The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

A Study of Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique Using Photoelastic

Visualisation

Edward Ginzel1, Farhang Honarvar2, and Amin Yaghootian3

1- Materials Research Institute, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
2- NDE Lab., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Email [email protected]

Abstract
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (ToFD) technique has been part of nondestructive testing (NDT) for
over 30 years and provides a useful role in flaw detection and flaw sizing. This paper reviews the
principles of ToFD and presents a photoelastic technique for visualization of the waves generated
during a ToFD measurement. A sample made of optically fused glass with an embedded target is
used in the experiments. The results show the waves which are diffracted from the upper and
lower tip of the target as well as the lateral and backwall waves. These results also provide a
better understanding of the diffraction phenomenon that takes place during a ToFD measurement.
Keywords: Nondestructive Testing, Flaw Detection, Time-of-Flight Diffraction (ToFD), Photoelastic
Visualization,

Background
Maurice G. Silk and his colleagues at the National NDT Centre, in Harwell, UK are credited with
developing the ToFD technique in the early 1970s. The impetus for their work was the need to know with
some accuracy, the vertical extent of flaws detected in the pressure retaining components. Fracture mechanics
engineers have long known that the flaw dimensions as well as the metal structural properties and service
conditions need to be quantified in order to determine if a component can operate without failing (fracturing).
This put a new demand on NDT in that accurate flaw sizing was required as an integral part of the equation
for determining whether or not a component could be left in service, or required removal or repair. Over the
years there have been many international exercises carried out comparing ToFD to the traditional inspection
methods such as radiography and pulse echo techniques. Without exception each of the trials confirmed the
ability of ToFD to provide results for planar defects with a greater accuracy.
Bill Brown [1] presented a paper on the internet (www.ndt.net) in September of 1997 where he laid out
some of the basics involved but also made a loud statement on the mystique that had built up around ToFD by
that time. He stated about the misunderstandings of ToFD;
Some of this lack of understanding emanates from the mystique built up by those
responsible for its introduction. For many years scientists promoted the technique as a highly
specialised 'sizing' tool - so complex that it required their specialist knowledge and
sophisticated technology to effectively apply - and unsubstantiated claims were made about
what the technique could and could not achieve.
There should be no mystic in science. Photoelastic visualisation of ultrasound was first introduced to NDT
1- Researcher
2- Associate Professor
3- PhD Candidate

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

applications by Hanstead and Wyatt [2-4] and reached a limited popularity in the 1970s. Today it has been
modernised with video capture and intensity analysis capabilities to again provide a useful tool for
understanding the complexities of wave mechanics. It is used here to examine the details of the ToFD process.

ToFD Principles
ToFD as an inspection technique is considered a pitch-catch setup whereby transmitting and receiving
probes are used opposite to one another and on the same side of the test surface. The basic ToFD setup is
illustrated in Figure 1. When an ultrasonic wave is incident on a crack-like defect, besides specular reflection of
the wave from the crack, part of the wave is also diffracted at crack tips. The diffracted energy spreads over a
wide angle and can be picked up from almost anywhere along the surface of the specimen.
ToFD is a very powerful ultrasonic technique which could be used for both detection and sizing of defects.
Accurate sizing is accomplished by determining the location of the tips of the flaw by measurement of time of
arrival of echoes bouncing off the flaw tips. Lateral wave, which travels near the top surface, and backwall
reflection signals are used to define the region of interest and the two diffracted signals from the two edges of
an embedded crack are expected to appear in between. By knowing the transit time between the longitudinaldiffracted echoes from the top and bottom of the crack, the defect depth and defect size may be obtained as
below [5].

Figure 1: The basic ToFD configuration

c L2 t12 S 2
2

a=

d=

1
2

(ct

2 2
L 2

(1)

S2 a

(2)

where a is the defect depth, d is the defect size, cL is the longitudinal wave velocity inside the material, 2S is the
distance between the probes indices, t1 and t2 are , respectively, the travel times of waves diffracted from the top
and bottom of the crack (Figure 1).
The normal ToFD display incorporates an axis of motion and A-scans are captured and presented as
greyscale images as in Figure 2. This greyscale image is called either a B-scan or D-scan, depending on the
direction of scanning. Original ultrasonic terminology used B-scan to indicate a cross-section view and was

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

independent of scan direction. Some ToFD users like to use B-scan to indicate the results when the scan motion
is parallel to the beam direction and D-scan for presentations where the scan motion is perpendicular to the
beam direction.

