete space (1p) I for every eX, he Sequence (fs) le monotoi nd Il the feos fo (8 = 1,2) aul) = Tin eve conimius on X, then, > fnfornty on Xe Proof. Take any ¢ > 0, Given any point e€X, ther isan integer eed IKO-F9] <& Sins f,=Fisontnvous thee san open al ih conte exh ie 00) -f0 < 2 for alle Be Also [A(2)-F00)] dereess and fo ats) =f] < 28 torn > ny and x Be “as Wis compact, by the Heine-Borlthebrem 3.7, there i a fte numberof points cy. gq 840 thatthe OF 5 By oy Be ove Henn Na Og stg then Mite) -f0)] < 2 foraln > Wand xe. | By taking ¥ = (01) and f(s) = 2° we ste that without the condition of compacts the consason ofthe theorem may befas. 5 sn] 5 Evers 59) 1, sane for comeretge and wifey of eamerene the (ea) sis ‘rom ees re © gchasy @ omcns G9) etsinns, 6) Gee = e040129 unttons convencENce is 2 Show tha the comple sts comveces uniformly on any bounded ut of Bh Zag Bh O42 but at on 2, 4B Sovibaite sia SESE Gps ners wiry on thera £1, 4: he sequence (4) of ral mbes monotone anda non. Prove ‘hat the power series comer aifomly on BOTS a) coy TW unstions fon (~ eo, ) ans) re tne by foe 3 ow tht ad xt 0 2) an 1) pete and acted Ertcomincrn dieses a 6 Let > O and dele on.) by us) nae 6 Show that cones vibe 0 1,1) and ony «> 1. eo pro onan cmt oe $ (Sow ttn conver wont 601,09 Fu oat 9, sls) verge t funtion fand ht te coavegtce is form in eve nena nae e =. Series § Pw cones and deduce that his sm sea fad tp frre. 12 Taw hearom The omsle aed fines ys da on the (0203 say he following cones 0 efited i 9) = (6 sage} 2 i, nd 3, comers FI slant nid taki wher pan incre faetn of do) 505, Pove hat, fin Fon = Ee {sin th anton yay, ~ 08 he st, 1, endowed with he nen sete ry 32 1 fo 1 ry oo te tn (4) <0 vinwsps its § 14, Syne o moro fis ah ton mons me ts ‘iba ura al nde gun comer pn on 0) 08 Sctnews anon £ Prowse corpsyyy yyIVSIVyY SITS (gg m vntronu convenorsee a 54, Further propetis of power series With the concept of uniformity at our command we can prove theorems deeper than those of §46. ‘Theorem S41. Ifthe power series a, 2" har rads of concergence R and 0 < 1r< Ry then Say2* converges uniformly for |e] 1 Proof. When |:| Ouch that Sate) = Eyez Gl Osuch that fork > mand so oo is the sum of a finite series, @) IR» co, then the inequality | 1 such that [a] © S; thus p = 5. ‘We now use theorem 544 to obtain the reiproal ofa powcr seis rem 548 et to~ Soe <9, Weg 0, here isp > Ouch that Ris sisi by a iva Hay” By Po here the coefcens fare obtained from the equations “aPe= Is eB = 0, eahetayPetaihe sa mrnen PRoPEATiEs OF POWER sEniEt 128 Prof. I theorem 5.44 take ol gGts aye f= EGR del < tod and #)= Suet th <9) Then ite) = phe) snd 1/62) may be expanded in a power sties3y2* forall = such that J By continuity, this inequality hols in adie [el < "The formulae of theorem 5.44 give explicit but cumbersome expressions forthe. Tei simpler 1 evaluate fy iy Bn SUCCES sively. When [2] < 9, (Ss9)(S42) - #957! and so, by theorem 5.43, — == Inthe af histone al wth el owes ot rere A Spe hte el pone se 23cm to 3) in ts intercal of concergence(~ Ry R). Then () Fis alferentiale in (=R, R) and £0) = Sms Gi) for |x| < R, a Proof. (By theorem 4.2, 3a, has radius of convergence Rand, by theorem 54, the series converges uniformly on any (nite) closed subinteral of (~R, R). Theorem 5.238 now gives the result (G) If xis any point of (~2, K), Eoy3> converges uniformly on [0,21 (or [sO] if < 0, Now apply the corollary to theorem 5.22. |6 vsironM convenaeNcr 4 Theorem 5.47. (Neal's continuity theorem.) If Ta, comerges, then Baste Be ajo Fo By een $24 2a er om m1 for0e x ihe tect oer Sah sc nit parca fone] Beauple I=} ebb de Isl <1, Hee, theorem $46 fe owanr = 3 fora <1. Sine (= 12141) comes, “Te han sds arent = A, Brees St) 1, Blatt flowing co eit in, 6 in 2. Fndsvopowessexpanionsyp ots temin:tfthefollowin frelon: (extn, Ge, GHD sates). | 2. The fnctin Fon Ris nd by (ot for xls 0, 0) ‘Show ta a, fa daar ofl odes. Braise 0. 