306 CH 12

Chapter 12 Independent
Demand Inventory
Management
Operations Management
by
R. Dan Reid & Nada R. Sanders
2nd Edition Wiley 2005
PowerPoint Presentation by R.B. Clough - UNH
Inventories in the Supply

Chain
Independent vs.
Dependent Demand
Independent demand items are

finished goods or other items sold
to someone outside the company
Dependent demand items are
materials or component parts used
in the production of another item
(e.g., finished product)
Types of Inventory:
How Inventory is Used
Anticipation or seasonal inventory

Safety stock: buffer demand fluctuations
Lot-size or cycle stock: take advantage of
quantity discounts or purchasing
efficiencies
Pipeline or transportation inventory
Speculative or hedge inventory protects
against some future event, e.g. labor strike
Maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO)
inventories
Objectives of Inventory
Management
Provide acceptable level of

customer service (on-time
delivery)
Allow cost-efficient operations
Minimize inventory investment
Relevant Inventory Costs

Item Cost Cost per item plus any other direct
Holding
Costs
Ordering
Cost
Shortage
Costs
costs associated with getting the

item to the plant
Capital, storage, and risk cost
typically stated as a % of the unit
value,
e.g. 15-25%
Fixed, constant dollar amount
incurred for each order placed
Loss of customer goodwill, back
order handling, and lost sales
Order Quantity Strategies

Lot-for-lot Order exactly what is needed for
the next period
FixedOrder a predetermined amount
order
each time an order is placed
quantity
Min-max
When on-hand inventory falls
system
below a predetermined minimum
level, order enough to refill up to
maximum level
Order n
Order enough to satisfy demand
periods
for the next n periods
Examples of Ordering
Approaches
Three Mathematical Models

for Determining Order
Quantity
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ or Q

System)
Economic Production Quantity (EPQ)
An optimizing method used for determining

order quantity and reorder points
Part of continuous review system which
tracks on-hand inventory each time a withdrawal
is made
A model that allows for incremental product
delivery
Quantity Discount Model
Economic Order Quantity
EOQ Assumptions:
Demand is known &

constant - no safety stock
is required
Lead time is known &
constant
No quantity discounts are
available
Ordering (or setup) costs
are constant
All demand is satisfied (no
shortages)
The order quantity arrives
in a single shipment
EOQ: Total Cost Equation

TC EOQ
D Q

S
H
Q 2
Where
TC total annual cost
D annual demand
Q quantity to be ordered
H annual holding cost
S ordering or setup cost
EOQ Total Costs

Total annual costs = annual ordering costs + annual
holding costs
The EOQ Formula

Minimize the TC by ordering the
EOQ:
2 DS
EOQ
H
When to Order:
The Reorder Point
Without safety stock:

R dL
where R reorder point in units

d daily/weekly demand in units
L lead time in days/weeks
With safety stock:

R dL SS
where SS safety stock in units
EOQ Example
Weekly demand = 240 units

No. of weeks per year = 52
Ordering cost = $50
Unit cost = $15
Annual carrying charge = 20%
Lead time = 2 weeks
EOQ Example Solution

D 52 240 12,480 units / year
H 0.2 15 $3 per unit per year

2 DS
2 12,480 50
Q
644.98 645 units

H
3
D Q 12,480
645
TC
S
H
50
3
2
Q 2 645
967.44 967.5 $1,934.94
R dL 240 2 480 units
EPQ (Economic Production

Quantity) Assumptions
Same as the EOQ except: inventory

arrives in increments & is drawn down
as it arrives
EPQ Equations
Adjusted total cost: TC EPQ
Maximum inventory:I MAX
D I MAX

S
H
Q 2
d
Q 1
p
Adjusted order quantity: EPQ
2 DS
d
H 1
p
EPQ Example
Annual demand = 18,000 units

Production rate = 2500
units/month
Setup cost = $800
Annual holding cost = $18 per unit
Lead time = 5 days
No. of operating days per month =
20
EPQ Example Solution

d
18,000
1500 units / month; p 2500 units / month
12
2 DS
2 18,000 800
2000 units
1500
d
18
H 1
2500
p
d
1500
Q 1 2000 1
800 units
p
2500
I MAX
D I MAX 18,000
800
S
H
800
18
2000
2
Q 2
TC
7,200 7,200 14,400
EPQ Example Solution

(cont.)
The reorder point:
1500
R dL
5 375 units
20
With safety stock of 200 units:

1500
R dL SS
5 200 575 units
20
Quantity Discount Model

Assumptions
Same as the EOQ, except:
Unit price depends upon the quantity

ordered
Adjusted total cost equation:
TCQD
D Q

S
H PD
Q 2
Quantity Discount
Procedure
Calculate the EOQ at the lowest price

Determine whether the EOQ is feasible
at that price
Will the vendor sell that quantity at that

price?
If yes, stop if no, continue

Check the feasibility of EOQ at the next
higher price
Continue to the next slide ...
QD Procedure
(continued)
Continue until you identify a feasible

EOQ
Calculate the total costs (including total
item cost) for the feasible EOQ model
Calculate the total costs of buying at
the minimum quantity required for each
of the cheaper unit prices
Compare the total cost of each
option & choose the lowest cost
alternative
Any other issues to consider?
QD Example
Annual Demand = 5000 units

Ordering cost = $49
Annual carrying charge = 20%
Unit price schedule:
Quantity
Unit Price
0 to 999
$5.00
1000 to 1999
$4.80
2000 and over
$4.75
QD Example Solution
Step 1
QP $4.75
2 5,000 49
718 not feasible

