Bahir Dar University

Department of Civil Engineering

Foundation Engineering-I
(Ceng-3152)
By: Desalegn M.
(M.Tech in Geotechnical Engineering)
Email: [email protected]

Foundation engineering I
course code: 3152
Credit points: 5(2hr lecture, 3hr tutor)
target group: civil 3rd year
Academic year: 2012/2013
prerequisite: soil mechanics II and
Reinforced concrete I

Course objective: To equip students with

a sound knowledge about site exploration
methods, selection of foundation type,
analysis and design of shallow foundations
and retaining structures.
2

Course outline
Chapter one
1. Site exploration:
Chapter two
2. Types of foundations and their selection criteria.
Chapter three
3. Design of shallow foundations:
3.1. Isolated or spread footings,
3.2. Combined footings,
3.3. Strap or cantilevered footings,
3.4. Mat foundations,
3.5. Eccentrically and inclined loaded foundations.
Chapter four
4. Analysis and design of retaining structures
Reference:

1. Soil Exploration
The process of exploring to characterize
or define small scale properties of
substrata at construction sites is unique
to geotechnical engineering.
In
other
engineering
disciplines,
material properties are specified during
design, or before construction or
manufacture, and then controlled to
meet the specification. Unfortunately,
subsurface
properties
cannot
be
specified;
they
must
be
deduced
through exploration.
Charles H. Dowding (1979).
4

Purpose of exploration
The primary objective is to analyze the nature
of the soil in all aspects, basically is to find
out strength characteristics of the sub-soil
over which the structure has to be built.

Soil exploration includes:

Selection of alternative construction sites or

the choice of the most economical sites,

Selection of alternative types or depth of
foundation,
Selection of alternative methods of
construction,
Evaluation of the safety of existing structure,
Location and selection of construction
materials.
5

The soil exploration should provide the

following data:
Soil parameters and properties of different

layers (e.g. for classification, bearing

capacity or settlement calculation),
Thickness of soil layers and depth to
bedrock (stratification of soil),
Location of ground water level and
important groundwater related issues,
Special problems and concerns.

Planning an exploration program

The planning of a program for soil
exploration depends upon:
The nature of sub-soil
The type of structure
The importance of structure

The actual planning of a subsurface

i.

exploration program includes some

or all of the following steps:
Desk-study:

Assembly of all available information on

type and use of the structure, and also of
the general topographic and geological
character of the site.

ii. Reconnaissance of the area:

Consists of walking the site and

visually assessing the local condition,
inspection of behavior of adjacent
structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
Reconnaissance includes the
assessment of;
Any previous development on site,
Any previous grading on site,
Any potential landslide or other
stability problems,
Condition of nearby structure

iii. A preliminary site investigation:

This is usually in the form of a few borings or a
test pit to establish the types of materials,
Stratification (vertical profile) of the soil, and
possibly the location of the ground water level.
For small projects this step may be sufficient
to establish foundation criteria, in which
case the exploration program is finished.

iv. A detailed site investigation:

For complex projects or where the soil is of

poor quality and/or erratic, a more detailed
investigation may be undertaken. This may
involve sinking several boreholes, taking soil
samples for laboratory investigations,
conducting sounding and other field tests.

Methods of exploration
It is important to investigate the surface condition,
but we basically rely on subsurface exploration soil
and rock samples obtained by drilling vertical
holes known as Borings or by digging exploratory
trenches or test pits.
Methods of determining the stratification and
engineering characteristics of sub-surface are
Test pits
Boring and sampling
Field tests
Geophysical methods
Laboratory tests

Test Pits

The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration

is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m.
Test pits enable the in-situ soil conditions to be examined
visually.
It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil
samples:

10

Soil Boring and Sampling

Soil Boring:

This is the most widely used method.

It provides samples from shallow to deeper
depths for visual inspection as well as
laboratory tests.
The most commonly used methods of
boring are:
Auger boring
Wash boring
Percussion drilling
Rotary drilling

11

Auger boring:
Operated by hand or by power.

Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of

two types.
Post-hole and helical augers
This boring method provides highly
disturbed soil samples.
Power operated augers (helical) can be used
to great depths, even to 30m, and used in
almost all types of soils above water table.

12

Hand Augers a) helical and

hole

b) post
13

This image
compares solidstem(left) and
hollow-stem (right)
auger flights.
14

Wash boring:
Power operated.
Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action

of a light chopping bit and jetting action of

drilling fluid, usually
water, under
pressure.
Loosened soil particles rise as suspended
particles through the annular space between
casing and drill rod.
This method best suits in sandy and clayey
soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e.
boulders) and rocks.
Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes
in the rate of progress of boring, examination of
out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry.
Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be15

Wash boring

16

Different drill
bits

17

Percussion drilling:
Power operated.
Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a

heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole.

