World War I

World War I
World War One, Great War, WW1, First

World War and WWI redirect here. For other
uses, see World War One (disambiguation) and
Great War (disambiguation). For the album by
White Whale, see WWI (album).
trition, with a trench line that would change little until 1917. Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, the Russian
army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, but
was stopped in its invasion of East Prussia by the Germans. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined
the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus,
Mesopotamia and the Sinai. Italy joined the Allies in
1915 and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the same
year, while Romania joined the Allies in 1916, followed
by the United States in 1917.
World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First

World War, or the Great War, was a global war centred
in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until
11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised
in one of the largest wars in history.[5][6] Over 9 million combatants and 7 million civilians died as a result
of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents
technological and industrial sophistication, and the tactical stalemate caused by trench warfare, a grueling form
of warfare in which the defender held the advantage. It
was one of the deadliest conicts in history, and paved the
way for major political changes, including revolutions in
many of the nations involved.[7]
The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and

a subsequent revolution in November brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of
Brest Litovsk, which constituted a massive German victory. After a stunning German oensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and
drove back the Germans in a series of successful oensives. On 4 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice, and Germany, which had its
own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice
on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the
Allies.
The war drew in all the worlds economic great powers,[8]

assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on
the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom/British Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central
Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although Italy
was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany
and Austria-Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers, as Austria-Hungary had taken the oensive, against
the terms of the alliance.[9] These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy,
Japan and the United States joined the Allies, while the
Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
By the end of the war, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire
had ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with
several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the winners.
During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four
(Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed
their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations
was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of
such a conict. This eort failed, and economic depression, renewed European nationalism, weakened member
The trigger for the war was the assassination of Arch- states, and the German feeling of humiliation contributed
duke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of to the rise of Nazism. These conditions eventually conAustria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip tributed to World War II.
in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set o a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the
Kingdom of Serbia,[10][11] and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. 1 Names
Within weeks, the major powers were at war and the conict soon spread around the world.
From the time of its start until the approach of World War
On 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Ser- II, the First World War was called simply the World War
and thereafter the First World War or
bia and subsequently invaded.[12][13] As Russia mobilised or the Great War
[14][15]
At the time, it was also sometimes
World
War
I.
in support of Serbia, Germany invaded neutral Belgium
war
to
end
war" or the war to end all wars
called
"the
and Luxembourg before moving towards France, leading
due
to
its
then-unparalleled
scale and devastation.[16]
the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany. After the German march on Paris was halted, what became In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote,
known as the Western Front settled into a battle of at- Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.[17]
1
BACKGROUND
During the interwar period (19181939), the war was Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germost often called the World War and the Great War in manys side in an eort to avoid a two-front war with
English-speaking countries.
France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the
The term First World War was rst used in Septem- throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was comber 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst pelled to retire and his system of alliances was graduHaeckel, who claimed that there is no doubt that the ally de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused,
course and character of the feared 'European War' ... in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Ruswill become the rst world war in the full sense of the sia. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was
signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In
word,[18] citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. After the onset of the 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France,
the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and RusSecond World War in 1939, the terms World War I or
the First World War became standard, with British and sia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. While these
agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or
Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and
Russia, they made British entry into any future conict
Americans World War I.
involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system
of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the
Triple Entente.[9]
Background
Main article: Causes of World War I
2.2 Arms race

0
500 KM
Baltic
Sea
German industrial and economic power had grown

greatly after unication and the foundation of the Empire
in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War. From the
mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this
base to devote signicant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy),
established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with
the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy.[21] As
a result, each nation strove to out-build the other in capital
ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906,
the British Empire expanded on its signicant advantage
Military alliances leading to World War I; Triple Entente in
over its German rival.[21] The arms race between Britain
green; Triple Alliance in brown
and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe,
with all the major powers devoting their industrial base
to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a
pan-European conict.[22] Between 1908 and 1913, the
2.1 Political and military alliances
military spending of the European powers increased by
[23]
During the 19th century, the major European powers 50%.
went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power
throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900.[19] These began in 1815, with
the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria.
When Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part
of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873,
German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the
League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia
and Germany. This agreement failed because AustriaHungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria-Hungary in an alliance
formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was
seen as a method of countering Russian inuence in the
Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken.[9] Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
This alliance expanded, in 1882, to include Italy in what Austrian annexation in 1908.
became the Triple Alliance.[20]
UNITED KINGDOM
North Sea
RUSSIA
GERMAN EMPIRE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Czechs
Poles
Slovaks
FRANCE
Ukrainians
AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
Italians
Slovenians
Mediterranean Sea
Morocco (Fr)
Black Sea
Military alliances
in 1914
SERBIA
BULGARIA
MONTENEGRO
ITALY
Mor
ROMANIA
Serbs
Da Sarajevo
lm
ati
a
SPAIN
Spa
nish
Romanians
Croats
PORTUGAL
Central Powers
ALBANIA
GREECE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Triple Entente
Slavic allies of Russia
occo
Algeria (Fr)
Tunisia (Fr)
minority groups in
AustriaHungary
3.2
2.3
Escalation of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Conicts in the Balkans
Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908

1909 by ocially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied
since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and
its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords, which were already fracturing in
the Balkans which came to be known as the "powder keg
of Europe".[24] In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War
was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing
Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent
Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of
Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost
most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern
Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War,
further destabilising the region.[25]
3
on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past
them.
About an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning
from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded
in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn
into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With
a pistol, Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his
wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria
was mild, almost indierent. As historian Zbynk Zeman later wrote, the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29
June), the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank
wine, as if nothing had happened.[28][29]
Prelude
Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the anti-Serb riots in

Sarajevo, 29 June 1914
3.2 Escalation of violence in Bosnia and

Herzegovina
Main articles:
Schutzkorps
Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo and
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some[26][27] believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged the anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Croats and
Bosniaks killed two ethnic Serbs and damaged numerous
Serb-owned buildings.[30][31] The events have been de3.1 Sarajevo assassination
scribed as having the characteristics of a pogrom. Writer
Ivo Andri referred to the violence as the Sarajevo
Main article: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdi- frenzy of hate.[32]
nand
Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not
On 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand
visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six
assassins (Cvjetko Popovi, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed
Mehmedbai, Nedeljko abrinovi, Trifko Grabe,
Vaso ubrilovi) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna,
supplied by the Black Hand, had gathered on the street
where the Archdukes motorcade would pass, with the intention of assassinating the Archduke. abrinovi threw
a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby were injured by the blast, but Franz Ferdinands convoy carried
only in Sarajevo, but also in many other large AustroHungarian cities in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In parts of modern-day Croatia and Slovenia, demonstrations took place pillaging Serbian owned shops and desecrating cemeteries and churches. In Dubrovnik, small
groups of people, believed to have been bribed by far right
groups, went around making a noise to intimidate local
Serbs. These demonstrations were supported and organised by weak forces on the right while many other politicians condemned the demonstrations. There was large
protest among Croats against the monarchy for promot-
4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR
ing anti-Serb sentiment in the region. Followers of Ante

Starcevic stated in a Croatian newspaper that they had
been truly immunized against the so-called Belgrade inuence, but that they would not for anyones sake act as
executioner of one and a half million Orthodox citizens in
Croat lands. Starcevic himself stated he respected the
Serb nation and admired its progress over the past century. The coalition newspaper Hrvatski Pokret wrote:
'Croats should squash pro-Frank savagery in the name
of Croat culture and humanity. In the Bosnian newspaper Jenji Mishab, it was warned that ill-advised and
non-Islamic behavior by ruans had been occurring
against Serbs in Bosnia. [33] Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200
of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried
out the persecution of Serbs.[34][35][36][37]
3.3
July Crisis
Main article: July Crisis

The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia,
France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian ocials (especially the ocers of the
Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the
Archduke, and wanting to nally end Serbian interference
in Bosnia,[38] Austria-Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23
July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were
made intentionally unacceptable, in an eort to provoke
a war with Serbia.[39] The next day, after the Council of
Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of
the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo, Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa, Kiev, Kazan and Moscow military
districts and eets of the Baltic and the Black Sea. They
also asked for other regions to accelerate preparations for
general mobilization. Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th and that night, declared that they accepted all the terms of the ultimatum, except article six,
which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in
Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination. Following this, Austria broke
o diplomatic relations with Serbia, and the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914,
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
tion in Austria-Hungary on 4 August. Kaiser Wilhelm

II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany
issued an ultimatum demanding the arrest of its mobilization and commitment not to support Serbia. Another was
sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were
to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the
Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war
on Russia.
The German government issued demands to France that
it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment
plan to implement, it being dicult if not impossible to
change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modied German Schlieen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would
deploy 80% of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost
and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60% in the west and
40% in the east as this was the maximum that the East
Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French
did not respond but sent a mixed message by ordering
their troops to withdraw 10 km (6 mi) from the border
to avoid any incidents, but at the same time ordered the
mobilisation of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II
West. Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August and
on 3 August declared war on France. On 4 August, after
Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as
well.[40][41][42] Britain declared war on Germany at 19:00
UTC on 4 August 1914 (eective from 11 pm), following an unsatisfactory reply to the British ultimatum that
Belgium must be kept neutral.[43]
4 Progress of the war

