Source: HANDBOOK OF PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES

CHAPTER 3.3

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC

CRACKING PROCESS
Charles L. Hemler and Lester F. Smith
UOP LLC
Des Plaines, Illinois

INTRODUCTION
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process is a process for the conversion of straight-run
atmospheric gas oils, vacuum gas oils, certain atmospheric residues, and heavy stocks
recovered from other refinery operations into high-octane gasoline, light fuel oils, and
olefin-rich light gases. The features of the FCC process are relatively low investment, reliable long-run operations, and an operating versatility that enables the refiner to produce a
variety of yield patterns by simply adjusting operating parameters. The product gasoline
has an excellent front-end octane number and good overall octane characteristics. Further,
FCC gasoline is complemented by the alkylate produced from the gaseous olefinic byproducts because alkylate has superior midrange octane and excellent sensitivity.
In a typical FCC unit, the cracking reactions are carried out in a vertical reactor riser in
which a liquid oil stream contacts hot powdered catalyst. The oil vaporizes and cracks to
lighter products as it moves up the riser and carries the catalyst powder along with it. The
reactions are rapid, and only a few seconds of contact time are necessary for most applications. Simultaneously with the desired reactions, coke, a carbonaceous material having
a low ratio of hydrogen to carbon (H/C), deposits on the catalyst and renders it less catalytically active. The spent catalyst and the converted products are then separated; and the
catalyst passes to a separate chamber, the regenerator, where the coke is combusted to
rejuvenate the catalyst. The rejuvenated catalyst then passes to the bottom of the reactor
riser, where the cycle begins again.

DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
With early development of the process taking place in the late 1930s, the first commercial
FCC unit was brought on-stream in the United States in May 1942. This design, Model I,
was quickly followed by a Model II design. A total of 31 Model II units were designed and
built. Although engineered by different organizations, these units were similar in concept
because the technology came from the same pool, a result of wartime cooperative efforts.
3.47
Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)
Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.48

CATALYTIC CRACKING

Of those first units, several remain in operation today. The principal features of the Model
II unit included a reactor vessel near ground level and the catalyst regenerator offset and
above it. A rather short transfer line carried both catalyst and hydrocarbon vapor to a
dense-bed reactor. Dual slide valves were used at various points in the unit, and this configuration resulted in a low-pressure regenerator with a higher-pressure reactor.
Commercial evidence indicated that although conversions were rather low on these early
units [40 to 55 liquid volume percent (LV %)], a large portion of the cracking reactions
actually took place in the short transfer line carrying both hydrocarbon and catalyst.
After the war, the stacked FCC design (Fig. 3.3.1), which featured a low-pressure reactor stacked directly above a higher-pressure regenerator, was commercialized by UOP.*
This design was a major step toward shifting the cracking reaction from the dense phase
of the catalyst bed to the dilute phase of the riser. In the mid-1950s, the straight-riser
design, also called the side-by-side design (Fig. 3.3.2), was introduced. In this unit, the
regenerator was located near ground level, and the reactor was placed to the side in an elevated position. Regenerated catalyst, fresh feed, and recycle were directed to the reactor
by means of a long, straight riser located directly below the reactor. Compared with earlier designs, product yields and selectivity were substantially improved.
A major breakthrough in catalyst technology occurred in the mid-1960s with the development of zeolitic catalysts. These sieve catalysts demonstrated vastly superior activity,
gasoline selectivity, and stability characteristics compared to the amorphous silica-alumina catalysts then in use. The availability of zeolitic catalysts served as the basis for most
of the process innovations that have been developed in recent years.
The continuing sequence of advances first in catalyst activity and then in process design
led to an emphasis on achieving more of the reactions within the dilute phase of the riser, or
riser cracking, as it is commonly called. In 1971, UOP commercialized a new design based
on this riser cracking concept, which was then quickly extended to revamps of many of the
existing units. Commercial results confirmed the advantages of this system compared to the
older designs. Riser cracking provided a higher selectivity to gasoline and reduced gas and
coke production that indicated a reduction in secondary cracking to undesirable products.
*Trademark and/or service mark of UOP.

FIGURE 3.3.1

UOP stacked FCC unit.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

FIGURE 3.3.2

3.49

UOP straight-riser FCC unit.

This trend has continued throughout the years as process designs emphasize greater
selectivity to desired primary products and a reduction of secondary by-products. When
processing conditions were relatively mild, extended risers and rough-cut cyclones were
adequate. As reaction severities were increased, vented risers and direct-connected
cyclones were used to terminate the riser. To achieve even higher levels of hydrocarbon
containment, further enhancements to prestrip, or displace, hydrocarbons that would otherwise be released from the cyclone diplegs into the reactor vessel now provide an even
more selective operation. One example of such selective riser termination designs is the
vortex separation system (VSS*) (Fig. 3.3.3). Such designs have truly approached the concept of all-riser cracking, where almost all the reaction now takes place within the riser and
its termination system.
The emphasis on improved selectivity with all-riser cracking has placed a premium on
good initial contact of feed and catalyst within the riser. Thus, much attention over the
years has been given to improving the performance of the feed distributor as well as to
properly locating it. The quantity of dispersant and the pressure drop required as well as
the mechanical characteristics of various feed nozzles have been carefully studied, leading
to the development of the highly successful Optimix* feed distributor.1 The feed nozzle,
though important, is just one component of a complete feed distribution system. Again the
push for higher reaction severities has placed an even greater emphasis on the characteristics of this complete feed distribution system in the design of a modern FCC unit.
Thus far, the discussion has centered on the reactor design; however, significant
changes have taken place on the regeneration side. For the first 20 years or so of its history, the regenerator of the FCC unit was operated so that the flue gas contained substantial
quantities of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In this partial combustion
mode, the spent catalyst was regenerated to the point of leaving a few tenths of a percent
of carbon still remaining on the regenerated catalyst. A major improvement in FCC technology in the early 1970s was the development of catalysts and hardware to permit complete internal combustion of CO to CO2. In 1973, an existing FCC unit was revamped to
include a new high-efficiency concept in regeneration technology to achieve direct con-

*Trademark and/or service mark of UOP.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.50

CATALYTIC CRACKING

FIGURE 3.3.3

UOP VSS system.