The resulting slurry formed at bottom of
borehole is removed by bailer or sand
pump.
Because of the deep disturbance of the soil
this method of boring is not favored.
Casing is generally required.
Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

18

Percussion Drilling
at Site

19

Rotary drilling:
Power operated.
Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating

bit.
This is the most rapid method for
penetrating highly resistant materials
(e.g. bed rock).
In this method undisturbed samples can
be obtained at desired depths by using
suitable samplers.

Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to

150m.

20

Rotary Drilling & Drill bits

21

Drilling in soils prone to caving or

squeezing
Open hole methods encounter problems in
soils prone to caving (i.e., the sides of the
boring fall in) or squeezing (the soil moves
inwards, reducing the boring diameter).
Caving is most likely in loose sands and
gravels, especially below the groundwater
table, while squeezing is likely in soft
saturated silts and clays.
In such cases, it becomes necessary to
provide some type of lateral support inside
the hole during drilling.
22

Drilling in soils prone to caving or

squeezing
One method of supporting the hole is to install
casing (see Figure ), which is temporary lining
made of steel pipe. This method is especially
useful if only the upper soil are prone to
caving, because the casing does not need to
extend for the entire depth of the boring.
The other method is to fill the boring with
drilling mud or slurry, which is a mixture of
bentonite or attapulgite clay and water. This
material provides a hydrostatic pressure on
the walls of the boring, thus preventing caving
or squeezing.

23

24

Soil Sampling
Laboratory test results are mainly
dependent on the quality of soil samples.
There are two main types of soil samples
which can be recovered from bore holes
or trial pits.
Disturbed and
Undisturbed samples

25

Soil Sampling for Geostratification

26

Disturbed Samples

These are samples where the structure of

the natural soil has been disturbed to a

considerable degree by the action of the
boring tolls or excavation equipment.
However, these samples represent the
composition and the mineral content of
the soil.
Disturbed samples are satisfactory for
performing classification tests such as,
sieve analysis, Atterberg limits etc.

27

Undisturbed Samples

These are samples, which represent as

closely as is practicable, the true in-situ

structure and water content of the soil.
Undisturbed samples are required for
determining reliable information on the
shearing resistance and stress-deformation
characteristics of a deposit.
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally
undisturbed samples.
This is due to that:
The process of boring,
driving the
coring
tool, raising and withdrawing
the coring tool and extruding the
sample from the coring tool, all
conspire to cause some disturbance.
In addition, samples taken from holes
may tend
to swell as a result of stress
relief.
28

 Samples should be taken only from a newly

drilled or newly extended hole, with care

being taken to avoid contact with water.
As soon as they are brought to the surface:
Core tubes ends should be sealed with
wax and capped to preserve the loss of
moisture content.
Core tubes should properly be labeled
to indicate the number of bore holes
and the depth at which they are taken
and then stored away from extremes
of heat or cold and vibration.

29

Types of tube samplers

Split Spoon Sample
Thin-Walled Tube Sampler
Piston Samplers

30

Field [in-situ] tests

Assignment-1(Max.Mark (30%)
write short notes on the following field tests
1. Penetration or sounding tests

2. Vane shear test

3. Plate loading test
4. Pile loading test
NB.

31

Field [in-situ] tests

These tests are valuable means of

determining the relative densities; shear

strengths and bearing capacities of soils
directly without disturbing effects of
boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are:
Penetration or sounding tests
Vane shear test
Plate loading test
Pile loading test

32

Penetration Tests

They are conducted mainly to get

information on the relative density of

soils with little or no cohesion.
The tests are based on the fact that the
relative density of a soil stratum is
directly proportional to the resistance of
the soil against the penetration of the
drive point.
From this, correlations between values of
penetration resistance versus angle of
internal friction (), bearing pressure,
density and modulus of compressibility
have been developed.
Penetration tests are classified as: Static

and dynamic penetration tests.

33

Static Penetration Tests

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test:
This method of testing is widely used in

Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia.