4 Given th sces $a and Fb et emanates (20. (9 Prove tha if Say ha Be mers 10 sums A,B,C respectively, than (G Consrc conga secs Ey hy which Ze, der sa) ‘votian PROPERTIES OF POWsK sexies a i) Show tht if Sa converges, then Ser eanverses and Bde) S353 (Stow that, if S41) conver then the last eatin hols, tha she nepand my be unbounded 6 Prove tat ees Jeb ptire = gate a, 2. Prove ty t= <2, teeta = bere fe Tether vad for x= 17 4 Assunta, when isany real numb, the Bn expansion Stow th it «> 0 (")* ome vy He C4) fr THES ETO oe acute adn mo eet 9. Prove fo i =, tag tle) = x 10, Prove hat, for ale a AOE) 5, Two constructions of continous functions Each ofthe two theorem thissection caries out the construction ‘ofa continuous function which isto have an assigned property The method sto build up a uniformly convergent serie of approximating functions designed 10 induce the requzed property’ in the limit function. A continuous, nowhere diferentible fenction, Is easy to construct 8 continuous funetion which als to have a derivative at the points ofa finite or countably ifnite set. The extension to an uncountable set is more dificultns Lvtronst convencescr iss Lemma, Let f bea rel function bounded on (20,2). If LO=fe 1B anbounded, thn fe) dos not ess Proof, Let /ls)| < M for all x Suppose that dos exist. ‘Thea there is 48 > O such that fe)= 0), [22-1 foro< & ? The last wo inequalities conrad the unboundednes of (o=F09IKe=29. | Theorem 3.51 Thee exists a real fattion whit cominuous on (22), but nowhre diferent Proaj Let gb the function on (=o, defined by 50) [a] for bl <2, stst4i) = a0) (= £1, 22.0. ‘Then () gs continvous, G0 < gs) < 2 forall x (i forall x, ee] «, (i) given, tore ian x sch that lead = 1 ant |eO=H09) When 1 = 0,2, uy define the functions gy by als) = a0"), Whore «, b cre positive constans, Then (gy i continuous, (iy 0 gyG) < 2a forall i) For alls, essa] cab, $5] CONSTRUCTIONS oF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 129 Gy given ¢, there isan x, such that {0-60 «gin, mon | Jens) =o" and 11 0 (3+, £,)[eozee Hace, ial the Iemma shows that (@) doesnot exist. This inequality holds if is small and b aege enough, fr instane if = }, 8 20. Thue the function given by ea fe = 3, 2s 00%) is everywhere continuous and nowhere dferentiabl, | ‘The nos-iferentabilty of fis not dependent on the lack of a Aerivative oF gy atthe points 24)b%. It 8 possible to start with @ ilfereatiable function g; in fact, the frst continuous, nowhere liferentiable funtion, constructed by Weierstrass, was Srcosbons @ 1430).yi ee ancotome Bs Naat extinton ton» on sno on lah cay tee ton cont on Th at FG) nf) feat Tt poe tnt abating ons of etnon oa gen non onion cdot ine ary mets spe ee, Sigpte hat) 1 mee pa 0) ames rl sled fact cased bin oc Pd ‘up lato] = at. ‘Then thre ts real valued continuous faction hon X such that © |G) < 4M. for xe X, and ( [gG)-M0)] < 3M for xe. Proof Let A= (xe FM < (9) < ~440, B= (xe F|-$M < g(a) < $0, Cr he riM <0) 0, there isn poly via such that V0)-p10| <6 for acxed, “Ther is (ee exreie 39,9) a piecewise ina Function J such 7 [fs)-Mo)) < he for ae x6 Lat the vertess of the graph of ft bo Ge swhete ay = a and x = B. The, fora § Ye (i ID on ae Ps 5, Scie, We) where the 's are defined by the equations Weems Jes Totes 804004), Bam Toh aha R) +E Heal By the corollary, thee a polynomial p such that We)-PG0] 1). M. H, Stone has put the theorem in a more general algebraic seting which exposes the essential features ofthe original Weierstrass theorem. To complete this chapter we shall prove Stone's theorem (5.62), But neither the ‘core, noe the algebeie setting will be appealed to inthe rest of| the book. Let (X,1) bea metric space and, as usual, let C(X) be the space of real valued functions bounded and continuous on X. Algebraic ‘operations in CCX) are defined in the obvious way. If; g€CO))ee I OCOCOL OL OCOCCECOCELL a ‘Unison CONVERGENCE 6 and 2 isa teal number, the (bounded and eootinious) functions Pg, f ued of are suc that, forall xe X GO) = F048, HO) = FOIE), (Dl) ~ oft) Definition, The subset A of C(X) is eaed an algebra if, whenccer foged and iv any real munber, 8, $8, 27 @ A. ‘The set of polynomials and the set of dieentable functions on [a5] ace clearly algebras in Cl, by “Using the usual metre p on CC) we now consider the closure Z cof an algebra 4. 