4.1 Opening hostilities
4.1.1 Confusion among the Central Powers
The strategy of the Central Powers suered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support
Austria-Hungarys invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant diered. Previously tested
deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914,
but those had never been tested in exercises. AustroHungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its
northern ank against Russia.[44] Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops
On 29 July, Russia, in support of its Serb protg, uni- against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This
laterally declared outside of the conciliation procedure confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide
provided by the Franco-Russian military agreements its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.
partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary. German
Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was then allowed until the
31st for an appropriate response. On the 30th, Russia 4.1.2 Serbian campaign
ordered general mobilization against Germany. In response, the following day, Germany declared a state of Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I)
danger of war. This also led to the general mobiliza-
4.1
Opening hostilities
Serbian Army Blriot XI Oluj, 1915
Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle

of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August.
Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown
back with heavy losses, which marked the rst major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian
hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to
keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its
eorts against Russia.[45] Serbias defeat of the AustroHungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the twentieth century.[46]
5
favoured certain operations, but did not specify exactly
how those operations were to be carried out, leaving the
commanding ocers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch I West, designed for a one-front war with France, had been retired
once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany
could expect to face; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France, and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro-Hungarian troops being available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and
the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it
retained a certain allure due to its oensive nature and the
pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected oensive
operations to be short-lived, costly in casualties, and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West
deployment was changed for the oensive of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insucient forces Germany had available for decisive success.[47] Moltke took
Schlieens plan and modied the deployment of forces
on the western front by reducing the right wing, the one to
advance through Belgium, from 85% to 70%. In the end,
the Schlieen plan was so radically modied by Moltke,
that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan.[48]
The plan called for the right ank of the German advance
to bypass the French armies concentrated on the FrancoGerman border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially
Main article: Western Front (World War I)
At the outbreak of World War I, 80% of the German the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle
of the Frontiers (1424 August). By 12 September, the
French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary
Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris
at the First Battle of the Marne (512 September) and
pushed the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi).
The French oensive into southern Alsace, launched on
20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.
4.1.3
German forces in Belgium and France
British hospital at the Western Front.
army was deployed as seven eld armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West. However, they
were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan
Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieen Plan.
This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an attempt to encircle the French
army and then breach the 'second defensive area' of the
fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river.[10]
German soldiers in a railway goods wagon on the way to the front

in 1914. Early in the war, all sides expected the conict to be a
short one.
In the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response,

Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its preAufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans avail- vious role as reserve for the invasion of France to East
able to the German General Sta in 1914. Each plan Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army,
led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a

series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of
Tannenberg (17 August 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German
troops to the east, allowing the tactical Allied victory at
the First Battle of the Marne. This meant Germany failed
to achieve its objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.
However, the German army had fought its way into a good
defensive position inside France and eectively halved
Frances supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently
crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it
itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems
and questionable command decisions cost Germany the
chance of a more decisive outcome.[49]
4.1.4
Asia and the Pacic
4.1.5 African campaigns

Main article: African theatre of World War I
Some of the rst clashes of the war involved British,
French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6
7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South
Africa; sporadic and erce ghting continued for the rest
of the war. The German colonial forces in German East
Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a
guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only
surrendered two weeks after the armistice took eect in
Europe.[53]
4.1.6 Indian support for the Allies
Further information: Third Anglo-Afghan War and
HinduGerman Conspiracy
Contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak

of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty
and goodwill towards Britain.[54][55] Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups
were eager to support the British war eort, since they
believed that strong support for the war eort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army
in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of
the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers
served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the
central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000
men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000
Military recruitment in Melbourne, Australia, 1914.
in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World
War I.[56] The suering engendered by the war, as well
Main article: Asian and Pacic theatre of World War I
as the failure of the British government to grant selfgovernment to India after the end of hostilities, bred disNew Zealand occupied German Samoa (later West- illusionment and fuelled the campaign for full indepenern Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, dence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and oththe Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ers.
landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain),
which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian 4.2 Western Front
cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized
Germanys Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Main article: Western Front (World War I)
Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the
Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Ger- 4.2.1 Trench warfare begins
many, but also on Austria-Hungary; the ship participated
in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in Novem- Military tactics developed before World War I failed to
ber 1914.[50] Within a few months, the Allied forces keep pace with advances in technology and had become
had seized all the German territories in the Pacic; only obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of
isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New strong defensive systems, which out-of-date military tacGuinea remained.[51][52]
tics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed
4.2
Western Front
Royal Irish Ries in a communications trench, rst day on the

Somme, 1916.
wire was a signicant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the
1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open French 87th regiment near Verdun, 1916.
ground extremely dicult.[57] Commanders on both sides
failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new oensive weapons, such as
gas warfare and the tank.[58]
Just after the First Battle of the Marne (512 September
1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted
manoeuvring to the north in an eort to outank each
other: this series of manoeuvres became known as the
"Race to the Sea". When these outanking eorts failed,
the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to
Belgiums coast.[10] Britain and France sought to take the King George V (front left) and a group of ocials inspect a
oensive, while Germany defended the occupied terri- British munitions factory in 1917.
tories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo-French
trenches were only intended to be temporary before
their forces broke through the German defences.[59]
Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientic and
technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second
Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the rst time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely
used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, poison gas became one
of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the
war.[60][61] Tanks were developed by Britain and France,
and were rst used in combat by the British during the
Battle of FlersCourcelette (part of the Battle of the
Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial suc- Canadian troops advancing with a British Mark II tank at the
cess. However, their eectiveness would grow as the war Battle of Vimy Ridge, 1917.
progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst
the Germans employed only a few of their own design,
supplemented by captured Allied tanks.
8
4.2.2

Continuation of trench warfare
Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the

next two years. Throughout 191517, the British Empire
and France suered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by
the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted Battleships of the Hochseeotte, 1917.
one major oensive, the Allies made several attempts to
break through the German lines.
In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French
defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before
French counter-attacks returned matters to near their
starting point. Casualties were greater for the French,
but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere
from 700,000[62] to 975,000[63] casualties suered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of
French determination and self-sacrice.[64]
The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French oensive
of July to November 1916. The opening of this oensive
(1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest
day in its history, suering 57,470 casualties, including
19,240 dead, on the rst day alone. The entire Somme
oensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties.
The French suered another estimated 200,000 casualties
and the Germans an estimated 500,000.[65]
Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916,[66] combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the
exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile
attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for
both the British and the French and led to the widespread
French Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly
Nivelle Oensive of AprilMay 1917.[67] The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope,
and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value.[68][69] A smaller part of the Arras oensive,
the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly signicant to that country: the idea that
Canadas national identity was born out of the battle is
an opinion widely held in military and general histories
of Canada.[70][71]
4.3 Naval war

Main article: Naval warfare of World War I
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers
scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The
British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down,
though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the EastAsia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed
15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser
and a French destroyer. However, most of the German
East-Asia squadronconsisting of the armoured cruisers
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , light cruisers Nrnberg and
Leipzig and two transport shipsdid not have orders to
raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when
it met British warships. The German otilla and Dresden
sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but
was virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few
auxiliaries escaping, but after the Battle of Ms a Tierra
these too had been destroyed or interned.[72]
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a

naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved eective, cutting o vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law
codied by several international agreements of the past
two centuries.[73] Britain mined international waters to
prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean,
causing danger to even neutral ships.[74] Since there was
The last large-scale oensive of this period was a British limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany exattack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July pected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine
November 1917). This oensive opened with great warfare.[75]
promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the Oc- The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or
tober mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval
equal, at some 200,000400,000 per side.
battle of the war. It was the only full-scale clash of battleThese years of trench warfare in the West saw no major
exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought
of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this
period, British, French, and German tactics constantly
evolved to meet new battleeld challenges.
ships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The
Kaiserliche Marines High Seas Fleet, commanded by
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navys
Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand o, as the Germans were outma-
4.4
Southern theatres
noeuvred by the larger British eet, but managed to es- blimps for antisubmarine patrol.[83]
cape and inicted more damage to the British eet than
they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted
their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German sur- 4.4 Southern theatres
face eet remained conned to port for the duration of
4.4.1 War in the Balkans
the war.[76]
Main articles: Balkans Campaign (World War I),
Bulgaria during World War I, Serbian Campaign (World
War I) and Macedonian Front
Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only
U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge in London, after the 1918

Armistice.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.[77] The nature of
submarine warfare meant that attacks often came withBulgarian soldiers in a trench, preparing to re against an inout warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships lit- coming airplane.
[77][78]
tle hope of survival.
The United States launched a
protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement.
After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules",
which demanded warning and movement of crews to
a place of safety (a standard that lifeboats did not
meet).[79] Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the
Americans would eventually enter the war.[77][80] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United
States could transport a large army overseas, but could
maintain only ve long-range U-boats on station, to limited eect.[77]
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships
began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This
tactic made it dicult for U-boats to nd targets, which
signicantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and
depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers
could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of
success. Convoys slowed the ow of supplies, since ships
had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution
to the delays was an extensive program of building new
freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines
and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.[81] The
U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost
of 199 submarines.[82] World War I also saw the rst
use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious
launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against
the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as
Austro-Hungarian troops executing captured Serbians, 1917.

Serbia lost about 850,000 people during the war, a quarter of
its pre-war population.[84]
one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suering

heavy losses, the Austrians briey occupied the Serbian
capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle
of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the rst ten months of
1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves
to ght Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats,
however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the
attack on Serbia.[85] The Austro-Hungarian provinces of
Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for AustriaHungary, in the ght with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.[86]
10

29 September 1918.[91] The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these
forces were far too weak to reestablish a front.[92]
The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that
the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendor concluded that
the strategic and operational balance had now shifted
decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after
the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace
settlement.[93]
4.4.2 Ottoman Empire
Refugee transport from Serbia in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914.
Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, October 12 and joined

in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensens army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the
Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000
troops total. The Serbian army, ghting on two fronts
and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania.
The Serbs suered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic
coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 67 January 1916,
but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro.
The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to
Greece.[87] After conquest, Serbia was divided between
Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.[88]
In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica
in Greece, to oer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the
pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before
the Allied expeditionary force arrived.[89] The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which eectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and
the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica.
After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in
Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident
known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and
his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then ofcially joined the war on the side of the Allies.
Mustafa Kemal Atatrk at the trenches of Gallipoli during the

Gallipoli Campaign.
war with the secret OttomanGerman Alliance signed

in August 1914.[94] The Ottomans threatened Russias
Caucasian territories and Britains communications with
India via the Suez Canal.
As the conict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers preoccupation with the
war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Greek, Assyrian and Armenian Christian popuIn the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. lations, known as the Greek genocide, Assyrian Genocide
French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Mace- and Armenian genocide.[95][96][97]
donia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 fol- The British and French opened overseas fronts with the
lowing the costly Monastir Oensive, which brought sta- Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914).
bilization of the front.[90]
In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled
Serbian and French troops nally made a breakthrough in
September 1918, after most of the German and AustroHungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians
suered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of
Dobro Pole. Bulgaria capitulated two weeks later, on
the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand

Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast,
after the defeat of the British defenders in the Siege of
Kut by the Ottomans (191516), British Imperial forces
reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The
4.4
Southern theatres
11
Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from
Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd
(Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an
Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai
Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of
Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in
January 1917.[99]
Ottoman 3rd Army troopers with winter gear.
Xmas card from British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force with

list of engagements, Basra, 1917
British artillery battery on Mount Scopus in the Battle of
Jerusalem, 1917.
Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus.

Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed
forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously.
He was, however, a poor commander.[100] He launched an
oensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack
against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost
86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.[101]
In December 1914 the Ottoman Empire, with German

support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in an eort to cut
o British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs
around Baku near the Caspian Sea.[102] Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British
and Russian inuence. The Ottomans and Germans were
aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large
number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai,
Russian forest trench at the 19141915 Battle of Sarikamish.
Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians
and British had the support of Assyrian and Armenian
British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and
Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However
Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.[98]
the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Ar-
12
menian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inicted

a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and
their allies, being cut o from supply lines, outnumbered,
outgunned and isolated, forcing them to ght and ee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.[103]
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915
to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern
Caucasus with a string of victories.[101] In 1917, Russian
Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies
could be brought up for a new oensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary
Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of
the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army
began to fall apart.
The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the
British Foreign Oce, started June 1916 with the Battle
of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended
with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha,
the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more
than two and half years during the Siege of Medina before
surrendering.[104]
The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and Austro-Hungarian troops, Tyrol.
British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged
a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The
British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose
them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was nally
crushed in mid-1916.[105]
Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted
650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000
(325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded).[106]
4.4.3
Italian participation
Main articles: Italian Campaign (World War I) and

Albania during World War I
Depiction of the Battle of Doberd, fought in August 1916 beFurther information: Battles of the Isonzo
tween the Italian and the Austro-Hungarian armies.
Italy had been allied with the German and AustroHungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume
(Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact
with France, eectively nullifying its part in the Triple
Alliance.[107] At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to
commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria-Hungary was an aggressor. The
Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, oering the French colony of
Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-oer in
which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Austrian
Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the
defeat of Austria-Hungary. This was formalised by the
Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied in-
vasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple

Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May.
Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany.[108]
The Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage
was lost, not only because of the dicult terrain in which
the ghting took place, but also because of the strategies
and tactics employed.[109] Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna,
a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of
breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and
threatening Vienna.
On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured
the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the
front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian
4.4
Southern theatres
Kaiserschtzen and Standschtzen engaged Italian Alpini

in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer.
The Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano
of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of
1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress.[110]
Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted
eleven oensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo
(Soa) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven oensives
were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the
higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of
Doberd, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over
a year, despite several Italian oensives, centred on the
Banjice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia.
The Central Powers launched a crushing oensive on
26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They
achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian
Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the
Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suered heavy
losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government
called to arms the so-called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99):
that is, all males born on 1899 and after, and so were 18
years old or older. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed
to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and
were nally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio
Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro-Hungarian eet
stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over
to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3
November, the Italians invaded Trieste from the sea. On
the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed.
By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied
the entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed
to Italy by the London Pact.[111] By the end of hostilities in November 1918,[112] Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italys Governor of Dalmatia.[112] AustriaHungary surrendered on 11 November 1918.[113][114]
4.4.4
Romanian participation
13
1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria-Hungary had itself
declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation
to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large territories of eastern
Hungary, in exchange for Romanias declaring war on the
Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its
neutrality. On 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army
launched an attack against Austria-Hungary, with limited
Russian support. The Romanian oensive was initially
successful, against the Austro-Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central
Powers drove them back.[115] As a result of the Battle
of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest
on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued
in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central
Powers.[116][117] Russian withdrawal from the war in late
1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that
Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central
Powers on 9 December 1917.
Romanian troops during the Battle of Mreti, 1917.
In January 1918, Romanian forces established control

over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the
province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian
and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks
from 59 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian
forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March
1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly
of that territory on its unication with Romania.[118]
Main article: Romania during World War I

Romania ocially made peace with the Central Powers
Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with
the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes
in the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions
to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The
treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru
Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally reentered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day,
the Treaty of Bucharest was nullied by the terms of the
Armistice of Compigne.[119][120] Total Romanian deaths
Marshal Jore inspecting Romanian troops, 1916.
from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contem-
14
porary borders, were estimated at 748,000.[121]
for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East

Prussia. Although Russias initial advance into Galicia
was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendor at the Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914.[123][124] Russias less developed industrial base
and ineective military leadership were instrumental in
the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the
Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the
Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on
Polands southern frontiers.[125] On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from
Poland.
The Russian Siege of Przemyl was the longest siege of the war
4.5.2 Russian Revolution

Main article: Russian Revolution
4.5
Eastern Front
Main article: Eastern Front (World War I)
4.5.1
Initial actions
Despite Russias success with the June 1916 Brusilov

Oensive in eastern Galicia,[126] dissatisfaction with the
Russian governments conduct of the war grew. The offensives success was undermined by the reluctance of
other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romanias entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled
Austro-Hungarian units in Transylvania while a GermanBulgarian force attacked from the south, and Bucharest
was retaken by the Central Powers on 6 December.
Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained
at the front. Empress Alexandras increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her
favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.
In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated
in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment
of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power
with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led
to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The
army became increasingly ineective.[125]
Russian troops in a trench, awaiting a German attack, 1917.
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war

continued in East Europe.[122] Initial Russian plans called
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918.

1. Count Ottokar von Czernin
2. Richard von Khlmann
3. Vasil Radoslavov
4.6
Central Powers peace overtures
Following the Tsars abdication, Vladimir Lenin was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917,
and nanced by Germany. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the
popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which
demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution
of November was followed in December by an armistice
and negotiations with Germany. At rst, the Bolsheviks
refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across the Ukraine unopposed, the new
government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3
March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and
Ukraine to the Central Powers.[127] Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required
for German occupation of former Russian territory may
have contributed to the failure of the Spring Oensive
and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the
Central Powers war eort.
15
War siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at
times controlling most of the Trans-Siberian railway and
conquering all the major cities of Siberia. The presence
of the Czechoslovak Legion near the Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918.
Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because Russias European ports were not
safe, the corps was to be evacuated by a long detour via
the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heron in September 1920.
4.6 Central Powers peace overtures
With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the

Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a
small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany
from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the Whites (as opposed to the Reds)
in the Russian Civil War.[128] Allied troops landed in
Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention.
4.5.3
Czechoslovak Legion
Czechoslovak Legion, Vladivostok, 1918.
Main article: Czechoslovak Legion

The Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente;
their goal was to win support for the independence of
Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established
in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in
Italy. Czechoslovak Legion troops defeated the AustroHungarian army at the Ukrainian village Zborov in July
1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak
legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military
power. In the Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated
the Germans and forced them to make a truce.
In Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil
"They shall not pass", a phrase typically associated with the defense of Verdun.
In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle

of Verdun and a successful oensive against Romania,
the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the US president, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note
for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd Georges
War Cabinet considered the German oer to be a ploy
to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilsons note as a
separate eort, signalling that the United States was on
the verge of entering the war against Germany following the submarine outrages. While the Allies debated
a response to Wilsons oer, the Germans chose to rebu it in favour of a direct exchange of views. Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were
free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs,
Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a free
and united Poland. On the question of security, the
Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any
peace settlement.[129] The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German oer, because Ger-
16
many did not state any specic proposals. The Entente

powers stated to Wilson, that they would not start peace
negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all
damage which had been done.[130]
4.7
4.7.1
19171918
Developments in 1917
German lm crew recording the action.
Haut-Rhin, France, 1917.
Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their eects were not fully felt until 1918.
The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the
German General Sta convinced Chancellor Theobald
von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the
war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping
loss of 600,000 tons. The General Sta acknowledged
that the policy would almost certainly bring the United
States into the conict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to
sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk
rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July.
It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly
re-introduced convoy system became eective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation,
while German industrial output fell and the United States
joined the war far earlier than Germany had anticipated.
to participate in further oensive action.[131] Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced
by General Philippe Ptain, who suspended bloody largescale attacks.
The victory of he central powers at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo Conference
at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies
had operated under separate commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice

with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops
for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new
American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew
that they could not win a protracted war, but they held
high hopes for success based on a nal quick oensive.
On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Oensive, the French Furthermore, the both sides became increasingly fearful
Thus, both
2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, of social unrest and revolution in Europe.
[132]
sides
urgently
sought
a
decisive
victory.
refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons.
Their ocers lacked the means to punish an entire divi- In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted
sion, and harsh measures were not immediately imple- separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through
mented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to his wifes brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermedia further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. ary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed
However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his atarrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to de- tempt was revealed to Germany resulting in a diplomatic
fend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused catastrophe.[133][134]
4.7
19171918
17
pire forces in March and April 1918.[143] In March, most

of the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces British infantry
Main article: Sinai and Palestine Campaign
and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Bat- as a consequence of the Spring Oensive. They were
replaced by Indian Army units. During several months
of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number
of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman
front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the Entente in preparation for an
attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army
infantry. It was not until the middle of September that
the integrated force was ready for large-scale operations.
4.7.2
Ottoman Empire conict, 19171918
British troops on the march during Mesopotamian campaign,

1917.
Ottoman troops during Mesopotamian campaign.
tles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the

advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had
begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.[135][136]
At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth
Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the
Battle of Beersheba.[137] Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge
and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem
(1917).[138][139][140] About this time, Friedrich Freiherr
Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the
Eighth Armys commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha,
and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman
Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced
by Otto Liman von Sanders.[141][142]
The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an

additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at
the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days
the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping
barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the
headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at
Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara
and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters
at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the
break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light
Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and
New Zealand Mounted Rie brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin,
along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa
east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh
and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on
the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytors
Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted ries, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman
and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire).
The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October,
ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when ghting
was continuing north of Aleppo.
4.7.3 Entry of the United States
Main article: American entry into World War I

At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued
a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat SM
U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May
1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President
Woodrow Wilson insisted that America is too proud to
ght but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships.
Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that
the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. The former
president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as
piracy.[144] Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as
In early in 1918, the front line was extended and the his supporters emphasized he kept us out of war.
Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjor- In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submadan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Em- rine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry.
18

fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a
unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Chteau-Thierry,
Belleau Wood, and Sechault.[150] AEF doctrine called for
the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to
the large loss of life that resulted.[151]
4.7.4 German Spring Oensive of 1918
Main article: Spring Oensive
Ludendor drew up plans (codenamed Operation
President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in ocial relations with Germany on 3 February 1917.
The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germanys ally
against the United States. In return, the Germans would
nance Mexicos war and help it recover the territories of
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.[145] The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the US
embassy in the UK. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the British 55th Division soldiers, blinded by tear gas during the
Battle of Estaires, 10 April 1918.
public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called
on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one
and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued
that the war was so important that the US had to have a
voice in the peace conference.[146] After the sinking of
seven US merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war
on Germany,[147] which the US Congress declared on 6
April 1917.
The United States was never formally a member of the
Allies but became a self-styled Associated Power. The
United States had a small army, but, after the passage of
the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men,[148]
and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers
to France every day. In 1917, the US Congress gave US
citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to
participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. If
Germany believed it would be many more months before American soldiers would arrive and that their arrival
could be stopped by U-boats, it had miscalculated.[149]
The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa
Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to
Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of US Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over
supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up
American units to be used as ller material. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments
to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellghters
French soldiers under General Gouraud, with machine guns

amongst the ruins of a cathedral near the Marne, 1918.
Michael) for the 1918 oensive on the Western Front.