version of CO within the unit. This advance was followed by the start-up in early 1974 of
a new UOP FCC unit specifically designed to incorporate the new regenerator technology.
The development of the new regenerator design and operating technique resulted in
reduced coke yields, lower CO emissions (which satisfy environmental standards), and
improved product distribution and quality.
A typical FCC unit configuration has a single regenerator to burn the coke from the catalyst. Although the regenerator can be operated in either complete or partial combustion,
complete combustion has tended to predominate in new unit designs because an environmentally acceptable flue gas can be produced without the need for additional hardware,
such as a CO boiler. This boiler would be required for the partial combustion mode to keep
CO emissions low.
With the tightening of crude supplies and refinery economics in the late 1970s, refiners began to look more closely at the conversion of heavier feed components, particularly
atmospheric residues. To effectively process highly contaminated residues, Ashland Oil
and UOP cooperated to develop a fluidized catalytic cracking approach that would extend
the feedstock range. The result of this cooperation, a process for reduced crude oil conversion, was first commercialized in 1983. Among its many innovative features were a
two-stage regenerator to better handle the higher coke production that resulted from processing these residues and a new design for a catalyst cooler to help control regeneration
temperatures. The two-stage regenerator aided in regulating the unit heat balance because
one stage operated in complete combustion and the other operated in partial combustion.
The single flue gas stream that was produced passed to a CO boiler to satisfy flue gas CO
emissions. The new style of dense-phase catalyst cooler aided in not only regulating the
regenerator temperature and resulting heat balance but also maintaining catalyst circulation to provide adequate reaction severity.2
Catalyst advancements (especially the improvements in metal tolerance), innovative
design features, and this additional heat balance control from a reliable catalyst cooler
have helped extend the range of acceptable feedstocks to include some rather heavy atmospheric residues. In fact, residue processing has steadily increased to the point that many
older FCC units and about one-half of the new units licensed now process residue or a

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.51

major residue component. Equipment such as the catalyst cooler (Fig. 3.3.4) has been
extremely successful in revamps3 and has found widespread application because of the
coolers ability to vary the level of heat removal in a controlled fashion.
The inventive and innovative spirit that has characterized FCC development from its
early days has led to a variety of mechanical and process advancements to further improve
the selectivity of the cracking reactions. Thus, improved feed distributors, more effective
riser termination devices, and designs that emphasize selective short-time cracking have all
been recent process advancements. The pivotal role of catalytic cracking in the refinery
almost dictates that even further improvements will be forthcoming.

PROCESS CHEMISTRY
Because the chemistry of catalytic cracking is complex, only a broad outline is attempted here.
Readers interested in more detailed discussion are referred to an article by Venuto and Habib.4
Feedstocks for the FCC process are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons of various types
and sizes ranging from small molecules, like gasoline, up to large complex molecules of
perhaps 60 carbon atoms. These feedstocks have a relatively small content of contaminant
materials, such as organic sulfur, nitrogen compounds, and organometallic compounds.
The relative proportions of all these materials vary with the geographic origin of the crude
and the particular boiling range of the FCC feedstock. However, feedstocks can be ranked
in terms of their crackability, or the ease with which they can be converted in an FCC unit.
Crackability is a function of the relative proportions of paraffinic, naphthenic, and aromatic species in the feed.
Generally the crackability of FCC feedstocks can be correlated against some simple
parameter like feedstock hydrogen content or the UOP characterization factor K
3

TB

sg

FIGURE 3.3.4 UOP catalyst cooler.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.52

CATALYTIC CRACKING

where TB is the cubic average boiling point of the feedstock, R, and sg is its specific gravity. A large amount of experimental and commercial data can be classified as shown in
Table 3.3.1.
Sulfur compounds do not seriously affect crackability; the cracked sulfur compounds
are distributed into the liquid products, thus creating a need for product cleanup before
final use. In addition, sulfur exits from the FCC unit in the form of H2S and sulfur oxides,
the latter posing a potential air pollution problem.
The organometallic compounds deposit on the circulating catalyst, and after regeneration, almost all the metals in the feedstock remain deposited on the catalyst. These deposited metals have two rather serious deleterious effects: They affect product distribution by
causing more light gases, especially hydrogen, to be formed, and they have a serious deactivating effect on the catalyst. To counteract these effects, more fresh catalyst must be
added to maintain activity. Heavy polynuclear aromatic-ring compounds are extremely
refractory, and these molecules are generally accepted as coke precursors.
In general, the relative amounts of these contaminants in the FCC feedstock increase as
the endpoint of the feedstock increases. As endpoints increase into the nondistillable
range, above about 566C (1050F), the increase in these contaminants is dramatic, thus
posing a major processing problem. One solution to this problem is to hydrotreat the FCC
feedstock. Much of the sulfur and nitrogen leaves the hydrotreater in relatively easily disposable forms of H2S and NH3 rather than with the products or as flue gas oxides from the
FCC unit. The metals are deposited irreversibly on the hydrotreating catalyst, which is
periodically replaced. In addition to removing contaminants, hydrotreating upgrades the
crackability of the FCC feed, and hydrotreated feeds do, in fact, crack with better product
selectivity because of their increased hydrogen contents.
A carbonium ion mechanism can describe the chemistry for the cracking reactions and
the products produced. All cracking catalysts, either the older amorphous silica alumina or
modern zeolites, are acidic materials; and reactions of hydrocarbons over these materials
are similar to well-known carbonium ion reactions occurring in homogeneous solutions of
strong acids. These reactions are fundamentally different from thermal cracking. In thermal cracking, bond rupture is random; but in catalytic cracking, it is ordered and selective.
Various theories have been proposed to explain how the cracking process is initiated,
that is, how the first carbonium ions are formed. One theory proposes that the carbonium
ion is formed from an olefin, which in turn could be formed by thermal effects on initial
catalyst-oil contact, or may be present in the feed. The temperatures involved in catalytic
cracking are in the range where thermal cracking can also occur. Alternatively, the carbonium ion could be formed by the interaction of the hydrocarbon molecule with a Brnsted
or Lewis acid site on the catalyst. The exact mechanism is not well understood.
Once formed in the feed, the carbonium ions can react in several ways:

Crack to smaller molecules

React with other molecules
Isomerize to a different form
React with the catalyst to stop the chain
TABLE 3.3.1

Feedstock Crackability

Range of
characterization factor K

Relative
crackability

Feedstock type

12.0
11.511.6
11.3

High
Intermediate
Refractory

Paraffinic
Naphthenic
Aromatic

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.53

The cracking reaction normally follows the rule of scission. The CC bond in the position relative to the positively charged carbon tends to be cleaved:

This reaction is most likely because it involves a rearrangement of electrons only. Both
of the fragments formed are reactive. The olefin may form a new carbonium ion with the
catalyst. The R, a primary carbonium ion, can react further, usually first by rearrangement
to a secondary carbonium ion and repetition of the scission.
The relative stability of carbonium ions is shown in the following sequence:

Reactions in the system will always proceed toward the formation of the more stable carbonium ion. Thus, isomerizations of secondary to tertiary carbonium ions are common.
These reactions proceed by a series of steps including migration of hydride or even alkyl
or aryl groups along the carbon chain. Of course, this reaction leads to a product distribution that has a high ratio of branched- to straight-chain isomers.
The subject of catalytic coke formation by cracking catalysts, especially its chemical
nature and formation, is also a complex topic for which many theories have been proposed.
The formation of coke on the catalyst, an unavoidable situation in catalytic cracking, is
likely due to dehydrogenation (degradation reactions) and condensation reactions of
polynuclear aromatics or olefins on the catalyst surface. As coke is produced through these
mechanisms, it eventually blocks the active acid sites and catalyst pores. The only recourse
is to regenerate the catalyst to retain its activity by burning the coke to CO and CO2 in the
FCC regenerator. This coke combustion becomes an important factor in the operation of
the modern FCC.

