UNDERSTANDING GENETIC, MORPHOLOGICAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATION

Understanding Genetic, Morphological, and Physiological Variation

Abraham Lopez
Anthropology 1020
3/21/16

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Abstract
This paper explores two readings about what makes up an individual's sex and Climate-related
morphological and physiological adaptation in Homo sapiens. The first reading was Chapter 3 of
the book Ah-king, M. (n.d.). Challenging popular myths of sex, gender and biology. This
chapter talked about Genes, hormones, and how they contribute to ones gender. The second
reading was Chapter 8 of Larsen, C. S. (2010). A companion to biological anthropology.
Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. This chapter went into great detail about possible
morphological and physiological adaptations in humans due to variations in temperature, altitude
hypoxia, and UV radiation. Both readings were very different in research, but surprisingly had
few things in common. They both portrayed that variation in genes, hormones, and gender have a
huge impact on modern day humans, as well as having a substantial influence on our race and
culture. This shows that regardless of our look and behaviors, we all came from the same place.
However, we have all adapted to our surroundings in order to survive, leading to different
physical appearances and cultures. Unfortunately, our society generally does not view our
physical differences the same way that biological research views them. There is a vast difference
between the scientific and cultural interpretation of genetic variation.

After reading the two research papers, I found the first to be the most interesting in my

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opinion. The first reading was about Genes and Hormones; it wasn't at all what I expected when I
first began reading it. This paper focused specifically on genes, hormones, and their respective
roles in the way that they affect an individual's sex. Back in the day, when someone referred to
one's sex, they automatically also associated it with one's gender. Society thought of it this way.
Nowadays in the twentieth century, culture and science view gender and sex as different, yet
closely related things. It shows that we have come a long way; especially, the comparison of
original beliefs from the 19th century to now. For example, back then anatomists claimed that
women and other non-European races were inferior, because they supposedly had smaller brains
compared to male Europeans. Reis, E. (2009). Bodies in doubt: An American history of intersex.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Now we look back at this, thinking how ridiculous
that idea was, and wondering how people could actually believe in that? But even nowadays, we
still have many misconceptions in science and many other subjects.
The chapter I read on, What Make Up An Individual's Sex explored many
misconceptions and referred to them as myths. The first myth the paper talks about is the claim
that the sex chromosomes are the main biological factor in determining ones phenotype sex.
Personally, from my limited background knowledge of biology, I thought the exact same thing.
When learning about the sex chromosomes you learn about the most common genotypes (XX)
and (XY). People that have a basic understanding of this will automatically assume that XX and
XY is the deciding factor of a persons genders. What science has now proven is that this is not
true, and it is a common myth. Miller, F. A. (2006, September). Your true and proper gender:
The Barr body as a good enough science of sex. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological
and Biomedical Science, 37 , 459483. The sex chromosomes are genotypes determining an
individual's biological sex, although they do not determines one's gender. Painter, T. S. (1923).

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Studies in mammalian spermatogenesis II. The spermatogenesis of man. Journal of Experimental
Zoology, 37 , 291336. The reason this is a myth is because somebodys gender is considered a
phenotype, but it does not always correlate with the sex chromosomes genotype. A primary
example of this is the disorder of sex development (DSD) showing the complexity and difference
between an individuals biological sex and gender identity. Nowadays, there are many cases
where people are born with both female and male reproductive systems, or are born either male
or female, but retrospectively identify themselves as the opposite gender. This leads us to the
second myth which talks about hormones and how they are tied to a specific gender. Roberts, C.
(2007). Messengers of sex . New York: Cambridge University Press, 33. The common belief on
this subject is that testosterone is a male hormone, and estrogen is a female hormone. The reality
is that hormones do affect the sexual systems, but are not limited to them. This means that
testosterone and estrogen contribute and are essential to the body in many different ways,
regardless if youre male or female. In biology, it is common knowledge to know that when
human reproduction occurs, the maternal egg of a female contributes X and the paternal sperm of
a male contributes either X or Y. Because of this, it was thought that the development of a female
is seen as default, whereas the development of a male is seen as an extra step in the reproductive
cycle. The reason to this is that if a sperm carries a sex chromosome of Y(carrying the gene
SRY), it will start a male fetal formation. Thomas, D. (2006). Wolffi an and Mullerian
structures . Rome: Promoarch Eventi. New research has emerged disproving the formation of a
female as default. This research goes into great depth explaining that the formation of a female
is also a secondary step, because it requires specific genetic markers called DAX-1 and
WTN4. Nef, V. (2009). Complementary pathways in mammalian female sex determination.
Journal of Biology, 8 , 74. Biason-Lauber, A. (2006). Role of WNT4 gene in gonadal