The Spring Oensive sought to divide the British and
French forces with a series of feints and advances. The
German leadership hoped to end the war before signicant US forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21
March 1918, with an attack on British forces near SaintQuentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).[152]
British and French trenches were penetrated using novel
inltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called
stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Oensive of 1918, Lu-
4.8
Allied victory: summer 1918 onwards
dendor used artillery only briey and inltrated small

groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.[153]
The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of
Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns red 183 shells
on the capital, causing many Parisians to ee. The initial oensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II
declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans
thought victory was near. After heavy ghting, however,
the oensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised
artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their
gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated
by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain
that was shell-torn and often impassable to trac.[154]
19
established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South
West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by
Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a
joint Armenian-British task force in early 1919). With
the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 191718, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which
commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity
was briey maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but
this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis
concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was
more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend
for itself and struggled for ve months against the threat
of a full-edged occupation by the Ottoman Turks.[157]
General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops 4.8

as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to
eld American units as an independent force. These units
were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council
of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference
on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as
supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain,
and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective
armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and US commands
operated largely independently.[155]
Following Operation Michael, Germany launched

Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited
territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the
south then conducted Operations Blcher and Yorck, Allies increased their front-line rie strength while German
[158]
pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Oper- strength fell in half in 1918
ation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) 15 July, in an
attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counterattack,
which started the Hundred Days Oensive, marked the 4.8.1 Hundred Days Oensive
rst successful Allied oensive of the war.
Main articles: Hundred Days Oensive and Weimar ReBy 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne
public
to their starting lines,[156] having achieved little, and the
The Allied counteroensive, known as the Hundred
German Army never regained the initiative. German caDays Oensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle
sualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000,
of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and
including many highly trained storm troopers.
120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti- the end of its rst day a gap 15 mi (24 km) long had been
war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a
Industrial output was half the 1913 levels.
marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendor to refer to
this day as the Black Day of the German army.[159][160]
After an advance as far as 14 miles (23 km), German
resistance stiened, and the battle was concluded on 12
4.7.5 New states under war zone
August.
In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed
in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia,
the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic
Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence
from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were
Rather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point

of initial success, as had been done so many times in the
past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied
leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after
resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was
20

terattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded,
and those only temporarily. Contested towns, villages,
heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the
last week of September. On 24 September an assault by
both the British and French came within 2 miles (3.2 km)
of St. Quentin.[163] The Germans had now retreated to
positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line.
Aerial view of ruins of Vaux-devant-Damloup, France, 1918.
better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began
to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of
successful advances on the anks, then broke them o
when each attack lost its initial impetus.[161]
Canadian Scottish, advancing during the Battle of the Canal du

Nord, 1918.
British and Dominion forces launched the next phase of

the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August.[162]
The assault was widened by French[163] and then further
British forces in the following days. During the last week
of August the pressure along a 70-mile (113 km) front
against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, Each day was spent in bloody ghting
against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights
passed without sleep in retirements to new lines.[161]
Faced with these advances, on 2 September the German
Supreme Army Command issued orders to withdraw to
the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a
ght the salient seized the previous April.[164] According
to Ludendor We had to admit the necessity ... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.[165]
September saw the Allies advance to the Hindenburg Line
in the north and centre. The Germans continued to ght
strong rear-guard actions and launched numerous coun-
An American major, piloting an observation balloon near the

front, 1918.
In nearly four weeks of ghting beginning 8 August, over

100,000 German prisoners were taken. As of The Black
Day of the German Army, the German High Command
realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach
a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendor
said: We cannot win the war any more, but we must not
lose it either. On 11 August he oered his resignation to
the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, I see that we must
strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our
powers of resistance. The war must be ended. On 13
August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendor, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could
not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the
German Crown Council decided that victory in the eld
was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned
that they could only continue the war until December,
and Ludendor recommended immediate peace negoti-
4.8
ations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden:

Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that
I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is
even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. On 10
September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor
Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note
to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for
peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace oer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September Supreme Army
Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice
talks were inevitable.[163]
21
Its reserves had been used up, even as US troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day.[170] The Americans
supplied more than 80% of Allied oil during the war, and
there was no shortage.[171]
With the military faltering and with widespread loss of
condence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a
new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate
with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would oer better
terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a
constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over
the German military.[172] There was no resistance when
the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings
and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power
and Wilhelm ed to exile in the Netherlands. Imperial
Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born as the
Weimar Republic.[173]
The nal assault on the Hindenburg Line began with

the Meuse-Argonne Oensive, launched by French and
American troops on 26 September. The following week,
cooperating French and American units broke through in
Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing
the Germans o the commanding heights, and closing
towards the Belgian frontier.[166] On 8 October the line
was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the
Battle of Cambrai.[167] The German army had to shorten 4.8.2 Armistices and capitulations
its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to ght
rear-guard actions as it fell back towards Germany.
Main article: Armistice of 11 November 1918
When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 Septem- The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulber, Ludendor, having been under great stress for
months, suered something similar to a breakdown. It
was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence.[168][169]
Men of US 64th Regiment, 7th Infantry Division, celebrate the

news of the Armistice, 11 November 1918.
News of Germanys impending military defeat spread

throughout the German armed forces. The threat of
mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendor decided to launch a last attempt to restore the valour of the German Navy. Knowing the government of
Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendor decided not to inform him. Nonetheless,
word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel.
Many, refusing to be part of a naval oensive, which they
believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendor took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26
October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food.
Ferdinand Foch, second from right, pictured outside the carriage

in Compigne after agreeing to the armistice that ended the war
there. The carriage was later chosen by Nazi Germany as the
symbolic setting of Ptains June 1940 armistice.[174]
garia was the rst to sign an armistice, on 29 September

1918 at Saloniki.[175] On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.[175]
22
On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly
recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto.
This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which
marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective ghting force. The oensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the
last week of October, declarations of independence were
made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October,
the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But
the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine,
and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a
ag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa
Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied
Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian
commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria
was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy.
5 AFTERMATH
In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men
and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the
armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still some 450 mi (720 km)
from Berlin; and the Kaisers armies had retreated from
the battleeld in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the
story that their armies had not really been defeated. This
resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend,[176][177] which attributed Germanys defeat not to its inability to continue
ghting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 u pandemic and unt to ght), but
to the publics failure to respond to its patriotic calling
and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war eort,
particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.
The Allies had much more potential wealth they could
spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is
that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central
Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent
$21 billion and the US $17 billion; among the Central
Powers Germany spent $20 billion.[178]
5 Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of World War I
In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared:
The New York Times of 11 November 1918.
On 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice with Germany

was signed in a railroad carriage at Compigne. At 11
am on 11 November 1918"the eleventh hour of the
eleventh day of the eleventh montha ceasere came
into eect. During the six hours between the signing of
the armistice and its taking eect, opposing armies on the
Western Front began to withdraw from their positions,
but ghting continued along many areas of the front, as
commanders wanted to capture territory before the war
ended.
The French military cemetery at the Douaumont ossuary, which

contains the remains of more than 130,000 unknown soldiers.
the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian.

Numerous nations regained their former independence,
and new ones created. Four dynasties, together with their
ancillary aristocracies, all fell as a result of the war: the
Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the
Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as
The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,[179] not countArmistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, ing other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly
Belgian, British and French forces.
aected.[180]
5.2
5.1
Peace treaties and national boundaries
23
Formal end of the war
A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for

another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United
States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,[181][182] and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the KnoxPorter Resolution was
signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding.[183] For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the
Termination of the Present War (Denition) Act 1918 with
respect to:
Germany on 10 January 1920.[184]
Austria on 16 July 1920.[185]
Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.[186]
Hungary on 26 July 1921.[187]
Turkey on 6 August 1924.[188]
After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed.
However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish War
of Independence), and a nal peace treaty between the
Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become
the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923,
at Lausanne.
Some war memorials date the end of the war as being
when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was
when many of the troops serving abroad nally returned
to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the wars end concentrate on the armistice of
11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties
were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne,
was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces divested
Constantinople on 23 August 1923.
5.2
Peace treaties and national boundaries
After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers ocially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany, and building on Wilsons 14th point, brought into
being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.[189][190]
The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for
all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them
by their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this
statement was Article 231. This article became known as
War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.[191] Overall the Germans felt they had
been unjustly dealt by what they called the "diktat of Versailles. Schulze says, the Treaty placed Germany, un-
The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June