THERMODYNAMICS OF CATALYTIC CRACKING

As in the chemistry of cracking, the associated thermodynamics are complex because of
the multitude of hydrocarbon species undergoing conversion. The key reaction in cracking, scission, is not equilibrium-limited, and so thermodynamics are of limited value in
either estimating the extent of the reaction or adjusting the operating variables. Cracking
of relatively long-chain paraffins and olefins can go to more than 95 percent completion at
cracking temperature.
Certain hydrogen-transfer reactions act in the same way. Isomerization, transalkylation,
dealkylation, and dehydrogenation reactions are intermediate in the attainment of equilibrium. Condensation reactions, such as olefin polymerization and paraffin alkylation, are
less favorable at higher temperatures.
The occurrence of both exothermic and endothermic reactions contributes to the overall heat of reaction, which is a function of feedstock, temperature, and extent of conversion. In general, highly endothermic cracking reactions predominate at low to intermediate

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.54

CATALYTIC CRACKING

conversion levels. At high conversion, some of the exothermic reactions begin to exert an
influence. Overall, the reaction is quite endothermic, and heat must be supplied to the system. This heat is provided by the regenerated catalyst. A more detailed description of the
FCC unit heat balance will be presented later.

CATALYST HISTORY
Paralleling the significant improvements in FCC unit design was a corresponding improvement in FCC catalysts. The first catalysts used were ground-up amorphous silica alumina.
Whether synthetic or naturally occurring, these catalysts suffered from low activity and
poor stability relative to the catalysts available today. Additionally, they had poor fluidization characteristics. Often, fines had to be collected from the flue gas and returned to the
unit to assist in maintaining smooth catalyst circulation.
In 1946, spray-dried (microspheroidal) synthetic silica-alumina catalysts were introduced. This type of catalyst, containing 10 to 13 percent alumina, was in general use until
a more active and stable catalyst high in alumina (25 wt % alumina) became available in
the late 1950s. In addition to improved activity and stability, these spray-dried catalysts
had improved fluidization characteristics.
The most significant catalyst development occurred during the early 1960s, when
molecular sieves were introduced into fluid cracking catalysts. The resulting catalysts
exhibited significantly higher activity and stability compared with catalysts available at the
time. These crystalline catalysts were, and are, ideally suited for the short-contact-time riser cracking concept. Besides being more active, these materials are more selective toward
gasoline production compared to the initial amorphous type.
A wide variety of catalysts have been used in an FCC unit: from low-activity amorphous
catalysts to high-activity zeolite-containing catalysts. As an example of relative activities,
Table 3.3.2 summarizes pilot-plant results from processing the same feedstock at identical
conditions over various catalysts. The present, commercially available high-activity zeolitic
catalysts exhibit widely varying matrix compositions, zeolite content, and chemical consistency; yet many can provide the high activity levels required for modern operations.
The chief cracking component of the FCC catalyst is a Y-type zeolite, and an indicator
of its content is the catalyst micropore surface area. The hydrogen-transfer capabilities of
the zeolite can be adjusted by varying the degree of rare earth exchange of the catalyst. A
second component is an active alumina which helps to crack larger feed molecules. The
mesopore surface area gives an indication of the active alumina content. Different types of
alumina can be used to adjust its function from an active cracking role to just a binder for
mechanical strength. A typical range of characteristics for commercially available FCC
catalyst is shown in Table 3.3.3.
TABLE 3.3.2

Effect of Catalyst Activity*

Conversion, LV %
Gasoline, LV %
RONC

Amorphous

Lowactivity sieve

Moderateactivity sieve

Highactivity sieve

63.0
45.1
93.3

67.9
51.6
92.6

76.5
55.4
92.3

78.9
57.6
92.3

*Basis: Middle East sour gas oil, 23.7 API gravity (sg 0.912), 11.84 UOP K factor, 2.48 wt %
sulfur.
Note: RONC research octane number, clear; API degrees on American Petroleum
Institute scale.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

TABLE 3.3.3

3.55

Fresh FCC Catalyst Characteristics

Apparent bulk density, g/mL

Total surface area, m2/g
Micropore surface area, m2/g
Mesopore surface area, m2/g
Rare earth content, wt % Re2O3
For low micropore surface area
For high micropore surface area
Alumina, wt % Al2O3

0.70.9
130370
100250
30120
0.31.5
0.83.5
2550

Many of todays catalysts exhibit a trend toward attrition resistance in response to the
concern for reducing particulate emissions. This trend has also affected modern FCC unit
design by reducing the amount of catalyst carried to the cyclones.
One important area that has received major attention in the catalyst field has been the
separate inclusion of specific additives to enhance a particular process performance function. Thus individual solid catalytic additives can be introduced, for example, (1) to help
promote the combustion of carbon monoxide in the regenerator; (2) to assist in cracking
portions of the gasoline, thereby making more light olefins and increasing octane; (3) to
enhance bottoms cracking; (4) to reduce the concentration of sulfur oxides in the flue gas;
and (5) to lower the sulfur content of the gasoline product.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Every FCC complex contains the following sections (Fig. 3.3.5):

Reactor and regenerator. In the reactor, the feedstock is cracked to an effluent containing hydrocarbons ranging from methane through the highest-boiling material in the
feedstock plus hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide. In the regenerator, the circulating spent
catalyst is rejuvenated by burning the deposited coke with air at high temperatures.
Main fractionator. Here the reactor effluent is separated into the various products. The
overhead includes gasoline and lighter material. The heavier liquid products, heavier
naphtha, and cycle oils are separated as sidecuts, and slurry oil is separated as a bottoms
product.
Gas concentration unit. In this section, usually referred to as the unsaturated gas
plant, the unstable gasoline and lighter products from the main fractionator overhead are
separated into fuel gas, C3- C4 for alkylation or polymerization, and debutanized gasoline that is essentially ready for use except for possible chemical treating.

