Usborne - Illustrated Dictionary of Science
Usborne - Illustrated Dictionary of Science
Usborne - Illustrated Dictionary of Science
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Corinne Stockley,
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cicntific auvi0rs:
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(Chemtstryl
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Margaret Rostron.
PHYSICS
ABOUT PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the properties and nature of matter, the
different forms of energy and the ways in which matter and
energy, interact in the world around us. In this book, physics is
divided into six colour-coded sections. The areas covered by
these sections are explained below.
Mechanics and
general physics
Covers the main
concepts of physics, e.g.
forces, energy and the
properties of m?-tter.
Heat
Explains heat energy
in terms of its
Waves
Looks at the properties
and effects of wave
energy and examines
sound, electromagnetic
and I ight waves
in detail.
Electricity and
magnetism
Explains the forms,
uses and behaviour
of these two linked
phenomena.
Atomic and
nuclear physics
Examines atomic and
nuclear structure and
energy, radioactivity,
fission and fusion.
General physics
information
General material charts and tables,
also information
on the treatment" of
experimental results.
CONTENTS
Mechanics and
general physics
Electricity and
magnetism
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
56
58
60
62
65
66
68
70
Temperature
Transfer of heat
Effects of heat transfer
Expansion upon heating
Behavior of gases
Waves
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
47
50
54
77
78
80
Heat
26
28
3Q
32
33
72
74
Waves
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
Wave interference
Sound waves
.Perception of sound
Electromagnetic waves
Light
Reflection of light
Refraction of light
Optical instruments
Static electricity
Potential and capacitance
Electric current
Controlling current
Semiconductors
Electrolysis
Cells and batteries
Magnets .
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism
Electric meters
Electromagnetic induc;:tion
Cathode rays
Atomic and
nuclear physics
82
84
86
88
91
92
94
Atomic structure
Atomic and nuclear energy
Radioactivity
Detecting and measuring
radioactivity
Uses of radioact ivity
N-uclear fission and fusion
Power from nuclear reactions
General physics
information
96
98
100
102
104
108
109
110
111
112
113
Atom
Element
Magnesium (Mg)
Carbon (C)
Molecule
Compound
A substance whose molecules contain the
atoms of two or more elements, chemically
bonded together, and which can thus be split
into simpler substances. A mixture has no
chemical bonding and is therefore not a
compound.
Element 1
Molecule of
magnesium (Mg)
Molecule of
carbon dioxide (CO,)
Compound of elements 1 and
2 - elements bonded together.
.4\.,..
W
dll
W
'
- - CIJ!oridf
1.
. ,.
A 4
. ~
. ,.
,. ,.
anion
, : - ,,
'
'' , ' ,'
' '
Element 2
Physical states
Solid state
A state in which a substance
has a definite volume and
shape and resists forces w hi c h
try to c hange these .
Represents
one molecule
liquid state
Rem ove
energy
Energy added breaks down regular pattern molecules can move around and thus have both
translational and rotational kinetic energy*.
Gaseous state
Add
energy
ir
i t Remove
Add
energy . .
Gaseous state
f energy
'
Gas
Vapor
Diffusion
The mixing of two gases; vapors or liquids
over a period of time . It supports the kineti c
theory, since the particles must be moving
to mix, and gases can be seen to diffuse
faster than liqu ids.
Molecules of two gases diffuse togeth er over time.
1. 11. .1
Heavy ga5
.light.gas".
Brownian motion
The observed random motion of sma ll
pa rticles in water or air. It supports the
kinetic theory, as it could be said to be
due to impact with water or air molecules.
Brownian
motion of
smoke particles
as they_are hit
by molecules
in the air.
FORCES
A force influences the shape and motion of an object. A si ngle
force will; ~ hange its velocity (i.e. accelerate* it) and possibly
its shape. Two equal and opposite forces may c hange_its
shape or size. It is a vector quantity*, having both magnitude
and direction, and is measured in newtons. The main types of
force are gravitational, magnetic, electric and strong nuclear.
See pages 104-107 for a comparison of the first three of these.
The Earth's
gravitational
force makes seeds
fall to the ground.
Gravitational force
-
between masses of
rockets js ei-y->S;,ia/C
Gravitational force
Component
parallel to slope
-between mass of
r-Qcket O!Jct Earth
is:lwge.
Newton (N)
The SI unit* of force. One newton is the force
needed to accelerate a mass of 1 kg by 1 m s- 2
Force field
The region in_which a force has an effect. The
maximum distance over which a force has an
effect is the range of the force. Force fields are
represented by lines with arrows, called field
lines, to show the ir strength and direction (see
also pages 58 and 72).
Force field around
bar magnet .
Low density
of field lines
- weak field
Electromagnetic force
A combination of the electric and magnetic
forces, which are closely re lated and difficult
to separate.
Electric or
electrostatic force
The force between two
e lectrically-charged
particles (see also page
56). It is repulsive if the
charges are the same,
but attractive if they
are opposite.
Magnetic force
A force between two moving charges. These
moving charges can be e lectric currents* (see
also page 60) or electrons* moving around in
their electron shells*.
Magnetic forces in electric wires
Current
~r:~~oen
Magnetlcforce of
iJ~
Lr
Current in
iJL~ J:fe~::~~
attraction
Magnetic
force of
repulsion
Intermolecular forces
E/f!cfrolis* (negative)
inane .molecule .
"atttadi1udf!us ._
(positive) of other.
Electronsand nuclei
repel each other
respectively.
Tension
Equal and opposite
forces which, when
applied to the ends
of an object, increase
its length . They are
resisted by the
intermolecular force
of attraction .
Particles in an
atomic nucleus
are held
together by the
nuclear force.
Compression
Equal and opposite
forces which
decrease the length
of an object. They
are opposed by the
intermolecular force
of repulsion .
Repulsive
intermolecular
Contact force
The intermolecular force of repulsion between
the molecules of two objects when they touch.
Molecules
of boow
Static frictional
force on stationary
Maximum static
frictional force
Kinetic frictional
force resists when
block balances
applied force.
block moves at
constant speed.
~
Contact at high points (only a few
atoms high). Surface atoms bond
to form microwelds.
Coefficient of fridion ()
The ratio of the frictional force between
two surfaces to that pushing them together
(the normal contact force) . There are two
values, the coefficient 'of static friction and
the coefficient of kinetic friction .
Molecules
of table
Work done by
Increase in gravitational P. E.
= work done = mgh
where m = mass;
g = acceleration due to gravity;
h - dJStance raised.
Gravitational potential energy
taken as zero at ground /eve/,
Chemical energy
Energy stored in substances such as fuels, food,
and chemicals in batteries. It is released
during chemical reactions, e.g. as heat
when a fuel burns, when the
electromagnetic potential
energy of the atoms and
molecules c hanges.
Plants convert energy from sunlight
into food - a store of chemical energy, "
Acceleration due to gravity, 18; Compression, 7; Electromagnetic force, Force field, C:ravltadonI
force, 6; Intermolecular forces, 7; Nucleus, 82; Radioactive decay, 87; SI units, 96; Tension, 7,
Wave energy
tt ~
tQ
(<J::,
V1brat;onal
}'
I .._,.
~otational ~Translational
Radiation
Mechanical energy
The sum of the kinetic energy and
gravitational potential energy of an object.
The mechanical energy of a pendulum is
constant (if resistive forces are neglected).
Power
The rate of doing work or the rate of change
of energy. The SI unit* of power is the watt
(W), which is equal to 1 joule per second.
All
gravitational
potential
energy
Gravitational
potential
energy to
kinetic
energy
here)
Kinetic
energy to
gravitational
potential
energy
Energy conversion in a
power station
Coal is the fossilized remains of
plants that grew Jong ago (see
also fuel, page 208). It is a
store of chemical energy that ..
came from the Sun.
Internal
energy
increases.
kinetic energy
Translational
kinetic energy
temperature temperature
Vibrational
kinetic energy
- - and potential
energy
Generator converts.kinetic
energy to electric energy.
MOTION
Motion is the change in position and
orientation of an object. The motion of a
rigid object (one which does not change shape) is
made up of translational motion, or translation,
i.e. movement of the center of mass from one
place to another, and rotational motion, or
rotation, i.e. movement around its center of mass.
The study of the motion of points is called kinematics.
spinning in
orbit displays
rotational motion (1)
and translational motion (2).
Linear motion
Speed
Center of mass
The point which acts as tho ugh the total mass
of the o bject were at that po int. The cente r of
mass of a rigid object (see introductio n) is in
the same position as its center of gravity (the
point through which the Earth's gravitational
force acts on the object).
Truck' s - - - lnstantaneous
speed at B = 0
Average speed
= 7OOkm
2hrs
= 50km h -
Velocity
Center _o f mass
of uniform disk is
at its center.
Center of m ass is
always under poin t
of suspension.
Displacement
The distance and directio n of a n object from a
fixed reference point. It is a vector quantity*.
The position of an object can be expressed by
its displacement from a specified po int.
10
I'
Hmet
I
Relative velocity
The velocity which an object appears to have
when seen by an observer who may be
moving. This is known as the veloc ity of the
object relative to the observer.
Velocity iJfB =
30m 5 - 1 to left.
"Relative velodty
of IJ1(5<;eh from A)
=iom s- 1to)eft.
Acceleration
The ratio of the change in velocity of an
object to the time taken. It is a vector quantity*.
An object accelerates if its speed changes (the
usual case in linear motion) or its d irection of
travel changes (the usual case in circular
motion*). Deceleration in one direction is
acceleration in the opposite di rection (negative
acceleration). An object whose veloc ity is
changing the same .amount in equal amounts
of time is moving with uniform acceleration.
Graphs of velocity versus time showing acceleration
__ 1_______ ~-----l.-----~----
velqcity i
--r-- ---------
Sign convention
A method used to distinguish between
motion. in opposite directions. One
direction is chosen as positive, and the
other is then negative. The sign convention
must be used when using the equations of
motion (see ab.ove).
Sign convention
Ve/deity i
-------i
'velo~ity
Right chosen
as positive
Negative
displacement
Rotational motion
Positive
displacement
Object moving
to left has
negative
velodty.
accelemtion (deceleration).
Object moving
to right has
positive
velocity.
DYNAMICS
7\
Inertia
The tendency of an object .
to resist a change of
velocity* (i .e. to resist a
force frying to accelerate*
it). It is measured as mass.
Impulse
Two equal but opposite forces.
No resultant force - no
acceleration, but rope.stretches.
Mass
A measurement of the inertia of an object.
The force needed to accelerate an object
"by a given amount depends on its mass a larger mass needs a larger force.
Momentum
The mass of an object multiplied by its
velocity*. Since velocity is a vector
quantity*, so is momentum. See also law
r Object at rest
-~_.1 -
Force
exerted
by grass
If mass remains constant, then:
Collision
Rocket engine
Bar magnet
~orth pole5~
----~~.....,
m,
Stationary
mz
~--- Fuel
~--
Combustion chamber
Jet engine
An engine in which air is drawn in at the front
to burn fuel, producing a high velocity* jet of
gas. The principle is the same as that for the
rocket engine, except that the gas is produced
differently and the engine cannot be used in
space because it requires air.
Total momentum = m 1u
#'
j-
Jet engine
conserved
so
engine
gains
same amount
opp~"
_J'
,
_,- -
of momentum
as gas, but
in
';'""""
..
''
Fuel
- burned.
in and
compresse~
Velocity of ball
-1 Om s-1 (i.e. to
left) 1
Time of impact
with racket
= 0.01s
After impact,
velocity= 20m s-1
Or:
= JSON
The rear
rotor blades of a
helicopter apply a moment
to the helicopter which prevents it
from spinning.
angular acceleration*
(spinning faster or slower)
is caused by a turning force or
moment acting about the axis
of rotation (the fulcrum).
Moment or torque
A measure of the ability of a force to rotate
an object about an axis (the fulcrum) . It is
the si:ze of the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the
line along which the force acts (see diagram
below). The SI unit* of moment is the
Newton meter (Nm).
Couple
Two parallel forces which are equal and
opposite but do not act along the same line.
They produce a turning effect only, with no
resultant acceleration of the center of mass*.
The resultant moment produced by a couple
is the sum of the moments produced, and
equals the perpendicular distance between
the lines along which the forces act,
multiplied by the size of one force.
Equal and opposite forces
(a couple) on a steering
wheel cause it to turn.
F
I
Force applied
to wrench
f,
d - Distance from
fulcrum to
line of force
(perpendicular
to line of force)
of force
(perpendicular
to line of force)
Fulcrum
""""'---~
(center of nut)
In each cose:
F when;balanc-ed is
+ (W0 x d5) ;- (W~ x d 0 ) = 0.
14
Moment of couple = F1 x d 1
F,
Moment of couple = F, x d2
Toppling
A cond ition which occurs if the vertical line
through the center of mass* of an object
does not pass through the base of the object.
If this occurs, a couple of the weight ar:id the
normal contact force* rotates the object
further over.
Slightly tilted - couple
will return it to level.
Equilibrium
When an object is not accelerating, it is said
to be in equilibrium. It can be in linear
equilibrium (i.e. the center of mass* is not
accelerating) and/or rotational equilibrium (i.e.
not accelerating about the center of mass). In
addit ion, both cases of equilibrium are either
static (not moving) or dynamic (moving).
Stable equilibrium
A state in which an object moved a small
distance from its equilibrium position returns
to that position . This happens if the center of
mass* is raised when the object is moved.
Lowcenter
Center of
of mass* due
to weight at
bottom
Linear equilibrium
---r'--~
Airuaft in flight in
Noresultantforce
flrnamlc linear
equilibrium and
~5-,;;;:~~~~~~;;;;;r...,
rotational ,i:
stutlc
equilibrium coostJJnt speed iii '
stroight line
-WelghtW
Unstable equilibrium
A state in which an object moved a small
distance from its equilibrium position moves
further from that position. This happens if
the center of mass* is lowered when the
object is moved.
Center of man higli
Aircraft On
ground in static
equilibrium
(llnear and
rotational)
Rotational equilibrium
The state of an object when there is no
angular acceleration*, i.e. it spins at constant
angular velocity*. If an object is in rotational
equi librium, the resultant moment (see
moment) about any axis is zero.
IOll
0.75m
Weight and force form couple which turns toy further over.
Neutral equilibrium
A state in which an object moved a
small distance from its equilibrium
position remains in the new position.
This happens if the center of mass*
remains _at the same height.
man*
in--+~
center
200N
Weight and force on same line - no couple so toy stays in
new position.
J
15
PERIODIC MOTION
Periodic motion is any _motion which
repeats itself exactly at"regular intervals.
Examples of periodic motion are objects
moving in a circle (circular motion), the
swing of a pendulum and the vibration of
molecules. Wave motion* consists of the
periodic motion of particles or fields.
-------r- -1---r-----
- ---r---- i------:----.- -.
!
;
i DisRlacerrent
J;tf;~i
!b etweens:
C. . -----~,!.__1: ----~------~-------~-----,_:
. - 1 - - -1
---...!and
---r---:--1
L- ...IJ
..
---+--~
1
'
: cyt/f! 1s per1od. :
!
:
1
:
I I I
-+----~---+-~---'----L---+----i----'---, _j____L ____~.
: :
!
i : i i ' :
I
!
i
'
I
.
i
'
1
Cycle
Mean position
Oscillation
Periodic motion between two extremes, e.g.
a mass moving up and down on the end of
a spring. In an oscillating system, there is a
continuous change between kinetic energy*
and potential energy*. The total energy of a
system (sum of its kinetic and potential energy)
remains constant if there is no damping.
Period (T)
The time taken to complete one cycle of a
motion, e.g. the period of rotation of the
Earth about its axis is 24 hours.
Frequency (f)
The number of cycles of a particular motion
in one second. The SI unit* of frequency is
the Hertz (Hz), which is equal to one cycle
per second.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of an oscillating
particle from its mean position.
Damping
The process whereby oscillations die down
due to a loss of energy, e.g._shock absorbers
in cars cause oscillations to die down after a
car has gone over a bump in the road.
Damping in an oscillating system
:-~:r~
pisprace{neni
l !SiiJht
.amP,ing ~ ari;.pllfud~
-1--- t~-T=rr-u!1~~~rn!;-t~r~
.J~~- ___L___;_
'
1
'
'
; i
:::1_~-,~1;;;;;;~r1:::t-~t=r-~[:~c11-~rt::
---+-
Heavy damping i
-1 re:fao~rW(r1ntamfie1rt -~-- -
l____
16
i ! .i
: Tim~
''
''''
Circular motion
Uniform circular motion
The motion of an object in a circle at constant
speed. Since the direction (and therefore the
velocity*) changes, the object is constantly
accelerating* toward the center (centripetal
acceleration), and so there is a force acting
toward the center. Circular motion can be
considered in terms of angular velocity.
' ....,
').,..
..:'"':~,..
Swings at natural
frequency after
being released.
Forced oscillation
Forced oscillation
Driving force 1S
supplied by person
pushing the .swing;
Frequency equals the
driving force supplied
by ~he.person pushing.
' '
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
',,
''
Centripetal force
The force which acts on an object toward
the center of a c ircle to produce centripetal
acceleration, and so keeps the object mov ing.
in a circle.
- - - - - --Constant speed around circle
:: .
~
'
""'-1 ~-:r..;;.
I'
..
Direction of centripetal
acceleration (and centripetal
"''
force)
Resonance
The effect exhibited by a system in which the
frequency of the driving force (a force applied
to the system) is about the same as the natural
frequency of the system. The system then has
a large amplitude.
Resonance
Driving force at ef)d of
each s.wing - .at natural
frequency of swing.'
Acceleration, 11 ; Velocity, 1 0.
Centripetal force
has an equal and
opposite reaction
(see Newton's
second law, page
12), called
centrifugal force .
It does not act on
the objBct moving
in the circle so is
not considered in
calculations.
forces
.
17
GRAVITATION
Gravitation is the effect of_ the gravitational
force* of attraction (see also page 104) which acts
between all objects in the universe. It is noticed
with massive objects like the planets, which
..{'.'
remain in orbit because of it. The gravitational ;
force between an object and a pl~net, which /l~
pulls the object downward, is called the
~
weight of the object.
~
Weight
The gravitational pull of a massive object (e.g.
a planet) on another object. The weight of an
object is not constant, but depends on the
distance from, and mass of the planet. Hence,
although the mass of an object is independent
of its position, its weight is not.
Massm
second law*:
.,,,,...
Terminal velocity
Weightlessness
True weightlessness
just after the sky
diver jumps,
velocity* = 0, so
drag= 0 and
acceleration* = g.
Drag f
Velocity increases, drag increases,
acceleration less than g.
~
I
Force down
=weight.
Apparent weightlessness
The state of an object when it is as if there
were no gravitational forces acting. This
occurs if two objects accelerate*
independently in the same way.
Escape velocity
The minimum velocity* at which an object
must travel in order to escape the gravitational
pull of a planet without further propulsion. It
is about 40,000km h-1 on Earth.
Free fall
The unrestricted motion of an object when it
is acted upon only by the gravitational force
(i.e. when there are no resistive or other
forces acting, e.g. air resistance).
Satellite in
geo-stationary
orbit above point P.
f'J~c:r w.rtacefa>~woy
as
.'ll!tJrer M pkmer
ar.d tflere.'ore
oroitt.
MACHINES
A machine is a device which is used to overcome a force called
the load. This force is applied at one point and the machine works
by the application of another force called the effort at a different
point. For example, a small effort exerted on the rope of a pulley
overcomes the weight of the object being raised by the pulley.
Pulley system - an example of a machine
(See qlso
page 21.)
In this machine, the
useless load (see right)
is the friction in the
pulley wheels and the
force needed to raise the
bottom pulley. If the
mass of the pulley is veiy
small, it is considered to
be a perfect machine.
~ii~~
Perfect machine
Efficiency
Diagram of screwjack
showing effort, load
and work done
~
Distance
moved by
load (d,)
20
Useless load
The force needed to overcome the frictional
forces* between the moving parts of a
machine and to raise any of its moving parts.
* Frictional force, 7.
Examples of machines .
Hydraulic press
A large and small cylinder con nected by a
pipe and filled with fluid, used to produce
large forces.
Pulley system
A wheel (or combination of
wheels) and a rope, belt or
chain which transmits motion.
Hydraulic press
Pulley systems
_A.[e-! ____
d,
--------
I:~========~
~~~~em_
Oil
Area a
Multiple pulley
system (block
and tackle)
/
Single pulley
$ '\
One-way valve
Lever
Any rigid object which is pivoted about an axis
cal led the fulcrum (f).The load and effo rt can
be app li ed on either or.the same side. There
are three classes of lever, shown below.
Class 2
L
F~
. , ._ E
x,
x,
Fulcrum between effort and load.
-J
E
Inclined plane
A plane su rface at an ahgle to the horizontal.
It is easier to move an object up an inclined
plane than to move it vertically upwards.
Inclined plane
V.R. =
_I_
h
___________.--1h.
L
Screw jack
A system in which a screw thread is turned fo
raise a load (e.g. a car j ack). The pitch is the
distance between each thread on the screw.
Effort between fulcrum and load.
Screw jack
Gear
A co mbination of toothed
wheels used to transmit
motion between rotating
shafts.
So V.R. number of
. teeth on driven wheel
divided by number
of teeth on driving
wheel.
V.R.
2 nl
pitch
21
MOLECULAR PROPERTIES
There are a number of properties of
matter which can be explained in
terms of the behavior of molecules,
in particular their behavior due to the
action of the forces between them
(intermolecular forces*) . Among
these properties, and explained on
this double page, are elasticity,
surface tension and viscosity. See
also pages 4-5 and 24-25.
Hooke's law
,
States th at,
(
when a distorting force is applied to
.
an object, the strain is proportional to
the stress. As the size of the force
increases, though, the limit of
proportionality (or proportional limit) is
reached, after which H ooke's law is no
longer true (see graph, page 23).
Strain and stress in a
stretched wire
Elasticity
The ability of a material to return to its
original shape and size after distorting forces
(i.e. tension* or compression*) have been
removed. Materials whi ch have this ability
are elastic; those which do not
are plastic.
Cool wax is plastic (the seal leaves a
permanent impression in the wax).