1919
der legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.[192] Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role
played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in
German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and
German resentment at both reparations and
continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland
made widespread revision of the meaning and
memory of the war problematic. The legend
of the "stab in the back" and the wish to revise the Versailles diktat, and the belief in
an international threat aimed at the elimination
of the German nation persisted at the heart of
German politics. Even a man of peace such
as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt.
As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in
an attempt to galvanize the German nation into
a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi
Germany sought to redirect the memory of the
war to the benet of its own policies.[193]
Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule
viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive
neighbors.[194] The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done
to civilians. However, owing to economic diculties and
Germany being the only defeated power with an intact
economy, the burden fell largely on Germany.
24
5 AFTERMATH
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia.
Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia
with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new
nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland,
Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced
by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.
500 km
FINLAND
NORWAY
Former Russian Empire
SWEDEN
ESTONIA
IRELAND
Schleswig
Gdask
Borders of Turkey according to the Treaty of Svres (1920)

which was annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne
(1923).
AlsaceLorraine
FRANCE
Saarland
Ottoman Empire
POLAND
EupenMalmedy
Free cities
Silesia
CZEC
H
OSLO
VAKIA
Be
Areas subject
to referendum
ssa
rab
ia
Contested areas
AUSTRIA HUNGARY
SWITZERLAND
ITALY
Klagenfurt
ROMANIA
Rijeka
Da
YU
GO
lm
SL
ati
AV
ALBANIA
Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor

states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines.
Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of SaintGermain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the
Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under
foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54%
of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary,
only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between
1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians ed former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia,
and Yugoslavia.[195]
Austria-Hungary
Soviet Union
Olsztyn
GERMANY
Trieste
SPAIN
Germany
Klaipda
GER.
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
Defeated former empires:
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
DENMARK
UNITED
KINGDOM
New Countries
New Borders
Key Countries
Winners
FINLAND
IA
BULGARIA
Thrace
TURKEY
IRAN
zmir
A.F.N.
SYRIA-LEBANON
(French Mandate)
IRAQ
(British Mandate)
Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of

1923).
In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of

nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle
of Gallipoli became known as those nations Baptism of
Fire. It was the rst major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the rst times
that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating
the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the this dening moment.[200][201]
war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much
After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian diof its western frontier as the newly independent nations
visions fought together for the rst time as a single corps,
of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were
Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation forged
carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in
from re.[202] Having succeeded on the same battle[196]
April 1918.
ground where the mother countries had previously falThe Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non- tered, they were for the rst time respected internationAnatolian territory was awarded to various Allied powers ally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered
as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reor- the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and reganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire mained so, although it emerged with a greater measure
was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Svres of 1920. of independence.[203][204] When Britain declared war in
This treaty was never ratied by the Sultan and was re- 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the
jected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South
victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Verless stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
sailles.[205]
5.3
National identities
Further information: SykesPicot Agreement

Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more
than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a minor Entente nation and the country with
the most casualties per capita,[197][198][199] became the
backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of
The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the

roots of the continuing IsraeliPalestinian conict are
partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the
Middle East that resulted from World War I.[206] Before
the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a
modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle
East.[207] With the fall of the Ottoman government, power
vacuums developed and conicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge.[208] The political boundaries
drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with
5.4
Health eects
25
the local population. These continue to be problematic

in the 21st-century struggles for national identity.[209][210]
While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end
of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern
political situation of the Middle East, including the ArabIsraeli conict,[211][212][213] the end of Ottoman rule also
spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources.[214]
died in the Russian famine of 1921.[218] By 1922, there

were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation
from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 19201922.[219] Numerous anti-Soviet
Russians ed the country after the Revolution; by the
1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000
Russians.[220] Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.
5.4
In Australia, the eects of the war on the economy

were no less severe. The Australian prime minister,
Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd
George, You have assured us that you cannot get better
terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some
way may be found of securing agreement for demanding
reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrices
made by the British Empire and her Allies. Australia
received 5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost
of the war to Australia had been 376,993,052, and, by
the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were 831,280,947.[221]
Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000
were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[222]
Health eects
Transporting Ottoman wounded at Sirkeci.
Diseases ourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In

1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000
in Serbia.[223] From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25
million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic
typhus.[224] In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted
malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years.[225] In
addition, a major inuenza epidemic spread around the
world. Overall, the 1918 u pandemic killed at least 50
million people.[226][227]
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British governments
Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a
Jewish homeland in Palestine.[228] A total of more than
1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in
Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Czarist Russia.[229]
The social disruption and widespread violence of the

Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian
Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in Ukraine.[230] An estimated 60,000200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the
The war had profound consequences in the health of atrocities.[231]
soldiers. Of the 60 million European military personIn the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against
nel who were mobilized from 1914 to 1918, 8 million
Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which
were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15
eventually resulted in a massive population exchange
million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of
between the two countries under the Treaty of Lauits active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%,
sanne.[232] According to various sources,[233] several hun[215]
In Germany, civilian deaths
and France lost 10.5%.
dred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was
were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part
tied in with the Greek Genocide.[234]
to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease.[216] By the end of the war, starvation
caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon.[217] Between 5 and 10 million people
Emergency military hospital during the Spanish u pandemic,
which killed about 675,000 people in the United States alone.
Camp Funston, Kansas, 1918.
26
6 TECHNOLOGY
Technology
ployed the Haber process of nitrogen xation to provide

their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite
[239]
Artillery was responsible
See also: Technology during World War I and Weapons the British naval blockade.
[240]
for
the
largest
number
of
casualties
and consumed
of World War I
vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head
wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation
forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel
helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian
6.1 Ground warfare
helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie
helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in
1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with
improvements, still in use today.
A Russian armoured car, 1919
World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology

and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major
armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised
and were making use of telephone, wireless communication,[235] armoured cars, tanks,[236] and aircraft. Infantry
formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead,
squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior
NCO, were favoured.
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conict. Gases used included
chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas,[242] as eective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas
masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale
strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of
limited eectiveness,[243] though they captured the public
imagination.[244]
The most powerful land-based weapons were railway
guns, manufactured by the Krupp works, weighing hundreds of tons apiece. These were nicknamed Big Berthas,
even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris
from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).
Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons

were positioned in the front line and red directly at their
targets. By 1917, indirect re with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using
new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft
and the often overlooked eld telephone.[237] Counterbattery missions became commonplace, also, and sound
detection was used to locate enemy batteries.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy
indirect re. The German Army employed 150 mm (6
in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical
French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105
mm (4 in). The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the eld
in pieces and assembled. The Germans also elded Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even
at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench
warfare.[238]
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which
hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of
the deadliest battles in history occurred during World
War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai,
the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans em-
British Vickers machine gun, 1917.
Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire,

and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped
bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The
British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British
rst tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme
on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an
issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a
year, the British were elding tanks by the hundreds, and
they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai
in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line,
while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced
27
the rst tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT,
which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conict
also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and
submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning
automatic rie, and the Bergmann MP18.
Another new weapon, the amethrower, was rst used
by the German army and later adopted by other forces.
Although not of high tactical value, the amethrower was
a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the
battleeld.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for
automobiles and trucks/lorries eventually rendered trench
railways obsolete.
Fixed-wing aircraft were rst used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish
War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of
grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914,
their military utility was obvious. They were initially
used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot
down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and ghter aircraft
were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used
Zeppelins as well.[246] Towards the end of the conict,
aircraft carriers were used for the rst time, with HMS
Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy
the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918.[247]
Manned observation balloons, oating high above the

trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped
with parachutes,[248] so that if there was an enemy air
attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time,
parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft
6.2 Naval
(with their marginal power output), and smaller versions
were not developed until the end of the war; they were
Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they
began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted might promote cowardice.[249]
submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vi- Recognised for their value as observation platforms, baltal supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and loons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To dethe seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the devel- fend them against air attack, they were heavily protected
opment of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to
sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS R- attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets
1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and were even tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps
dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air
1918).[83] To extend their operations, the Germans pro- combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench
posed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numforgotten in the interwar period until World War II re- bers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air
raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships,
vived the need.
hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to
be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting
panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of ghters
6.3 Aviation
from France.[246][249]
Main article: Aviation in World War I
7 War crimes
7.1 Baralong incidents
Main article: Baralong incidents
RAF Sopwith Camel. In April 1917, the average life expectancy

of a British pilot on the Western Front was 93 ying hours.[245]
On 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was

sunk by the British Q-ship HMS Baralong. All German
survivors were summarily executed by Baralong's crew
on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia,
a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was
stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident.[250]
On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was
28
in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl Goetz, the submarines commander, Baralong
continued to y the US ag after ring on U-41 and then
rammed the lifeboat carrying the German survivors
sinking it.[251]
WAR CRIMES
The Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle

was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on
27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24
of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and
ran down the lifeboats, machine-gunning survivors in the
water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged
with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig,
beyond the jurisdiction of German courts.[252]
The eect of poison gas was not limited to combatants.

Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the
poison gases through their towns, and rarely received
warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access
to eective gas masks. An estimated 100,000260,000
civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conict and tens of thousands more (along with
military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin
damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew
such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but
nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary, My ocers
and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm
to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong
winds were common in the battlefront. However, because
the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of
us were overly concerned at all.[257][258][259][260]
7.3
7.4 Genocide and ethnic cleansing
7.2
HMHS Llandovery Castle
Chemical weapons in warfare
Main article: Chemical weapons in World War I

The rst successful use of poison gas as a weapon of war-
Austro-Hungarian soldiers executing men and women in Serbia,

1916.[261]
French soldiers making a gas and ame attack on German

trenches in Flanders
fare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April

25 May 1915).[253] Gas was soon used by all major belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the use
of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout
the war had inicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war, and up to one-third of American
casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I.[254] The use of chemical weapons
in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907
Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited
their use.[255][256]
Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide. Image taken

from Ambassador Morgenthaus Story, written by Henry Morgenthau, Sr. and published in 1918.[262]
Main article: Ottoman casualties of World War I