Depending on the objectives of the refiner, some unconverted materials in the feedstock
boiling range may be recycled to the reactor. In general, conversion, which is typically
defined as 100 minus the liquid volume percentage of products heavier than gasoline, is
never carried to completion. Some main-column bottoms material, referred to as clarified
oil or slurry oil, is a product usually used for fuel oil blending. Light cycle oil, recovered
as a sidecut product, is generally used for home heating, although a fraction might be suitable for diesel fuel blending stock.
The modern FCC unit is likely to have any of a number of optional units associated with
the flue gas system. As discussed later, the flue gas contains a significant amount of available energy that can be converted to usable forms. Typically, the flue gas is composed of cat-

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.56

CATALYTIC CRACKING

FIGURE 3.3.5
option.

Overall flow diagram for a UOP FCC complex excluding flue gas system

alyst fines; nitrogen from the air used for combustion; the products of coke combustion (the
oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and water vapor); and trace quantities of other compounds.
The flue gas exits the regenerator at high temperature, approximately 700 to 780C (1292 to
1436F), and at pressures of typically 10 to 40 lb/in2 gage (0.7 to 2.8 bar gage). The thermal
and kinetic energy of the flue gas can be converted to steam or used to drive a turboexpandergenerator system for electric power generation. Unconverted CO in the flue gas can be combusted to CO2 in a CO boiler that produces high-pressure steam. Catalyst fines may be
removed in an electrostatic precipitator or a specially designed third-stage separator system.

Reactor-Regenerator Section
The heart of a typical FCC complex (Fig. 3.3.6) is the reactor-regenerator section. In the
operation of the FCC unit, fresh feed and, depending on product distribution objectives,
recycled cycle oils are introduced into the riser together with a controlled amount of regenerated catalyst. The charge may be heated, either by heat exchange or, for some applications, by a fired heater.
The hot regenerated catalyst vaporizes the feed, the cracking begins, and the resultant
vapors carry the catalyst upward through the riser. At the top of the riser, the desired cracking reactions are completed, and the catalyst is quickly separated from the hydrocarbon
vapors to minimize secondary reactions. The catalyst-hydrocarbon mixture from the riser
is discharged into the reactor vessel through a device that achieves a significant degree of
catalyst-gas separation. Final separation of catalyst and product vapor is accomplished by
cyclone separation.
The reactor effluent is directed to the FCC main fractionator for resolution into gaseous
light olefin coproducts, FCC gasoline, and cycle stocks. The spent catalyst drops from the
reactor vessel into the stripping section, where a countercurrent flow of steam removes
interstitial and some adsorbed hydrocarbon vapors. Stripped spent catalyst descends
through a standpipe and into the regenerator.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.57

Reactor
Vapor

VSS
Regenerator
Flue Gas
Reactor
Reactor
Riser

Regenerator
Spent Catalyst
Stripper

Combustor
Riser
Combustor

Spent Catalyst
Standpipe
Regenerated Catalyst
Standpipe
Recirculation Catalyst
Standpipe

Cooled
Catalyst
(Future)
Cooled
Catalyst
Standpipe
(Future)

Charge Stock

Combustion
Air

Lift Gas

FIGURE 3.3.6 Modern UOP combustor-style FCC unit.

During the cracking reaction, a carbonaceous by-product is deposited on the circulating catalyst. This material, called coke, is continuously burned off the catalyst in the regenerator. The main purpose of the regenerator is to reactivate the catalyst so that it can
continue to perform its cracking function when it is returned to the conversion section. The
regenerator serves to gasify the coke from the catalyst particles and, at the same time, to
impart sensible heat to the circulating catalyst. The energy carried by the hot regenerated
catalyst is used to satisfy the thermal requirements of the cracking section of the unit (the
heat-balance concept is be discussed in greater detail in the next section).
Depending on the specific application, the regenerator may be operated at conditions
that achieve complete or partial internal combustion of CO to CO2; or alternatively, CO

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.58

CATALYTIC CRACKING

may be converted to CO2 in an external CO boiler. If internal conversion of CO to CO2 is

used, the sensible heat of the flue gas can be recovered in a waste heat boiler. Flue gas is
directed through cyclone separators to minimize catalyst entrainment prior to discharge
from the regenerator.
To maintain the activity of the working catalyst inventory at the desired level and to
make up for any catalyst lost from the system with the flue gas, fresh catalyst is introduced
into the circulating catalyst system from a catalyst storage hopper. An additional storage
hopper is provided to hold spent catalyst withdrawn from the circulating system as necessary to maintain the desired working activity and to hold all the catalyst inventory when
the FCC unit is shut down for maintenance and repairs.

Heat Balance
The schematic diagram of the FCC heat balance in Fig. 3.3.7 shows the close operational
coupling of the reactor and regenerator sections. As with other large commercial process
units, the FCC unit is essentially adiabatic. The overall energy balance can be written in
the following form:
QRG

(QP QFD)

(QFG QA)
QRX
(QL1 QL2)
Heat of
Enthalpy
Enthalpy difference
Heat of
Losses
combustion difference between between flue gas and reaction
of coke
products and feed
regeneration air
including any
recycle streams
This equation, which has been greatly simplified to present only the major heat terms,
describes the basis of the overall reactor-regenerator heat balance. The energy released by
burning coke in the regenerator QRG is sufficient to supply all the heat demands for the rest
of the reactor and regenerator. Heat is needed to

Bring the feed and recycle streams to reaction temperatures

Vaporize the feed and recycle streams

FIGURE 3.3.7 FCC heat balance.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.59

Supply the endothermic heat of reaction and various smaller reactor side energy requirements and losses
Raise the incoming regeneration air temperature to flue gas conditions and to satisfy
regenerator losses

The circulating catalyst becomes the mechanism for transferring the needed energy
from the regenerator to satisfy the reactor requirements. Thus, all the reactor heat requirements are supplied by the enthalpy difference between regenerated and spent catalyst (QRC
QSC).
The circulating catalyst rate then becomes a key operating variable because it not only
supplies heat but also affects conversion according to its concentration in the reactor relative
to oil, expressed in terms of the well-known catalyst/oil ratio. In practice, the catalyst/oil
ratio is not a directly controlled variable: changes in the ratio result indirectly from changes
in the main operating variables. For instance, an increase in the catalyst/oil ratio results from
an increase in reactor temperature, a decrease in regenerator temperature, or a decrease in
feed preheat temperature. When process conditions are changed so that an increase in the catalyst/oil ratio occurs, an increase in conversion is also typically observed.
Normally the catalyst/oil weight ratio is tied directly to the FCC unit heat balance. One
significant exception to that occurs when carbonized catalyst from the reactor is recycled to
the feed contacting zone without passing to the regenerator. Termed RxCat* technology and
developed by UOP, this approach provides for higher catalyst/oil ratios in the reaction zone
although some of the catalyst now has a higher carbon content. RxCat technology is aimed
at those operations where there is a high-quality feedstock producing a low delta-coke laydown and where additional severity or light olefins are desired. RxCat technology is an integral part of UOPs PetroFCC* process, which will be discussed later in this section.