Strain is stated
as change in
length per unit
length.
Stress is stated
as force applied
per unit area.
Scafe calibrated so
that length of spring
gives size of force in
newtons "'.
For an object in
tension "' or
compression,
stress divided by
strain (see above) is
always same figure
for a given material
(Youngs modulus
- see page 112)
until //mit of
proportionality
is reached.
Elastic limit
The point, just after the limit of
proportionality (see Hooke's law),
beyond which an object ceases to be
elastic, in the sen.se that it does not return to
its original shape and size when the distorting
force is removed . It does return to a similar
shape and size, but has suffered a permanent
strain (it will continue to return to this new
form if forces are applied, i.e. it stays elastic
in this sense).
*Calibration, 344; Compression, Intermolecular forces, 7;
Newton, 6; Tension, 7.
Yield point
Sln5s
LP = limit of
proportionol/ty
- (see Hooke 's low)
Material at maximum
stress (breoklng
stress). Begins to
break apart.
EL = elostic limit
'
YP = yield point
-
Material breaks
EL YP/~lostic deformotion
LP
Surface tension
The skin-like property of a liquid surface
resu lting from intermolecular forces*
which cause it to .contract to the small est
possible a rea.
Two examples of surface tension
\ \,. ___ _
Droplet
caused by
surface tension
Adhesion
An intermolecular force * of attraction
between mo lecu les of d iffere nt substa nces.
Copillory oction or copillority is
a result of odheslon or cohesion.
Vascosity
lhe ease of fl ow of a fluid . It depends o n
the size of the frictional force* between
different layers of mol ecules as they slide
over each othe r.
ll"i'~r::;-UO"~-tt--
"*'""' slowly.
Cohesion
Curved red lines are velocity
profiles. They indicate velocity
of molecules inside tubes.
Mita' - not very viscous.
~ rapidly.
Mercury moves
down capillary tube.
Mercury molecules attracted to
each other because forces of
cohesion are stronger than
attraction between mercury
and glass molecules.
23
DENSITY AND
PRESSURE
The density (p) of an object depends
on both the mass of its molecules
and its volume (see formula, right).
For example, if one substance has
a higher density than another, then
the same volumes of the substances
have different masses (the first mass
being greater than the second).
Simil arly, the same masses have
different volumes.
Relative density or specific gravity
Eureka can
A can used to measu re the volume of a solid
object with an irregul ar shape, in order to
calculate its density. The volume of w~ter
displaced is equal to t,he volume of the
object. The density of the object is its mass
divided by this volume.
,,,.,.._...__ _ Water up to
here before
object put in
I'
Object A. Heavy
molecules, closely
packed. Higher density,
Object B. Light molecules,
spaced. Lower density.
widely~
Hencem = p x v
vis the same for objects A and B, so object A
has greater mass.
The SI unit of density is the kg m-3
Density bottle
A container which,
when completely full,
holds a precisely
measured volume of
liquid (at constant
temperature). It is used
to measure the density
of liquids (by measuring
the mass of the bottle
and liquid, subtracting
the mass of the bottle
and dividing by the
volume of liquid).
Hydrometer o r aerometer
A n instrument which measures the density of
a liquid by the level at which it floats in that
liquid. Ifthe liqui'd is very dense, the
hydrometer floats near the surface, as only a
small volume of liquid needs to be displaced
to equal the weight of the hydrometer.
Hydrometer
Measuring
cylinder
24
- - Hollow tube
Pressure
Pressure is the force, acting at right angles,
exerted by a solid, liquid or gas on a unit area
of a substance (solid, liquid or gas).
Pressure in a vessel of water
The greater the force on a fixed area, the greater the pressure.
At the top of this water vessel, for example,
there are few water molecules pressing down
so there is little weight (force) and therefore
little pressure. Further down, however,
there are more water molecules,
so there is more weight (force)
and therefore greater
pressure.
Barometer
An instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure - the
pressure caused by the weight
of air molecules above
A barometer for the home
the Earth. There are
gives pressure readings and
several common types.
brief weather desoriptions.
Simple barometer
Torrlcellian vacuum
(no pressure acting down)
Atmospheric pressure =
760mm of mercury
Fixed diameter tube
Manometer
AU-shaped tube containing a liquid. It is
used to measure difference in fluid pressures.
Manometer
Atmospheric
Gas
pressure
The smaller the area over
which a fixed force
acts, the higher the
pressure. A sharp
knife cuts better than a blunt - ooe because its force is
~lied to a smaller area.
Atmosphericpressure
Gas
pressure
- ,
- - - - - ~-
x, - .;
Objects in fluids
An object in a fluid experiences an upward
force called the buoyant force. According to
Archimedes' principle, this is equal to the
weight of the fluid d isplaced by the object.
The principle of flotation further states that,
if the object is floating, the weight of
displaced fluid (buoyant force) is equal to its
own weight. It can be shown (see below)
that whether an object sinks, rises or floats
in a fluid depends entirely on density.
Archimedes' principle
Principle of flotation
.atWru<.v
:w.
SI units, 96.
.itart;S .ta.:st&,;:
th,. <(;mr
25
T~MPERATURE
The temperatu re of an object is a
measurement of how hot the object is. It is
mark
Ciapll!litf !'uh~
vi1i!Jfe-ef"l5tan0e-m rodr
temperarw:e chcmge.
Liquid-in-gJass thermometer
A co mmon type ot thermometer which
measures t mpe ratme by tile expansi on
of a liquid in a fine bore g l ;,is..~ l ube
(capillary tube). A gt.t1 ss b ulb ho lds a
r~rvo[r of the liqu id, w hi h i:; usually
either mercury vr ct1lored alcoho l. These
tem per~tu re
tturi-.w:rl.'eJ ro
r)ffl<u ry M<J
L'fJ qrJ j(~fl<
Temperature scales
Fixed point
Manometer* -
measures steam
pressure (should be
atmospheric pressure*).
Mercury bulb in steam
__J ~;!;;;;;=j--5--'teadily
boiling water
Thermometer-
Position of end of
mercury thread
marked as 0C.
Upper
point fixed~
Funnel containing
pure, melting fe"t- -
interval
Fundamental
Lower
- fixed
point
HEAT
Other types of
thermometer
Maxim um a nd minimum
thermometers
Specia l ljquid-in-glass t hermometers
whlch record the max imum or minimum
temper tu re reached over a per iod Of
time_They contai n a metal and glass
index (see picture below) wh ich is
pushed up or p ulled down (respectively)
by the Iiq u id meni$ffi~ . The i nd ex stays
at the maximu m or m inimum posi Lio.n It<
re.aches du ri ng Lhe time ~he Lhermometer
is feft. It is reset usi ng a magneL
Maximum thermometer
Aircra~
Resistance thermometer
Measures temperature from
change in resistance* it causes
in a coil ofwire. Similar devices,
e.g. under aircraft w ings, use
resistance c hange in thermistors* .
have
thermhtors
under their
wing surfaces t o
-_measure:--the _air
temperatwe.
Maximum
A liquHI U}'itaJ
thWJrJt>me'tP o.n
tfiF r/<ifl 5hl'.l"'! 1(5
II
II
tm1pl!ro~tf'!
IC'ilifin9
t.e.mp-E'ffi'llffl'.',
Thermocoup~e
A device wh ich
Metal wire,
e.g. iron
c=~~-9.,!f-l=~~......
difference .
Absolute
temperature
scale
Absolute or thermodynamic
temperature scale
A standard temperature scale, using units
cal led kelvins (K). The zero value is given
to the lowest possible temperature
theoretically achievable, called absolute
zero. It is impossible to have a lower
temperature, as this would require a
negative volume (see graph, right) which
cannot exist.
Celsius
scale
Same temperature,
different value
For conversion: T = t + 2 73
-273C
OK
0C
273K
J00C
373K
l ~;
27
TRANSFER OF HEAT
Whenever there is a temperature d ifference, heat energy
(see page 9) is transferred by conduction, convection or
radiation from the hotter to the cooler place. This increases
the internal energy* of the cooler atoms, raising their
temperature, and decreases the energy of the hotter atoms,
lowering theirs . It continues until the temperature is the same
across the region - a state called thermal equilibrium.
Conduction or thermal conduction
The way in which heat energy is transferred in
solids (and also, to a much lesser extent, in
liquids and gases). In good conductors the
energy transfer is rapid, occurring mainly by
the movement of free electrons* (electrons
which can move about), although also by the
vibration of atoms - see insulators (bad
conductors), below.
Heat is lumferred alang the needle by
cond1J<'l'IO<t (rtl!!Cal Is o good conductor).
Heated
electrons*
gairi kinetic
energy. Move
out fast in all
directions.
Conductivity or thermal
conductivity
collide with
otoms
passing on
heat energy.
1
vibrate,
Temperature
but only
collide with
neighbors.
Convection
A way in which heat energy is transferred in
liquids and gases. If a liquid or gas is heated,
it expands, becomes less dense and rises.
Cooler, denser liquid or gas then sinks to take
its place. Thus a convection current is set up.
The picture on the right shows how
convection currents cause daytime"coastal
breezes, a process which is reversed at night.
HEAT
Radiation
Leslie's cube
Leslie's cube
used to compare
powers of
radiation numbers show
best (7) to
worst (4)
surface.
Gloss black
surface (2)
and gloss
white surface
(3) (unseen)
Vacuum flask
Black absorber
panel absorbs
heat, which
heats the water
in the copper
pipes.
Pipes carry
heated water to
storage tank.
Thermopile
A device for measuring radiation levels. It
consists of two or more thermocouples*
(no rmally over 50) joined end to end.
Rad iation falls on the metal junctions on one
side and the temperature difference between
these hot junctions and the cold ones on the
other side produces e.m.f.* across the
thermopile, the size of which indicates how
much radiation has been absorbed.
Thermopile
Polished metal
surface (4)
Matt black
surface (7)
Vacuum flask
Stopper
"MtWarM)
Shiny inside
surfaces
Liquid stays
at same
temperature
(heat energy
cannot pass in
or out of flask).
Greenhouse effect
The warming effect produced when radiation
is trapped in a closed area, e.g. a greenhouse.
The objects inside absorb the Sun's radiation
and re-emit lower energy radiation which
cannot pass back through the glass. Carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere forms a similar
barrier, and its level is inc reasing, helflce the
Earth is slowly getting warmer.
Changes of state
A change of state is a change from one
physical state (the solid, liquid or gaseous
state) to another (for more-about physical
state~, _
s ee page 5). While a change of state is
happen.ing, there is no change in temperature.
Instead; all the energy taken in or given out is
used to make or break molecular bonds. This
is called latent heat (L) - see graphs, page 31 .
The specific latent heat (I) of a substance is
a set value, i.e. the heat energy taken in or
given out when 1 kg of the substance
changes state.
\During t.
evapora 10n1
. mo1ecu1es escape
from the surface
ora liquid.
Vaporization
The change of
state from liquid
to gaseous at a
temperature called
the boiling point (when the liquid is said to be
boiling). The term is a lso used more generally
for any change resulting in a gas or vapor, i.e.
including also evaporation and sublimation.
Condensation
The change of state from gas or vapor
to liquid.
Melting
Evaporation
The conversion of a liquid to a vapor by the
escc~p.f- of molecules from its surface. It takes
place at all temperatures, the rate inc reasing
with any one or a combination of the
following: increase in temperature, increase
in surface area or decrease in pressure. It is
also inc reased if the vapor is immediately
removed from above the liquid by a flo'V_ of
air.. The latent heat (see above) needed for
evaporation is take n from the liquid itself
which cools and in turn cools its su rroundings.
Changes of state
Temperature remains constant (see graphs, page 31 ).
Freezing
The change of state from liquid to solid at
the freezing point (the same temperature as
the melting point of the solid).
Sublimation
The conversion of a substance from a solid
directly to a gas, or vice-versa, without passi ng
through the liquid state. Iodine and carbon
dioxide are two substances that sublime.
* Internal energy, 9.
. HEAT
Q (heat gained) =
2 x 380 x (301- 303)1
So Q = 3, 0401
JIJe SI unit of peclflc latent heat is the joule per kilogram (/ kg- 1).
SI unit s, 96.
1--__
Electrical contacts
Metal bar
2 73 temperature graduations
heater
Insulating block -
- 2 73' C
OK
Knob -controls temperature at which
heater switches off or back on by setting
position of metal bar and its contact.
or liquids:
For gases:
;J:se .:Qf.W;~{
E<paqsieti 6/,"So.fiilson
hebii1'!9 muftt-be ibken_into
aq:-01J;.it i11 :building work.
oi
.c
:>NP._O'matqu~,;~~P~h~rQ'.~(
liquids
Behavior of gases
NU gases behave in a si mil ar way,.;~}):$;
Soyle'slaw
Key
P = pressure
V = volume
T = temperature
on absolute
r----
-~
,ria~ ;,
pr=ri!
T~lf\l)i'rl'lt~
l___..l~_,,_--1----'.-,.._,,.-\-- ~~t ffle Wfl>E
arb~
scale*
R = gas constant
Pressure law
Law of vo lumes
ai\<irt.-_
P ~ T or
..!!..
T
= constant
lrntrow
Umpe.rvu,re - --
r--
-~..,....i1..
ro.l!,vtle
rtlCTt?r:J~er
33
WAVES
Al I waves transport energy without
permanently displacing the
medium* through which they travel.
They are also called traveling
waves, as the er:iergy travels from a
source to surrounding points (but
see also stationary wave, page 43).
There are two main types mechanical waves, such as sound
waves, and electromagnetic waves
(see page 44). In all cases, the wave
mot,ion is regular and repetitive (i.e.
periodic motion - see page 16) in
the form of oscillations - regular
changes between two extremes. In
mechanical waves it is particles
(molecules) that oscillate, and in
electromagnetic waves it is electric
and magnetic fields.
Mechanical wave (transvene wave) passes along string.
---+
_ _____ ,________;________>---'------------------:_________ , __ --
i displacement. The
Transverse waves
Waves in which the oscillations are at right
angles to the direction of energy (wave)
movement, e.g. water waves (oscillation of
particles) and all electromagnetic waves*
(oscillation of fields - see introduction).
Crests or peaks
Points where a wave causes maximum
positive displacement of the medium*. The
crests of some waves, e.g. water waves, can
be seen as they travel.
Troughs
Points where a wave causes maximum
ne-g ative displacement of the medium*. The
troughs of .some waves, e.g. water waves, can
be seen as they trave l.
Oscillating block
- ---+
Waves are
transvene
waves oscillations are
at right angles
to direction of
wave.
+-----
- -~l-~ -
,
'
on-lettj-~---J5w:h:grnp_b.~_QLe.JiJso.~'pjs;l!.iLes;'_of.tf!,ruw::epe_wm "-
11
Wavefront
WAVES
Longitudinal waves
Wave speed
time
= frequency x wavelength
~--- -
Hence:
is l~cem~nt
1 _. ____ j_-_____
'
r---t-- c.at greatest'.:,_'positi~e
______ +-------'-------~----__ 'o_ ____d/S fa_ce_rrie_n_
Amplitude ,
_____ (see .fir.st.gca~b, .page. 3AY:--
Frequency (f)
The number of oscillations which occur in
one second when waves pass a given point
(see also page 16). It is equal to the number
of wavelengths (see second graph, page 34)
per second .
Attenuation
~~~'.~i_~st.l~~;_:;E_ii~f~:~~:~-~~-~~---+----:-~-----Compressions
legions along a longitudinal wave where the
pressure and density of the molecules are
liigher than when no wave is passing.
lt.arefactions
-----t--+-
!cent~red arbund
Areas o(
-'-- riirefadion--'- ---t- -c~ntered around ,.
-- p?rticletA-and/, ... .l ......
-------1-----
..---.
+-----i--------i----
'
'
!
i
'
1'-.......-+-+---,;t------'-.....,,,--+----:..=-1>--;.__
j....
-~:~~-~----
source i
i
:
l
/
-;------+-------,--t---~---L _____l____ ----L---L-.--.L ...
--f
-1-perti~le+ -+--------
1Dista(1ce
-+c;;._-'--
!Disp~acem~nt
Wave intensity
A measurement of the energy carried by a
wave. It is worked out as the amount of
energy falling on unit area per second. It
depends on the frequency and amplitude
of the wave, and also on the wave speed.
35
REFLECTION, REFRACTION
AND DIFFRACTION
An obstacle or a change of
medium* causes a wave to undergo
reflection, refraction or diffraction.
These are different types of change
in wave direction and often also
result in changes in the shape of the
wavefronts*. For more about the
reflection and refraction of li ght
waves, see pages 47-53.
Ripple tank
Sponge IHodr -
Reflection
The c hange in direction of a wave due to
its bounci ng off a boundary between two
media*. A wave that has undergone refl ection
is called a reflected wave. The shape of its
wavefronts depends on the shape of the
incident wavefronts and the shape of the
boundary. For more about the reflection of
light waves, see pages 47-49.
Incident wave
A wave that is traveling toward a bound ary
between two media*. Its wavefronts are called
incident wavefronts.
Ripple tank
of ripplll
in wave direction.
Ship's hom
----;=::::::::,,,...,______::::,\_ produces
sound waves.
Circular
wavefronts
(incident
_waves)
fc'<--t-''c--"--=---=='~--:7'--t- Straight
d-----"---~-7'--J-
wavefronts
(reffected
waves)
Circular
'.,.--T--'<-"<-''<-'<f- wavefronts
' ---"----\--<+- (incident
waves)
Soufee,
1---r-1-~1-1--+-+-1-I-+- e. g. drop
of water .
Circular
'>(. ~==::.._,,,..c..-,,L.~~-+---+-l- wavefronts
~~~~==;,,-..:::;..:7~L;r4j-
36
(reffected
waves)
A--~-------+-
(Incident waves)
- r--- - - --+-
Straight wavefronrr
~-r--,,-----+-
(reffected waves
WAVES
Refraction
....=-=- =+,..+-
Wavelength shorter
Diffraction
The bending effect which occurs when a
wave meets an obstacle or passes through an
aperture. The amount the wave bends depends
on the size of the obstacle or aperture
compared to the wavelength* of the wave.
The smaller the obstacle or aperture by
comparison, the more the wave bends.
Diffraction of waves (sound waves) around obstacle
Obstacle small compared to
wavelength (wavelength of
sound is about 2m) - a lot of
_,....._~....._
Wavelength longer
~
~
~ -
(\
Warm
Cool air
llttllllll
II
1111 1
Wa~er
Coo/air
~ ~
Air
shvdown on
. a denser mediun;i::
air ~
~~
III))):
l'w
37
WAVE INTERFERENCE
When two or more waves travel in the same or different directions in a
given space, variations in the size of the resulting disturbance occur at
points where they meet (see principle of superposition). This effect is
called interference. When interference is demonstrated, e.g. in a ripple
tank*, sources which produce coherent waves are al w ays used, i.e.
waves with the same wavelength and frequency, and either in phase
or with a constant phase difference (see phase). This ensures that the
interference produces a regular, identifiable interference pattern of
disturbance (see picture, page 39). The use of non-coherent waves
would result only in a constantly-changing confusion of waves.
Phase
Young's slits
---r--- --1---I
--
...
+------~-------!--
Wa ~e 1 atigiven ;;nstant
. ..
'
---
- --
-- -
_ (.Jieire<J from.above)
_. y.i)(\nws slits
----
interference fringes.
I
I
! Cr~~;;~;-~;J,erent point
Wa ye fro rp
one source
-- - - ----- r----1
j Phas~
~
--- -
...
T - -1---,
------:----1----1
-.....:.............!...
,-- ... :... ,. ..i. .. ____ 1 ------ r --------L-- .,rJ. _____ :__
Wav4 from :
l Phas~ diffe/rnce ~etwee~ nex~ two crests i
.. ' _s_~~o~~-'?~':c!'.... '.thoi1.l11!!-_~p_f.Q/1_*1(lt pf!g~-~ -l;!_iff.~f?.IJ.~e,_
38
Principle of superposition
States that when the superposition of two or
more waves occurs at a point (i.e. two or
more waves com e together), the resultant
displacement is equal to the sum of the
displacements (positive or negative) of the
individual waves .
WAVE5
Constructive interference
Destructive interference
Constructive interference
lirst wove
Destructive interference
Coincides with
Amfi/itud~ A 1 !
First wove
Coincides with
--
According to principle of
superposition (see page 38),
A1 + A2 = Al. This is true of
dsplocement at any other point,
e.g. 81 + 82 = 81.
Destructive interference
also follows the principle of
superposition.
Hence Al+ A2 = Al.
is zero.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Amplitude, 34; Compressions, 35;
Crests, 34; Rarefoctions, 35; Troughs, 34. \
\
I
\
\
\
I
\
\
\
Trough* or
compression*
rarefaction *
Ant/nodal line
(constructive
Interference)
of antinodes. Depending on
waves, antinodal lines may
indicate, for example, areas
of rou gh w ater, loud sound
or bright light (see also
Young's slits picture).
Crest* or
----- ___ J
--
.....,
SOUND WAVES
Bats emit
Sonic boom
rarefactions').
ultrasonic waves
differently.
Reflected waves
(echoes), e.g. from
an unborn baby,
ore converted into
electrical pulses
which form an
image (scan) on
a screen.
Scan of baby in mother's womb at 20 weeks
Infrasound
40
Speed of sound
Subsonic speed
Supersonic speed
A speed above the speed of sound
in the same medium* and under
the same cond itions.
A supersonic passenger jet
WAVES
.-:al by device
'1hip.
~~~~;; )x) )
Source of
sound
,.~1~1ro J,:LI
x
i
t
x
'\~~kkd"'"
Doppler effect
The change in frequency* of the sound heard
when either the li stener or the source moves
rel ative to the other. If the distance between
them is decreasing, a hi gher frequency sound
is heard than that actually prod uced. If it is
increas ing, a lowe r frequency sou nd is heard .
Doppler effect
Wavefronts*
move out at
speed of
sound.
'sen'Sing equipm.ent _ .
below ship. Eonverted
to electrical pulses
image
which form
of galleon on a screen
;f ~ in the ship.
...""""11111r1::JO'Yl":l<'1
- ~~,..:..
an.