The depth of penetration is measured for
each loading after which the number of halfturns is counted by 100kg load; the
penetration depth is then measured after 25
half-turns.
If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less
than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven
down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

34

100 75

50 25

HT/20cm
penetration

Depth

Swedish weight sounding equipment,

penetration diagram
35

 The correlation between density of frictional

soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m

(half-turns per meter) are as given below.
Frictional Soils
Density (kN/m3)
Very loose
<50ht/m
11-16
Loose
50 -150ht/m
14.5 18.5
Medium
150 - 300ht/m
17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m
17.5 - 22.5
Very dense
> 500ht/m
21
24
Cohesive Soils
Density (kN/m3)
Soft
0 ht/m
16 19
Firm
0 100 ht/m
17.5 21
Stiff
100-200 ht/m
Very stiff
22.5
Hard

200 - 500 ht/m 19

>500 ht/m

36

2. Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch

Cone Penetrometer Test):
This method is widely used in Europe.
The test consists of a cone (apex angle 60 0,

overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm 2, rods

( ), casing pipe ( ).
The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground
at a rate of 10mm/sec.
The pressure exerted on the rod is measured
with a proving ring, manometer or a strain
gauge.
The cone is 1st pushed into the ground. The
force required to push the cone 20cm into
the soil is recorded.
The casing pipe is then advanced to join the
cone. The force required to push the pipe is
also recorded.
The readings thus taken are plotted against
depth.
37

38

Correlation
between
Cone
(Point)
Resistance and
Relative Density of Frictional Soils
Relative Density

Point Resistance (kN/m2)

Very loose soil

< 2500

Medium dense
Dense

5000 10,000
10,000 15,000

Very dense
> 15,000
According
to Meyerhof:
N = (Ckd)
where:
N = Standard penetration
number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance
(kg/cm2)
For sand, modulus of compressibility (ES) can
be estimated from cone resistance from the
39
following relationship.

Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
This is the most common of the field tests and

measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic

penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon
sampler which is driven into the soil at the
bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased).
The sampler is attached to drill rods and the
dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling
through a height of 76cm onto the top of the
rods.
The sampler is initially driven 15cm below
the bottom of the borehole. It is then further
driven 30cm. The number of blows required
to drive the last 30cm is termed as the
standard penetration value denoted by N.

40

41

42

Correlation between Number of blows (N),

Angle of Internal Friction and Relative Density
of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).
N

0-4

4 -10

10-30

30 50

> 50

<280

28 -300

30-360

35 400

>420

Correlation
between
Number
blows Very
(N),
Relati
Very
Loose
Medium of
Dense
ve
loose Compressive Strength and
dense
Unconfined
Densit
Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi
y
and Peck).
N

0 -2

2-4

4-8

15-30

>30

-15
qu(kN/m2)
Consisten
cy

0 -25
Very soft

25
-50

50 -100

100
-200

200400

>40
0

Soft

Mediu
m

Stiff

Very
stiff

Har
d

43

 The relationship between and Dr may

be expressed approximately by the

following equation (Meyerhof):
For granular soil, containing more than
5 percent fine sand and silt.
0=25+0.15Dr
For granular soil, containing less than
5 percent fine sand and silt. In the
equations Dr is expressed in percent.
0=30+0.15Dr

44

Correction to be applied to measured

values of SPT:
The N values of SPT as measured in the
field may need to be corrected.

When SPT is made in fine saturated sands,

saturated silty sands, or saturated silts,
correction is usually made for possible build
up of pore water pressure. The SPT values,
greater than 15 are modified as follows

N = 15 + (N 15) Suggested by Terzaghi

and peck
where:
N= corrected value
N= Recorded value
45

The other type of correction is known as

correction for overburden
pressure. This
correction is applied only to cohesionless
soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction
suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely
used is as follows.

350 N '
N =( ' 70)
o

2N, for o 280 kN/m2

o = effective overburden pressure in

kN/m2

46

2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test:

This is another useful test, which is

normally used to determine the relative

resistance offered by the different soil
layers.
The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod and
driven into the ground in the same way as
a SPT is performed. The number of blows
required to penetrate 30cms depth is
called as Nc value.
In the case of dynamic cone penetration
test no borehole is used.

47

 Experiments carried out indicate that

beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance

on the rod increases which gives erroneous
results for Nc value. The maximum depth
suggested for this test is about 6 m.
If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m
depth, one has to use drilling mud (bentonite
slurry) under pressure forced through the
pipe and the cone.
The mud solution coming out of the cone
rises above along the drill rod eliminating
thereby the frictional resistance offered by
the soil for penetration. The former method
is called as dry method and the latter wet
method.