Fractionation Section
Product vapors from the reactor are directed to the main fractionator, where gasoline and
gaseous olefin-rich coproducts and other light ends are taken overhead and routed to the
gas concentration unit. Light cycle oil, which is recovered as a sidecut, is stripped for
removal of light ends and sent to storage. Net column bottoms are yielded as slurry or clarified oil. Because of the high efficiency of the catalyst-hydrocarbon separation system used
in the modern UOP reactor design, catalyst carryover to the fractionator is minimized; the
net heavy product yielded from the bottom of the fractionator does not have to be clarified
unless the material is to be used in some specific application, such as the production of carbon black, that requires low solids content. In some instances, heavy material can be recycled to the reactor riser.
Maximum usage is made of the heat available at the main column. Typically, light and
heavy cycle oils are used in the gas concentration section for heat-exchange purposes, and
steam is generated by a circulating main-column bottoms stream.

Gas Concentration Section

The gas concentration section, or unsaturated gas plant, is an assembly of absorbers and
fractionators that separate the main-column overhead into gasoline and other desired light
products. Sometimes olefinic gases from other processes such as coking are sent to the
FCC gas concentration section.
*Trademark and/or service mark of UOP.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.60

CATALYTIC CRACKING

A typical four-column gas concentration plant is shown in Fig. 3.3.8. Gas from the FCC
main-column overhead receiver is compressed and directed with primary-absorber bottoms
and stripper overhead gas through a cooler to the high-pressure receiver. Gas from this receiver is routed to the primary absorber, where it is contacted by the unstabilized gasoline from
the main-column overhead receiver. The net effect of this contacting is a separation between
C3 and C2 fractions on the feed to the primary absorber. Primary-absorber offgas is directed to a secondary, or sponge, absorber, where a circulating stream of light cycle oil from the
main column is used to absorb most of the remaining C5 material in the sponge-absorber
feed. Some C3 and C4 material is also absorbed. The sponge-absorber-rich oil is returned to
the FCC main column. The sponge-absorber overhead, with most of the valuable C3 material removed but including H2S, is sent to fuel gas or other processing.
Liquid from the high-pressure separator is sent to a stripper column, where most of the
C2 is removed overhead and sent back to the high-pressure separator. The bottoms liquid from the stripper is sent to the debutanizer, where an olefinic C3-C4 product is separated. In some instances this stream can be further separated for individual C3 and C4
recovery, or it can be sent to either alkylation or catalytic condensation for further gasoline
production. The debutanizer bottoms, which is the stabilized gasoline, is sent to treating,
if necessary, and then to storage.
This section has described the minimum gas concentration configuration. Sometimes a
gasoline splitter is included to split the gasoline into light and heavy cuts. Any H2S in the
fuel gas or C3-C4 product can be removed through absorption in an amine system. Thus,
some gas concentration plants contain six or seven columns.

MODERN UOP FCC UNIT

A modern FCC unit reflects the combination of process and mechanical features probably
as well as any process unit in the refinery. Fundamentals of fluidization, fluid flow, heat
transfer, mass transfer, reaction kinetics, thermodynamics, and catalysis are applied and
combined with the practical experience relating to mechanical design to produce an

FIGURE 3.3.8 Typical FCC gas concentration plant.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.61

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

extremely rugged unit with some sophisticated features. The result is a successful process
that combines selective yields with a long run length.
Reactor
The advantages of a reaction system that emphasizes short-contact-time cracking have led
to a modern unit design (Fig. 3.3.6) that is well suited for todays high-activity, superiorselectivity zeolitic catalysts. Great emphasis has been placed on the proper initial contacting of feedstock and catalyst followed by a controlled plug-flow exposure. The reaction
products and catalyst are then quickly separated as the hydrocarbons are displaced and
stripped from the catalyst before the catalyst passes to the regenerator. This all-riser cracking mode produces and preserves a gasoline-selective yield pattern that is also rich in C3C4 olefins. Higher reaction temperatures have been used to further increase gasoline
octanes and yields of the light olefins for downstream alkylation and etherification units.
These individual reaction-side improvements have not been limited to just new unit
designs. Many older FCC units have been revamped in one or more of the important areas
of feed-catalyst contacting, riser termination, or catalyst stripping. The yield benefits when
revamping to a more contained VSS riser with an improved stripping configuration and an
elevated Optimix* feed distribution system are presented in Table 3.3.4. For demonstration
purposes, the revamped unit was operated for a period at the same conversion level as
before the revamp. Then the unit was operated to maintain coke make and keep a maximum utilization of the air blower. The improved selectivity of the revamped unit is apparent and demonstrates why this type of revamp has been widely accepted. In addition,
risers, catalyst standpipes, and slide valves have been routinely replaced as many of these
older units have pushed for much higher operating capacities over the years.
Regenerator
A modern UOP FCC unit features a high-efficiency regenerator design, termed a combustor regenerator. The combustor-style regenerator was developed to provide a more
uniform coke-air distribution and to enhance the ability to burn completely. The regenerator uses a fast fluidized bed as a low-inventory carbon-burning zone followed by a
TABLE 3.3.4

Commercial Performance, Pre- and Postrevamp

Postrevamp
Prerevamp

Feed rate
Feed, sg
UOP K factor
Feed temp., F
Reactor temp., F
Yields
C2, wt %
C3 C4, vol %
Gasoline, vol %
Light cycle oil, vol %
Clarified oil, vol %
Coke, wt %
Conversion, vol %