41
PERCEPTION OF SOUND
Sounds heard by the ear can be
pleasant or unpleasant. When the
waveform of a sound wave (see
pages 40-A 1) repeats itself regul arl y,
the sound is usually j udged to be
pleasant. However, when the
waveform is unrepeated and
irregular, the sound is thought of as
a noise. Every sound has a parti cular
loudness and pitch and many,
especially musical sounds, are
produced by stationary waves.
Time
Loudness
Beats
Beat frequency
Pressure/ density
Sound wave 1 - frequency 72 Hertz (waves per second)
Pitch
The perce ived frequ~ncy* of a soun d wave,
i.e . the frequency heard as sound. A high
pitc hed sound has a high frequen cy a nd a
low pitched sound has a low frequ e ncy.
The sound of a
bird's song is high
pitched. It has a
high frequency'.
Resultant sound wave
---~
Loud sound
. A truck's engine has a
/ow-pitched hum.
It has a low
second
WAVES
Stationary
or standing wave
A wave that does not appear to move. It is not
in fact a true wave, but is instead made up of
two waves of the same velocity and frequency*
rontinuously moving in opposite directions
between two fixed points (most commonly the
ends of a plucked string or wire). The repeated
cross ing of the waves results in interference* when the waves are in phase*, the resultant
amplitude* is large, and when they are out of
phase*, it is small or zero. At certain points (the
nodes), it is always zero. The amplitude and
~ uency of a stationary wave in a string or wire
determ ines those of the sound waves it produces
in the air - the length and tension of the string
or wire determine the range of frequencies,
and hence the pitch of the sound produced.
Sonometer
llpporatus used to demonstrate stationary waves. When plucked,
!Se vibrates and sound box amplifies souncf caused by vibration.
IW>w box
Positions of maximum
vibration (antinodes)
Fixed
'P-~- bridge
Musical sounds
All music is based on some kind of musical
scale. This is a series of notes (sounds of
specific pitch), arranged from low to high
pitch with certain intervals between them (a
musical interval is a spacing in frequency*,
rather than time). The notes are arranged ~o
that pleasant sounds can be obtained. What
is regarded as a pleasant sound depends on
the culture of the listener.
Western musical scale is based on diatonic scale - consists of
8 notes (white notes on piano) ranging from lower to upper C.
Top of diatonic scale
- - -
-n-
523
Hz
262
Hz
frequency*
Modes of vibration
_ It
C)--+ <:"\
=:>
...
<:"\
<:"\
/'""'\.
/'""'\.
C'\ V~V
V 8
(\
(\
f\ A+B
\TV V V
V
Waves A and B
(same amplitude')
moving in opposite
directions between
two fixed points.
Resultant wave
at time t = 0.
Amplitude
doubled.
\ J+ -\ J
B Resultant wave
....
A+8
at time t = 1.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Amplitude zero.
_ t = 2, resultant wave has same amplitude as at t = 0, but is
-.spt>sed, i.e. crests' where there were troughs' and vice versa .
..., ~
Nodes
[\
(\
I V \J
0
v v v v \
0
I\
0 0 0 0
vV\/VVVVVv
-Antinodes
= 0 and
43
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are transverse
waves*, consisting of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields*. They
have a wide range of frequencies*,
can travel through most media*,
I
X-rays
Electromagnetic waves which ionize* gases
they pass through, cause phosphorescence
and bring about
chemical changes on
photographic plates.
They are produced in
X-ray tubes* and have
many applications.
X-radiography produces
pictures (radiographs) of inside
of body. X-rays pass through
tissue but are absorbed by denser
bones, so bones appear opaque.
~ 44
L__
L___ _ _ __ _
Electromagnetic wave
Wavelength*
Phosphorescence
A phenomenon shown by certain substances
(phosphors) when they are hit by short
wavelength* electromagnetic waves, e.g.
gamma rays or X-rays. The phosphors absorb
the waves and emit visible light, i.e. waves of
longer wavelength. This emission may
continue after the gamma or X-rays have
stopped. If it only occurs briefly afterwards in
rapid flashes, these are called scintillations
(see also scintillation counter, page 90).
Electric fleld, 58; Electrode, 66; Electrons, 83; Fluorescent tube, 80 (Discharge tube); Frequency, 35; Ionization, 88;
Magnetic field, 72; Medium, 345; Photosynthesis, 254; Radioactivity, 86; Transverse waves, Wavelength, 34; X-ray tube, 80.
WAVES
~-------
Radio
waves~----------------="'
~j,;;,;;;;;.-'""-=
Magnetron connectrd to normal
4 - - - - --
Increasing frequency
Ruorescence
A. p henomenon shown by certain substances
when they are hit by ultraviolet radiation.
They absorb the ultraviolet radiation and
emit visible light, i.e. light waves of a longer
wavelength*. This emission stops as soon as
the ultravio let radiation stops.
Visible light
ectromagnetic waves which the eye can
detect. They are produced by the Sun, by
discharge tubes* and by any substance
heated until it glows (emission of light due to
heating is called incandescence). They cause
chemical changes, e.g. on photographic film,
and the diffe rent wavelengths* in the
waveband are seen as different colors (see
page 54).
Microwaves
Waves reflected
off oven walls, so
food cooks evenly.
Radio waves
Electromagnetic waves produced when
free electrons* in radio antennae are made to
oscillate (and are hence accelerated) by an
electric field *. The fact that the frequen cy of
the oscillations is imposed by the field means
that the waves occur as a regular stream,
rather than rando ml y.
can penetrate
1
' ,
ionosphere, henc~ are
1
' ,,
used to communicate
... ,
over long distances
via satellites. - -- -- ,
Radio waves with long
wavelength reflected
I
within ionosphere,
hence are used to
transmit informatio.n
from place to place on
same area of Earth's
s u r f a c e . - - - - - - - - - -;
..
lonophere
(region of lonlzedgqs,
around.the: .
Earth)
Discharge tube, 80; Electric field, 58; Electrons, 83; Frequency, 35;
Internal energy, 9; Ionization, 88; Nuclear power station, 94;.
Wavelength, 34.
Earth
LIGHT
Light consists of electromagnetic
waves* of particular frequencies*
and wavelengths* (see pages
44-45), but is commonly referred to
and diagrammatically represented
as rays. -such a ray is actually a line
(arrow) which indicates the path
taken by the light waves, i.e. the
direction in which the energy is
being carried.
Shadow
An area which light rays cannot reach due
to a n obstacle in their path. If the rays come
from a point they are stopped by the obstacle,
creating a complete shadow called an umbra.
Eclipse
The total or
partial "blocking off" of
light from a source. This
occurs when an object casts
a shadow by passing betwee n
the source and an observer. A
solar eclipse is seen from the
Earth when the Moon passes
between the Earth and the Sun,
and a lunar eclipse is seen
when the Earth is between
Moon blocking OUf
the Sun and the Moon.
Sun's light in an
annular solar_eclif-
Solar eclipse
Casting an umbra
Small saurce
of light
Obstacle
Screen
Umbra
Image seen
on screen
Example rays
Light
screen here.
Total eclipse
seen from
poS1tion C
San completely
obscured.
A~
-----~
___/
No
at any
seeneclipe
place outS1de
orcle.
Annular eclipse
~~<:"'
Example rays
Umbra
Penumbra
Light
46
XO
1
WAVES
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is the change in direction
ofa wave when it bounces off a
boundary (see page 36). Mirrors are
usually used to show the reflection
oflight (see below and also pages
48-49). It must be noted that when
an object and its image are drawn
in mirror (and lens*) diagrams, the
object is assumed to be producing
lfght rays itself. In fact the rays come
from a source, e.g. the Sun, and are
reflected off the object.
Diffuse reflection
The reflection of parallel incident rays (see
left) off a rough surface such that the reflected
rays travel in different directions and the light
is scattered . This is the most common type of
reflection as most surfaces are irregular when
considered on a scale comparable to that of
the wavelength* of light (see page 113).
Diffuse reflection
Plane mirror
A mirror with a flat surface (see also curved
mirrors, pages 48-49). The image it forms is
the same size as the object, the same distance
behind (" inside") the mirror as the object is in
frrn:it and laterally inverted (the left and right
sides have swapped around).
Reflection in plane mirror
- -----~------------~---------~-----------~---------
1trompJint ~1 ,
f vi1"a1iniagf!*j,
:
-- --
C - -T
,----.--~-,:
,;,.-..::::::~....,....~_...~.,~~--~---~--:_:_::_h_,,
lleflected r a y - - - - - - + - - - - '
.;.
~ularreflection
----~
--------------,.--------.-
1 -- -,-
--
........~-~' ------
---.,,--~.....-~...,.....--
47
,
,, ,
,,'
-- -- -----
,,
....
Width of
aperture
+-Principal
axis
+---+--
F
p
r - -- -
Concave mirror
Convex mirror
Mirror
Mirror
at principal focus
/ . ..
.:::-~
Reflected rays
converge
-----f---48
center of curvature
appear to come
from principal
focus (F)
behind mirrot.
:
'
.........
- - - .... ....
r'15'o;;~-+---l--
',
''
rti~,.---+-_;::::P..-=:::::-
:-f
--+
WAVES
Image
Linear magnification
Object (assumed
to produce light
c _. - - - _
,,-:::::1"
... - -. .
rays
I
Prindpal axis
Spherical aberration
Mi rror or lens formu la
Gives the relationship between the distance of
an object from the center of a curved mirror
or lens*, the d istance of its image from the
same point and the focal length of the mirror
or lens. An image may be formed either side
of a mirror or lens, so a sign convention* is
used to give position.
- Principal a xis
Caustic curve
49
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the change in direction of any
wave as a result of its velocity changing when
it moves from one medium* into another (see
also page 37). When light rays (see page 46)
move into a new medium, they are refracted
according to the laws of refraction of light. The
direction in which they are refracted depends
on whether they move into a denser or less
dense medium and are consequently slowed
down or speeded up (see diagram below) .
Refraction at boundary between two media
r---,--;:::===-
rdlhd ray*).
-
I..!~!========>!--
ii
Incident
principle of reversibility
of light, page 49)
showing light ray passing
between air and water.
ray A
Air
Water
Refracted ray A - (closer to normal see diagram, above)
i (ray B) fr (ray A)
Incident ray B -
50
Apparent depth
The position at which an object in one
medium * appears to be when viewed from
another medium . The brain assumes the light
rays have traveled in a straight line, but in fact
they have changed direction as a result of
refraction. Hence the object is not actually
where it appears to be.
Apparent depth
Rays refracted when
they leave water ====:::j::=
Brain assumes light rays have
taken straight paths (red dotted
lines), so object seen at X.
Rea! depth and apparent
depth can also be used to
calculate refractive Index *:
= ::::\--4
-,
_ J_
Air
Real
Prism
Refracted
,,
Angle of deviation,
Path of ray if it - - ------6'
i.e. angle between
had not passed
+-----'<-ray entering prism
through prism.
and ray emerging
Weak internal
from it.
Air
critical angle
Glass
Total
internal-+--~
reflection
(see above
right)
Angle o f
incidence
greater than
critical
angle
Air
Angle of
deviation
= 90
51
A magnifying glass is a
converging lens used
so that objects are
made to look bigger
than they really .are.
,,,
"' "'
,,, ,,,
,,,
-- ---.
c
I
\
''
'
....
''
'
__..- -- --
Optical center (0 ).
Center of lens. Light rays
passing through it do not
change direction.
.... ....
''
''
\
\
Principal axis
Center of
curvature. Center of
sphere of which lens
surface is part. Since 1
lens has two surfaces, I
there are two centers \
of cwvature - notation 1 ,
C is always given to
'
.....,.-------,-----Fo<-----i,__.-+----<F..' -----,..,-'-------+,-
center of curvature on
side of incident light ray
I
/
,I
,
',
,. .;
Aperture. Area
through which light
passes to hit lens.
_,, ,, / /
Converging lens
A lens which causes parallel rays fa lling
on it to converge on the principal focus
o n the other side of the lens. Both
concave and convex lenses can act as
converging lenses, depending o n the
refractive index* of the lens relative to
the surroundrng medium *. A glass convex
lens in air acts as a converging lens, as.
shown in the d iagram on the ri ght.
52
Focal length
(f). Distance
between either
principal fOCJIJ
and optical
center.
Refracted rays
!If-- --
Refracted rays
meet at principal
focus in front
of lens.
'!
WAVES
Power (P)
A measure of the ability of a lens to converge
or diverge light rays, given in diopters (when
focal length is measured in meters). The
shorter the focal length, the more powerful
the lens.
Convex lens
Concave lens
~.
convex
Pianoconvex
Convex
meniscus
Convex lens
,_.,.,pie of image formed by
~ convex lens in air (object
riaced between principal
faals and optical center).
hindpal axis
TI"
concave
u~~
[~ro~
concave
~eniscus
Concave lens
Example
,. ,.,,,;;
light rays
.,,,,.
.,.
.,. .,..- /
,.""'
Image
Object
Ul'"'t-"+r.&"
_J
F'
Object (assumed to
produce light rays see introduction)
Principal
axis
Image is always upright,
smaller than object and
a virtual image*.
Diverging lens
lens which causes parallel rays falling
it to diverge so that they appear to have
mme from the principal focus on the same
side as the rays enter. Both concave and
a>nvex lenses can act as diverging lenses,
nding on the refractive index* of the
ms relative to the surrounding medium*. A
glass concave lens in air acts as a diverging
ms, as shown in the diagram on the right.
:::.::;:z::------Refracted rays
appear to come
from principal
focus behind lens.
53
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
An optical instrument is one which acts on light, using one or more
lenses* or curved mirrors* to produce a required type of image.
Listed below are some of the more common optical instruments.
Camera
Microscope
Camera (reflex)
Prism directs light to ~1ie.
Diaphragm. Series of
overlapping metal pieces.
Adjusted to alter size of
aperture (central hole) and
hence amount of light
t>~l!d' through.
Compound microscope
Eyepiece lens. Produces final
image seen by eye (see below).
A simple microscope consists
of this lens alone.
\
\\
\\
\\
\\
Permanent image
produced by
developing film.
Shutter. Moves away as
picture is taken to allow
light onto film.
Col or
When all the different wavelengths* of visible
light (see page 45) fal I on the eye at the same
time, white light is seen. However, wh ite light
can also undergo dispersion, w hereby it is
split into the visible light spectrum (i.e. its
different wavelengths) by refraction*. Th is
may occur accidentally (see chromatic
aberration), or it may be produced o n
purpose, e.g. w ith a spectrometer.
''
Object on transparent
microscope s/ide - - -- -- --H'-,1
_,,r------~
Strong light
source
Inside a spectrometer
Visible light
spectrum
(face-on view)
\
r
Light shone
on sheet with
central slit
White screen
54
WAVES
Slide projector
Visual angle
Slide projector
Lenses concentrate
light onto slide.
------- r---
Slide
Telescope
Ni optical instrument used to make very
(and therefore apparently very small)
pbjects appear larger.
~stant
Mescope
ot;e.:t (e.g.
star) considered
_ be at infinity
Lenses of
a1tronomical
telescope in
.._ from
normal
adjustment
of object
mmidered
Eyepiece
lens
parollel
: shown) are
,..,,lei to
,,.-;pal axis*.
Objective
lens /
~ at
a rirtua/ image .
//1-c.~
//
/
Image formed by
objective lens acts
as object for
eyepiece lens.
Primary colors
Color mixing
=:sanndary co/ors
'IJ89Jinations of primary co/ors)
c..-red mirrors, 48; Lenses, Principal axis, 52; Prism, 51; Real image, 49 (Image);
~ion,
Creating a
static charge
- Some materials - - 1
become charged
when rubbed.
Ebomte and
polythene gain
electrons to become
negatively charged.
Cloth becomes
equally and
oppmitely
charged.
Cloth bec0l18
equally and
oppositely
charged.
Electroscope
.~
..._/
~
-.-
~Ne.gatively-charged
, ...,, polythene r~
Repulsion-- '
~ ~
.,.._/
Insulator
A material with very few or no charges (e.g.
electrons) free to move (i.e. a bad conductor).
Some insulators become electrically charged
when rubbed . This is because electrons from
the surface atoms are transferred from one
substance to the next, but the charge remains
on the surlace.
Detecting charge
with the
electroscope
~a
-
++ I
I+ + +
j: "'.+
T
Positively-chaf!JPL
rod
Positive charge
left on plate one
leaf - leaf div~
Lightning
llldrons
"'1rocted
.. ,
Positive
,; charge left
n_
- ----+--~
Insulator stand
Proof plane
_.smal l disk made of a conductor mounted
on a handle made of an insulator. It is used
lo transfer charge between objects.
~+
++
+
+ .
+
Pear-shaped
conductor has
unequal charge
distribution
+++++
Hollow- :
charged
+
conductors + +
have no charge +
on inside
t
+
++
+
.t+
Point action
positive charge.
1. Positively-
~--
2. Charge collected
from band by
second point.
Electrophorus
An instrument consisti ng of a negativelycharged insulator and a brass plate attached
to an insulating handle. It is used to produce
a number of positive charges from one
negative charge.
Lines of force -
'
Electric field of a
single point charge
opposite charges
q,
q,
Electric force*
Potential
Potential difference
Potential difference
between A and B = 3 volts
3 joules needed to
move unit positive
charge from B to ~3 joules given out by unit
positive charge when it
moves from A to B.
Negative charge
tends to move
towards higher
potential at A.
then potential
difference between
A and C is 5 volts.
Equipotential
A surface over which the potential is constant.
*Coulomb, 60; Electric force, Force field, 6; Potential energy, 8.
Capacitance
When a conductor* is given a
charge it undergoes a change
in potential." Capacitance is
the ratio of the charge gained
by an object to its increase in
potential. An object with a
higher capacitance requires a
larger charge to change its
potential by the same amount
as an object with a smaller
rfipacitance.
: ,: ;:".: .l,
different
capacitance.
..======l.
More charge
(Q) must be
given to larger
can to give it
same potential
(V)-it has
higher
capacitance.
\
Same leaf divergence shows same potential.
Farad
Electrolytic capacitor
Capacitor
~device
Variable capacitor
A capacitor consisting of two sets of
interlocking vanes, often with an air dielectric.
The size of the interlocking area is altered to
change the capacitance .
Variable
capacitor
".__JU--t;==:;......:::..-r~")'~:
:wlectric constant
ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor
a given dielectric to the capacitance of
same capacitor with a vacuum between
plates. The value is thus the factor by
- the capacitance is increased by using
ren d ielectric instead of a vacuum.
- that measur'ing the dielectric against air
produce a very similar result.)
~or,
Variable capacitors
are used in tuning
circuits in radios.
Vanes swivel to
change area
between them.
Leyden jar
A capacitor consisting of a glass jar with foil
linings inside and out. It was one of the first
capacitors invented.
Paper capacitor
A capacitor made with two long foil plates
separated by a thin waxed paper dielectric.
Polyester capacitors are made in a similar way.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric
charge. In metal conductors, the charge which flows
consists of electrons (negatively charged particles see page 83), and these flow because in an electric
field * there is a difference in potential* between two
places. Therefore a potential difference* is needed to
produce an electric current. A circuit is a closed loop,
consisting of a source of potential difference and one
or more components, around which the current flows.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.)
The potential difference* produced by a cell*,
battery* or generator*, w hi ch causes current .
to flow in a ci rcuit. A source of e.m.f. has two
terminals (whe re wires are connected),
between which it maintains a potential
difference. A back e.m.f. is an e.m.f.
produced by a component in the circu it
which opposes the main e.m .f.
Terminal 1
"""'
Source of
e.m.f.
Potent/a/* 1-
e.m.f. =
v, - v,
,...
"""'L rerminal 2
-
Reference
potential
Potential 2
Potential difference'
between two wires
produced by battery*.
1
"""
"""'
____
.. .....................................,__
~--~.-- - --- -
.....
Im
Source of
e.m.f.
Current JA
Im
Potential 1 -
--
'
Potential 2 is zero. _ J
Coulomb
The SI unit* of electric c harge. It is equal to
the amou nt of cha rge:which passes a point in
a conductor if one ampere flows through the
conductor for one second.
Potential abovereference
potential produced by
battery.
*Ammeter, 77; Battery, 68; Calibration, 344; Cell, 68; Electric field,. 58;
Generator, 78; Potential, Potential difference, 58; SI units, 96.
IJerminal).
.. t
Icurrent
+
Filamentlamp
lledrons flow from
point of low potential
'1tegative terminal) to
point of high potential
IP><itive terminal).
IElectron flow
.. t
Electricity supply
Electricity for domestic and industrLal use
is produced at power stations by large
generators*. These produce alternating
current at a frequency of 60Hz.
Alternating current, unlike direct
current, can be easily transformed (see
transformer, page 79) to produce larger
or smaller potential differences*. This
means that high voltages and thus low
currents can be used for transmiss ion,
which considerably reduces power
losses in the transmission cables.
Turbines driven by steam turn
Power
~==::::::::=ill
10and JOkY. ---------:~f',
Step-up transformer at
power station increases
e.m.f. to between--- L _ _J...o'_
100 and 400kV.
_,.,,.~~~
Substatibn reduces e . m . f. ~
t<) between 10and3Qkll
_____I .,..__...,.
lio11ses:
_JLrr==-i
Symbol for
alternating
(
)
e.m.f.
:..
----~
I
Main fuse - wire which
melts if current through
it becomes too large.
~~-
One cycle
Most common
waveform (shape is
sinusoidal) is that
produced by
generators,..
Live
.... .
Ring
main
._
_o;"j:j:::t:::::+==t:~ 1 1~'::::j:F.'nl~
""
Neutral (connected
Fuses
to ground at substation)
Earth (conducts
current away if
fault in appliance)
CONTROLLING CURRENT
The strength of a current flowing in
a circuit depends on the nature of
the components in the circuit as
well as the electromotive force*.
The resistance of the components
and the magnetic and electric fields
they set up all affect the current
in them.
Ohm's law
The current in an object at constant
temperature is proportional to the potential
difference* across its ends. The ratio of the
potential difference to the current is the
resistance of the object. The object must be
at constant temperature for the law to apply
since a current will heat it up and this will
change its resistance (see also filament lamp,
page 64). Ohm's law does not apply to some
_materials, e.g. semiconductors*.