0.2 4.75
QP $4.80
QP $5.00
2 5,000 49
714 not feasible
0.2 4.80
2 5,000 49
700 feasible
0.2 5.00
QD Example Solution
(Cont.)
Step 2
TCQ 700
5,000
700
49
0.2 5.00 5.00 5000 $25,700
700
2
TCQ 1000
5,000
1000
49
0.2 4.80 4.80 5000 $24,725
1000
2
TCQ 2000
5,000
2000
49
0.2 4.75 4.75 5000 $24,822.50
2000
2
What if Demand is
Uncertain?
Safety Stock and Service

Level
Order-cycle service level is the

probability that demand during
lead time wont exceed on-hand
inventory.
Risk of a stockout = 1 (service
level)
More safety stock means greater
service level and smaller risk of
stockout
Safety Stock and Reorder

Point
Without safety stock:

R dL
where R reorder point in units

d daily demand in units
L lead time in days
With safety stock:
R dL SS
where SS safety stock in units
Reorder Point
Determination
SS z dL
i.e.,
R dL z dL
R = reorder point
d = average daily demand
L = lead time in days
z = number of standard deviations associated
with desired service level
= standard deviation of demand during lead
time
Safety Stock Example

Daily demand = 20 units
Lead time = 10 days
S.D. of lead time demand = 50 units
Service level = 90%

Determine:
1.
Safety stock
2.
Reorder point
Safety Stock Solution

Step 1 determine z
From Appendix B : z 1.28
Step 2 determine safety stock
SS 1.28 50 64 units
Step 3 determine reorder point
R dL SS 20 10 64 264 units
ABC Inventory
Classification
ABC classification is a method for

determining level of control and frequency of
review of inventory items
A Pareto analysis can be done to segment
items into value categories depending on
annual dollar volume
A Items typically 20% of the items
accounting for 80% of the inventory value-use
Q system
B Items typically an additional 30% of the
items accounting for 15% of the inventory
value-use Q or P
C Items Typically the remaining 50% of the
ABC Example: the table below shows a solution to an ABC analysis.

The information that is required to do the analysis is: Item #, Unit $
Value, and Annual Unit Usage. The analysis requires a calculation of
Annual Usage $ and sorting that column from highest to lowest $
value, calculating the cumulative annual $ volume, and grouping into
typical ABC classifications.
Item
Annual Usage ($) Percentage of Total $ Cumulative Percentage of Total $
106
16,500
34.4
34.4
110
12,500
26.1
60.5
115
4500
9.4
69.9
105
3200
6.7
76.6
111
2250
4.7
81.3
104
2000
4.2
85.5
114
1200
2.5
88
107
1000
2.1
90.1
101
960
2
92.1
113
875
1.8
93.9
103
750
1.6
95.5
108
600
1.3
96.8
112
600
1.3
98.1
102
500
1
99.1
109
500
1
100.1
Item Classification
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Inventory Record Accuracy
Inaccurate inventory records can cause:
Lost sales
Disrupted operations
Poor customer service
Lower productivity
Planning errors and expediting
Two methods are available for checking record

accuracy
Periodic counting-physical inventory

Cycle counting-daily counting of pre-specified items
provides the following advantages:
Timely detection and correction of inaccurate records

Elimination of lost production time due to unexpected stock
outs
Structured approach using employees trained in cycle counting
Chapter 12 HW
Assignment
Problems
6, 7, 9 13, 16, 17, 22 24.

306 CH 12

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306 CH 12

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Chapter 12 Independent

Inventories in the Supply

Independent demand items are

Anticipation or seasonal inventory

Provide acceptable level of

Relevant Inventory Costs

costs associated with getting the

Order Quantity Strategies

Three Mathematical Models

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ or Q

Economic Production Quantity (EPQ)

An optimizing method used for determining

Quantity Discount Model

Economic Order Quantity

Demand is known &

EOQ: Total Cost Equation

EOQ Total Costs

The EOQ Formula

Without safety stock:

where R reorder point in units

With safety stock:

where SS safety stock in units

Weekly demand = 240 units

EOQ Example Solution

H 0.2 15 $3 per unit per year

644.98 645 units

EPQ (Economic Production

Same as the EOQ except: inventory

Adjusted total cost: TC EPQ

Maximum inventory:I MAX

Adjusted order quantity: EPQ

Annual demand = 18,000 units

EPQ Example Solution

7,200 7,200 14,400

EPQ Example Solution

The reorder point:

With safety stock of 200 units:

Quantity Discount Model

Same as the EOQ, except:

Unit price depends upon the quantity

Adjusted total cost equation:

Calculate the EOQ at the lowest price

Will the vendor sell that quantity at that

If yes, stop if no, continue

Continue to the next slide ...

Continue until you identify a feasible

Annual Demand = 5000 units

718 not feasible

Safety Stock and Service

Order-cycle service level is the

Safety Stock and Reorder

Without safety stock:

where R reorder point in units

With safety stock:

where SS safety stock in units

Safety Stock Example

Lead time = 10 days

S.D. of lead time demand = 50 units

Service level = 90%

Safety Stock Solution

ABC classification is a method for

ABC Example: the table below shows a solution to an ABC analysis.

Inventory Record Accuracy

Inaccurate inventory records can cause:

Two methods are available for checking record

Periodic counting-physical inventory

Timely detection and correction of inaccurate records

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