Same conversion

Same coke yield

Base
0.916
11.68
380
975

Base
0.918
11.7
430
950

Base
0.918
11.69
420
990

2.32
27.2
57.2
17.1
8.9
Base
74.0

1.82
24.6
60.7
17.4
8.4
0.91 base
74.2

2.63
29.7
59.6
15.1
6.9
Base
78.0

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.62

CATALYTIC CRACKING

higher-velocity transport-riser heat-exchange zone. The overall combination has excellent catalyst retention and produces flue gas and regenerated catalyst of uniform temperature. Regeneration efficiency and operability are improved, and catalyst inventory is
substantially decreased. This reduction in catalyst inventory has economic significance
not only from the initial cost of the first catalyst inventory but also from a daily catalyst
makeup cost as well.
The combustor configuration was first introduced in the 1970s. Before that, FCC regenerators were operated typically to produce a partial combustion of the coke deposited on
the catalyst. Some coke, generally a few tenths of a weight percent, was left on the catalyst after regeneration. The flue gas produced from the coke that was burned in the regenerator often contained about equal proportions of CO and CO2. As environmental
considerations were becoming more significant, a flue gas CO boiler was needed to reduce
CO emissions to an acceptable level. If the regenerator can be modified to achieve a more
complete combustion step, the capital cost of a CO boiler can be eliminated.
The extra heat of combustion that would be available from burning all the CO to CO2
also could make a significant change in the heat balance of the FCC unit. The increased
heat availability means that less coke needs to be burned to satisfy a fixed reactor heat
demand. Because additional burning also produces a higher regenerator temperature, less
catalyst is circulated from the regenerator to the reactor.
Another important effect that results from the increased regenerator temperature and
the extra oxygen that is added to achieve complete combustion is a reduction in the residual carbon left on the regenerated catalyst. The lower this residual carbon, the higher the
effective catalyst activity. From a process viewpoint, complete combustion produces a
reduced catalyst circulation rate, but the catalyst has a higher effective activity. Because
less coke was needed to satisfy the heat balance, the reduction in coke yield led to a corresponding increase in FCC products.
To assist in the burning of CO, small quantities of noble metal additives are extremely
effective when blended with the catalyst. This promoted catalyst, as it was called, was
widely used in existing units and as an alternative to a complete mechanical modification
of the regenerator to a combustor-style configuration. New units were designed with the
combustor configuration, which could operate in complete combustion without the more
expensive promoted catalyst.
The combustor-style regenerator has proved itself in many varied operations over the
years. It has been shown to be an extremely efficient device for burning carbon and burning to low levels of CO. Whether for very small or large units, afterburning has been virtually eliminated, and low levels of carbon on regenerated catalyst are routinely
produced.
The tighter control of emissions from the FCC unit, and in particular the regenerator,
has led to a significant flue-gas-handling train for the gases coming from the regenerator.
In addition to the normal heat removal from the flue gas, electrostatic precipitators and
scrubbers are being used for particulate removal, and a new generation of third-stage separators has been developed that can help achieve low particulate emissions. Wet gas scrubbing and other treating steps can lower the sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the flue gas, and
tighter environmental regulations have mandated the addition of such systems.

Yield Versatility
One of the strengths of the FCC process is its versatility to produce a wide variety of
yield patterns by adjusting basic operating parameters. Although most units have been
designed for gasoline production, UOP has designed units for each of the three major
operational modes:

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.63

Gasoline Mode. The most common mode of operation of the FCC unit is aimed at
the maximum production of gasoline. This mode is better defined as an operation
producing a high gasoline yield of a specified octane number.
This condition requires careful control of reaction severity, which must be high
enough to convert a substantial portion of the feed but not so high as to destroy the gasoline that has been produced. This balance normally is achieved by using an active and
selective catalyst and enough reaction temperature to produce the desired octane. The
catalyst circulation rate is limited, and reaction time is confined to a short exposure.
Because this severity is carefully controlled, no recycle of unconverted components is
normally needed.
Distillate Mode. If the reaction severity is strictly limited, then the FCC unit can be
used for the production of distillates. Changing operating conditions can shift from the
normally gasoline-oriented yield distribution to one with a more nearly equal ratio of
gasoline to cycle oil. Additional distillates can be produced at the expense of gasoline by
reducing the endpoint of the gasoline and dropping the additional material into the light
cycle oil product. The usual limitation in this step is reached when the resulting cycle oil
reaches a particular flash point specification.
High-Severity (LPG) Mode. If additional reaction severity is now added beyond the
gasoline mode, a high-severity operation producing additional light olefins and a
higher-octane gasoline will result. This case is sometimes described as an LPG mode
(for the increase in C3 and C4 materials which can be used as liquefied petroleum gas).
If isobutane is available to alkylate the light olefins or if they are etherified or
polymerized into the gasoline boiling range, high total gasoline yields and octanes can
be produced.
Typical yield patterns for these three modes of operation are shown in Table 3.3.5. The
feedstock for these cases was a Middle East vacuum gas oil (VGO). These yields are typical for a particular feedstock. In general, FCC yield patterns are a function of feedstock
properties; for instance, a feedstock with a lower UOP K factor and hydrogen content is
more difficult to crack and produces a less favorable yield pattern.
The data in Table 3.3.5 show certain trends. As the severity of the FCC unit is
increased from low to high, the production of coke and light ends increases, gasoline
octane increases, and in general, the liquid products become more hydrogen deficient.
Also, the high-severity case overcracks a considerable amount of the gasoline to C3-C4
material.
PetroFCC. This is a specialized application where even greater reaction severity is
utilized than for the high-severity (LPG) mode. For all the previous modes, even though
the specifically desired product was different, the primary focus remained the production
of transportation fuels. However, for PetroFCC, the aim is now to produce a yield pattern
with a petrochemical focus.5 Utilizing a combination of specific processing conditions
and catalyst, selected mechanical hardware, and a high concentration of shape-selective
additive, an even higher-severity operation can be achieved. Extremely high yields of
light olefins, and particularly propylene, are produced. At the same time, the gasoline
product, which is now greatly reduced in volume, has become highly aromaticaromatic
enough and concentrated enough so that the single ring aromatics found there can be
recovered for their petrochemical value.
A comparison between a traditional gasoline mode operation and a PetroFCC operation for the same moderately contaminated gas oilresidue feed blend is shown in Fig.
3.3.9. Note that the C4 and lighter material for the PetroFCC is about 2.5 times that for the
gasoline operation.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.64
TABLE 3.3.5

CATALYTIC CRACKING

Product Yield and Properties for Typical Modes of Operation

Middle-distillate mode
Full range Undercut

Gasoline
mode

Light olefin
mode

1.0
3.2
10.7
15.4
60.0
13.9
9.2
5.0

1.0
4.7
16.1
20.5
55.2
10.1
7.0
6.4

Product yields
H2S, wt %
C2, wt %
C3, LV %
C4, LV %
C5 gasoline, LV %
Light cycle oil, LV %
CO, LV %
Coke, wt %

0.7
2.6
6.9
9.8
43.4
37.5
7.6
4.9

0.7
2.6
6.9
9.8
33.3
47.6
7.6
4.9

Product properties
LPG, vol/vol:
C3 olefin/saturate
C4 olefin/saturate
Gasoline:
ASTM 90% point, C
ASTM 90% point, F
RONC
MONC
Light cycle oil:
ASTM 90% point, C
ASTM 90% point, F
Flash point, C (F)
Viscosity, cSt @ 50C
(122F)
Sulfur, wt %
Cetane index
Clarified oil:
Viscosity, cSt @ 100C (210F)
Sulfur, wt %

3.4
1.6

3.4
1.6

3.2
1.8

3.6
2.1

193
380
90.5
78.8

132
270
91.3
79.3

193
380
93.2
80.4

193
380
94.8
82.1

354
670
97 (207)
3.7

354
670
55 (131)
2.4

316
600
97 (207)
3.1

316
600
97 (207)
3.2

2.9
34.3

2.4
31.8

3.4
24.3

3.7
20.6

10.9
5.1

10.9
5.1

9.0
6.0

10.1
6.8

Note: ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials; RONC research octane number, clear;
MONC motor octane number, clear.
Source: Reprinted from D. A. Lomas, C. A. Cabrera, D. M. Cepla, C. L. Hemler, and L. L. Upson,
Controlled Catalytic Cracking, UOP 1990 Technology Converence.