Resistance (R)
The ability of an object to resist the flow of
current. The value depends on the resistivity
of the substance from which the object is
made, its shape and its size. The unit of
resistance is the ohm (il ). Electrons moving
in the object hit atoms and give them energy,
heating the object and using up energy from
the source of electromotive force*.
The rate at which
electrical energy is
changed, because of
resistance, to heat
energy (i.e. the power')
can be calculated thus:
Resistivity (p)
Potential difference* V
Current I
Resistance R
--
:- -,"~
- -
Resistor
Example:
- - 9V battery'
resistance value.
1,1.WCln resistor
.!:'..
R
= - 9-
7,000
or
=
0.009A = 9mA
*Battery, 68; Conductor, 56; Electromotive force (e.m.f.), 60; Insulator, 56;
Potential difference, 58; Power, 9; Reciprocal, 345; Semiconductors, 65.
Conductivity
Wheatstone bridge
------.
Wheatstone bridge
Internal resistance
represented by resistor
symbol in cell*.
v.
Resistances R2;
resistance
R3 and R4
adjusted until
no current flows
through
galvanometer.
_ _____ J
Variable resistor
dev ice whose resistance can be changed
hanically. It is either a coil of wire of a
icular resistivity around a drum along
mich a contact moves (for high currents)
a carbon track with a moving contact. A
lilfiable resistor can be used as a potential
llivider if an extra contact is added. It is then
potentiometer.
L ,
Galvanometer*
v,
R1 is then cp/cu/ated.
Kirchhoff's laws
Two laws which summarize conditions for the
flow of current at an instant. The first states that
the total current flow ing towards a junction is
equal to the total current flowing away from
the junction. The second states that the sum
of the potential differences* around a circuit,
which for each resistor is the product of the
current and the resistance, is equal to the
electromotive force* applied to the circuit.
E.m.f. V
~~~~j;1-~~~~
R,
\'
R1
Potential
difference* V1
Potential
difference V2
--
--
Current I
R,
R,
Filament lamp
Close-up of coiled
Series.
Filament lamp
A lamp
consisting of a
coil of tungsten
wire (the filament)
inside a glass bulb
containing argon or
nitrogen gas at low
pressure. When
current flows through
the coil, it heats up
rapidly and gives out I ight.
Tungsten is used because
it has a very high melting
point and the bulb is
gas-filled to reduce
evaporation of
the tungsten.
Resistors in series
Capacitors in series
Parallel
Low
pressure
gas
Contacts for
current under
base of bulb
Switch
filament
R,
R,
Capacitors in parallel
__
1-C:J-
..
_ .___ _j........-
~----....
Impedance
Inductance
Reactance
The "active" part of impedance to
alternating curre~t*. It is caused by
capacitance* and inductance in a circuit
which alter the electromotive forces* as
the current chan ges.
Alternating potential
difference
lnduct::pacito1r'
_I_
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials whose resistivity* is between that of a
conductor and an insulator (see page 56) and decreases with increasing
temperature or increasing amounts of impurities (see doping, below). They
are widely used Jn electronic circuits (see also page 111 ).
Doping
Diode
A device made from one piece of p-type
(see doping) and one piece of
n-type semiconductor joined together. It has a
very low resistance* in one direction (when it
is said to be forward biased) and a very high
resistance in the other direction (reverse biased).
~miconductor
n-type
....-.~......,.....
semiconductor
,,_ type--e-'7--.n::::;~
_.I
_.I
)f)f
Thermistor
A semiconductor device whose resistance*
varies with temperature, used in electronic
circuits to detect temperature changes.
p-n junction
=niconductor
lifient f l o w - - - -
Half-wave rectification
The use of a diode to remove all the current
iowing in one direction from alternating
mrrent* . Current only flows one way around
~ circuit.
Transistor
A semiconductor, normally made from
a combination of the two types of
semiconductor. There are three con~ections,
the base, collector and emitter (see diagrams
below). The resistance* between the collector
and emitter changes from very high to very
low when a small current flows into the base.
This small base current can therefore be used
to control a much larger collector to emitter
current.
Jlilf-wave rectification
Construction of transistors
Symbols for
transistors
"npn"
transistor
npn
-
Juli-wave rectification
The co nversion of alternating current* to
lirect current*. It is used when direct current
_ requi red from alternating current.
..._wave rectification
~ating
current source
n-type
p-type
Main
current
"pnp" ~Collector
transistor
p-type
Base --,
pnp
n-type
Current
through
resistor
-Emitter
IJ
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is the process whereby
electric current flows through a
liquid containing ions* (atoms
which have gained or lost an
electron* to become charged) and
the liquid is broken down as a
result. The current is conducted by
the movement of ions in the liquid,
and chemicals are deposited at the
points where the current enters or
leaves the liquid. There are a
number of industrial applications.
Electrode
A piece of metal or carbon placed in an
electrolyte through which electric current
enters or leaves during electrolysis. Two are
needed - the anode (positive electrode) and
the cathode (negative electrode). An active
electrode is one which is chemically changed
by electrolysis; an inert electrode is one which
is not changed.
+-
Anode
(positive)
Cathode
(negative)
Electrolyte
Electrolyte
A compound which conducts electricity
when either molten or dissolved in water. All
compounds made from ions or which split
into ions when dissolved (ionization*) are
electrolytes. The concentration of ions in an
e-lectrolyte determines how well it conducts
electricity.
- - Molten electrolyte
Electrolytic - cell
Electrolytic cell
A vessel in which electrolysis takes place. It
contains the electrolyte and the electrodes.
+I
-t---r-~== Carbon electrode
discharge.
Copper ions
preferentially
discharge.
40W~4e
Cu' + 2e-+ Cu
+2H20 + 0 2
Oxygen
bubbles form
on anode.
Sulphate
ions do oot
discharge
~"
,---~
Copper deposited
on cathode.
Hydrogen ions do
not discharge.
Voltameter or coulometer
+-
Ammeter* measures
current - ff current or
length of time for
which it flows is
increased~ then more
copper deposited - see
Faraday's first law.
Hoffmann voltameter
A type of voltameter used for collecting
and measuring the vol umes (and hence the
masses) of gases liberated during electrolysis.
For example, electrolysis of acidified water
produces hydrogen and oxygen in a two to
one ratio (note that this also indicates the
chemical composition of water, i.e. H,0).
.....+---
Hoffmann voltameter
Oxygen--- Cu ->
2e- + Cu"
-
t:npper ions
attracted to,---o--+---r--mthode and
""11osited.
cuo. + 2e -> Cu
At anode:
40H" -> 4e +
2H 20 + 0 2
At cathode:
2W +2e-> H2
One molecule of
oxygen produced
for every four
electrons.
One molecule of
hydrqgen gas
produced for every
two electrons.
Uses of electrolysis
Electroplating or electrodeposition
Metal extraction
to prevent corrosion.
Electro-refining
A method of purifying metals by electrolysis.
Impure metal forms the anode, from whi ch
metal ions move to the cathode and form
pure metal. The impurities fall to the bottom
of the vessel.
Electrolysis of aluminum
ore (aluminum oxide).
electrolyte
Carbon - - - - +
cathode
Aluminum
tapped off
L~ ~
Aluminum ions
discharged at
cathode to form
afuminum atoms. - -- -
--
CELLS AND BATTERIES The Italian scientist Volta first show ed that a
potential difference* exists betw een two d ifferent
metals when they are placed' in certain liquids
(electrolytes*) and therefore that a direct current*
can be produced from chemical energy. This
arrangement is called a cell, electrochemical or
voltaic cell. The potential difference (caused by
chemical changes in the cell) is called an
electromotive force* and its size depends
on the metals used . A battery is two or
more connected eel Is.
Engraving
showing an
experiment
with frog's
legs
Voltaic pile
Polarization
Close-up of a
Voltaic pile
Volta's battery,
known as a Voltaic pile
Cardboard or cloth
/ fL-r---==~- soaked in salt water
Local action.
Polarization and
local action in
a simple cell
simple cell.
I
Simple cell
Two pl ates of diffe re nt metals sepa rated by a
sa lt or acid solution electrolyte* (no rma lly
copper a nd zinc plates and d ilute sul phu ric
acid). The simple cell only produces a n
electromotive force* for a sho rt time before
polarization and local action have a n effect.
Polarization.
Bubbles of hydrogen
gas formed on copper
plate while cell in use.
Local action
Hydrogen ions
(H') from acid
form hydrogen
gas (H,) by
gaining electrons.
Zinc plate
Zinc forms
ions (Znz.; in
solution, leaving
electrons behind.
Plate becomes
negative.
''\'i
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
i
Capacity
Dry cell
Leclanche cell
A. cell in which polarization is overcome by
ma nganese dioxide (a depolarizing agent).
TJ:iis removes hyd rogen more slowly than it
is fo rmed, but conti nues working to remove
excess hydrogen when the cell is not in use.
The cell provides an electromotive force*
of 1 .SV.
,
Zinc rod
leclanche cell
Carbon mrl - - - - - + -.,_..Porous pot - - - - + -n
Glrbon and manganese
Ollide (depolarizing -----~11egent)
Carbon rod
with metal cap
Standard cell
Primary cell
Any cell which has a limited life because the
r:hemicals inside it are eventua lly used up and
cannot be replaced easily.
Secondary cell
Lead-acid accumulator
Alkaline cell
Battery consisting of
lead-acid accumulators
'
,,
+,_
-I= }-
Electromotive force (e.m.f.), 60; Electrolyte, 66; Internal resistance, 63; Series, 64.
MAGNETS
All magnets have a magnetic field* around them, and a magnetic
force* exists between two magnets due to the interaction of their
fields. Any material which is capable of being magnetized (can
become a magnet) is described as magnetic (see ferromagnetic,
below) and becomes magnetized when placed in a magnetic field.
The movement of charge (normally electrons*) also causes
a magnetic field (see electromagnetism, pages 74-76).
temporarily
magnetized.
Pole
Ferromagnetic
Hard
Describes a ferromagnetic material
which does not easily lose its
magnetism after being
magnetized, e.g. steel. Magnets
made from these materials a re
called permanent magnets.
D--U
R -H
Soft
Magnetic axis
as core.s* in electromagnets"".
Magnetic- .
axis
Soft
Susceptibility
..
*Core, Electromagnet, 74; Electrons, 83; Magnetic field, 72;
Magnetic force, 6; Magnetic north, Magnetic south, 73.
A measurement of
the abil ity of a substance to
become magnetized. Ferromagnetic
materials have a high susceptibility.
.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
In a non-magnetized
state, domains are
iumbled. The overall
effect is that the domains
cancel each other out.
In a magnetized state,
domains are ordered. If
ordered completely (as
here) magnet is saturated
- cannot become stronger.
Magnetization
When an object is magnetized, all the dipoles
become aligned (see domain theory). This
only happens when an object is in a magnetic
field* and is called induced magnetism.
Induced magnetism
Magnetic material outside magnetic field.
North end
of dipoles
attracted to south
pole of m agnet - object
becomes magnetized.
Magnetic force
always attracts.
Single touch
A method of magnetizing an object by
stroking it repeatedly with the pole of a
permanent magnet (see hard). Magnetism
is induced in the object from the magnetic
field* of the magnet.
Demagnetization
The removal of magnetis)ll from an object.
This can be achieved by placing the object
in a changing magnetic field*, such as that
created by a coil carrying alternating
current*. Alternatively, the dipoles (see
domain theory, above) can be excited to
point in random directions by hammeri ng
randomly or by heating above 700C.
Self-demagnetization
Loss of magnetism by a magnet because of
the attraction of the dipoles (see domain
theory) for the opposite poles of the
magnet. It is reduced using.pieces of soft
iron (called keepers) arranged to form a
closed loop of poles.
Self-demagnetization of bar magnet
Magnetism induced
by single touch
Dipoles
tend to
turn.
Divided touch
A method of magnetizing an object by
stroking it repeated ly from the center out
with the opposite poles of two permanent
magnets (see hard). Magnetism is induced
in the object from the magnetic field * of
the magnets.
Magnetism induced by divided touch
Consequent
poles are
produced when
- like poles are used
in divided touch.
Reducing self-demagnetization
Poles
induced
in
keepers
attract
'"L_
Keeper
MAGNETIC FIELDS
A magnetic field is a region around a magnet
(see page 70) in which objects are affected
by the magnetic force*. The strength and
direction of the magnetic field are shown
by magnetic field lines.
Magnetic field lines o r flux lines
As the Earth
Neutral point
A point of zero magnetism (the magnetic flux
density is zero). It occu rs where two or more
magnetic fields interact with an equal but
opposite effect. A bar magnet positioned
along the magnetic meridian, with the south
pole* pointing to the north, has two neutral
points in line with its magnetic axis* .
Magnetic
field lines
created by
opposite
poles'
placed
together
No neutral point
Plotting the
magnetic field
lines around a
bar magnet
created by
like poles
placed
. together
\___J
Neutral point
Complete plot of
magnetic field lines
Diamagnetism
(Arrows indicate
direction)
Paramagnetism
Magnetism displayed by some substances
when placed in a strong magnetic field . A
piece of paramagnetic material tends to
concentrate magnetic field lines through it
and lines up with its long side parallel to
them. It is caused by dipoles* movi ng sl ightly
towards alignment.
magnetic south.
Section through
Earth's magnetic
field
Magnetic field
of Earth acts as
if imaginary
magnet at center
with south pole*
pointing to
"'.agnetic north.
Magnetic
equato
_ '_l.J...-l--1-------I
~\.="""'~:::j:::t==::__J
Declination
The angle between a line
taken to true north (the
!'<,
geographic north pole) and
;
This migrating
one taken along the magnetic
tern may use
meridian (towards magnetic . the
Earth's
north) at a point. The position 1 magnetic field
of magnetic north is gradually to guide it.
changing and so the declination
alters slowly with time.
!'
lsogonal lines
Lines join ing places with equal declination.
These are redrawn from time to time
because of the chang ing direction of the
Earth's magnetic field.
Inclination or dip
The angle between a horizontal line on the
Earth's surface and the direction of the Earth's
magnetic field at a point. It is measured using
a dip circle (see picture, below).
Magnetic meridian
The vertical plane containing the magnetic
axis* of a magnet suspended in the Earth's
magnetic field (i.e. with its north pole*
pointing to magnetic north).
-To magnetic north
To geographic north
or true north
This plane is
the magnetic
meridian.
Freely suspended
magnet
Direction of
magnetic field
Horizontal line on
lsoclinal line
A line linking places with the same
inclination.
Permeability
Shielding or screening
-+-t-++-
Magnetic field
concentrated
through iron
Osdlloscope beams
are shielded from
unwanted magnetic
fields by mumetal, a
special alloy with a very
high permeability.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
An electric current flowing through a wire produces a
magnetic field (see pages 72-73) around the wire, the
shape of which depends on the shape of the wire and the
current flowing. These magnetic fields can be plotted in the
same way as for permanent magnets*. This effect, called
d
rf I
Solenoid
Direction of field
Solenoid
Clockwise
curr~nt
~
"'
,, ,, .. ~ Counterclockwise
_ ____:::::::::~~ ~
current looking
_....::;:: :
at end gives
~--..... north pole.
'
i. ""-
looking at
end gives
south pole'.
'I '
Arrowheads on
an S pointina
clockwise direction
(clockwise current
=south pole).
A~
V
Arrowheads on
anNpointinan
counterclockwise direction
(counterclockwise current
=north pole).
Core
the current.
The fingers.point in-the direction of the
magnetic field.
- - -"-._._.;;(",
Electromagnet
A solenoid with a core of soft, strongly
ferromagnetic* material. This forms a magnet
Coil
A number of turns of current-carrying wire,
produced by wrapping the wire around a
shaped piece of material (a former).
Examples are a flat coil and a solenoid.
lJ.
1-a
.-I
J
I g-'-g;-
-"
Electromagnet
formed
from two solenoids
with
cores and iron piece
between ends.
iron
11
ii
Applications of electromagnets
Lifting magnets
Electric buzzer
Relay
Relay
llectric bell
Electromagnet
larphone
device, used to transform electrical signals
: sound waves. The permanent magnet*
jlllracts the metal diaphragm, but the strength
- this attraction is changed as changing
nment (the incoming signals) flows through
- coi ls of the electromagnet. The diaphragm
-us vibrates to produce sound waves.
"Maglev" train
A train with electromagnets attac hed
underneath, which runs on tracks with
electromagnets on them. The magnets
repe l each other, so the train hovers
just above the track. The reduced
friction between the train and
the track means that the
train can travel faster.
Emphone
The word "maglev"
comes from
magnetic
levitation.
M''-------,.L-Side magnets
drive train
forward.
Sound out
Electromagnet
Electromagnets continued
The Lorentz force occurswhen a currentcarrying wire goes through a magnetic field.
A force acts on the wire which can produce
movement. This effect is used in electric
motors, where mechanical energy* is
produced from electric energy*. The effect
can also be used to measure current (see page
77), since the force depends on its magnitude.
Exploded view of a
powerful electric motor
Electromagnet
creates fixed
magnetic
field.
Armature turns
inside field.
Right: a Toshiba
micromotor O.Bmm
(0. 03in) wide.
Field windings
Electric motor
A device which uses the Lorentz force to
t ransform electric energy* to mechanical
energy*. The simplest motor consists of a
current-carrying, square-shaped flat coil*,
free to rotate in amagnetic field (see diagram
below). Motors produce a back e.m.f.*
opposing the e.m .f. which drives them. This is
produced because once the motor starts, it acts
as a generator* (i.e. the movement of the coil
in the field produces an opposing current).
Simple electric motor
Commutator. A ring split into two or more pieces, via which current
enters and leaves the coil' of an electric motor. It ensures that the
current enters the coil in the correct direction to make the motor
rotate in one direction continuously.
Loudspeaker
A device which uses the Lorentz force to
transform electrical signals into sound waves* .
It consists of a coil* in a radial magnetic field
(the direction of the field at any point is along
a radius of this coil). As the current changes,
the coil, which is attached to a paper cone,
moves in and out of the field (see diagram).
The paper cone vibrates the air, producing
sound waves which depend an the strength
and frequency of the current.
Loudspeaker
I .
Chan9m9
current in here
--f-=:=;:,..;llf:-_
ELECTRIC METERS
Current can be detected by placing
a suspended magnet near a wi re
and observing its deflection. This
idea can be extended to produce
a device (a meter) in which the
deflection indicates on a scale the
strength of the current. The current
measuring device can then be
adapted to measure potential
difference*.
Ammeter
A device used to measure current. It is a
version of the moving coil galvanometer,
designed so that a certain current produces a
full scale deflection, i.e. the pointer moves to
its maximum position. To measure higher
currents, a shunt is added (see diagram
below). A larger current now produces full
scale deflection on the new scale.
Ammeter measures
current flawing
A - - ----1
between A and B.
- ----8
Galvanometer
Any device used to detect a direct current*
by registering its magnetic effect. The simplest
is a compass placed near a wire to show
whether a current is present. The moving coil
galvanometer uses the Lorentz force to show
a deflection on a scale (see diagram).
Current_ _ J
divides
Return spring
carries current
Pointer
Voltmeter
A device used to measure the potential
difference* between two points. It is a
galvanometer between the two points with a
high resistance* in series*. A certain potential
difference produces the current for a full scale
deflection (see ammeter). To measure higher
pote ntial differences, a mu ltiplier is added (see
diagram below).
Counterweight
for pointer
l ...J: !
Horseshoe magnet
Grcuit
B
symbol for
voltmeter
Galvanometer
with resistance* in
series* with coil*.
Multimeter
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Michael Faraday found that, as well as a current
passing through a magnetic field producing movement
(see motor effect, page 76), movement of a conductor*
in a magnetic field produces an electromotive force*
in the conductor. This effect, called electromagnetic
induction, happens whenever a conductor is placed
in a changing magnetic field.
Faraday induced
an electromotive
force by rotating ,
a disk (the
conductor*)
near a magnet,
Lenz's law
Fleming's
right-hand rule
of current
Simple generator
Generator or dynamo
A device used to produce electric current
from mechanical energy*. In the simplest
generator (see diagram, right), an alternating
electromotive force is induced in a coil* as
it rotates in a magnetic field. A generator for
direcf currents* has a commutator*, as on
an electric motor*, which means the current
always flows in the same direction.
A bicycle dynamo
contains a coil* of wire
that spins between two
magnets.
Points in direction
Position of coil
Mutual induction
The induction of an electromotive force in
a coil* of wire by changing the current in a
different coil. The changing current produces
a changing magnetic field which induces a
current in any other coil in the field. This was
first demonstrated with Faraday's iron ring.
Faraday's iron ring
Closing or opening switch'
causes change in magnetic field
in ring, which induces current
in secondary circuit.
~
Primary
...::_
circuit
Self-induction
Eddy current
Transformers
Turns ratio
Primary coil
with N 1 turns
and applied
Simple transformer
Soft iron core ~-----
normally laminated to
reduce eddy cu"ents
which cause energy loss
in the form of heat.
e.m.f. V, --~
-=
Secondary
. coil with N,
turns and
=-:,
Step-up t ransformer
A transformer in which the electromotive force
in the secondary coil is greater than that in the
primary coil. The turns ratio is greater than one.
Step-up transformer
Primary coil
Step-down transformer
Secondary coil
The coil* in a transformer in which an
alternating electromotive force is induced
by the electromotive force applied to the
primary coil. Some transformers have two
or more secondary coils.
Primary
coil
~----~
Secondary
coil
CATHODE RAYS
A cathode ray is a continuous stream of electrons (negatively-charged
particles - see page 83) traveling through a low pressure gas or a vacuum.
It is produced when electrons are freed from a metal cathode* and
attracted to an anode*. Cathode rays have a numb~r of appl ications, from
the production of X-rays* to television . All of these involve the use of a
shaped glass tube (called an electron tube) containing a low pressure gas
or a vacuum for the rays to travel in. The rays are normally produced by
an electron gun, which forms part of the tube.
Electron gun
Discharge tube
Cathode
I .