48

 To judge the consistency of soil from N c

values, the general practice is to convert N c

to N values of SPT:
Nc = N/C
Where:
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and
1.2 when bentonite
is used.
Nc = 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc = 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m
Nc Values need to be corrected for
overburden pressure in cohesionless soils
like SPT
49

Vane Shear Test

It is used to determine the undrained
shear strength of soft clays soils.

The apparatus consists of a vertical steel

rod having four thin stainless steel blades

(vanes) fixed at its bottom ends.

Vane head (torsion head), complete with

pointer, stop pin, circumferential

graduated scale, calibrated torsion spring.

50

51

 In most cases a hole is drilled to the

desired depth, where the vane shear test is

planned to be performed and the vane is
carefully pushed into the soil.
A torque necessary to shear the cylinder
of soil defined by the blades of the vane is
applied by rotating the arm of the
apparatus with a constant speed of 0.5
degree/sec.
The maximum torque is then measured
from which the shearing strength is
determined.
From the measured maximum torque one
may estimate the shearing resistance of
the tested clay from the following formula.
52

where :

T
Cu
3
2H D
D

2 12

T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height

53

Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is

applied to the soil through a steel plate, and
readings of the settlement and applied load are
recorded, from which a relationship between
bearing pressure and settlement for the soil can
be obtained.

The test procedure:

1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size

of the plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil.
In the case of cohesionless soil (to prevent early
displacement of soil under the edges of the
plate), the plate must be positioned in cast insitu concrete.
3. Loading platform should be properly erected.
54

Dead Weight

Load
Loaded platform
Pressure gauge
Hydraulic jack
Short block
Settlement dial gauge
Bearing pressure (kPa)

Bp

Settlement,
Sp (cm)
55

56

4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps

5.

(loading increment is kept constant).

Once completion of the test, the plate is
unloaded in the same incremental steps (to
draw the expansion curve).
Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is
determined from settlement consideration.
If the maximum permissible settlement, S,
of a footing of width Bf is given, the
settlement, Sp, of a plate of width Bp under
the same
of loading is given by.
Sp (intensity
2 Bf ) 2

(B f B p ) 2

Using the value Sp, computed from the above

equation, the loading intensity
under the
footing could be read from the load settlement
curve.
57

 The settlement of footing in clay is normally

determined from principles of consolidation.

However from plate load test, the approximate
settlement of footing of width B can be determined
using the following expression.

S Sp

Bf
Bp

58

Limitation of Plate Loading Test:

Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence

consolidation settlement does not fully occur

during the test.
For settlement consideration, its use is
restricted to sandy soils, and to partially
saturated or rather unsaturated clayey soils.
Plate loading test can give very misleading
information of the soil is not homogeneous
within the effective depth (depth of stress
influence) of the prototype foundation.
Plate loading test should not be recommended
in soils which are not homogeneous at least to
depth of 1 to 2 times the width of the
prototype foundation.

59

Pile Loading Test:

This is the most reliable means for

determining the load carrying capacity of a

pile.
The load arrangement and testing procedure
are more or less similar to the plate-loading
test.
From the results of this test, the allowable
bearing capacity and load- settlement
relationship of a group of friction piles can be
estimated.

60

61

Geophysical methods:
The methods can be used for the
location of different strata and for a
rapid evaluation of the sub-soil
characteristics. However, these
methods are very approximate.
These method can be broadly divided
into two categories;
1. Seismic Refraction method and
2. Electrical Resistivity method.

62

1. Seismic Refraction
Method:

These methods are based on the

principle that the elastic shock
waves have different velocities in
different materials. i.e. sound
(shock) waves travel faster
through rocks than through soils.
The shock wave is created by a
hammer blow or by a small
explosive charge at point P in fig.
below.
63

64

 The geophones convert the ground

vibration into electrical impulses and
transmit them to a recording apparatus.
The basic equations of the refraction
survey are derived based on the
assumption that the velocity of the
shock wave increases as the depth
increases. i.e. V3 > V2 > V1
At geophones located close to the point
of impact, such as point A, the direct
waves with velocity V1 reach first.
At point B, the refracted waves reach
earlier than the direct waves.
65

At points further away from the point

of impact, such as point C, the waves
which are refracted twice, once at the
interface of the layers and , and
once at the interface of the layers
and , reach earlier.
For the determination of the thickness
of different layers, a distance-time
graph is plotted.