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differentiation . Rome: Promoarch Eventi.
Although we have come to learn all this, we still can't rely on sex chromosomes
because they don't always determine the biological sex. Holme, I. (2007). Genetic sex: A
symbolic struggle against reality? . University of Exeter Doctoral thesis. Even though some
might call this a mutation or an anomaly putting it in the DSD category, it is not a solid
explanation. We still have Gender dysphoria, which is where an individual is either born with
male or female parts, but do not identify themselves with that specific gender associated with the
reproductive organ they are born with. This further shows that sex chromosomes and hormones
are not the only factors in determining ones biological sex or gender identity. A specific
syndrome was referenced in the chapter 3 reading called AIS. This syndrome is very unique
because it has XY chromosomes, but instead of having external gonads, the body develops
gonads internally, developing female genitals externally. Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the
body . New York: Basic Books, 5153. This is syndrome is quite rare, but when it happens,
doctors usually tell their patients that their genotype is of a male, but their phenotype is of a
female. The recommended treatment for this is usually the removal of the gonads. Another
similar syndrome to AIS is called Klinefelter's syndrome. This syndrome is much more common,
and the chromosomes for this are XXY. The primary symptoms of this are infertility, body
suffering from this syndrome occurring creating a more feminine body, including breast growth,
and an increased body fat-to-muscle ratio. The recommended treatment for this is hormone
replacement therapy, but as we have learned so far, genetic chromosomes and active hormones in
the body always determine the biological sex of an individual. Hormone therapy has been an
interesting subject; it has been used to treat common diagnoses, such as depression, to other very
rare syndromes. For example, if a male has low testosterone, he may get prescribed testosterone

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shots. If a female is depressed, then she might get prescribed Androgen. Hormone therapy also
helps transgenders feel closer to their gender identity. However, hormones are not sex orientedmeaning that you will find testosterone and estrogen in both males and females; the reason to this
being that both hormones are essential for cardiac regulations, metabolic regulations, and many
other important functions of the body. For this reason alone, researchers are suggesting that
rather than limiting a prescription for only one specific hormone when doing hormonal therapy,
we start doing a mix of both hormones. This will help the body receive both essential hormones,
and will help the hormonal therapy to be more effective. With the recent information gathered,
Ive come to the conclusion that if we let go of our traditional views on gender, becoming more
knowledgeable with the common myths about the way genes, hormones, and physical
appearance have a role in gender identity and biological sex, we can move forward with new
research. We can then develop better treatment for those who suffer from DSD.
Although I did find the first reading to be quite intriguing, I also found the second
reading to be equally as compelling and informative. The second reading was about how
different parts of the world and climate caused possible morphological and physiological
adaptation in homo sapiens. In reading Chapter 8, the author argues about how cold temperature,
high altitude hypoxia, and uv radiation have caused possible morphological and physiological
adaptations in not just early homo sapiens, but in modern humans as well. It has been widely
accepted that homo sapiens evolved at sea level near the equator, and that we have spread across
the planet over the past 100,000 to 200,00 years. Conroy, G. C. (2005). Reconstructing human
origins: A modern synthesis. New York: W.W. Norton. We then began to adapt to new
environments that we migrated to. Starting off with how homo sapiens and modern day humans
have adapted to cold environments, we turn to naturalists Karl Bermann and Joel Asaph Allen. I