Cathode ray
(stream of
electrons)
Vacuum in
glass tube
Fluorescent*
High voltage
Electrons
attracted
to anode.
Positive ions,..
attracted to
cathode.
screen with
X-ray tube
A special electron tube used to produce a
beam of X-rays*. A cathode ray hits a tungsten
target which stops the electrons suddenly. This
causes X-rays to be emitted.
Low voltage to
heat cathode
High voltage__,
Vertical
magnetic
field (viewed----+-.
from above)
produced by
magnets
above and
below tube.
I
When beam passes
through magnetic field,
it obeys Fleming' lefthand rule*, since it is a
current. (See page 76.)
X-rayS' emitted _
_
Cathode'
Heated cathode
produces elrorons.
Control grid. By
varying voltage
here, number of
efertrons in ray,
and thus
Anodes* accelerate
electrons and focus them into fine ray. _ _ _ _ J
Oscilloscope
controls
Brightness and
focus control see components,
above.
X-shift and
Y-shift. Used
to adjust
horizontal and
vertical position
of whole trace
on screen.
Timebase.
ff switched on,
spot automatically
moves across screen at
speed selected, jumping
bock once it has crossed.
Cutaway television
cathode ray tube
Television
Television pictures are rep roduced by using
an electron tube in which the cathode ray
scans across the screen varyi ng in strength
according to the signaL Diffe rent levels of
light, according to the strength of the ray, are
given off from different parts of the screen to
produce a picture (see diagram on right) .
Extra large
high-definition
televisions (HTDVs)
have more pixels
than ordinary TVs
(see right), so the
picture is sharper.
Ruorescenr saeen
glows where ray hits it,
produdng visible spot This
moves oround screen depending
on deflection of ray produced by
plates. Outside of screen marked
with graduations so that readings
can be taken from it.
signals are
converted.into ~.,-....;.;..,..
three cathode
rays - one for
each primary
co/or* (red, blue
and green).
Varying-- --l'i"- - = - - - - - - ;
current to
magnetic
coils of wire
makes rays
scan screen.
Pixels glow
red, blue and
green when hit
by cathode
rays, making
up a picture.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
A grcal deal has been learned about the physical nature
of atoms (see a lso page 4) since Greek philosophers
first proposed that a ll matter~was made of basic
indivisible "bu ild ing blocks". It is now known that an
atom is not ind ivisible, but has a complex internal
struct ure, consisting of many different smaller particles
(subatomic particles) and a lot of empty space.
Rutherford-Bohr atom
electron shells/.
Rutl'terford-Boh~ atom
model
~
~~
11.f4itt'litrwJo!Je1\J.st
p~(inf;i nr-urn)f1 rl1)C
vet dirro-TIWJ
t ( -
of an electron)
k'.'~'~~~~;!'ff.I~
fn!ply
;pace
I
i\le9aivety-dtarg<t1 - - -- p1ar.e1.s (alt_..)
kept ir. CT"bitJ~ by
eledrk n-e of
0
lrltroction.
Protons
Positively-charged particles in the nucleus.
The number of protons (atomic number)
identifies the element and equals the number
of electrons, so atoms are electrically neutral.
Neutrons
\,
.,
Neutron number (N )
The number of neutrons in a nucleus,
ca lculated by subtracting t he atomic
number from the mass number. See also
graph, page 87.
N~tron {mass
Nudeus - (almost - approximately
all the ma55 af the
lJl~"illL-;;.-'I':
1,840 times that
atom, but very tiny
of an electron)
- its radius is
approximately
,~-..!"'l!li.,.--Proton (mass
1/ 10,oooth that
approximately
of the atom)
1,836 times thot
Mrl,....._..
/~.~';:-,._
Pnr!t1>'<!fy-rnarged "Hm"
(tll!tl"i' nud.>w - thought
neutrons).
Atomic number
(Z) shows thot
six of these are
protons.
23----
Na .......
a
11 -
---
"a
protons.
Electrons
,.,.
First electron
shell (IC shelf)
:- --;,,..:_:.::.:::..-~-- ~'
~
'
has two
-...
....
'
'
'-.,,
'
electrons. --'-'--'-+-~- ~
Nudeus --~:~f~
, +,-+-~--l"--il'iilla
Electron shells
Regions of space around a nucleus
containing moving electrons. An atom
can have up to seven (from the inside,
called the K, L, M, N, 0, P and Q shells).
Each can hold up to a certain number of
e lect.rans (the first four, from the inside,
'ean take up to 2, 8, 18 and 32 electrons
tespectively) .
The further away the shell is from
fhe nucleus, the higher the energy of its
electrons (the shell has a given energy
level). The outer shell is the last shell
with e lectrons in it. If this is full or has
an octet (8 electrons), the atom is very
stable' (see page 85).
The pos itions of e lectrons in their
shells cannot be exactly determined at
any one time, but each shell consists of
orbitals, or probability clouds. Each of
these is a region in which one or two
electrons are likely to be found at any
time (see also ill ustratio n on page 82).
Outer shelf
\\
'
{I.shell) has
four electrons. -~
\:'"\
' ,~,:-"<--'7-'"'..._..,,__.
Three different
orbitals make
up outer shell:
Orbital -~~
of one
electron
(green
area)
Nudeus
Isotopes
6 protons
8 neutrons
6 protons
6 neutrons
I
+
6 electrons
Carbon- 12 or
2 neutrons
12
6 electrons
Carbon-14 or
14
83
Quantum theory
Nuclear force
The strong force which holds the parts of a
nucleus (nucleons*) together and_overcomes
the electric force* of repulsion between the
protons*. Its effect varies according to the
si;(e of the nucleus (see graph, opposite) as
the force only acts between immediately
adjacent nucleons. The greater the attractive
effect of the nuclear force, the higher the
binding energy of the nucleus (i.e. the more
energy was lost when the parts came
together).
Mass defect
The mass of an atom or nucleus is less than
the sum of.the masses of its parts when these
are apart. The difference is the mass defect.
It is the mass of the potential energy* lost
when .the parts came together (see binding
energy, above, and formula, right).
84
Energy carried by
quantum (photon):
.
ll
.
Megaelectron volt (MeV). Unit of nuclear energy,
--
recombinations
i :c.:
n!J~:;d;;/;;;i#~mun -numbei-s*
or B.:f.perl)udeon (see
below).
IJO't~ndergraph,
**
--r-
,
"'flt''
.Lic;:;:;:;~c-~-,
.~
Mass number"'
20 40 60 BO 100120140160 180200220240
As shown, finding
udded (heating
atoms, nuclei
or particles;."
, ,,,,_
~
,,,,
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Bectric force, 6; Electrons, 83; Frequency, 35; Kinetic energy, 9; Mass number, 82; Nucleons, 82 (Nucleus);
l>IHer shell, 83 (Electron shells); Protons, 82; Ultraviolet (UV) radiatio~, 'X-rays, 44; Gamma (y) rays, 44, 86.
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a property of some
unstable nuclei (see pages 82 and
84), whereby they break up
spontaneously into nuclei of other
elements and emit radiation*, a
process kno~n as radioactive decay.
There are three types of radi ation
emitted by radioacti ve elements:
streams of alpha particles (called
alpha rays); streams of beta particles
(beta rays)" and gamma rays. For
more about the detection and uses
of radiation, see pages 88-91 .
Beta
Alpha
Has a range of a
few centimeters
.....
in air.
.........~.............
;'.1 . . .
Absorbed by
thick sheet- - of paper.
Beta particles
(~-particles)
+ +
particles
outwards.
Particles will
hit target.
Radioactive decay
Half-life (T1/2)
Beta decay
'~Atomic
-~
---
-~
:~
(l
---
I '"
Ant/neutrino
Beta particle
(electron)
'
0
;ij . .
:-
--
Beta decay
({J-decay)
Bismuth-212
nucleus
22rt 1r
:/
"'
I/
.. tr I/
tr
208Pb
"
f3-
I .
Thorium -232
. nucleus
212pb
130
132
'-'--
Radium-228
~
nucleus
Alpha ~article
2#ij1Th
134
136
'--
~Ra + ~He
I I
I
138
Alpha
particle
1 "
I
128
..
>1
')
208fl
126
.'\
'v'
' flfllll/!I'
-
I/
:/
tr
'"Ra
220Rn
216f>o
21281
22Ac
()
232fh
224Ra
Polonium212 nucleus
212Po
(~-decay)
140
Neutron
number"' . _
I
142
' N
Radioactive substances
Background radiation
Ionization
Radiation present on
Earth (in relatively small
~mounts), originating
both from natural and
unnatural sources. One
Plants, rocks and
notable natura-1--source is
animals contain
carbon-14, which is taken
carbon-14, a natural
in by plants and animals.
source oftadiation.
This is constantly being
produced from stable nitrogen-14 due to
bombardment by cosmic rays (cosmic
radiation) entering the atmosphere
from outer space. These are
streams of particles
of enormously
high energy.
Unnatural
sources of
radiation
include industry,
medicine and
weapons testing.
The background
count is a
measure of the
background
radiation.
Particle bounces
off atom.
I ,?'
--"
~
Electrons "knocked
out" to become
A Geiger counter, used
for measuring the
background.count.
..
Alpha partlde*
I
Cation formed
free electrons.
~..........
Detection devices
Dosimeter or film badge
A device worn by all who work with
rad ioactive material. It contains photographic
film (which radiation will darken). This is
developed regularly and the amount_of
darkening shows the dose of radiation the
wearer has been exposed to.
Geiger counter
A piece of apparatus (see picture, page 88)
consisting of a Geiger-Mi.iller tube, a scaler
and/or ratemeter and often a loudspeaker.
The tube is a gas-filled cylinder with two
electrodes* - its walls act as the catho,de*,
and it has a central wire anode*. The .whole
apparatus indicates the presence of radiation
Geiger counter
1. Radiation
enter; via thin
window.
3. Ions attracted to
cathode, electrons
to anode.
2. Each particle or
ray Ionizes several
gas atoms.
source
Wire
Cyfincfer wa{(s
form cathode.
anode,.
To loudspeaker. Clkks with
each pulse (irregular
...;:i.;.;..---1.,;,
""'~"='~~""'-~~w...;:Y
intervals show randomness
of radioactive decay').
1. Radiation from
f/1/ran=
each pulse
further
radioactive source
ionizes air in chamber.
Chamber walls
- - - form cathode'.
.--+.t----+- Side
anode'
2. Avalanche of ions
and electrons' formed
(see Geiger counter).
Camem~ Glass
Supersaturated
vapor
.------------~
r ~o:
s
T .. :::
.. :
Ligh/ source .
!
Dark w~
Felt pad
soaked in
alcohol/
water
r .< ,
Light source
Dry ice
Sponge
--
.. --\
\.
-,,,~~~~~~~~.=1
-----... - ----
Dark screen
-.
Bubble chamber
Scintillation counter
1. Radiation
from source
makes
crystal emit
light
electrons* Electrons
when hit by
light flashes.
Alpha particles, Beta particles, 86; Diffusion, 5; Electrons, 83; Gamma rays, 86;
Ionization, 88; Phosphors, 44 (PhosphoFescence); Radioactive decay, 8 7.
accelerated to far
end by electric
field, hitting
metal plates and
releasing more
electrons.
4 . Strong pulse
of current hence
produced for
each original
gamma ray*.
This is shown on
scaler and/or
ratemeter (see
Geiger counter,
page 89).
Radiotherapy
The use of the radiation emitted by
radioisotopes* to treat disease. All living
cells are susceptible to radiation, so it is
possible to destroy malignant (cancer) cells
by using carefully controlled doses of
radiation.
This patient is
undergoing external
beam radiotherapy,
where t/]e radiation is
emitted from a machine
outside the body. Some
lypes of cancer can be
lrroted by radioactive
implants inserted into
the body.
Radioactive tracing
A method of following the path of a
Irradiation
Food, such as fruit and meat
can be irradiated with
gamma rays*. The radiation
delays ripening in fruit and
vegetables, and destroys
bacteria in meat, enabling
it to keep fresh for longer.
containing
radioisotope
takes
mdi;,gmpb..
NUCLEAR FISSION
AND FUSION
The central nucleus of an atom (see
page 82) holds vast amounts of "stored"
energy (see pages 84-85). Nuclear fission
and nuclear fusion are both ways in which this
energy can be released. They are both nuclear
reactions (react ions which bring about a
change in the nucleus).
Nuclear fission
The process in which a heavy, unstable
nucleus splits into two (or more) lighter
nuclei, roughly eq ual in size, with the release
of two or three neutrons* (fission neutrons)
and a large arnount of energy (see also page
84). The two lighter nuclei are called fission
products or fission fragments and many of
them are radioactive*. Fission is made to
happen (see induced fission) in fission
reactors* to produce heat energy. It does not
often occur naturally (spontaneous fission).
Induced fission of uranium-235
nucleus formed.
I . .. .
Neutron
collides with
U nucleus.
235
136
U nucleus
undergoes---
fission.
neutrons
;. Fission products
lanthanum-148 and
bromine-85 formed (other
pairs of nuclei of
similar mass may
be formed
instead).
- I released
Energy
(see
released.---~-------~-
page 84).
Spontaneous fission
Nuclear fission whkh occurs naturall y, i.e.
withoutassistance from an outside agency.
This may happen t9 a nucleus of a heavy
element, e.g. the isotope* uranium-238, but
the probabil ity is very low compared to that
of a simpler process like alpha decay*
occurring instead.
Alpha decay, 87; Fission reactor, 94;
Isotopes, 83; Ne utrons, 82; Radioa ctivity, 86.
Mushroom-shaped cloud
from the explosion of a
fission bomb.
Induced fission
Nuclear fission of a nucleus made unstable by
artificia l means, i.e. by being hit by a particle
(often a neutron*), which it then absorbs. Not
all nuclei can be induced to fission in this
way; those which can, e.g. those of the
isotopes* uranium-235 and pluton ium-239,
are described as fissile. If there are lots of
fissile nuclei in 'a substance (see also thermal
and fast reactor, page 95), the neutrons
released by induced fissions will cause more
fissions (and neutrons), and so on. This is
known as a chain reaction. A well-controlled
chain reaction is allowed to occur in a fission
reactor*, but that occurring in a fission bomb
is uncontrolled and extremely explosive.
Induced fission causing
a chain reaction
Neutron *
fission.
causes
Neutrons
produced
cause more
fissions.- --", "1111. ,
Subcrltical mass
Critical mass
Critical mass
The minimum mass of a fissile substance
needed to sustain a chain reaction (see
induced fission). In smaller subcritical masses,
the surface area to volume ratio is too high,
and too many of the neutrons* produced by
the first fission s escape into the atmosphere.
Nuclear fuel is kept in subcritical masses.
~"-Neutron
Small surface
area (compared . .
~
to volume)
Lorge surface
area (compared
....to volume)
~ -
Nuclear fusion
The coll ision and combinatio n of two light
nucle i to form a heavier, more stable nucleus,
with the re lease of large amounts of energy
(see also page 84). Unl ike nuclear fission, it
does not leave radioactive* products. Nuclear
fusion requires tempe ratures of millions of
degrees Celsius, to g ive the nuclei enough
kinetic energy* fo r them to fuse when they
co llide. (Because of the high temperatures,
fusion reactio ns are also called thermonuclear
reactions.) It therefore o nly occurs naturally in
the Sun (and stars like it), but research is being
carried out with the aim of achieving
controlled, induced fusion in fusion reactors*.
Deuterium
nucleus - - - .
(hydrogen
isotope)
...
....
Solar flare (jet of gas
showing
fusion
activity).
Energy
released (see
page 84).
~H
+ fH
~ ~He
6n
+ energy
No resulting
chain reaction
WARNING:
Never look
directly at the
Sun; you may
be blinded.
Electricity
--:"+"
ltj l
. cylinders
1 r
. 1
l! w;I !
l
neutrons* and
hence slowing
reaction). Set at
certain depth to
maintain chain
reaction* at
constant rate, but
can be lowered or
raised to absorb more
or fewer neutrons.
Cold coolant'
recirculates.
(~t!rlt
Water recirculates.
Separate circuit of
cold water used to
condense steam
back ta water.
Fusion reactor
A type of nuclear reactor, being
researched but as yet undeveloped, in
which the heat would be produced by
nuclear fusion*. This would probably be
the fusion of the nuclei of the hydrogen
isotopes* deuterium and tritium - known
as the D-T reaction (see picture, page 93).
There are several major problems to be
overcome before a fusion reactor becomes
a reality, but it would produce about four
times as much energy per unit mass of fuel
as a fission reactor. Also, hydrogen is
abundant, whereas uranium is scarce, and
dangerous and expensive to mine.
-+ To turbine
'?====;-=:;:;:;:='+---- From
turbine
Inner steel
shield
Steel vessel
fiJel cylinders
Graphite
moderator
Pressurized carbon
dioxide coolant
Pipes connected to steam
generator and turbine
Fast reactor
r--+-------+
Control rods
Steel vessel
Se[ond,
separate,
sodium
++9-1._,r;-+ circuit
Concrete
shield
Fuel
cylinders
Sodium
coolant'
Basic SI units
Basic quantities
A set of quantities from which all other
quantities (see derived quantities) can be
defined (seetable, be.l ow). Each basic quantity
has its basic SI unit, in terms of which any
other SI unit can be defined.
Kilogram (kg)
The SI unit of mass. It is equal to the mass of
an international prototype metal cylinder kept
at Sevres, near Paris.
Second (s)
Basic quantity
Symbol
Basic SI unit
Abbreviation
kg
Mass
kilogram
Time
second
Length
meter
Current
ampere
Temperature
kelvin
Quantity of
substance
mole
mol
candela
cd
Luminous
intensity
Prefixes
.A given SI unit may sometimes be too large
or sm-all for convenience, e.g. the meter is too
lf).rge.Jpr measuring the thickness of a piece of
pa per. Standard fractions and multiples of the
SI units are therefore used and written by
placi ng' a prefix before the unit (see table
b.elovy). For eX:arnple, the rnillimeter (inm) is
e{jUiJ.J to one thousandth of a meter.
Meter (m)
The SI unit of length. It is equal to the distance
light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792;1ss of
a second.
Ampere (A)
The SI unit of electric c urrent (see also page
60). It is equal to the size of a current flowing
through parallel, infi nitely long, straight wires .
in a vacuum that produces a force between
the wires of 2 x 1o-7 N every meter.
Kelvin (K)
The SI unit of temperature. It is equal to 1/m 16
of the temperature of the triple point of water
(the. point at whic h ice, water and steam can
all exist at the same time) on the absolute
temperature scale*.
Mole (mol)
Fraction or multiple
Prefix
Symbol
10-
nano-
10-
micro-
1o-'
mi/Ii-
10-2
centi-
10-1
deci
101
deea-
de
10'
hecto-
JO'
kilo-
106
mega-
giga-
10 9
..
96
Candela (cd)
The SI unit of intensity of Iight. It is equal to the
stre ngth of light from %00,000 square meters of a
black body* at the temperature of freezing
platinum and at a pressure of 101,325N m2
Derived quantities
Quantities other than basic quantities which are defined in terms of these or in terms of other
derived quantiti es. The derived quantities have derived SI units which are defined in terms of
the basic SI units or other derived units. They are determined from the defining equation for
the quantity and are sometimes given special names.
Derived quantity
Symbol
Defining equation
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
Work
Energy
Capacity to do work
Power
Area
Volume
change in displacement
time
change in velocity
time
mass x acceleration
Derived SI unit
ms-1
ms-2
Name of unit
Abbreviation
kg ms'
newton
Nm
I
I
joule
Is
watt
Depends-on shape
(see page 101)
m'
Depends on shape
(seepage 101)
m'
Density
mass
volume
kgm'
Pressure
farce
Nm-2
pascnl
Pa
Period
Frequency
hertz
Hz
.Impulse
Impulse
Ns
Momentum
Momentum
kg ms'
Electric charge
Q = current x time
As
coulomb
Potential diff;erence
v=
Jc-'
volt
Capacitance
c=
CV-'
farad
Resistance
VA-'
ohm
farce x distance
work done
time
area
farr:e x time
mass x velodty
energy transleJTed
charge
charge
potential difference
potential differeQCe
rurrent
97
Equations
An equation represe nts the relationship
betwee n two or more physica l quantities.
This relationship can be expressed as a word
equation or as an equation relating symbols
which re present the quantities. The latter is
used when a number of qua ntities a re involved,
since it is then easier to ma nipulate. Note that
the mea ning of the symbols must be stated.
Symbol equation
Q = m
x c x (t2-t1) or Q = mc(t2-t1)
Graphs
A'graph is a visual representation of the
relationship between two quantities. It
shows how one quantity de pends on
another. Points on a graph are plotted using
y -i;ixis
--~-------
---T----
--------~-------'---
-----+---------1-------1~
i
:
'
---r------:~---r - -
'
--,.---.. ---,L __
___:____.i _ __
:----r----;---i---- ----7---i-----ii
!
_i_J__J__ _;_~_j__'
f------~-----~.i--------
----T6radlhtt;-f/ie-rate-df-chan~eof---J--------'
___ _
'
__. __
--------------
y-~ntercept.
'
LI Y
Llxj___j_ ---~'-
Wnich the:
I
!
_______,__ r_____;_ ---t'
; r-----+-
________
;
:
-----;----:
--
---+-----
------~-
oepenC!eilfvari"ble.
------,--------!------
-----..-----~:----- --i-------+---~----
'
gr9ph cro~ses
-- t1rrv"'xis:t - -
---------
(:~_a;~":T~~-:~";_
_~---
.iraxls
+--------1
l
1--;--
x-lnterce/,t.
O'lgin. rbe point at i
[
j
!
jlndep~ndent~ varia~le. [
I
j ,
------ ~ -----Th~point;at-- -----w/iich-thefquanti~es----r-----:-----i- ----T---T------';f11e--qtiantity-r}hanger'f-by-the----+--+-;
which thet
pl1tted o~ the axes
I
!
i
iexperirj?entor ~uring \he
!
:
.---------L----9!~cr_qh~____C!!~_both_!'.O" ---i------f---------4-- ;-----+--~---__;.e_xp~j_rji!'_~~i!J."..c.\'use. ! _______Ti_ _ _
~ __
th~ x-axis;
1
I
:
,
1
:
'
,
: Plotted along the x-axis.