66

Up to certain distance X1, the direct waves

in the layer reach first. At this point, the
first two lines in Fig. above intersect, which
indicates that the direct wave travelling a
distance X1 with a velocity V1 and the
refracted wave travelling with a velocity V1
in distance 2H1 and with a velocity V2 in
distance X1 reach simultaneously, where 67

Thus:
The above Eq. gives reliable results when
the waves are produced by a sinusoidal
force and not by impact. The following
empirical equation gives reliable results for
impact shock.
Likewise, the thickness of the second layer (H2) is
obtained from the distance X2 corresponding to
the point of intersection of the second and the
third line in Fig. above It is give by the relation
68

The procedure is continued if there are

more than three layers
Limitation of the seismic methods
1. The methods cannot be used if a hard layer
with a greater seismic velocity overlies a
softer layer with a smaller seismic velocity.
2. The methods cannot be used for the areas
covered by concrete, asphalt, pavements or
any other artificial hard crust, having a high
seismic velocity.
69

3. If the area contains some underground

features, such as buried conduits,

irregularly dipping strata and irregular

water table, the interpretation of the
results becomes very difficult.
4. If the surface is layer is frozen, the
method cannot be successfully used,
as it corresponds to a case of harder
overlying a softer layer.
5. The methods require sophisticated and
costly equipment.
6. For proper interpretations of the seismic
survey results, the services of an expert are
required.

70

Electrical Resistivity:

In this method four metallic spikes to

serve as electrodes are driven in to the

ground at equal intervals along a line. A
known potential is then applied between
the outermost electrodes and potential
drop is measured between the innermost
electrodes.
The resistivity method makes use of the
fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low
electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand
or gravel).
Seismic and resistivity methods are
normally employed as preliminary or
supplementary to other methods of
exploration.
71

 = mean resistivity
= current supplied
d = spacing of electrodes
V = voltage drop
72

Laboratory tests
The common laboratory tests that concern
the foundation engineers are
Grain size analysis
Atterberg limits
Natural moisture content
Unit weight
Unconfined compression test
Direct shear test
Triaxial compression test
Consolidation test
Compaction test
Chemical analysis
73

Ground Water Measurement

Ground water affects many elements of
foundation design and construction.
Because of this its location should be
determined in each job with reasonable
accuracy.
The depth of water table is measured by
lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the
borehole.
The depth can also be measured by lowering
the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as
the open ends of the leads touch the water in
the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is
indicated by glow of the indicator lamp.
74

Depth and number of borings

Depth of Boring
The depth to which boreholes should be
sunk is governed by the depth of soil
affected by foundation bearing pressures.
According to Tomlinson the following
depths of boreholes for various foundation
conditions may be used.

1. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations,

boring depth should be deeper than 1.5
times the width of the foundation.

2. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper

than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.

75

3. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations

4.

5.
6.

where there is overlapping of the zones of

pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5
times width of building should be used.
For group of piled foundation on soil,
boring depth should be deeper than 1.5
times width of pile group, the depth being
measured from a depth of two- thirds of
the length of the piles.
For piled foundation on rock, boring depth
should be deeper than 3.0m inside
bedrock.
According to Teng, for high ways and
airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m,
but should be extended below organic soil,
fill or compressible layers such as soft
clays and silts.

76

2.Number of Borings:
From experience Teng has suggested the
following guideline for preliminary exploration:
Project

Distance between boring

(m)
Horizontal stratification
of soil
Uniform

Averag Erratic
e

Minimum
number of
boring for
each
structure

Multi-story
building

45

30

15

One or two story

building

60

30

15

30

75

Bridge piers,
abutments,
television

1-2 for each

foundation 77
unit

Data presentation

The results of borings, samplings, penetration

tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually
plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing paper.
The graphical presentation should include.

1. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes,

test pits, etc and their identification number.

2. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as
established from the drillings or test pits records.
3. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground
surface, showing the boundaries between
identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of
firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay layers etc.

78

d. The penetration number, the unconfined

e.

compression strength, Atterberg limits,

natural moisture content, and other
appropriate laboratory data may be shown
on each boring on the soil profile.
The location of ground water table should
also be shown on the soil profile.

79

Depth LegendSoil type N

0.00m
1.00m

4.00

qu

L.L

p.I

Top
soil
W.T
Sandy
Silt
Dense
sand

8.00
Gravel
12.00
15.00

Hard
rock

80

81

Soil Exploration Report

Most reports have the following contents:
1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation,
type of investigation carried out.
2. General description of the site: - general
configuration and surface features of the
site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore
holes (and test pits)
5. Laboratory test results.
6. Discussion of results of investigation in
relation to foundation design and
constructions.
7. Conclusion: recommendations on the type
and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.
82