FEEDSTOCK VARIABILITY
The early FCC units were designed primarily to operate on virgin VGOs. These feedstocks
would be characterized as good cracking feedstocks. Today many refiners are faced with
processing less favorable materials. In addition, refiners have been forced to convert more
of the nondistillable portion of the barrel to remain competitive. Thus, a greater proportion
of FCC feedstock has its origin in the bottom of the barrel. These components may be
cracked stocks in the VGO boiling range, or they may be previously virgin nondistillables.
Coker and visbreaker gas oils are commonly blended in FCC feed. The next source of
heavy FCC feed has traditionally been a little vacuum tower residue blended into the feed
in proportions consistent with the FCC coke-burning capabilities. Some refiners have cho-

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.65

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

Traditional FCC

PetroFCC

Light Olefins
6

3
6.5
11

Light Gas
C3s
C4s

C2=
9

19

53.5

C3=

22

C4=

14

24

Naphtha
28
14
7
5
FIGURE 3.3.9

Distillate
Fuel Oil
Coke

9.5
5
5.5

Typical PetroFCC yield, wt % (VGO feed).

sen to solvent-extract the vacuum residue to provide a nondistillable FCC feed component
that has significantly less metal and asphaltene than the vacuum residue itself. Others have
gone to the limit and charge certain whole atmospheric residues to their FCC units.
This section briefly discusses two significant FCC operations: the hydrotreating of
FCC feeds for yield improvement and environmental concerns and the cracking of various
solvent-extracted oils and whole residues.
FCC Feed Hydrotreating
Because the FCC feed can include a substantial amount of sulfur-containing materials, the
products, including the flue gas, are typically rich in sulfur compounds. This situation in
turn has led to specialized flue gas treating systems and scrubbers for external cleanup or
to catalyst modifications and feed hydrotreating as internal process approaches for the
reduction of sulfur levels. Of these approaches, only feed hydrotreating provides any significant processing improvement because the addition of hydrogen can dramatically
increase the cracking potential of any given feed. This increase can be even more meaningful when the initial feed is poor in quality or when the feed is contaminated. Table 3.3.6
shows the results of hydrotreating poor-quality feed at two different levels of hydrogen
addition. As feedstock quality declines and growing emphasis is placed on tighter sulfur
regulations, feed hydrotreating will receive even more consideration.
Cracking of High-Boiling Feedstocks
Reference has been made to the cracking of high-boiling fractions of the crude. As refiners seek to extend the range of the feedstocks that are processed in FCC units, the most
frequent sources of these heavier feeds are

A deeper cut on a vacuum column

The extract from solvent extraction of the vacuum tower bottoms
The atmospheric residue itself

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.66

CATALYTIC CRACKING

TABLE 3.3.6

Hydrotreating of FCC Feedstock

Gravity, API (specific gravity)

UOP K factor
Distillation D-1160, C (F):
5%
50%
95%
Sulfur, wt %
Nitrogen, wt %
Hydrogen, wt %
Cracking performance at equivalent
pilot-plant conditions:
Conversion, LV %
Gasoline, LV %
Coke, wt %

Untreated
feed

Mildly
desulfurized

Severely
hydrotreated

18.4 (0.944)
11.28

22.3 (0.920)
11.48

26.3 (0.897)
11.67

275 (527)
410 (770)
498 (928)
1.30
0.43
11.42

266 (510)
399 (750)
497 (926)
0.21
0.32
12.07

249 (481)
375 (707)
467 (873)
0.04
0.05
12.74

59.0
41.1
8.8

66.1
46.0
6.1

82.5
55.6
5.6

Regardless of the source of these high-boiling components, a number of problems are typically encountered when these materials are processed in an FCC unit, although the magnitude of the problem can vary substantially:

Additional coke production. Heavy feeds typically have high levels of contaminants,
such as Conradson carbon levels. Because much of this material deposits on the catalyst
with the normal coke being deposited by the cracking reactions, the overall coke production is substantially higher. Burning this coke requires additional regeneration air. In
an existing unit, this coke-burning constraint often limits capacity.
Necessity for metal control. Metals in the heavy feeds deposit almost quantitatively on
the catalyst. These metals produce two significant effects. First, they accelerate certain
metal-catalyzed dehydrogenation reactions, thereby contributing to light-gas (hydrogen)
production and to the formation of additional coke. A second, more damaging effect is
the situation in which the presence of the metal contributes to a catalyst activity decline
caused partly by limited access to the catalysts active sites. This latter effect is normally controlled by catalyst makeup practices (adding and withdrawing catalyst).
Distribution of sulfur and nitrogen. The level of sulfur and nitrogen in the products,
waste streams, and flue gas generally increases when high-boiling feeds are processed
because these feed components typically have higher sulfur and nitrogen contents than
their gas oil counterparts. In the case of nitrogen, however, the problem is not just one
of higher nitrogen levels in the products. One portion of the feed nitrogen is basic in
character, and the presence of this basic nitrogen acts as a temporary catalyst poison to
reduce the useful activity of the catalyst.
Heat-balance considerations. Heat-balance control may be the most immediate and
troublesome aspect of processing high-boiling feeds. As the contaminant carbon
increases, the first response is normally an increase in regenerator temperature.
Adjustments in operating parameters can be made to assist in this control, but eventually, a point will be reached for heavier feeds when the regenerator temperature is too high
for good catalytic performance. At this point, some external heat removal from the
regenerator is required and would necessitate a mechanical modification like a catalyst
cooler.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.67