:
'
'
I
,
Symbols
Symbols are used to represent physical
quantities. The value of a physi cal quantity
consists of a numerical value and its unit.
Therefore any symbol represents both a
number and a unit.
$ymbols represent number and unit, e .g.
m = 2.1 kg1 ors = 400J kg-1 K-1
"Current through resistor = I" (i.e. it is not
necessary to say I amps since the unit is
included).
--+---~
Plotting graphs
1. The quantity
controlled during an
experiment should be
p lotted along the
"
---~----------
x-axis
_'le/g_dtyJmx.1 ____
____________ _
-~----?5- ------------~--------
"
f----..------O-------t--~-~ --
x
-- --4. Points on the graph
should be marked in
Time/s
penc;il with axor a :: . ~-------------~
~-----------~~---
5; Asmooth curve or
J{elo.cityf.msc_l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - i
straight line should be
drown which best fits
thepoints (this is
because physical
IJL!Ontities are nonnafly
related in some definite J-->-- --"way). Note that joining
thepoints up will not
often produce a smooth
curve. This is due to
e)(Rerimental errors.
Time/ s
--. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - !
---s - -
c-
--
---
-- -
-----
-~-r--
--
99
MEASUREMENTS
Measurement of length
The method used to measure a length
depends on the magnitude of the length .
A meter ruler is used for lengths of 50mm
or more. The smallest division is normally
1 mm and so lengths can be estimated to
the nearest O:Smm. For lengths less than
50mm, the error involved would be
unacceptable (see also reading error, page
103). A vernier scale is therefore used. For
the measurement of very small lengths (to
0.01 mm) a micrometer screw gauge is
used (see opposite).
Vernier scale
A short scale which slides along a fixed
scale. The position on the fixed scale of the
zero line of the vernier scale can be found
accurately. It is used in measuring devices
such as the vernier slide callipers.
~(.
Vernier
scale
10
Fixed scale
9cm
Method of measurement:
measurement
'Uwlli'_J
I
Fixed scale
1 00
OVET"!i51htrnin9J
Fixed
Method of measurement:
1. Determine the value of a
division on the sp ind le scale
(see diagram).
graduations on
the spindle equals
O.Smm, so each
isO.Olmm).
Beaker
Rectangular bar
Surface area A
calculated from
Sphere
V = lwh
v = 4/,,,;r3
__.;
r = radius
Top
Surette
h = height
W = Width
I = length
Volume V of solid
calculated from
.,____
II
Measuring
cylinder
Ends
A = 4nr2
f:;;::;
radius
I= length
A = brr/ + brr'
Cwved surface
Ends
101
Parallax error - - - ~
- 1eodiag 31 .4 0
1'-
~
, - - - - - Parallax error
"'1
30
31
- reading 31.50
'
"
'
'
'
32
- -- -- Object being
measured
To avoid parallax errors, readings
of liquid levels must be taken
with the eye lined up with the
top or bottom of the meniscus'.
Zero error
The error which occurs when a measuring
instrument does not indicate zero when it
should. If this happens, the instrument
~p !, , , "" '",,,.,,I
I
10
20
30
40
50
Reading error
The error due to the guesswork involved
in taking a-reading fro m a scale when the
reading lies between the scale divisions.
Reading on thermometer is between 36.Bc and 36.9C Best -- -- -- -estimate of next figure is half a division to give a reading of
36. 85C.
Significant figures
The number of significant figu res in a value
is the number of fi gures in that value
ignoring leading o r-trai ling zeros (but see
below) and disregarding the position of the
decimal point. They give an indication of
the accuracy of a read ing.
A reading of 3704mm has four significant
figures. ft can be written -as:
-G704mm
3.704m
1st
significant
figure
' - - - --
0.003 701km
,
-'--
Rounding
The process of reducing the number of
figures quoted. The last significant figure is
dropped and the new last figure changed
depending on the one dropped.
7.3925
=7.393
=7.39
7.4
=7
4th
significant
figure
Note that the leading zeros here are not significant figures
but show the magnitude of the reading.
The number of significant figures quoted is an indication of the
accuracy of a reading or result.
0.08873
=0.0887
=0.089
=0.09
29 .OOO
=29.0
=29
= 30
Me niscus, 345.
103
Gravitational force
( ee atso pages 6 and 18}
Force acts betwee ~ two objects with mass. It
is always attractive .
Type of force
Note that a fort e car:) '.Qp-ly_.exist between
tWo masses, c h<irges o r currents, and that
tbl:l .Si~e Qf the force is the Sclrne On both of
them (see atso Newton's third law, page
1 1)_ Note also tha t the fo rces o-nly act
between objects wh!dr are the same, e.g.
there is a force between two masses, but
not between a mass ah_d a current.
I
Description of force in terms of
force field
Tl-1~ force field is the (egfoii around
.an objed :(-riJass, c har8e or curre nt) in
wmch its eff~cts (gravitational, electric
or magnetic) can ide detected - see
q_(sq page $'.
Field direction
Force on mass
104
Gravitational constant, 18
( Newton'o. lew of ~r6lttlon}
,. -
Magnetic force
b
~ -q
-- --j,"
F
+q,
In ai r KE= 9 x 10 9 Nm 2
I,
+q
c-2
In air K8
Point in field
q,
a'od 7 ())
and 5,8}
Point in field
I,
Positive
charge
- -, -:...-;-=--'\'=----_._.,;
Force on
charge
of force
of field
105
Gravitational force
To measure the fi e ld intensity g of a
gravitational fi e ld due to a mass m, at a
po int P, a test mass m is placed at P a nd th e
gravitationa l fo rce F on it is meas ured. Then :
Field intensity
This is fond by measuring the effect of
the force field on an object (mass, charge
or current) placed in i(
oflL~~
~~
106
Uniform gravitational
field (e.g. near surface
of planet)
Gravitational potential
decreases as po int moves
alo ng fiel d line in d irection
of fi eld (in direction of a rrow) .
Grav itational potenti a l
higher at P, than P,.
P2
Electric force
"
Magnetic force
Charge
El~ctric
potenti al decreases
in direction of field (in
direction of arrow) .
Electric pote ntial higher
at point P1 than at P2
P2
Non-uniform field
..
..
Magnetic field lines, 72.
Tangent to field
fine at
Direction of
field at P
r-P_..~,-----
107
Parallelogram rule
Vector quantity
Any quantity which has both magnitude and
direction, e.g. force, displacement, veloc ity
and acceleration. When giving a value to a
vector quantity, the direction must be given in
some way as well as"the magnitude. Usually,
the quantity is represented graphically by an
arrowed line. The length of the line indicates
the magnitude of the quantity (on some
chosen scale) and the direction of the arrow
indicates the direction of the quantity.
(vector quantities).
30N
Scale is 7cm =
70 newtons
Length indicates
magnitude of force.--- -
Velocity of tide
'
Forces act in
opposite directions.
Velocity of boat in water
Resolution
The process of splitting one vector quantity
into two other vectors called its components.
Normally, the two componerits are
perpendicular to each other. Each component
then represents the total effect of the vector
in that direction.
Lift (vector quantity)
from rotor of
hel icopter can be
resolved into two
components. The first
acts upwards, in order to
keep it airborne, and the
second acts forwards,
to move it along.
First (;tl'1'1po11'flt
is upward force
(Fx sine' e)
- - - UftF
Second component
is forward force
='"'11~!!!-~ -- (F x cosine' e)
NUMBERS
Very large or very small numbers (e.g. 10 OOO OOO or 0.000 001) take
a long time to write out and are difficult to read. The exponential
notation is therefore used. In this notation, the position of the decimal
point is shown by writing the power ten is raised to.
1 OOO OOO
100 OOO
10 OOO
I OOO
100
10
I
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.000 01
0.000 001
= 106
=I D'
= 10'
= 10 3
= 102
= 10 1
= 10
= 70-1
= lo-2
= 70-J
= lo-'
= 10-'
= 10-<
or
or
or
or
"ten
"ten
"ten
"ten
to
to
to
to
the minus
the minus
the minus
the minus
one"
two"
three"
four"
Scientific notation
56 342
4 OOO
569
23.3
0.98
0.00211
Order of magnitude
A value which is accurate to within a factor
of ten or so. It is important to have an idea
of the order of magnitude of some physical
q uantities so that a figure which has been
5.6342 x 10
4 x 103 (assuming Os are not significant)
2
5.69x10
2.33x10 1
9.8 x 10- 1
2. 11 x 70-3
Mass/kg
Earth
Car
Human
Bag of sugar
Orange
Golf ball
Table tennis ball
Proton
Electron
6 x 10
5x10 3
5x10 1
Item
Time/s
Age of Earth
Time since emergence of man
Human life time
Time span of year
Time span of day
Time between heart beats
Camera shutter speed
Half-life of polonium-214
Time for light to travel Im
24
I
2 x 10-1
5 x 10-2
2 x 10-3
2x10- 21
70-JO
17
2 x I0
10 13
2x10 9
3 x 10 7
9 x 104
1
1o-2
1.5x10-'
3 x 70- 9
Item
Length/m
10 19
10 11
5x10'
10
2
lo-'
5 x 10-7
70-10
10-1
Item
Energy/J
1026
3 x 10 17
10 11
109
4x 106
20
ftn scientific work, the convention is to print numbers up to 9999 closed up and without a comma. In numbers above this, small spaces are
used to make the numbers easier to read at a glance. In non-technical writing, the convention is to add commas to numbers with four or more
figures. The latter style is predominantly used in this book.
CIRCVIT SYMBOLS
This table shows the main symbols used to represent the various
components used in electric circuits (see also pages 60-65).
Wire~
crossed
Wires joined
++
Terminals
Connection ta earth
---0
- ---o
-oJ"oCapacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Variable capacitor
Resistor
or
1-
-t.__ __ _....
Variable resistor
Potentiometer
~
Diode
_..,
;.,
Galvanometer
Light emit,!1ng
diode
-..1
Ammeter
-0- -0Milliammeter
Voltmeter
---9- -0""'"~
Bulb
-0-
//
'-A.A.AAA.Ar
'-A.A.AAA.Ar
I-
I-
Thermistor
" "-
-l
I-
Transformer
'-A.A.AAA.Ar
...rYVVVVV'\...
Relay
'-A.A.AAA.Ar
___.--9---Amplifier
R"&a
transistor
-I
-t
Speaker
crJ
Inverter (NOT gate)
AND gate
Microphone
[O
OR gate
DNANO gate
0- D
f:
Iii
/!
ii
11
ll
i~
'I
!I
:I
I!I
I
Logic gates
Computers
A personal computer
with a CPU, monitor,
keyboard and mouse
NOT
yoT
Input
Output
OR
OR
NANO
NOR
Inputs
Output
Inputs
Output
;J>OR
; D-NOR
;D-ANb
; [)-NANO
ROM
RAM
CPU
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
Substance
Densityf /
10 3 kg m3
Young's
modulus/
1010 N m-2
Specific heat
capacityf I
I kg-1 K-1
Specific latent
heat of fusion
I 101 kg-1
Linear coefficient of
expansion I
10-K-1
Thermal
conductivity
/W m1 K-1
Aluminum
2.10
7.0
908
40.0
25
242
Antimony
6.62
7.8
210
16.5
11
19
Arsenic
5.73
335
Bismuth
Brass
9.78
8.6
(approx)
6.0
3.2
112
5.5
14
9.0
389
19
109
Cadmium
8.65
5.0
230
5.5
30
96
Cobalt
8.70
435
24.0
12
93
Constantan
8.90
420
16
23
Copper
8.89
11.0
385
20.0
16
383
19
Gallium
5.93
377
Germanium
5.40
324
8.0
128
6.7
Gold
19.3
5.7
14
34
59
300
Resistivity t
/10-Bpm
2.61
44
33.3
117
8 (approx)
6.4
49
1.12
17.4
4.6 x 10
2.20
135
59
5.2
Iron (cast)
1.60
11.0
460
21.0
12
71
10.3
Iron (wrought)
7.85
21.0
460
21.0
12
71
10.3
1.6
127
2.5
29
36
20.6
4.1
'iridium
Lead
22.4
17.3
6.5
4.24
1,030
30.0
26
154
Mercury
13.6
139
1.2
12
.9
95.9
Molybdenum
10.1
301
142
5.7
21.0
456
29.0
13
59
6.94
12
74
10.7
71
10.5
Magnesium
Nickel
1.14
8.80
Palladium
12.2
247
15.0
Platinum
21.5
17.0
135
11.S
Selenium
4.79
324
35.0
Silicon
(amorphous)
2.35
11.3
706
7.7
234
10.5
22.0
450
Silver
Steel (mild)
10.5
7.80
5.0
9.0
26
2.5
0.24
175
10 12 (approx)
10 10 (approx)
19
414
12
46
15 (approx)
56
13.4
1.63
Tantalum
16.6
19.0
751
Tellurium
6.2
201
17
so
Tin
7.3
5.3
225
5.8
23
63
11.4
19.3
39.0
142
4.3
185
5.5
4,200
33.4
33.4
387
10.S
11
Tungsten
Water
1.00
Zinc
1.10
8.0
t Density, specific heat capacity and resistivity all change with temperature.
6.5
0.2
111
1.6 x 105
5.92
Useful constants
-
~~~
Q antity
Symbol
Value
2.998
1.602
9 .109
1.673
Charge on electron
Mass of eleotron
me
Mass of proton
mp
Mass of neutron
mn
Avogadro's number
NA
Faraday's constant
Gravitational co n s~a nt
Gas constant
x 1O"m
s~'
19
x 1 o- C
x 10-31 kg
x 1 o-27 kg
1.675 x 1 o-27 kg
6.023 x 1023 mo J-1
9.65 x 10c mo J6.670 x 10-11 N m kg-2
8.314J mo l-1 K-1
Value
9.81 m s-2
Density of water
Density of mercury
Ice point (standard temperature)
273K
373K
Steam p0 int
1.01 x 10 5 Pa
8.64 x 104 s
1~
1~
1~
1~
1~
..
;>
lot&a-n:d
~'(i-Ms
~ ~ --m
~~a~th>h-.-
w;ed (Qt'
~tov~wt.i u:xJ,'<J
:i
C111nlfla-r11ys*
o"
10'
10
19
Ratlio
10 18
10
17
70 16
10 15
10 14
10 11
10 12
10 11
10 10
10 9
10
wat'fl '
70 1
10 6
10 5
10 3
Hertz
<II
Increasing frequency'
Electromagnetic spectrum, 44; Frequency, 35; Gamma rays, 44; Infra-red radiation, 45;
lllicrowaves, Radio waves, 45; Ultraviolet radiation, 44; Visible light, 45; Wavelength, 34; X-rays, 44.
I
'
,,
I
II
CHEMISTRY
'
ABOUT CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the study of the e lements which form all existing
substances. It covers their structure, how they combine to create
other substances and how they react under various cond itions . In
this book, chemistry is divided into five co lor-coded sections.
The areas covered by these sections are explained below.
Physical chemistry
Organic chemistry
Inorganic
chemistry
Environmental
chemistry
General chemistry
information
Charts and tables of
properties, symbols and
. means of identification,
plus informatio n on
apparatus, preparations,
tests and forms of
chemical analysis.
CONTENTS
Physical chemistry
Organic chemistry .
118
119
120
122
190
192
193
194
124
126
128
130
135
138
140
142
144
146
148
150
153
156
158
160
162
Physical chemistry
Properties and changes
States of matter
Elements, compounds and
mixtures
Atoms and molecules
Atomic structure
Radioactivity
Bonding
Crystals
Measuring atoms
Representing chemicals
Gas laws
Solutions and solubility
Energy and chemical reactions
Oxidation and reduction
Acids and bases
Salts
Electrolysis
Reactivity
Rates of reaction
Reversible reactions
Inorganic chemistry
164
166
167
168
170
172
174
176
177
178
180
183
184
186
189
196
198
260
202
204
Organic chemistry
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
More homologous series
Alcohols
Petroleum
Polymers and plastics
Detergents
Food
Environmental
chemistry
206
208
210
Water
Air and burning
Pollution
General chemistry
information
211
212
214
216
21 8
220
222
223
226
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical chemistry is the stud y of
the patte rn s of chemical behavior in
chemical reactions under various
conditions, whic h result from the
chemical and physical properties of
substances. Much of physical
chemistry invo lves measurements of
some kind. In the ph ys ical chemistry
section of this book you can find
out about the following areas:
1. Solids, liquids and gases, the changes
between these states and the reasons for
these changes in relation to the structure of
a substance. (See states of matter, pages 120121, kinetic theory, page 123 and gas laws,
pages 142-143 .)
Liquid
11 8
* Litmus, 152.
Structure of a
sodium atom
Measuring re/alive
atomic mass
....
.. -._..
5. Representing chemicals
and ch emical reactions
(see representing chemicals,
pages 140-141 ).
Both these ways of representing an
ethene molecule show that there are two
carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms.
6. How substances
mix (see solutions
and solubility,
pages 144-145).
Molecular
formula of
ethene
~ ~
W
Salt~
Salt is soluble - it
dissolves in water to
leave a clear solution.
Chemicals on a
match burn when
they read with
phosphorus on
the box.
Electrolysis of copper
Physical change
Qualitative properties
__)
Solid
Liquid
Gas
i
'
11
,.
Chemical properties
Properties which cause specific
behavior of substances during
chemical reactions.
Chemical properties depend on
electron configuration, bonding,
structure and energy changes.
Chemical reaction
Any change which alters the chemical
properties of a substance or which forms a
new substance. During a chemical reaction,
products are formed from reactants.
smell
Taste
Co/or
Quantitative properties
Properties which can be measured and given
a specific mathematical value, e .g. me lting
lJOint, boiling point, mass*, solubility* and
density*. Other examples are shown below.
Some quantitative properties used to describe substances
Reactants
The substances present at the begi nning of a
chemical reaction.
Products
The substances formed in a chemical reaction.
The rusting of iron is a chemical reaction. The reaction is quite slow
- many reactions are much faster.
Rust is the product.
Iron (makes up
nearly all of steel)
Water
Oxygen
Rust*
Reagent
Hardness (depends
on bonding and
structure)
Conductivity of electricity
(depends on whether
charged particles can m ove)
Bonding, 130; Conductivity, 63; Density, 24; Ductility, 344 (Ductile); Electron configuration, 127;
Malleability, 345 (Malleable); Mass, 12; Rust, 174; Rusting, 209 (Corrosion); Solubility, 145.
119
STATES OF MATTER
A substance can be solid, liquid
or gaseous. These are the physical
states or states of matter (normally
shortened to states). Substances
can change between states, normally
when heated or cooled to increase or
decrease the energy of the particles
(see kinetic theory, page 123).
**
Solid state
Changes of state
Liquid state
DO
Molten
Describes the liquid
state of a substance
which is a solid at
room temperature.
Solid wax
becomes
molten
when
heated.
Gaseous state
Solidification
critical temperature.
Phase
A separate part of a mixture of substances with
different physical and chemical properties. A
mixture of sand and water contains two
phases, as does a mixture of oil and water.
Fluid
A substance that will flow, i.e. is in either the
1 20
** ,/ **
Melting
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Freezing
Evaporation
volatile*.
In rainforests where it is
warm, raindrops quickly
evaporate to form water
vapor in th~ air.
Fusion
The change of state from solid to liquid of a
substance which is solid at room temperature
and pressure. The substance is described as
fused (or molten). A solid that has been fused
and then solidified into a different form is also
described as fused.
Fusion of sulfur
Liquefaction
A change of state from gaseous (gas)
to liquid, of a substance which is a
gas at room temperature and pressure.
It is caused by cooling (to form a
vapor) and increasing pressure.
Some gases are liquefied for transport.
Powdered
sulfur
Fused su/fur -+-~
(new solid form)
Boiling
A change of state from liquid to gaseous
(vapor) at a temperature called the boiling
point (see also pages 212-213). It occurs by
the formation of bubbles throughout the
liquid. All pure samples of the same
liquid at the same pressure
have the same boiling
.-==-,,,./.
point. An increase in
pressure increases
the boiling point.
A decrease
in pressure
decreases the
boiling point.
Water boils at
100c or 373K.
Volatile, 345.
Condensation
A change of state from gaseous (gas or vapor)
to liquid, of a substance which is a liquid at
room temperature and pressu re. It is normally
caused by cooling.
Indoors
Outdoors
Cold air
Sublimation
The change of state from solid to gaseous (gas,
via vapor) on heating, and from gaseous
directly to solid on cooling. At no stage is a
liquid formed. See picture, page 162.
Vaporization
Any change resulting in a gaseous state, i.e.
boiling, evaporation or sublimation.
121
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS
AND MIXTURES
Elements, compounds and mixtures
are the three main types of chemical
substance. Most natural substances
are made up of several compounds.
Element
A substance which cannot be split into a
simpler substance by a chemical reaction.
There are just over 100 known elements,
classified in the periodic table*, and most are
solids or gases at room temperature. All atoms
of the same element have the same number of
protons* in their nuclei* (see atomic number,
page 127).
Powdered
sulfur
Iron
filings
Synthesis
The process by w hich a
compound is built up from
its elements or from simpler
compounds by a sequence of
chemical reactions, e.g. iron(lll)
chloride is made by passing
chlorine gas over heated iron.
Quartz is a
compound of
silicon and oxygen.
The temperature
and pressure at
which synthesis
takes place affects
the structure of the
mineral formed.
Mixture
A blend of two or more elements and/or
compounds which are not chemically
combined. The proportions of each element
or compound are not fixed, and each keeps
its own properties. A mixture can usually be
separated into its elements or compounds
fairly easily by physical means.
Element 1
Compound
A combination of two or more elements,
bonded together in some way. It has different
physical and chemical properties from the
elements it is made of. The proportion of each
element in a compound is constant, e.g. water
is always formed from two parts hydrogen
and one part oxygen. This is shown by its
chemical formula*, H 20. Compounds are
often difficult to split into their elements and
can only be separated by chemical reactions
or electrolysis*, a process in which an electric
current is used to cause a chemical change.
r,
~~
,t(<~?~J~:~.'\\.