See also: Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide,
Greek genocide and Genocide denial
29
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empires Armenian
population, including mass deportations and executions,
during the nal years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide.[263] The Ottomans saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy[264] that had chosen to
side with Russia at the beginning of the war.[265] In
early 1915, a number of Armenians joined the Russian forces, and the Ottoman government used this as a
pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation),
which authorized the deportation of Armenians from the
Empires eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and
1917. While an exact number of deaths is unknown,
the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates over 1 million.[263][266] The government of Turkey
has consistently rejected charges of genocide, arguing
that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic ghting,
famine, or disease during World War I.[267] Other ethnic
groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire
during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and
some scholars consider those events to be part of the same
policy of extermination.[268][269][270]
7.4.1
in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful

and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like
those in France in 1870.[273] The British and French magnied the reports and disseminated them at home and in
the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.[274][275]
8 Soldiers experiences
Main articles: List of last surviving World War I veterans by country, World War I casualties, Commonwealth
War Graves Commission and American Battle Monuments Commission
The British soldiers of the war were initially volun-
Russian Empire
Main article: Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian

The First Contingent of the Bermuda Volunteer Rie Corps to the
Empire
1 Lincolns, training in Bermuda for the Western Front, winter
See also: Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia, 1914 19141915. The two BVRC contingents suered 75% casualties.
1915, Volhynia and Volga Germans
Many pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of
1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000
200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities
throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the
Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine).[271]
teers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they
could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves.
Grouping together, they formed veterans associations
or Legions.
8.1 Prisoners of war

7.5
Rape of Belgium
Main article: World War I prisoners of war in Germany
Main article: Rape of Belgium

The German invaders treated any resistancesuch as
sabotaging rail linesas illegal and immoral, and shot
the oenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were
potential franc-tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took
and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500
French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings
of civilians ordered by junior German ocers. The German Army destroyed 15,00020,000 buildingsmost famously the university library at Louvainand generated
a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half
the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents.[272] Thousands of workers were shipped to
Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention
About eight million men surrendered and were held in

POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners
of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally
much higher than that of their peers at the front.[276]
Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge
about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle
of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Oensive about 325,000
to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (FebruaryMarch 1915)
14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, at the First
Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered
to the Allies. 2531% of Russian losses (as a propor-
30
9 SUPPORT AND OPPOSITION TO THE WAR
tion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for
France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million
(not including Russia, which lost 2.53.5 million men
as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to
Russians.[277] Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia
held 2.22.9 million; while Britain and France held about
720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice.
The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers
were sometimes gunned down.[278][279] Once prisoners
reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory
(and much better than in World War II), thanks in part
to the eorts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and
civilians alike; about 1520% of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment8% of
Russians.[280] In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5%
died.[281][282][283]
vivors were then forced to build a railway through the

Taurus Mountains.
In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of
the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917, they
re-armed themselves and briey became a military and
diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were
quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same
treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of
the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced
labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only
after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied
Supreme Council.[287] German prisoners were still being
held in Russia as late as 1924.[288]
8.2 Military attachs and war correspondents

Main article: Military attachs and war correspondents
in the First World War
Military and civilian observers from every major power
closely followed the course of the war. Many were able
to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to
modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land
and naval forces.
9 Support and opposition to the

war
9.1 Support
Emaciated Indian Army soldier who survived the Siege of Kut.
In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader,

Ante Trumbi, strongly supported the war, desiring
the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and
other foreign powers and the creation of an independent
Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in
Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its oce to
London; Trumbi led the Committee.[289] In April 1918,
the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and
Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing
within Austria-Hungary.[290]
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman

territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly.
Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating
Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Rethe MidMesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity.[285] volt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of
[291]
dle
East
in
an
eort
to
achieve
independence.
Although many were in a poor condition when captured,
Ottoman ocers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres A number of socialist parties initially supported the war
(684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: We were driven when it began in August 1914.[290] But European soalong like beasts; to drop out was to die.[286] The sur- cialists split on national lines, with the concept of class
[284]
9.2
Opposition
31
Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista (Revolutionary Fasci for International Action) in October 1914 that
later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919,
the origin of fascism.[298] Mussolinis nationalism enabled
him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments rm) and
other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince
socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.[299]
9.2 Opposition
Main articles: Opposition to World War I and French
Army Mutinies
Once war was declared, many socialists and trade unions
Poster urging women to join the British war eort, published by

the Young Womens Christian Association
conict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and

syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for
war.[292] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French,
German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries intervention in the war.[293]
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the
war and was initially strongly supported by a variety
of political factions. One of the most prominent and
popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was
Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism
and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention
in the war.[294] The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war
on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Alighieri
Society to promote Italian nationalism.[295] Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati.[296] However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the
war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting
in a general strike called Red Week.[297] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.[297] Mussolini, a syndicalist
who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims
on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed
the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci
Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street) after the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin.
backed their governments. Among the exceptions were

the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and
the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl
Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.
Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months
into World War I, made the war and its consequences the
main focus of his early ponticate. In stark contrast to
his predecessor,[300] ve days after his election he spoke
of his determination to do what he could to bring peace.
His rst encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1
November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the
Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication
of Benedicts proposed seven-point Peace Note of August
1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except AustriaHungary.[301]
In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Ocers Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings,
near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord
Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of
the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien
was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand
32
9 SUPPORT AND OPPOSITION TO THE WAR
German Revolution, Kiel, 1918.

The Deserter, 1916. Anti-war cartoon depicting Jesus facing a
ring squad with soldiers from ve European countries.
censors,[146] and many served long prison sentences for

statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.
cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher

A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particSmith, a Bermudian cadet who was present),
ularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to.
Although the vast majority of Irish people consented
that war should be avoided at almost any
to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority
cost, that war would solve nothing, that the
of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking
whole of Europe and more besides would be repart.[303] The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be
land that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914, there
so large that whole populations would be decwas a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in
imated. In our ignorance I, and many of us,
Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to purfelt almost ashamed of a British General who
sue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising
uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 ries to Ireland
ments, but during the next four years, those
to stir unrest in Britain.[304] The UK government placed
of us who survived the holocaustprobably
Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Risnot more than one-quarter of uslearned how
ing; although, once the immediate threat of revolution
right the Generals prognosis was and how
had dissipated, the authorities did try to make conces[302]
courageous he had been to utter it.
sions to nationalist feeling.[305]
Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorriens Other opposition came from conscientious objectors
career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War some socialist, some religiouswho refused to ght. In
Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objecI to the best of his abilities.
tor status.[306] Some of them, most notably prominent
peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both
military and alternative service.[307] Many suered years
of prison, including solitary connement and bread and
water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked No conscientious objectors
need apply.
The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916,
when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.[308]
In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens
of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.
Execution at Verdun at the time of the mutinies in 1917.
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the

conict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States
and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage
Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal
crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed disloyal. Publications at all critical of
the government were removed from circulation by postal
In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the
war, and managed to close down factories and stop public
transportation.[309] The Italian army was forced to enter
Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks
and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when
the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people
(including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800
people arrested.[309]
33
In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began
questioning why they were ghting for the French at all
and mutinied.[310] In Russia, opposition to the war led
to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of
1917, with the call going up for bread, land, and peace.
The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany,
the peace of Brest-Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions.
every physically t man in Britainsix of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives. Most
deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000
wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers.[314]
In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was
generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition
in isolated rural areas.[315]
In northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw

the beginning of the German Revolution of 19181919. 10 Legacy and memory
Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last,
large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as Main article: World War I in popular culture
lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors revolt which
then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel
spread across the whole country within days and led to
... Strange, friend, I said, Here is no
the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and
cause to mourn.
shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
None, said the other, Save the undone
years...
Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting,
9.2.1 Conscription
1918[241]
The rst tentative eorts to comprehend the meaning and

consequences of modern warfare began during the initial
phases of the war, and this process continued throughout
and after the end of hostilities, and still is underway, more
than a century later.
10.1 Historiography
Young men registering for conscription, New York City, 5 June

1917.
Conscription was common in most European countries.

However it was controversial in English speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groupsespecially the Irish Catholics in Ireland[311]
and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada. In
Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that
permanently alienated the Francophiles. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their
true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire,
and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the
war as a duty to their British heritage.[312] In Australia,
a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes,
the Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor
Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour
movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics
successfully opposed Hughes push, which was rejected
in two plebiscites.[313]
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography

has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years.
Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding
military occupation, radicalizion of politics, race, and the
male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our
understanding of ve major topics that historians have
long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why
did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the
high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare? To what extent did the civilian
homefront accept and endorse the war eort?[316]
10.2 Memorials
Main article: World War I memorials
Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and

towns. Close to battleelds, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal
graveyards under the care of organisations such as the
Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American
Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves
Commission, and Le Souvenir franais. Many of these
graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or
unidentied dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and
In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
34
10
LEGACY AND MEMORY
so separated their own generation from the past

and from their cultural inheritance.[323]
This has become the most common perception of World
War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on
the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country
have perpetuated the idea, while war-time lms including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms
indicate that the most contemporary views of the war
were overall far more positive.[324] Likewise, the art of
Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry
Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conict
in keeping with the growing perception, while popular
A typical village war memorial to soldiers killed in World War I war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more
serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected
as inaccurate.[323] Several historians like John Terraine,
In 1915 John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the
Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheeld have challenged these
poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished
interpretations as partial and polemical views:
in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December
1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance
These beliefs did not become widely shared
Day and Memorial Day.[317][318]
because they oered the only accurate interNational World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas
pretation of wartime events. In every respect,
City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans
the war was much more complicated than they
who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was
suggest. In recent years, historians have ardedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Algued persuasively against almost every populied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000
lar clich of World War I. It has been pointed
people.[319]
out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geoThe UK Government has budgeted substantial resources
graphically limited. The many emotions other
to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014
than horror experienced by soldiers in and out
to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum.[320]
of the front line, including comradeship, boreOn 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande
dom, and even enjoyment, have been recogand German President Joachim Gauck together marked
nised. The war is not now seen as a 'ght about
the centenary of Germanys declaration of war on France
nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle beby laying the rst stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand,
tween aggressive militarism and more or less
known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French
liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged
and German soldiers killed in the war.[321]
that British generals were often capable men
facing dicult challenges, and that it was un10.3 Cultural memory
der their command that the British army played
a major part in the defeat of the Germans in
World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It
1918: a great forgotten victory.[324]
was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an
era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period,
Though these views have been discounted as
and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed.[322]
myths,[323][325] they are common. They have dynamHistorian Samuel Hynes explained:
ically changed according to contemporary inuences,
reecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as aimA generation of innocent young men, their
less following the contrasting Second World War and
heads full of high abstractions like Honour,
emphasising conict within the ranks during times of
Glory and England, went o to war to make the
class conict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to
world safe for democracy. They were slaughthe contrary are often rejected.[324]
tered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experi10.4 Social trauma
ences, and saw that their real enemies were not
The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casuthe Germans, but the old men at home who had
alties manifested itself in dierent ways, which have been
lied to them. They rejected the values of the
the subject of subsequent historical debate.[326]
society that had sent them to war, and in doing
10.6
Economic eects
35
rejection of responsibility for the conict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The
widespread acceptance of the stab-in-the-back theory
delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized
the system, opening it to extremes of right and left.
Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew
strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas
directly or harshly aected by the war. Adolf Hitler was
able to gain popularity by utilising German discontent
with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles.[330] World
War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore,
it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts
of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the
victors of World War I.[331][332][333] American historian
William Rubinstein wrote that:
A 1919 book for veterans, from the US War Department.
The optimism of la belle poque was destroyed, and those