1 is, infact, the set of those functions in COO ‘which are the limits of unifertly convergent sequences of members of Lemme 2. If(X,1) any metric space and A sa algebra in COO), thew A i alo an alga Proof. Letf,g ©. Then there ate sequences (/.), (g) of members oF A which converge uniformly on X tof respectively. Clearly ft gy > Fg wiry on Xai iany real moms, af, >af wniformly on X, Also, singe all Tunetions in CCX) are ‘bounded, every uniformly convergent sequence is uniformly bounded. Tee feel flee O +e >0 uniformly on X. Thus, since fete fs faba € Ay it follows that Seg ch seed | Weicrstrase’s approximation theorem asters that the alga ‘of polynomials on a0) is donee in Cla Hh, that dy = Clay ‘We shall see that, more generally, the relation = C(2X) holds if (69) is compact and if the agra A satisfies the following two conditions: () A contains some non-zero constant function and s all constant fonctions. (i) A seporter point on X, ic. to every pai sy 2 of distinct, points of there corresponds function A such that fx, + The algebra of polynomials on (a, 2] sitishes both () and Gi); the algebra of even polynomials on [1,1] satistes (), but not (i): and the algebra of polynomials on (0, I] with zero constant tem satis (i, but sot () so) WHTURSTRASE'S APPROXMATION TuEORDL 135 ‘Theorem 5.62, (The Stone-Weierstass theorem) Let (X,2) be a pact meric space. If A is an algebra in CCX) which contains the Spasanfnctions and hich separates pols on X, then A = C(2). Pett show ia 7, then rte is eid by Url) = L/D). Let sup L7G} = and take any €> 0. By the coro to ea 1, ees a pynonia p ven by 1D = ont ank nt E Iil-AOl <6 for -e< ben ‘Asis an algbra containing the constant Fncins CO poh m egteiftnttS belongs 7. Aso Il7oal-@oN@)l = IvE}PUTAI < © or every s-¢ X.Sinee is closed in C(X) (by theorem 2.36) it follows that Ie, IL Defining min (f ) and max (3) by (on 2968) = min (at, (max (f.2() = max SE. 0) min (fig) = 3+8-L-e max (fe) = 1+et fa. Hones, by 1 it, g A, thon min (fe) max © TIL Let f be any function in C(x). We need only show that von ¢ > 0, ther is Tunetion g ¢ 4 such that \e)-s001 <€ for all xe X Let uo Be two arbitrary distinct points of X. There is function eA such that W) + $(0) and, since A contains the constant Tanetons, we may assume that W) ~ 0 s0 that $0) + 0. Also lot \ be the constant fonction given by (3) = fe forall X. eis the real number suc that aH 40) ~ 0h the funetion Bu = is auch that gud) = A) and gal) = 0). We note that fap € As such that we have6 uvtrona convinotner 6 Sine gy and fare continuous, he et, Ko ee rients) J0)—9 | i open, We note that eee, 7 The collestion Ux an ope Lacs an ope covering of te compac space tnd afte number of Sa coves Keke = AK (Fay or Bade Then ge A and /(2)~6 < gs) < f(s) be forall eX, | ‘lone Tieden ere 4 io eg ees it oily so ane ret ‘Sas Saree naan al sets) 2 Mal cnn ten [reese ‘Show that [rei-o and deduce hat fs) = Ofer a 2 x , nol for 1 << 1; and hence tha there ia roqene of poyoomils converging uniori 10 I fe NOTES ON CHAPTER 5 4S: The notion of wiry of comegene wae rade eal by thse hatha neyo, Wels, Stokes an Sie fhe lt 13 “het nas redone ao en ler by Cac. A etc examin at ‘he eapodion of th ey wats was mae by Har, Sie Gorge Stakes aad Ube owen! of uncom coneracnes Pro Cambie Pi So. 19 B10, H&S tariys note isos devlnnets of Sea's work sod snowed ‘soos wih the ade maybe hed ue on #82. spose ‘Eoorem Sat tat he fllstrengh oe pate of nfm ent we Set i tf) < ‘quoted only ora sna notorelln > N-Thisinlees ha condone ‘atin tha iormty should sales for orem 5.2, Such we onde ‘in ein ute to Dil and ced etstnflorncomernce, bees ‘sl aan er the contin athe lt fonaon af sequence of ‘Satis futons Hower inca the inp pessosed by the onion ‘of unormty of eonvergetce andy instead of reproducing ithe, We ree the Trt reader fo Hey pape F54.N. MAbs (12-29 eine is cominity theorem wit the Prins 1. to the eal poo, paral svat heoen 432, coro) "Sed to tow that on the ghd seo the Went atom $ft-m