'l i1
'(' 1
( '~
I
'
'
Binary
~
\"
11
,'
Water 1s a compound of
oxygen and hydrogen
~ Ii-~
"--:
~
~
Chemical symbol
A shorthand way of representing an
element in formulas and equations (see
pages 140-141 ). It represents one atom
and usually consists of the first one or
two letters of the name of the element,
occasionally the Greek or Latin name.
See pages 212-213 for a list of elements
and their symbols, and pages 226-227
to match symbols to elements.
Su/fur
Chemical symbol 5
Homogeneous
Describes a substance
whe re all the particles
are in the same phase*,
e.g. solutions* (the
p hysical and chemical
properties throughout
are the same).
Heterogeneous
Describes a substance
where the particles are
in more than one phase*,
e.g. suspensions* (the
properties of the solid
particles are different
from those of the liquid).
Heterogeneous
Kinetic theory
The kinetic theory explains the behavior of
solids, liquids and gases, and changes of
state* between them, in terms of the
movement of the particles of whic h they
are made (see diagram below).
..JJ .
- --
---1
The sand on
the seashore is a heterogeneous
mixture of tiny particles of quartz,
seashell and organic matter.
Pure
Describes a sample of a substance which
consists only of one element or compound. It
does not contain a ny other substance in any
proportions. If the substance does contain
traces of another element or compound, then
it is described as impure and the other
substance is called an impurity.
Brownian motion
The random
motion of small
particles in wate r
or air. It supports
the kinetic
theory, as it is
clearly due to
unseen impact
with the w ater or
air molec ules.
water.
Diffusion
The process by which two fluids* mix
without mechanical help. The process
supports the kinetic theory, since the
particles must be moving to mix, and
visible gases, such as bromi ne vapour
(below), can be seen to diffuse fa~ter than
liquids. Only miscible* liquids diffuse.
Air
Water
More dilute
solution
Bromine
gas
15 minutes
later
Concentrated copper(//)
sulfate solution
2 days
later
123
Molecule
The smallest particle of an
element or compound that
normally exists on its own
and still retains its properties.
Molecules normally consist of
two or more atoms bonded
together - some have
thousands of atoms. Ionic
compounds* consist of ions*
(electrically charged particles)
and do not have molecules.
Tetrachloromethane
(CC/4) molecules
consist of one carbon
and four chlorine
atoms.
Neon
molecules consist of
a single neon atom.
atomic theory
John Dalton's
theory, published
in 1808, attempts
to explain how
atoms behave. It
is still generally
valid. It states
that:
1 . Al I matter
is made up of
tiny particles
called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be made, destroyed or
divided. (This has since been disproved see radioactivity, page 128.)
3. All atoms of the
same element have
the same properties
and the same mass.
(This has since been
disproved - see
isotope, page 127.)
4. Atoms of different
elements have
different properties
and different
masses.
Atomicity
The number of atoms in a molecule,
calculated from the molecular formula*
of the compound.
A molecule with an
atomicity of one
is described as
He
monatomic.
Helium
A molecule with an
atomicity of two is
described as
diatomic.
;:J.
H
. J . ...,
Hydrogen '~
H
H
124
H
3 hydrogen
atoms
7 nitrogen
atom
1 ammonia
molecule
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Dimer
Trim er
Nitrogen dioxide
(monomer*)
combines to form
dinitrogen tetraoxide
(dimer).
Macromolecule
Nitrogen
dioxide
Nitrogen
dioxide
Dinitrogen
tetraoxide
Methane
molecule
one nitrogen
atom:
Nitrogen
dioxide, N02
(72)
Proportion of carbon
to hydrogen by mass
= 12:4 = 3:1
(7)
(7)
(7)
Nitrogen
monoxide, NO
(7)
Dinitrogen
oxide, N 2 0
125 '
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Dalton's atomic theory (see page 124) states that the atom is the
smal lest possible particle. However, experiments have proved that
it contains smaller particles, or subatomic particles. The three main
subatomic particles are protons and neutrons, which make up the
nucleus, and electrons, which are arranged around the nucleus.
Nucleus (pl. nuclei)
Electron
or atomic nucleus
The structure at the center of an atom,
consisting of protons and neutrons
(usually about the same number
of each) packed closely
togethe.r, around which
electrons move. The
nucleus makes up
almost the total
mass of the
atom, but is
very small
in relation .
to the total
size.
Nude us
Neutron
Proton
A subatomic
particle (see
A subatomic
partide (see
introduction) in
the nucleus of an
atom. A neutron has
introduction) in
the nucleus of an
atom. It has a relative
atomic mass* of 1 and a
positive electrica l charge
equal in size, but opposite to that
of an electron. An atom has the same
number of protons and electrons, making
it electrically neutral.
126
a relative atomic
mass* of 1 and no
electrical charge. The number
of neutrons in atoms of the same
element can vary (see isotope,
opposite).
.,,,..,
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Orbital
Atomic number
Outer shell
The last electron shell in which there are
electrons. The .number of electrons in the
outer shell influences how the element reacts
and which group it is in (see periodic table,
pages 164-165).
Electron configuration
A group of numbers wh ich shows the
arrangement of the electrons in an atom. The
numbers are the numbers of electrons in each
electron shell, starting with the innermost.
Mass number
The total number of protons and neutrons
in one atom of an element. The mass
number of an element can vary because
the number of neutrons can change (see
isotbpe, below). The mass number is
usually about twice the atomic number.
The atomic number and man number are often written with
the symbol for the element.
Man
number
contains two
electron<.
Second shell
contains eight
electrons.
Atomic
number
Man
number
Atomic
number
Isotope
Octet
A group of eight electrons in a single electron
shell. Atoms with an octet for the outer shell
are very stable and unreactive. All noble
gases* (except helium) have an octet. Other
atoms can achieve a stable octet (and thus
have an electron configuration sim ilar to that
of the nearest noble gas), either by sharing
electrons w ith other atoms (see covalent
bonding, page 132) or by gaining or losing
electrons (see ionic bonding, page 131 ).
"Noble gases, 189.
Number of proton< =
atomic number = 6
Carbon- 13
Carbon- 14
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a property of unstable nuclei* (for
more about the reasons for their instability, see
pages 84-85). It invo lves the nuclei breaking up
spontaneously into nuclei of other elements and
emitting rays or particles (radiation), a process
knowri as radioactive decay. A radioactive element
is one whose nuclei are gradually splitting up in this way.
Radioisotope or radioactive isotope
The general term for a radioactive substance,
since al I are isotopes*. There are several
naturaliy-occurring radioisotopes, such as
carbon-14 and uranium-238, others are
formed in a variety of ways. For more about
this, see page 86.
Uranium with 146
neutrons* is written:
238
Mass number---~
Atomic number'--- 92
electromagnetic TO)'S.
Radioactive decay
The process whereby the nuclei* of a
radioactive element undergo a series of
disintegrations (a decay series) to become
stable. For more about the different types of
decay, see page 87.
number = 238 -
= 234
Source Di radiation
p.pal11d6
128
emitfin9
gamma rays -
Disintegration
It can also
be written
as U-238 or
Uranium-238.
Nucleus
a-particle (mass
number 4, atomic
number 2) emitted.
Atom of
U-238
I.
Disintegration is shown
by a nuclear equation.
Aluminum
sheeting
23a
92
--+
Th
234
90
.....,.
~J
2"~ _
Lead
block
Plutonium242
Uranium238
..
r-Beta part(cle
Thorium234
Protactinium234
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Becquerel
'
'
- - + - c - - - - ,_,.....
---:--
~--+--~---r-~~-
Half-life
..
~-
---+--+
'
Uses of radioactivity
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fission
The division of a nucleus*, caused by
bombardment with a neutron*. The nucleus
splits, forming neutrons and nuclei of other
elements, and releasing huge a111ounts of
energy. The release of neutrons also causes
the fission of other atoms, wh ich in turn
produces more neutron s - a chain reaction .
An element which can undergo fission is
described as fissile . Contro lled nuclear
fission is used in nuclear power stations*,
but uncontrolled fissi on, e.g. in fission
bombs*, is very explosive.
Fission of
----+-- Neutron""
uranium-235
~~----t-
Uranium-235
nuclei""
The three
neutrons then hit
another three
uranium-235
nuclei and so the
process continues
in a chain
reaction.
Radioactive tracing
A method of following a substance as
it moves by tracking radiation from a
radioisotope introduced into it. The
radioisotope used is called a tracer and
the substance is said to be labeled .
Radiology
The study of radioactivity, especially with
regard to its use in medicine (radiotherapy).
Cancer cells are suscepti ble to radiation, so
cancer can be treated by small doses.
Irradiation
~~ u +
~n
--t
:sr
I
A neutron (mass number'
~Xe
+ 3~ n
1, atomic number' 0)
The treating of
food, such as fruit,
with gamma rays
to keep it fresh.
Irradiated _
strawberry
after two
'
BONDING
When substances react together, the
tendency is always for their atoms
to gain, lose or share electrons* so
that they each acquire a stable (full)
outer shell* of electrons. In doing
so, these atoms develop some kind
of attraction, or bonding, between
them (they are held together by
bonds). The three main types of
bonding are ionic bonding,
covalent bonding (see pages 132133) and metallic bonding (see
page 134). See also intermolecular
forces, page 134.
Ions
The arrangement
of sodium and
chloride ions gives
salt crystals their
cubic shape. The
ions are held
together
by Ionic
bonds.
Valency electron
An electron, always in the outer shell* of
an atom, used in forming a bond. It is lost
by atoms in ionic bonding and metallic
bonding*, but shared with other atoms in
covalent bonding*.
Anion
Cation
An ion with a positive charge, formed when
an atom loses electrons in a reaction (it now
has more protons* than electrons) .
Hydrogen and metals tend to form cations.
Their atoms have one, two or three electrons
in their outer shells*, and it is easier for
them to lose electrons (leaving a stable shell
underneath) th! n to gain at least five more .
A magnesium atom has two electrons in its outer shell'.
These are lost to form an Ion (cation) with a charge of
+2. A magnesium ion (cation) is written Mg 2'.
Nucleus (protons
neutrons')
~"""'-"'::""""~"""::=------- and
Nucleus
~,..---- (protons'
.) and
.) neutrons')
v- -,- - Electrons
I
Ionization
The process of forming ions. This either
happens when atoms lose or gain electrons
or when a compound splits up into ions,
e.g. hydrogen chloride forming a solution.
Ionization of hydrogen chloride in water, forming hydrogen ions
and chloride ions.
HCl(g)
Covalent compound'
of hydrogen chloride
H'(aq)
Ci-(aq)
Separate ions
produced in solution
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Ionic bonding
Ionic compound
Sodium atom
Electron transferred
Chloride ion
Chlorine atom
,.,.
+----+
ru// outer
Electrostatic a ttraction is
an Jonie bond.
site// left
Full outer
shell formed
Electrovalency
The power of an ion to combine with
another in ionic bonding. It is equal to .the
size of the charge on the ion. The ions
combine in such proportions that the total
charge of the compound is zero.
Elements in Group 1 and Group 7 of the periodic tab/e are
monovalent (have an electrova/ency of one). Their ions each
have a charge of + 1 or - 7.
Note that there are no molecules - the formula gives the relative
numbers of each type of ion in the giant ionic lattice'. In this
case, the formula NaCl indicates that the relative numbers of sodium
and chloride ions are one to one.
of +3 or - 3.
..
131
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms in a molecule so that each
atom acquires a stable outer shell*. Electrons are shared in pairs called electron pairs
(one pair being a covalent bond). Covalent bonds within a molecule are strong. Covalent
compounds (compounds whose molecules have internal covalent bonds) are not normally
so strongly held together. They are usually liquids or gases at room temperature because
the forces between their molecu les are van der Waals' forces*. These weak forces need
li,t tle energy to overcome them, so most covalent compounds have low melting and
boiling points. They do not conduct electricity because there are no ions* present.
Single bond
Triple bond
single bond.
triple bond.
Double bond
double bond.
Ammonium ion
(NH/)
outer shell*.
Ammonia molecule
(NH3)
A double bond is
shown in a formula by
a double line: 0 = 0
1 J2
*Ions, 1 30; Outer shell, 127; van der Waals' forces, 134.
Dative covalent
bond-both
electrons provided
by nitrogen atom
I . -i
Lone pair
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Covalency
Polar bond
..
Water (H 2 0)
v-v
Polar molecule
Hydrogen
atom
Monovalent elements have
either one or seven electrons in
the outer shell', e.g. hydrogen.
Ammonia
(N H3)
..
.
v
<.)
'-'
..
; single bond
Ammonia molecule
(polar molecule). Its
shape is pyramidal.
Trivalent elements have either
three or five electrons in the
outer shell*, e.g. nitrogen.
Electro negativity
The power of an atom to attract electrons
to itself in a molecule. If two atoms with
different electronegativities are joined, a polar
bond is formed . Weakly electronegative atoms
are sometimes called electropositive (e.g.
sodium), as they form positive ions fairly easily.
H 5
Carbon dioxide
Water is
attracted to rod.
Hydrogen atom
I
8
8
Hydrogen end of each bond has slightly positive charge but
tetrahedral shape means that the molecule has no overall
positive or negative ends, so is non-polar.
Negativelycharged
rod
H
I
Lone pair
A pair of electrons in the outer shell* of an
atom which is not part of a covalent bond
(see ammonia picture on previous page).
; double bond
Boron trichloride
molecule (non-polar)
is trlgonal or
trlgonal planar
,- electrons in
bonds repel
each other.
5-
Isomerism
The difference in electronegativlty
between oxygen {high) and
hydrogen (low) causes water
molecules to be polar molecules.
The positive end of each water
molecule is attracted "to the charged
.rod, so the water "bends" toward it.
* Ionic compound, 131; Isomers, 191; Molecular formula, 140; Nucleus, 126;
Outer shell, 127; Polar solvent, 144; Transition metals, 1 72.
Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is the attraction between
particles in a giant metallic lattice* (i.e.
in metals). The lattice consists of positive
ions* of the metal with valency electrons*
free to move between them. The free or
delocalized electrons form the bonds
between the ions and, because they can
move, heat and electricity can be
conducted through the metal. The forces
between the electrons and ions are strong.
This gives metals high melting and boiling
points, since relatively large amounts of
energy are needed to overcome them. For
more about other types of bonding, see
pages 130-133.
Intermolecular forces
Giant metallic
lattice* _ _ _ ___,_
Delocalized
electroos transmit
electricity and heat.---1~=-==:-......--....--...................ii..:;o_:
Hydrogen bond
Delocalization
The sharing of valency electrons* by all the
atoms in a molecule or giant metallic lattice*
Delocalized electrons can belong to any of
the atoms in the lattice and are able to move
through the lattice, so the metal can cond uct
electricity and heat.
L.
Hydrogen bond
(usually represented
by a dotted fine)
7
V,.
-..., '
_.
v,,
134
Cation, 130; Covalent bonding, 132; Giant metallic lattice, 137; Intermolecular force, 7; Ion, 130; Ionic bonding, 131
Lone pair, 133; Molecular lattice, 1 37; Non-polar molecule, 1 33 (Polar molecule); Polar bond, 133; Valency electron
CRYSTALS
Crystals are solids with regular geometric shapes, formed
from regular arrangements of particles. The particles can
be atoms, ions* or molecu les and the bonding between
them can be of any type or mixtu re of types. The
edges of crystals are straight and the surfaces flat.
Substances that form crystals are described as
crystalline. Solids without a regular shape (i .e. those
w hich do not form crysta ls) are described as amorphous.
Crystallization
The process of forming crystals. It can happen
in a number of ways, e.g. cooling molten*
solids, subliming* solids (solid to gas and
back), placing a seed crystal (see right) in a
supersaturated* solution or placing a seed
crystal in .a saturated* solution and cooling or
evaporating the solution. The last method is
the most common. Either cooling or
evaporating means that the amount of soluble
solute* c!ecreases, so particles come out of the
solution and bond to the seed crystal, which is
suspended in the solution. Crystallization can
be used to purify substances - see page 221 .
Seed crystal
A small crystal of a substance placed in a
solution of the same substance. It acts as
a base on which crystals form during
crystallization . The crystal which grows will
take on the same shape as the seed crystal.
Mother liquid
Water of crystallization
Methods of crystallization
1. Solvent allowed
to evaporate
,>
CuSO,.SH,o
---
Cleavage plane, 1 36; Formulas, 140; Hydrated, 154 (Hydrate); Ion, 1 30; Molten, 120;
Salts, 153; Saturate d, 145; Solute, Solvent, 144; Sublimation, 121; Supersaturated, 145.
Na2S04.10H20
135
Basic
crystal
shapes
Tetragonal
I
Triclinic or rhombohedral
Hexagonal
Polymorphism
Transition temperature
Isomorphism
The existence of two or more different
substances with the same crystal structure ancJ
shape. They are described as isomorphic.
Allotropy
Cleavage plane
.....
Split along
plane
Monotropy
_I
,.
Enantiotropy
Polymorphism in which there are two stable
forms of a sbstance, one above its transition
temperatu.re, and one below.
Su/fur exhibits enantiotropy - it has two allotropes.
X-ray crystallography
The use of X-rays to work out crystal structure
Deflected X-rays produce a diffraction patten
from which the structure is worked out
(see below).
Transition
temperature
= 96(
Be.i!:w 96,_,,-_
Rhombic sulfur*
__....
Monoclinic sulfur*
X-rays
Diffraction pattern
on photographic paper
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Crystal lattices
Giant atomic lattice
Molecular lattice
Giant atomic
lattice of diamond
Tetrahedra/
Molecular lattice
of solid iodine
Iodine
molecu/e ----- ~.,,==:!lfu:=dQ
Sodium i o n - - - -
Body-centered
cubic
:~:.~
C;"'NJ
I ' ......J. .
'
Face-centered
cubic or cubic
close packing
Cation, 130; Covalent bonding, 132; Delocallzation, 1 34; Ductile, 344; Ion, 130;
Ionic bonding, Ionic compound, 131 ; Malleable, 345; Metallic bonding, 134; Tetrahedral, 133.
MEASURING ATOMS
With a diameter of about
,-0-7 millimeters and a mass of about
10-22 grams, atoms are so smal I that
they are extremely difficult to
measure. Their masses are therefore
measured in relation to an agreed
mass to give them a manageable
value. Because there are many
millions of atoms in a very small
sample of a substance, the mole
is used for measuring quantities of
particles. The masses of atoms and
molecules are measured using a
machine called a mass spectrometer.
Relative atomic mass or atomic weight
The average mass (i.e. taking into account
relative isotopic mass and isotopic ratio) of
Ot)e atom of a substance divided by one
twelfth the mass of a carbon-1 2 atom (see
isotope, page 12 7). See page 83 for more
about its units, and pages 212-213 for a table
of relative atomic masses.
Hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of approximately
--
--
A water molecule
contains one oxygen
atom and two
hydrogen atoms.
Hydrogen a om -
- ~-
......
!.
Isotopic ratio
The ratio of the number of atoms of each
isotope* in a sample of an element. It is used
with relative isotopic masses to calculate the
relative atomic mass of an element.
Natural sample of chlorine contains
about three times as many atoms
of C/-35 as C/-37.
Oxygen atom
= (3
138
isotopic mass
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Mole (mol)
Concentration
Avogadro's number
The number of particles per mole, equal to
6.023 x 1023 mol-1
;A'
c1-
Na
,,.......
Each mole of
copper contains
Each mole of
oxygen contains
Avogadro's
number of
Avogadro's
number of
atoms.
molecules.
A mole of
sodium chloride
contains 7mol
Na' ions and
7mol
ions.
er
Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a given substance.
It is the relative atomic or molecular mass
of a substance expressed in grams.
Relative atomic
mass= 23
Relative molecular
mass = 23 + 35.5
4mol of solute'
2 liters of
Concentration of
solvent*
Molarity
A term sometimes used to describe the
concentration when expressed in moles of
solute* per liter of solvent*. The molarity is
also expressed as the M-value, e.g. a solution
with a concentration of 3 moles per liter has
a molarity of 3 and is described as a 3M
solution.
A 2M copper(//) sulfate solution contains
2mol of copper(//) sulfate in each liter.
- - lmolof
Molar volume
The volume of one mole of any substance,
measured in cubic liters. Molar volumes of
solids and liquids vary, but all gases under
the same conditions have the same molar
volume. The molar volume of any gas at
s.t.p.* is 22.4 liters and at r.t.p. (room
temperature and pressure, i.e. 20C and
101,325 pascals*) it is 24dm 3
2M solution
Molar solution
A solution that contains one mole of a
substance dissolved in every liter of
solution. It is therefore a 1M solution
(see molarity).
A molar solution (or 1M solution) of copper(!/) su/fate
contains 7mol of copper(//) su/fate in each liter.
7mol copper(//)
su/fate
lliter water
7 liter water
Standard solution
A solution of which the concentration is
known: It is used for volumetric analysis*.
139
REPRESENTING CHEMICALS
Most chemicals are named according to the predominant elements they contain .
Information about the chemical composition and structure of a compound is
given by a formula (pl. formulas), in which the chemical symbols* for the
elements are used. A chemical equation shows the reactants and products of
a chemical reaction and gives information about how the reaction happens.
Formulas
Empirical formula
Diagram of ethene molecule, showing the types of bonds within the molecule
Molecular formula
A formula representing one
molecule of an element or
compound. It shows which
elements the molecule
' contains and the number
of atoms of each in the
molecule, but not
the bonding of the
molecule (see
pages 130-134).
atoms.
bond*.
atom is bonded
to which, and
the single and
double bonds
present.
__J
Percentage composition
12
1 40
Shows there
(2x 16)
= 44
x 100 = 73%
x 100 = 2 7%
Bonds, 1 30; Carboxyl group, 195 (Carboxylic acids); Chemical symbol, 122; Covalent compounds, Double bond, 132;
Relative atomic mass, Relative molecular mass, 138; Single bond, 1 32.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Names
Trivial name
Systematic name
Traditional name
A name which gives the predominant
elements of a substance, without necessarily
giving their quantities or showing the
structure of the substance. Some traditional
names are systematic names.