who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost
Generation.[327] For years afterwards, people mourned
the dead, the missing, and the many disabled.[328] Many
soldiers returned with severe trauma, suering from shell
shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to
posttraumatic stress disorder).[329] Many more returned
home with few after-eects; however, their silence about
the war contributed to the conicts growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in
the experiences of combat or spend any signicant time
at the front, or had positive memories of their service,
the images of suering and trauma became the widely
shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul
Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since
the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the
war are factually incorrect.[326]
10.5
Discontent in Germany
The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included

nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish
Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other
mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and
its allies, and also the Armenian genocide of
1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here,
had a common origin, the collapse of the elite
structure and normal modes of government of
much of central, eastern and southern Europe
as a result of World War I, without which surely
neither Communism nor Fascism would have
existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.[334]
10.6 Economic eects

See also: Economic history of World War I
One of the most dramatic eects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in
Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions
of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their
societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed
to bolster the war eort; many have lasted to this day.
Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly
large and bureaucratised governments, such as in AustriaHungary and Germany.
Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and US), but decreased in France and
Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia,
France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30%
to 40%. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at wars end there was no meat.
The rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of

the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war
changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab-in-the-back
legend (German: Dolchstolegende) was a testament to
the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a In all nations, the governments share of GDP increased,
36
10
LEGACY AND MEMORY
high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced
many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of
the wartime factories.
In Britain, rationing was nally imposed in early 1918,
limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine),
but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From
1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a
little over four million to a little over eight million.
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become dicult from
traditional sources. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to nd new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.[338]
Poster showing women workers, 1915.
surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly

reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the
United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments
in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge
of cutting o the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great
increase in US government lending to the Allies. After
1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The
repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations
which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the
loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United
States $4.4 billion[335] of World War I debt in 1934, and
this money was never repaid.[336]
Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved
from the war. Families were altered by the departure
of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce
in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry
needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This
aided the struggle for voting rights for women.[337]
World War I further compounded the gender imbalance,
adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths
of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million; from 670,000
to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking
economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called war

guilt clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for
all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them
by the aggression of Germany and her allies.[339] It was
worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a
similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and
Hungary. However neither of them interpreted it as an
admission of war guilt.[340] In 1921, the total reparation
sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay this sum.
The total sum was divided into three categories, with the
third being deliberately designed to be chimerical and
its primary function was to mislead public opinion ...
into believing the total sum was being maintained.[341]
Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity
to pay and therefore ... represented the total German
reparations gure that had to be paid.[341]
This gure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lostvia the treaty of Versailleswas credited towards the reparation gure as were other acts such as
helping to restore the Library of Louvain.[342] By 1929,
the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos
throughout the world.[343] In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community,
by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent
of 20.598 billon gold marks in reparations.[344] With the
rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been
issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s
were cancelled. David Andelman notes refusing to pay
doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the
agreement, still exist. Thus, following the Second World
War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed
to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the nal payment on these
bonds.[345]
37
11
See also
[7] Willmott 2003, p. 307.

[8] Willmott 2003, pp. 1011.
Outline of World War I
[9] Willmott 2003, p. 15
Death rates in the 20th century
[10] Taylor 1998, pp. 8093
European Civil War
[11] Djoki 2003, p. 24.
List of people associated with World War I
[12] Evans 2004, p. 12.
Lists of wars
[13] Martel 2003, p. xii .
List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death

toll
Lists of World War I topics
[14] Were they always called World War I and World War
II?". Ask History. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
[15] Braybon 2004, p. 8.
Timeline of World War I
[16] The war to end all wars. BBC. 10 November 1998. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
World War I casualties
[17] great, adj., adv., and n.. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 2012.
World War I medal abbreviations
[18] Shapiro & Epstein 2006, p. 329.
12
Footnotes
[19] Clark 2014, pp. 121152.
[1] The United States did not ratify any of the treaties agreed
to at the Paris Peace Conference.
[2] Bulgaria joined the Central Powers on 14 October 1915.
[3] The Ottoman Empire agreed to a secret alliance with Germany on 2 August 1914. It joined the war on the side of
the Central Powers on 29 October 1914.
[4] The United States declared war on Austria-Hungary on
December 7, 1917.
[5] Austria was considered one of the successor states to
Austria-Hungary.
[6] The United States declared war on Germany on April 6,
1917.
[7] Hungary was considered one of the successor states to
Austria-Hungary.
[8] Although the Treaty of Svres was intended to end the
war between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, the Allies and the Republic of Turkey, the successor state of the
Ottoman Empire, agreed to the Treaty of Lausanne.
13
Notes
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1918.net. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
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[20] Keegan 1998, p. 52.

[21] Willmott 2003, p. 21
[22] Prior 1999, p. 18.
[23] Fromkin 2004, p. 94.
[24] Keegan 1998, pp. 4849.
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15 External links
19141918-online International Encyclopedia of
the First World War
The Heritage of the Great War / First World War.
Graphic color photos, pictures and music
A multimedia history of World War I
European Newspapers from the start of the First
World War and the end of the war
Powerpoint summary of the war
The World War I Document Archive Wiki, Brigham
Young University
Maps of Europe covering the history of World War
I at omniatlas.com
World War I Crossroads current discussions by
scholars
50
15
World War I (First World War) Guide to websites

Documents from Mount Holyoke College
EFG1914 Film digitisation project on First World
War
WWI Films on the European Film Gateway
The British Path WW1 Film Archive
World War I British press photograph collection A
sampling of images distributed by the British government during the war to diplomats overseas, from
the UBC Library Digital Collections
World War I in Colour in YouTube.
15.1
Animated maps
An animated map Europe plunges into war

An animated map of Europe at the end of the war
15.2
Library guides
National Library of New Zealand

State Library of New South Wales
US Library of Congress
Indiana University Bloomington, USA
New York University, USA
University of Alberta, Canada
EXTERNAL LINKS
51
16
16.1
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Text
World War I Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I?oldid=712955750 Contributors: AxelBoldt, TwoOneTwo, The Epopt,