A-scan

Indication
Probe Motion

Lateral
wave

Back-wall

Figure 2: The ToFD B-scan presentation.

When an incident longitudinal wave front meets the defect, the wave is diffracted as both longitudinal wave
(L-wave) and shear wave (S-wave). Since the shear wave velocity is lower (almost half of longitudinal wave
velocity), the longitudinal-diffracted wave reaches the receiver first [6]. Therefore, in the greyscale image, the
lateral and backwall echoes serve as borders and echoes originating from defects lie between these two lines.

Visualisation Principles
Photoelastic visualisation involves synchronising a high intensity pulsed light with the ultrasonic pulses of a
piezo-element. The images are obtained by cross-polarising the light and then observing the increased intensity
of light due to the effect of pressure changes rotating the light out of the null condition. The basics are
illustrated in Figure 3.
Although ToFD is a two-probe technique, the process of visualisation images only the transmitted pulse.
Since the receiving process produces no pulse of its own, the photoelastic images need only the transmitter
mounted on the specimen.

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

Quarterwave
plate

Quarterwave
plate

Pulsed light
Camera

Polariser

Probe &
specimen

Analyzer

Figure 3: Photoelastic visualisation basics

Equipment Used
Photoelastic System
Figure 4 illustrates the probe setup (right) for the ToFD imaging using the portable photo-elastic system
(left).
Glass
sample

Notch

Probe

900mm

Figure 4: Portable Photo-elastic system

The portable system used produces a delayed light triggering which can be synchronised to an internal clock
or via the TTL out to or from an external supply (such as an ultrasonic phased-array instrument). A tuneable
pulser is provided for single element demonstrations and provides up to 300Vpp to the probe.
Target Materials
In the 1970s fused silica glass was the preferred material used for most experiments. More recently it was
found that Soda-lime glass has acoustic velocities somewhat closer to the metals encountered in NDT. Acoustic
velocities of these materials are tabulated below:
Table 1: Acoustic velocities of materials

Material
Fused Silica glass
Soda Lime glass

Compression Velocity
5970 m/s
5800 m/s

Transverse Velocity (Sv shear)

3770 m/s
3450 m/s

Holes and notches are relatively easy to fabricate in the glass, however, exotic imaging of diffraction effects
has been accomplished for embedded targets. It is possible to fabricate small notches in the glass using a

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

technique called optical fusion which provides a near perfect transmission of sound at the fused surface. The
block is cut and polished with a notch on one side then optically fused so only the target presents the reflecting
and diffracting geometry. An example of the square notch in the glass is illustrated in Figure 5. This is a photo
of the photoelastic effect with a pulse having passed the notch. Note that although the pulse reflects at the
notch, there is no reflection at the vertical seam where the optical bond is made.

Acoustically
transparent
fusion bond

1x3mm notch
in fused silica
glass

Figure 5: Optically Fused glass with embedded target

ToFD Visualisation Images

The following is a sequence of images showing the ToFD diffraction process in several stages of
progression. Note that in the first frame 2 red arcs have been used to highlight the element edge diffractions
that form the compression mode pulse and frames 3, 4 and 5 have faint black circles added to aid in locating
the tip diffraction patterns off the notch. Frames 1 through 7 are considered in Figure 6.

A pulse is seen leaving the wedge with

60L mode and 34S mode well formed.
Arcs due to the diffraction effects from
the upper and lower tips of the piezoelement are seen for both modes. As well,
a well defined shear head wave is forming
as the lateral wave interacts at the near
surface at glancing incidence.

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

The 3 mm high notch face reflects the Lmode and mode converts a portion to a
strong S-mode. The upper tip signal has
formed before the shear head wave arrives
at the top of the notch

Figure 6: Frame sequences of the ToFD process

The lateral wave approaches where the

receiver wedge would be as the arc from
the upper tip diffracted signal
approaches the surface near the
receiver. Strong shear tip signals form
off the upper and lower tips. Both are
seen to have the shape of circles centred
on their respective notch corners. The
L-mode off the lower tip is weak (barely
seen).