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

Many of the UOP-licensed FCC units have a high-boiling feed component as a significant portion of the FCC charge. Interestingly, the product qualities from these operations
are not much different from those for similar gas oil operations. In general, the octane levels of the gasoline remain good, the cycle oil qualities are similar, and the heavy fuel oil
fraction has a low viscosity and a low metal content and still remains distillable.
Demetallized oil (DMO) from the solvent extraction of a vacuum-tower bottoms stream
using a light paraffinic solvent and atmospheric residue have emerged as the two most
widely used high-boiling feed components.
Atmospheric residue has ranged from a relatively low proportion of the total feed all
the way to situations in which it represents the entire feed to the unit. To improve the handling of these high-boiling feeds, several units have been revamped to upgrade them from
their original gas-oil designs. Some units have proceeded to increase the amount of residue
in a stepwise fashion; modifications to the operating conditions and processing techniques
are made as greater experience is gained in the processing of high-boiling feeds.
As expected, the properties of the high-boiling feedstocks currently being processed in
units originally designed for gas-oil feeds vary across a wide range. Typical of some of this
variation are the four feed blends described in Table 3.3.7. They range from clean, sweet
residues to more contaminated residues with up to approximately 4 wt % Conradson carbon residue.
The interest in atmospheric residue processing has extended to new unit designs as
well. Some examples of the feedstocks that have formed the basis for recent UOPdesigned units with two-stage regenerators and dense-phase catalyst cooling are shown in
Table 3.3.8. The higher carbon residues and metals levels have led to larger regenerators
and additional catalyst makeup; but catalyst improvements have helped, too. One unit has
operated with more than 15,000 ppm of nickel on the equilibrium catalyst. Even though
such values are high, operating or economic limitations will still continue to dictate the
characteristics of the feedstocks that will be processed.

PROCESS COSTS
The following section presents typical process costs for FCC units. These costs are included
here for orientation purposes only; specific applications need to be evaluated individually.
Investment. The capital investment for the various sections of a new 60,000 BPSD FCC
unit operating with a 5 wt % coke make is shown in Table 3.3.9. In general, costs for
other capacities vary according to a ratio of the capacities raised to a power of about 0.6.
TABLE 3.3.7

Typical Residue Cracking Stocks

Gravity, API (specific gravity)

UOP K factor
Sulfur, wt %
Conradson carbon residue, wt %
Metals, wt ppm:
Ni
V
Nondistillables at 565C
(1050F), LV %

28.2
(0.886)
12.1
0.98
1.01

24.5
(0.907)
11.75
1.58
1.25

26.4
(0.896)
12.1
0.35
2.47

22.4
(0.919)
11.95
0.77
3.95

0.2
0.8

1.6
2.3

0.7
0.5

2.8
3.5

10

13

23

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

3.68

CATALYTIC CRACKING

TABLE 3.3.8

Residue Feedstocks for New Units

Gravity, API
Specific gravity
UOP K factor
Sulfur, wt %
Nitrogen, wt ppm
Conradson carbon, wt %
Metals, wt ppm
Nickel
Vanadium

TABLE 3.3.9

22.4
0.9194
12.3
0.1
2300
5.6

19.2
0.9390
11.83
0.5
1600
6.0

18.8
0.9415
12.0
0.74
1900
8.0

21.2
0.9267
11.94
0.45
1050
4.2

21
1

10
10

6.8
3.0

3.1
4.6

Investment Costs
Estimated erected cost,* million $

Reactor section
Regenerator section
Main column
Gas concentration section

22.7
50.0
27.8
35.8
136.3

*Investment accurate within 40%, U.S. Gulf Coast erection, 2001.

Utilities. To gain an insight into the operating costs for a typical FCC unit, a utilities
and catalyst usage summary is presented in Table 3.3.10. The utilities balance assumes
an electrically driven main air blower with a steam-driven gas compressor. For large
units, a power recovery turbine is often used to recover the available energy from the
pressurized flowing flue gas. This has an obvious impact on the units utilities balance
since the power recovery turbine can typically supply more than enough energy to run
the main air blower.

MARKET SITUATION
The FCC process is one of the most widely employed refining processes. More than 500
FCC units have been built worldwide since the process was first commercialized, and more
than 400 are still operating. A breakdown of the worlds operating FCC capacity data for
2001 is listed in Table 3.3.11.
When there is a high demand for gasoline, as in North America, the FCC charge capacity can be about one-third that of the crude capacity. This ratio can go even higher when a
portion of the vacuum residue finds its way into additional FCC feedstock.
The FCC process will clearly be the conversion process of choice in future situations
where gasoline rather than middle distillate is the desired product. Because the FCC unit
has such a dominant place in the refinery flow scheme, it is only natural that the FCC unit
would be asked to play a major role in producing tomorrows clean fuels. So efforts to control the sulfur level and composition of the FCC gasoline are receiving major attention.
Future applications where the emphasis would switch from transportation fuels to producing individual compounds and petrochemicals would also place the FCC unit in a

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

UOP FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS

TABLE 3.3.10

3.69

Typical Utilities and Catalyst Usage

Utilities
Electricity, kWh/bbl FF
Steam, lb/bbl FF
High-pressure (600 lb/in2 gage)
Medium-pressure (150 lb/in2 gage)
Low-pressure (50 lb/in2 gage)
Treated water, lb/bbl FF
Cooling water, gal/bbl FF
FCC catalyst, lb/bbl FF

8.8
34.4
45.1
8.0
73.5
270
0.16

Note: bbl FF barrels of fresh feed. Negative values are consumption, positive values are production.

TABLE 3.3.11

Worldwide Capacity
Crude capacity,
million BPCD

North America
Asia
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
South America
Middle East
Africa
Sum

20.0
20.2
14.5
10.7
6.5
6.1
3.2
81.2

FCC capacity,
million BPCD
6.5
2.7
2.1
0.8
1.2
0.3
0.2
13.8

BPCD barrels per calendar day.

Source: Oil and Gas Journal, Dec. 24, 2001.

favored position. The FCC process will continue to play a major role and have a bright
future.

REFERENCES
1. M. W. Schnaith, A. T. Gilbert, D. A. Lomas, and D. N. Myers, Advances in FCC Reactor
Technology, Paper AM-95-36, NPRA Annual Meeting, San Francisco, Mar. 1921, 1995.
2. C. L. Hemler and A. G. Shaffer, Jr., The Keys to RCC Unit Success, AIChE Spring National
Meeting, Houston, Tex., Apr. 711, 1991.
3. D. A. Kauff, and B. W. Hedrick, FCC Process Technology for the 1990s, Paper AM-92-06,
NPRA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, La., Mar. 2224, 1992.
4. P. B. Venuto and E. T. Habib, Catalyst-Feedstock-Engineering Interactions in Fluid Catalytic
Cracking, Catalysis Reviews: Science and Engineering, 18(11), 1150 (1978).
5. J. M. Houdek, C. L. Hemler, R. M. Pittman, and L. L. Upson, Developing a Process for the
New Century, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Spring 2001.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.