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mention them because they paved the way for many new found research, after having started
their own. It all began with noticing the relationship between climate, adult body size, and
morphology in homeothermic species(species with a specific core temperature regardless of the
variation in external temperature). Berman saw a pattern, which pattern later became know as the
Bergmann's rule. What this rule essentially meant was that a species body mass would increase
with a combination of latitude and with decreasing ambient temperature. This meant that the cold
homeothermic species would have a lower ratio of surface area to volume; in turn helping them
radiate less body heat, and helping them stay warm compared to other smaller species. Allen's
rules stated that homeotherms from colder climates had shorter limbs than animals that lived in
warmer climates. This correlated with Bergmann's rule because the less surface area of the body,
the less heat you then radiate. Later on new research was done and a biologist named Robert was
able to expand on Allen's rule and was able to apply it to humans. Through the examination of
370 population samples he was able to prove his research and share his finding with the world.
The only problem he ran into was when analyzing the polynesian population, they defied all
other population examinations he did. After more research he was able to explain the much
higher average weight on polynesian. His explanation was that they were bigger because they
had to overcome the treacherous migration to the Pacific islands. The next study was done in this
reading was the adaptation to high altitude hypoxia. What this means is that in higher altitudes
above sea level, there is less of a concentration of oxygen. After many studies on populations
living at high altitude, American anthropologist Cynthia Beall was able to understand how
Tibetans and Andeans were able to adapt to the high altitude. Although both had very different
methods, Tibetans were able to handle high altitude better by having high resting ventilation of
acute exposure of lowlanders. Beall, C. M. (2001). Adaptation to Altitude.

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They were able to maintain sea level hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR), and were able to
maintain hemoglobin concentration near sea level. But after 4000 meters above sea level, they
had significantly higher concentration of hemoglobin. Even with their differences both
populations were able to adapt and not only survive, but continuously thrive in higher altitudes,
above the average human being.
The last topic the paper discussed was the adaptation to ultraviolet radiation. According
to another american anthropologist, Nina Jablonski came to a conclusion that there was a
geographic pattern in pigmentation of the skin. The distance you are from the equator correlates
with the pigment of your skin. Her research stated two overlapping and opposing
clines.Jablonski, N. G. (2004). The evolution of Human Skin Color. Berkeley: University of
California. The first cline stated that populations closer to the equator would have heavily
pigmented skin, and that the further away people are from the equator, the lighter the
pigmentation of the skin would be. The second cline was about the effective synthesis of vitamin
D3. This correlated with the first cline because with heavy pigmentation, the skin would have a
harder time synthesizing vitamin D3, whereas lightskin populations were able to synthesize
vitamin D3 significantly better. This later lead Nina Jablonski to see a pattern that higher latitude
populations migrating to equatorial regions had high chances of skin cancer, due to high UVB.
This research collectively shows that acclimation of different climate environments has
influenced morphological, physiological, and genetic variation.

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References
Ah-king, M. (n.d.). Challenging popular myths of sex, gender and biology.
Beall, C. M. (2001). Adaptation to Altitude.
Biason-Lauber, A. (2006). Role of WNT4 gene in gonadal differentiation . Rome: Promoarch
Eventi.
Conroy, G. C. (2005). Reconstructing human origins: A modern synthesis. New York: W.W.
Norton.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the body . New York: Basic Books, 5153.

UNDERSTANDING GENETIC, MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATION

10
Holme, I. (2007). Genetic sex: A symbolic struggle against reality? . University of Exeter
Doctoral thesis.
Jablonski, N. G. (2004). The evolution of Human Skin Color. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Larsen, C. S. (2010). A companion to biological anthropology. Chichester, U.K.:

Wiley-

Blackwell
Miller, F. A. (2006, September). Your true and proper gender: The Barr body as a good enough
science of sex. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Science,
37 , 459483.
Nef, V. (2009). Complementary pathways in mammalian female sex determination. Journal of
Biology, 8 , 74.
Painter, T. S. (1923). Studies in mammalian spermatogenesis II. The spermatogenesis of man.
Journal of Experimental Zoology, 37 , 291336.

Reis, E. (2009). Bodies in doubt: An American history of intersex. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Roberts, C. (2007). Messengers of sex . New York: Cambridge University Press, 33.
Thomas, D. (2006). Wolffi an and Mullerian structures . Rome: Promoarch Eventi.

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