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Jaczuk, Groundsquirrel13, Lt.Specht, Gage123, Blee145, Ka Faraq Gatri, Mishadeon, Barking1, Cambalachero, Zeb543, Heyitsalexander, Scorchy, Z. Patterson, Bahamut Star, Debresser, Favonian, Darkscholar789, Green Squares, Anam Gumnam, Ruddy9hell, Ghost109,
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, Haeinous, Heatheldcc, Joedkins, A Werewolf, Bambuway, M2545, Grandiose, Purpleturple, Airborne84, CircleAdrian, Cannolis, JPEriksson, Citation bot 1, Hchc2009, Intelligentsium, AstaBOTh15, Simple Bob, Johnganey, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Jonesey95,
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Chump Manbea, December21st2012Freak, Doltna, Jirka.h23, Samuel Salzman, Kgrad, Lightlowemon, Willdasmiking, Saintonge235,
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Toronto, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, Hrjohnson10, Solopiel, Jorge c2010, Jakaloke, Zarashen, Ajraddatz, Calanon, Mk5384,
Santolinek, OMGTANGERINES, Abby 92, Boundarylayer, Zerotonin, Dewritech, El gato verde, Tinss, Bull Market, 8digits, Bt8257, Dfdc,
Scrosby85, Wham Bam Rock II, NorthernKnightNo1, ChoraPete, Yattum, John of Lancaster, IBen, Italia2006, Mz7, Evanh2008, Umumu,
Akhil 0950, AvicBot, ZroBot, Hit45, Illegitimate Barrister, Partizanghter1944, Guigui169, Manchester.bw, DragonTiger23, Mdeen,
Michael Essmeyer, Cristiano Toms, Farmount1989, , Zezen, AvicAWB, 1234r00t, EddieDrood, H3llBot, Leitner1, Mista
poe, IIIraute, Unreal7, RPHKUSA, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, GrindtXX, Borg*Continuum, Bava Alcide57, AutoGeek, Prm, UltimaRatio, Thine Antique Pen, RoslynSKP, Sextbeast, Cwill151, Kenman2, Brandmeister, Thriller3000, KazekageTR, Wally Wiglet, L Kensington, Chrisman62, VanSisean, , Riotforlife, Eichlmat, Irrypride, Donner60, Pennybanks2, Macschanger, $1LENCE
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Jorgecarleitao, Pluma, Harsimaja, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zibart, Popcorndu, Rebekahw7, Calidum, Alphacatmarnie, Gob Lofa, Bozgo, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Karesu12340, Mohamed CJ, Sambian kitten, 2601andrew, Northamerica1000, Khemmingsen, HIDECCHI001,
Dzlinker, ISpinksy, Frze, Ella Plantagenet, Marcocapelle, Westwoodking, Knightserbia, Turnhout, Yerevantsi, Soerfm, Jeancey, Glevum,
Alvin Lee, Nicola.Manini, Harizotoh9, Mitchell443, Zedshort, Gaylencrufts, ProudIrishAspie, Edthed, J187B, HJ Mitchell (default), Busy
16.2
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55
Moose, Canthus 1, Oleg-ch, Yekshemesh, AksamitSK, SpidErxD, Bening1, BattyBot, Factsearch, Kool777456, Boeing720, Bron6669,
Cloptonson, Sybertronic, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, uropedian, ChrisGualtieri, Dhnlin, Champaign Supernova, Nick.mon, Fatimah M, Tandrum, Khazar2, Secret Snelk, 23 editor, GELongstreet, JYBot, MrAustin390, Dexbot, Dissident93, Irondome, Fishicus, Br'er Rabbit, Ziiike, Charles Essie, Mogism, Jackninja5, TehPlaneFreak, Biscers, Singha.8, Cerabot~enwiki, XXzoonamiXX, Jwelter2, AldezD, TeriEmbrey, Nicholasemjohnson, Bennu, Srorourke, MarsBarLover, JaviP96, Urnze, FallingGravity, Ransewiki, SaturatedFats, Melonkelon,
Transerd, Kap 7, PraetorianFury, Inglok, FoxyOrange, Tokexperiment, Newsreellover, Praemonitus, King Philip V of Spain, Dustin V. S.,
Supersaiyen312, LudicrousTripe, Newnou, Vindalen2, Hubertl, IQ125, Monochrome Monitor, Jon.tracey, Nikhilmn2002, Ritviksaharan,
Fitzcarmalan, Adirlanz, Yny501, BenEsq, Gho2t993, Gravuritas, Sumatro, AbelM7, WPGA2345, Wikiguy2912, Stamptrader, Ithinkicahn, Owain Knight, Nemojda, Esquin, CaseyPenk, Jinfengopteryx, Barjimoa, Wellsmode, Jononmac46, Chris0123, Hjaltland Collection,
Mahusha, Signoredexter, Monkbot, Mdupontmobile, Apinedapinzon, GinAndChronically, Lucasjohansson, Golf, Gareld Gareld, Gatnamwaran, SkyHighSelfregard, MAI 742, ZYjacklin, Oiyarbepsy, Cirow, Vreswiki, Edith Waring, Jonlau22800, Lora.WWIMuseum,
Rkunreal93, Tetra quark, Iamthemostwanted2015, Awesomeshreyo, Timothyjosephwood, Tbonetravis11, Julen.ibarrondo, KasparBot,
Dominator1453, AusLondonder, Gaeanautes, KentuckyKevin, Ricardo A. Olea, Pedro8790, Icamenal, Stariradio and Anonymous: 2965
16.2
Images
File:1908-10-07_-_Moritz_Schiller{}s_Delicatessen.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
6a/1908-10-07_-_Moritz_Schiller%27s_Delicatessen.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Archive photo, Sarajevo.
Scanned from the 1954 edition of Sarajevski Atentat by Vojislav Bogievi.
Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:1914-06-29_-_Aftermath_of_attacks_against_Serbs_in_Sarajevo.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e6/1914-06-29_-_Aftermath_of_attacks_against_Serbs_in_Sarajevo.png License: Public domain Contributors: Historijski Arhiv Sarajevo. Found in a .pdf edition of Sarajevo, biograja grada (Sarajevo, A Biography) by Robert J. Donia.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
File:1917_-_Execution__Verdun_lors_des_mutineries.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/1917_-_
Execution_%C3%A0_Verdun_lors_des_mutineries.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Paris, Bibliothque Nationale Original artist:
?
File:Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux,_France,_1918,_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.tif
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_
ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original
artist: Edward Steichen, 1879-1973, Photographer (NARA record: 1444144)
File:Affiche-guerre_Femmes-au-travail.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Affiche-guerre_
http://www.wdl.org/fr/item/582/ Original artist:
UnFemmes-au-travail.jpg License:
known<a
src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
1.5x,
File:Armisticetrain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Armisticetrain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Press photo published all over the world. F.ex. Jan Dbrowski Wielka wojna 1914-1918 ( The Great War 1914-1918) Warsaw
1937 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
width='20'
File:Austin21.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Austin21.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
PIBWL Military Site (moved from ru::Austin21.jpg uploaded by ru::Vikiped) Original artist: .
File:Austrians_executing_Serbs_1917.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Austrians_executing_
Serbs_1917.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DefenseLINK_Search/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=
HDSN9902350&JPGPath=/Assets/1999/DoD/HD-SN-99-02350.JPG
http://research.archives.gov/description/533647 Original artist: UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD
File:Austro-Hungarian_mountain_corps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Austro-Hungarian_
mountain_corps.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned image Original artist: Unknown Austro-Hungarian ocer
File:BVRC-Great-War-Contingent_1914.jpg
Source:
BVRC-Great-War-Contingent_1914.jpg License: PD Contributors:
Original image
Original artist:
British Army
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b2/
56
16
File:Battle_Sarikamis_winter_gear.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Battle_Sarikamis_winter_

gear.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Turkish general sta web site explaining the Battle of Sarikamis. http://www.tsk.mil.tr/
8_TARIHTEN_KESITLER/8_8_Turk_Tarihinde_Onemli_Gunler/sarikamis_harekati/sarikamis_harekati.html Original artist: It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed. Original photographer unknown.
File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
File:Brest-litovsk_treaty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Brest-litovsk_treaty.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: This le has source information, but it either links directly to the le or is a generic base URL, or is not an Internet
source for an le that was likely found on the Internet. Source information should be provided so that the copyright status can be veried by others. It is requested that a better source be provided to make determination of the copyright information easier. Please provide
a URL to an HTML page that contains this le. See Commons:Licensing#License_information for more information. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/
British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph Q 11586 from the
collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 1900-22) Original artist: Thomas Keith Aitken (Second Lieutenant)
File:British_Troops_Marching_in_Mesopotamia.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/British_
Troops_Marching_in_Mesopotamia.jpg License:
Library of Congress Original artist:
Unknown<a
src='https:
width='20'
height='11'
1.5x,
File:Bulgaria_southern_front.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Bulgaria_southern_front.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lostbulgaria.com/?p=3541 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/
wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/
ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0323-501,_Kriegskinematograph_im_Schtzengraben.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0323-501%2C_Kriegskinematograph_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R72520,_Kiel,_Novemberrevolution,_Matrosenaufstand.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/be/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R72520%2C_Kiel%2C_Novemberrevolution%2C_Matrosenaufstand.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Canadian_Scottish_at_Canal_du_Nord_Sept_1918_IWM_CO_3289.jpg Source:
commons/5/55/Canadian_Scottish_at_Canal_du_Nord_Sept_1918_IWM_CO_3289.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is
photograph CO 3289 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Canadian Ocial photographer : Rider-Rider,
William (Lieutenant)
File:Canadian_tank_and_soldiers_Vimy_1917.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Canadian_tank_
and_soldiers_Vimy_1917.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the
reproduction reference number PA-004388 and under the MIKAN ID number 3522713
Original artist: Canada. Dept. of National Defence
File:Capture_of_Jerusalem_1917d.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Capture_of_Jerusalem_
1917d.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress LC-DIG-ppmsca-13291-00030 Original artist: American Colony
Photo Department (Jerusalem), photographer not named
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cover-of-book-for-WWI-veterans-by-William-Brown-Meloney-born-1878.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Cover-of-book-for-WWI-veterans-by-William-Brown-Meloney-born-1878.jpg License:
Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Czech_Troops.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Czech_Troops.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://nortvoods.net/rrs/siberia/siberia-d.htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Detail_of_Xmas_card_from_British_Mesopotamian_Expeditionary_Force,_1917.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/09/Detail_of_Xmas_card_from_British_Mesopotamian_Expeditionary_Force%2C_1917.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hjaltland Collection
16.2
Images
57
File:Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic,_Camp_Funston,_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_
Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: NCP 1603 Original artist: Otis Historical Archives Nat'l Museum of Health
& Medicine
File:FirstSerbianArmedPlane1915.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/FirstSerbianArmedPlane1915.
jpg License:
Museum of Yugoslav Aviation in Belgrade Original artist:
Unknown<a
width='20'
height='11'
1.5x,
File:Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_
Austria-Hungary_%281869-1918%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: vectorized by Sgt_bilko,
change name by User:Actarux for use in same templates
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The ag of Bulgaria. The colors are specied at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&
n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: self-made, based on en:Image:Arab_Revolt_flag.svg Original artist: Orange Tuesday at English Wikipedia
File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946)_crowned.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_
%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:
http://www.prassi.cnr.it/prassi/content.html?id=1669
Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
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16.2
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File:Melbourne_recruiting_WWI.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Melbourne_recruiting_WWI.

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Trenches on the Western Front
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German Albatros D.III biplane ghters of Jasta 11 at Douai, France
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Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks
16.3
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British Mark V tanks
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British battleship HMS Irresistible
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World War I

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What were the main events that led to the start of World War 1?

What were the main events that led to the start of World War 1?

Which countries originally comprised the two opposing alliances in World War 1?

Which countries originally comprised the two opposing alliances in World War 1?

World War I

World War One, Great War, WW1, First

World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First

The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and

The war drew in all the worlds economic great powers,[8]

Main article: Causes of World War I

2.2 Arms race

German industrial and economic power had grown

Slavic allies of Russia

Escalation of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Conicts in the Balkans

Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908

Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the anti-Serb riots in

3.2 Escalation of violence in Bosnia and

Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo and

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

ing anti-Serb sentiment in the region. Followers of Ante

Main article: July Crisis

tion in Austria-Hungary on 4 August. Kaiser Wilhelm

4 Progress of the war

Serbian Army Blriot XI Oluj, 1915

Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle

German forces in Belgium and France

British hospital at the Western Front.

German soldiers in a railway goods wagon on the way to the front

In the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response,

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a

Asia and the Pacic

4.1.5 African campaigns

Contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak

Royal Irish Ries in a communications trench, rst day on the

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the

4.3 Naval war

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a

U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge in London, after the 1918

Austro-Hungarian troops executing captured Serbians, 1917.

one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suering

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

Refugee transport from Serbia in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914.

Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, October 12 and joined

Mustafa Kemal Atatrk at the trenches of Gallipoli during the

war with the secret OttomanGerman Alliance signed

the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand

Ottoman 3rd Army troopers with winter gear.

Xmas card from British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force with

Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus.

In December 1914 the Ottoman Empire, with German

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

menian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inicted

Main articles: Italian Campaign (World War I) and

vasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple

Kaiserschtzen and Standschtzen engaged Italian Alpini