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

The upper tip L-wave is seen now

nearly half way to the receiver position.
The lower tip L-wave is not seen. Upper
and lower tips S-waves are more clearly
separated from the notch.

The upper tip L-wave is at the surface

directly above the notch and upper and
lower tip S-waves now reach the
backwall directly below the notch. The
shear head wave from the lateral wave
now begins to interact with the notch.

Figure 6: Frame sequences of the ToFD process (continued)

The upper and lower L-wave tip signals

are essentially at the receiver and the
reflected L-mode backwall is seen as a
large diameter arc above the notch. The
two arcs seen in the first frame (from
the upper and lower edges of the
element) are seen as separate backwall
reflections. The leading edge of the
incident L-wave on the backwall is seen
forming a mode-converted shear wave.

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

The shear head wave has formed a set of

compression and shear mode tip
diffracted signals from both the upper
and lower tips of the notch.

Figure 6: Frame sequences of the ToFD process (continued)

Leading edge positive (white)

Leading edge negative (black)

Figure 7: Phase reversal seen by visualisation

Phase information is available by observing the intensity of the pulse image. The blue background provides
a nominal zero level with positive pressure indicated by whiter levels of intensity and negative pressure seen as
darker levels. The predicted phased change of the incident compression mode off a lower acoustic impedance is
seen in Figure 7. Intensity variation to a general darker background at the slot tip and region to the upper left of
the slot region is a result of residual stress in the sample.
It has been demonstrated [7] that the photoelastic image intensity is directly proportional to the sound
pressure in the sample. This provides an opportunity to obtain an indication of the directivity of the pressure
distribution for reflection and diffraction. Figure 8 is a cropped image of the notch area where the incident Lwave pulse has formed the reflected mode-converted shear (similar to frame 2 of Figure 6 above). The null
region of diffracted transverse pressure to the upper right and strong forward scattered transverse to the lower
left are in accord with the directivity patterns predicted by modelling. Figure 8 uses the original image (left) to
generate a spectrum paletted intensity image (right). Residual stress at the top of the notch results in a bright
patch. The incoming shear headwave can be seen in the upper right corner.

The 2nd International Conference on Technical Inspection and NDT (TINDT2008)- October 2008 - Tehran, Iran

Mode converted shear

Null region in back diffracted pulse
Forward scattered mode converted shear

Reflected shear (mode converted from

incident L)
Figure 8: Directivity patterns of diffraction

Conclusion
Features of diffraction, directivity and phase change in ToFD measurements have been demonstrated using
photoelastic visualization. Although similar features can be demonstrated using finite element modelling, the
process is slow compared to the ease with which the setup can be made using a photoelastic visualisation
system.

References
[1] Browne, B., Time of Flight Diffraction, Its Limitations - Actual & Perceived,
http://www.ndt.net/article/ToFD/browne/browne.htm, NDT.net , Vol.2 No.09, September 1997
[2] Hanstead, P.D., Ultrasonic Visualisation, British Journal of NDT, Vol. 14, page 162, Nov. 1972
[3] Wyatt, R.C., Imaging Ultrasonic Beams in Solids, British Journal of NDT, Vol. 17, page 133, Sept. 1975
[4] Wyatt, R.C., Ultrasonic Visualisations in Solids, and its use as an aid to ultrasonic non-destructive testing,
7th International Conference on NDT, Warszawa, 1973
[5] Charlesworth, J. P., Temple, J. A. G, Engineering applications of Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction,
Great Yarmouth: Galliard, 1989
[6] Baskaran, G., Balasubramaniam, K., Rao, C.L., Shear-Wave Time of Flight Diffraction (S-ToFD)
Technique, NDT&E International, vol. 39, pp. 458-467, 2006.
[7] Ginzel, E., Zheng, Z., Quantification of Ultrasonic Beams Using Photoelastic Visualisation,
http://www.ndt.net/article/v11n05/ginzel1/ginzel1.htm, NDT.net, Vol. 11 No.5, May 2006