Trivial name: Green vitriol
Traditional name: Ferrous sulfate
Iron sulfate (FeS04)
Trivial name
----~
Alcohol
Systematic name
Iron(//) tetraoxosulfate(VQ
I
Oxidation
state* of
I
Oxidation
state of
sulfur is +6
Traditional name
--------
Systematic name
Ethanol (see naming
simple organic
compounds, page 214)
1,
'
Equations
Ionic equation
Word equation
State symbols
Letters written after the formula of a substance
which show its physical state* in a reaction.
[]
Liquid
Aqueous solution*
Gas
Spectator ion
Balanced equation
An equation in which the number of atoms
of each element involved in the reaction is
the same on each side of the equation (i.e.
it obeys the law of conservation of mass*).
The numbers of molecules of each
substance are shown by the number in
front of their formula, e,g:
~I~~2_N_a~-+~2_H_20~--+~_2_N_a_o_H~-+~H-2~~
*Aqueous solution, 144; Law of conservation of mass, 125;
Oxidation number, Oxidation state, 149; Physical states, 120.
er
In the reaction below, Na, OH-, W, Cl- are all ions. Na,
appear on both sides of the equation - on this occasion they are
spectator ions. Spectator ions are omitted from ionic equations.
I
141
:I
1
GAS -LAWS
11~=========:-.,=---- Thermometer
(temperature
=TI)
_)1
Pressure = PI
Pressure
control
I
l
Boyle's law
Law of volumes
At constant
temperature, the
volume of a gas
is inversely.
proportional to
the pressure (the
volume decreases
as the pressure
incr.eases).
At constant pressure,
the volume is
directly proportional
to the temperature
on the absolute
temperature scale
(the gas expands as
the temperature
increases).
Pressure law or
Third gas law
At constant volume,
the pressure is
directly proportional
to the temperature
on the absolute
temperature scale
(the pressure
increases with the
temperature).
~~--
.. .
(U
~_. ~ ~ --
, - , "-r::J-=
T2 (temperature
increased)
. ., mcreases
P2 (pressure
-..._
~
'f1>
-: p-~J
U l
f' ~
1i
1
VI (to keep
=-===--T2 (temperature
increased)
PI (external
pressure kept
constant)
V2 (volume
- -- mcreases
proportionately)
! volume constant,
external pressure
must be increased
to match)
Ideal gas
A theoretical gas that behaves in an
"ideal" way. Its molecules have no
volume, do not attract each other, move
rapidly in straight lines and lose no
energy when they collide. Many real
gases behave in approximately the same
way as ideal gases when the molecules
are small and widely spaced.
142
Small, widely-spaced
molecules
Constant, 344; Gas constant, 113; Kinetic theory, 123; Mole, 139.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Partial pressure
The pressure that each gas in a mixture* of
gases would exert if it alone filled the volume
occupied by the mixture.
Dalton's law of partial pressures
The total pressure exerted by a mixture* of
gases (which do not react together) is equal to
the sum of the partial pressure of each gas in
the mixture.
Mixture of
A, Band C
Pressure = pA + pB + pC
(sum of partial prenures)
Gas A
Pressure pA
~
Gas B
Pressure pB
1
Gas C
Pressure pC
Hydrogen
chloride gas
Gay-lussac's law
When gases react together to produce other
gases and all the volumes are measured at the
same temperature and pressure, the volumes
of the reactants and products are in a ratio of
simple whole numbers.
~.
Absolute
temperature scale
A standard temperature
scale, using units
called kelvins (K). A
kelvin is the same size
as one degree Celsius*,
but the lowest point
on the scale, zero
kelvins or absolute
zero, is equal to -273.
degrees Celsius, a
theoretical point where
an ideal gas would
occupy zero volume.
Degrees
Celsius
Kelvins
1ooc
373K
steam
oc
273K
ice
4 00Jiters
~htbon
f!ioxide
-273C
OK
143
Non-polar solvent
The substance in
which the solute
dissolves to form
a solution.
Solute
The substance
which dissolves
in the solvent to
form a solution.
Solvation
of iodine
Molecules in solution
linked by weak van
Waals ' forces"'.
Solvation
The process of solvent molecules combining
with solute molecules as the solute dissolves.
When the solvent is water, the process is called
hydration. Whether or not solvation takes
place depends on how much the molecules of
the solvent and solute attract each other, and
how strong the bonds* in the solute are.
\::;
I ~~
Solvent molecules pull iodine
molecules from the lattice.
Polar solvent
Aqueous solvent
l'/ y=O
,.J
j
='
Anions *
~~;~i:~~~s of
~ ..
=.~
. ---~
.""'+
?:r-
:::::.. mo/eJ
polar* water
-~J~
I ~~
Cations* attracted
to negative ends of
water molecules.
c--
Dilute
solution of
copper(//)
sulfate
l-
'-----
,ii .
Aqueous solution
Dilute
'\
144
Non-polar*
tetrachloromethane
Concentrated
i)
Anion, Bonding, Cation, 1 30; Concentration, 1 39; Covalent compounds, 1 32; Diffusion, 123;
Giant ionic lattice, 137; Ionic compound, 131; Mixture, 122; Molecular lattice, 137;
Non-polar molecule, 133 (Polar molecule); van der Waals' forces, 134.
Concentra
=
ed
L
solution of
copper(//)
sulfate
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Saturated
Describes a solution that will not dissolve any
more solute at a given temperature (any more
solute will remain as crystals). If the
temperature is raised, more solute may dissolve
until the solution becomes saturated again.
Precipitate
An insoluble solid (see soluble) formed
when a reaction occurs in a solution.
Precipitates are
named according
to their
appearance.
Flocculent
Creamy
Milky
Supersaturated
Describes a solution with more dissolved
solute than a saturated solution at the same
temperature. It is formed when a solution is
cooled below the temperature at which it
would be saturated, and there are no particles
for the solute to crystallize* around, so the
"extra" solute remains dissolved . The solution
is unstable - if crystals are added or dust
enters, the "extra" solute forms crystals.
Soluble
Describes a solute which dissolves easily in a
solvent. The opposite of soluble is insoluble.
Solubility
The amount of a solute which dissolves in a
particular amount of solvent at a known
temperature.
The solub/llty of a solute at
a particular temperature is:
~)
The number of
grams of solute
which must be
added to 1OOg
of solvent
to produce a
saturated
solution.
Warm soft
drinks hove
more bubbles
than cold
ones.
Heavy
Dense
precipitate of
silver chloride
'-This symbol
means precipitate
Sodium
chloride
Miscible
Describes two or more liquids which
diffuse* together. The opposite is
immiscible.
Suspension
Fine particles of
a solid (groups of
atoms, molecules
or ions) suspended
in a liquid in
which the solid
does not dissolve.
Suspension
of sand and
soil in waterParticles settle
OR
Particles
can be
filtered out.
Clear
:! j
'a
water
t~
Colloid
A mixture* of extremely small particles of
a substance dispersed in another in wh ich
it does not dissolve. The particles (groups
of atoms, molecules or ions) are smaller
than in a suspension.
,--Particles pass through filter
Milk is a~
~ paper ond do not settle
colloid
Exothermic reaction
A chemical reaction during which heat is
transferred to the surroundings.
In an e1eothermlc
reaction, energy is
given out to the
surroundings and
LlH is negative.
Endothermic reaction
A chemical reaction during which heal is
absorbed from the surroundings.
.
In an endothermic
reaction, energy is
?~
:a01
,.,....
2H 2 (g) + . 0 2 (g)
2H 20(g)
.O.H
~i
Reactants
-488kJ
Bond energy
The value of Ml is only true for the number ofmoles' and the
physical states. of the chemicals in the equation
... cnerrw
needed
,S. to break bonds
~ in C/2 and H2
2Cl(g) 2H(g)
~-
2H 2 (g) + 0 2 (9)
~ .- - - - - -- Enthalpy of reactants
~~
.s
2H2 0(g)
146
Cl 2(g)
H2 (g)
- M1 = -488k/
5
i3
~
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Hess's law
Energy cycle
Bomb calorimeter
Electric current used- - ---,
to start combustion
Rise in water
temperature used
to calculate heat
given off by
burning substance.
Heat given
out by
combustion
Substance
under test
Ml3
A+ B
Reactants
C+D
Products
Route 1
E+ F
Intermediate
campound
&2
By Hess's law:
-
Ml 1 (for reaction +
A+B -> E+F)
i-
Mol-1 means
Ice at 0C
Mol-1 means
FFfor each moler".
Hydroxide
ion
= -57kJ
Water
molecule
or heat of formation
The heat energy given out or taken in when
one mole* of a compound is formed from
elements. For example:
C(graphite) + 0 2 (g) ~ C0 2 (g) AH
CryJt"i1l IMtlce., 136; Ionic equation, 141;: Ionization, HO; Mole, 139;
eutr.,1111:.irtion, '151; Solvent, 144; Weak add, Weak base, 152.
Carbon
Oxygen
= -394kJ
Carbon
dioxide
\147)
Reduction
2CuO(s)
Oxidizing
agent
Element
oxidized
Oxidizing
agent
-+ 2Na+Ci-(s)
Atom
oxidized
Sodium loses
electrons
Copper(//) oxide
loses oxygen
Reducing
agent
Chlorine gains
hydrogen
Cl 2 (g)
+ 2Na(s)
-+ 2Na+ci-cs>
Atom
reduced
Reducing
agent
Chlorine gains
electron
~~~~~~~~~~
O xidizing agent
Reducing agent
Red ox
Describes a chemical reaction involving
oxidation and reduction. The two processes
always occur together because an oxidizing
agent is always reduced during oxidation,
and a reducing agent is always oxidized
during reduction. In the example on the
right, magnesium and chlorine undergo a
redox reaction to form magnesium chloride.
148
Cl2 (g)
Element
reduced
Hydrogen sulfidej
loses hydrogen
Oxidizing
agent
Reducing
agent
Cl2 (g)
2Cu0(s)
Compound
reduced
Carbon gains
oxygen
CJ
Cl
Cl
Cl
Chlorine atoms each gain one
electron and form chloride
ions. They are reduced.
Cl
10 electrons
Charge +2
CI
18 electrons each
Charge -1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Oxidation state
Oxidation number
Oxygen is reduced.
+2
Magnesium is ox idized .
j. The oxidation
state of an
element in an
Calcium
chloride forms
a giant Ionic
lattice'.
ionic compound"'
is equal to the
electrical charge
on its ion.
Oxidation state
+2 (2 electrons
rem oved)
Oxidation state
(1 electron
added)
- 1 -7
+2
Oxidation states of
elements in covalento o
+
compounds* are found
by assuming
the compound is
Ionic', and working
3 Ammonia is
out the charge the ions
a covalent
would have. The mo~t
compound'.
electronegative atom
(the nearest to fluorine
in the periodic
+ 1 Oxidation states
table') is assumed
-3 and+ 1
to gain the electrons.
Iron(///) chloride
! !
J wide
(4 x-2) = 0
Redox series
A list of substances arranged in order pf their
redox potentia ls, the substance with the most
negative re.dox potential being placed atthe
top. A substance usually oxidizes any
substance above it in the series am;! reduces
a ny substance below it. The further apart
substances are in the ser:ies, the more easily
they 9xidize or reduce each other. The redox
series is an extended version of:the
electrochemical series*.
Reducing agents
Oxidizing agents
Lithium
Potu.ssium
Iodine
Ca/d um
Bromine
Sodium
Dichromate ioo
i'JWMj!i'I
Zinc
Iron(//) sulfate
Sum of oxidation states = (+2)
lW(I
Redox potential
A measurement of the power of:a substance to
gain electrons in solution. A strong reducing
Magnesium
Aluminum
(+6)
I [
~~~~~~~~~~
o - - - - ' - - -- 2
Chlorine
Manganate ion
Lead
Hydrogen
peroxide
Iron
Ruorine
Hydrogen
Copper
Si(ver
149 '
Acid
Acidic
HCI
Dissolves
in water
Cl
The poison in
a bee~ sting
is an ocid.
Describes any
compound with the
properties of an acid.
Hydronium ion
(H 3Q+) or oxonium ion
An ion formed when a hydrogen
ion attaches itself to a water
molecu le (see acid). When a reaction
takes place in a solution containing
hydron ium ions, only the hydrogen ion takes
part. Hence usually the hydronium ion can be
considered to be a hydrogen ion .
Formation of hydronium ion (H 3 0+)
Chloride
ion (aq)
Water
molecule
(polar
molecule')
Negative
1n
uJi- -
'<JI
Hydrogen
attracted
negative
Types of acid
Mineral acid
acid accumulators"
Acid
Meta/
Soft
Hydrogen
150
Formula
HC/
H,so,
H,S0 3
HN0 3
HN02
H]PO,
Organic acid
An organic compound* that is acidic. ~
most common ones are carboxylic acids"'
When lea~es die and decompose, they form an organicacid called humic acid.
* Carboxylic acids, 195; Electrochemical series, 159; Ionization, 1"30; Lead-acid accumulator, 159; Litmus, 152;
Organic compounds, 190; pH, 152; Polar molecule, 133; Proton, 126; Salts, 153; Strong acid, 152.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Base
A substance that will neut ralize an acid by
accepting hydrogen ions. It is the chemical
o pposite of an acid. Bases are usually metal
oxides and hydroxides, although ammonia is
a lso a base. A substance with the properties of
a base is described as basic. A base which
d issolves in water is an alkali. Ammonia is
p rod uced w hen a base is heated with an
flfTlmoniu m salt*.
\
M15p's sting contains an alkali
md can be neutralized with an acid
-11 as vinegar.
Anhydride
A substance that reacts w ith water to form
either an acidic or an aJkaline solution (see
hydrolysis, page 154). It is usually an oxide.
Sulfurous acid
Water
Neutral
hdigestion tablets
mntoin alkalis such as
magnesium hydroxid
:
. .I
which neutrallze
the acid produced
by indigestion.
Toothpaste
is a base. It
neutralizes
acids made
in your
mouth.
Alkali'
A base, normally a hydroxide of a metal in
Group 1 o r Group 2 of the periodic table*,
w hich is soluble in water and produces
hydrox ide ions (OH-) in solution. These
make a solution alkaline.
Sodium
hydroxide
i5 an
alkali.
Dissolves
Su/fur dioxide
(anhydride)
Household liquid
cleaners contain
alls that
msolve dirt.
Na
Amphoteric
~ Olf'
A neutral
solution contains
an equal number
o f hydrogen and
hydroxide ions.
Neutralization
The reaction between an acid and a base
to produce a salt* and water only, An
equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide
ions react together to form a neutral
sol ution. The acid radical* from the acid
and cation* from the base form a salt
Neutralization is:
(aq)
ACID
Alkaline
Descri bes a solution formed when a base
dissolves in water to form a solution which
contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen
io ns. Alkaline solutio ns have a pH* of more
than 7, turn red litmus* blue, and feel soapy
because they react with the skin. Alkaline
solutions produced from strong bases* react
with a few metals, e.g. zinc and aluminium,
to give off hydrogen gas.
BASE
SALT*
WATER
Bronsted-Lowry theory
Another way of describing acids and bases.
It defi nes an acid as a substance wh ic h
donates protons*, and a base as o ne wh ich
accepts them.
fthonoic acid donates a proton:... it is on acid.
Water accepts a proton - it is a base.
CH,COOH(aq) + H,0(1)
Water
Sodium
a/Uminate
Hydrogen
Acid radical, 153; Anta cid, 344; Ca tion, 130;. Litmus, 152; Periodic table, 164; pH, 152; Proton, 126;
Re versible reaction, 162; Salts, 15 3; Stro ng base, 152.
151
Paper strips
impregnated with
universal indicator can be used
to test the strength of an acid.
Strong acid
turns the paper red,
and a strong alkaline
solution turns it purple.
pH
Stands for power of hydrogen, a measure of
hydrogen ion concentration* in a solution.
The pH scale
Strong acid
An acid that completely ionizes* in water,
producing a large number of hydrogen ions
in solution.
.
Weak acid
An acid that only partially ionizes* in water,
i.e. only a small percentage of its molecules
split into hydrogen ions and acid radicals .
Ethanoic acid (weak acid).
:ly some mol~cules split up.
Weak acid 4
A neutral' solution
has an equal
number of hydrogen
and hydroxide ions.
6
7
8
Weak alkaline 9
Neutral*
solution
10
11
Alkalin. e solutions
have more hydroxide Strong alkaline 1
JO/utioa
1$
ions than hydrogen
ions.
Strong base
A base that is completely ionized* in water.
A large number of hydroxide ions are released
to give a strongly alkaline solution.
Hydrogen ion
concentrat::m
of 10-12 M.
Indicator
A substance whose color depends on the pH
of the solution it is in. Indicators can be used
in solid or liquid form. Some common ones
are shown at the bottom of this page.
alkali~
Universal indicator
ow
Ncf
Weak base
Neutral' .~
More alkaline
Universal
Indicator
Phenolphthalein
Red below 3,
yellcJW above 4.5
1 52
Each decrease d
one means ten
times as many
hydrogen ions.
Litmus
NH3 (aq)
Hydrogen ion
concentration
of 10-2 M' or
0.0IM.
Strong acid 2
Hydroxide ion
Yellow
blue alJOI
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
SALTS
All salts are ionic compounds* which
contain at least one cation* and one anion*
{called the acid radical). Theoretically, they
can all be formed by replacing one or more
of the hydrogen ions in an acid .by one or
more other cations, e.g. metal ions (see
:
,
below) or ammonium ions. Salts have
many industrial and domestic uses.
...
.
11
Metal
Hydrogen
(cation*)
Acid radical
(anion')
Na
Fertilizet> -
ammonium
nitrate
(NH,NO,)
Metal
(cation*)
Acid radical
'a n1on)
Hydrogen
Salt
Acid
Acid radical
Normal salt
Radical
Radical name
Hydrochloric
~r
Chloride
Sulfuric
SOr
Su/fate
Sulfurous
SO,,_
Sulfite
Nitric
NO,-
Nitrate
Nitrous
No,-
Nitrite
Carbonic
c o ,i-
Carbonate
Ethanoic
CH 3 COO-
Ethanoate
Phosphoric
P0, 3-
Phosphate
Acid radical
Metal ion
Ammonium ion
Acid radical
. CuS0 4
Acid salt
The radical name identifies the salt.
Copper(//) su/fate
Cation
Acid
radical
Sodium chloride
Na
er
Cation*
Acid
rad/ea/
Basicity
The number of hydrogen ions in an acid that
can be replaced to form a salt. Not all the
hydrogen ions are necessarily replaced.
Metal ion
Cl
504
PO4
Na+
H*
Hydrogen ion
so~
Acid radical
r'
Salts (continued)
Basic salt
Anh yd rate
A salt
metal
when
by an
Metal ion
(basic salt)
I ~,, t '~ \. ~
Hydroxide ion
~
Zn(OH)CI
Hydrate
Acid radical*
Double salt
A salt formed when solutions of two normal
salts* react togetfkr. It contains two different
cations* (either two different metal ions or a .
m~tal ion and an ammonium ion) and one or
more acid radicals*.
CuS04
5H 20
Anhydrous
Hydrated
Water driven
off by heating
copper(//)
sulfate
copper(//)
su/fate
Dehydration
The removal of water from a substance. It is
either removal of hydrogen and oxygen in
the correct ratio to give water, or removal of
water from a hydrate to give an anhydrate.
salt)
Hydrolysis
Acid radical*
K,so,.A1,cso,>,
Acid radical*
Complex salt
A salt in which one of the ions is a complex
ion. This is made up of a central cation*
linked (frequently by dative covalent bonds*)
to several small molecules (usually polar
molecules*) or ions.
Tetraammine
copper(//) sulfate
. ,J
..
(compl~x salt)l
'f ,;J
Products
Fe3 +
+ 3cr
30W
+ 31r
FeCl3
.+
3H20:
Water
reversible reaction* -
Acid radical*
154
(Cu(NH,)4)504
*Acid radical, 153; Base, 151; Cation, 130; Dative covalent bond, 132; Hygroscopic, 206;
Neutralization, 151; Normal salt, 153; Polar molecule, 133; Reversible reaction, 162;
Strong acid, Strong base, 152; Water of crystallization, 135; Weak acid, Weak base, 152.
11
~
(OH) 3
e
Hydf099
left in
make
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Preparation of salts
Salts can be made in a number of ways,
the method depending on whether a salt
is soluble or insoluble in water (see table
below). Soluble salts are crystallized* from
solutions of the salts (obtained in various
ways - see below) and insoluble salts are
obtained in the form of precipitates*.
Solubility of salts
Soluble salt
Insoluble salt
EXCEPT
I
Su/fates
Ammonium
Sodium
Potassium
EXCEPT
I
I
...
EXCEPT
...
...
-
Most carbonates
ACID
-->
SA:LT
WATER
INSOLUBLE
BASE*
ACID
-->
SALT
WATER
Potassium
- nitrate
solution
-t
+- Cations* exchanged
Direct synthesis
A chemical
reaction in which
a salt is made
directly from its
elements. This
method is used to
make salts which
react with water
and therefore
cannot be made
by using solutions.
Mixture of iron
filings and su/fur
Heat starts
reaction, but
reaction is
exothermic*
- it produces
enough heat
energy to keep
itself going.
/ron(I/) sulfide
(salt)
Fe(s) + S(s)
-t
FeS(s)
Direct replacement
A reaction in which all or some of the
hydrogen in an acid is replaced by another
element, usually a metal. It is used to prepare
soluble salts, except salts of sodium or
potassium, both of which react too violently
with the acid.
11
j-
r~:~~-t~-ic---+-_ .. ~ z;o;,=~
:~:csolution
and left to
e.g. CuO(s)
Copper(//)
oxide
Compounds
Ntrade'' ions
+- Anions exchanged
Precipitate
of Jead(ll)
iodide
~~\~~~~n--
Potassium
iodide solution - -
...
Lead(ll)V 1
All nitrates
Chlorides
Double decomposition
A chemical reaction between the solutions of
two or more ionic compounds* in which ions
are exchanged. One of the new compounds
formed is an insoluble salt, which forms a
precipitate*. Most insol uble salts and
hydroxides are made by this method - the
precipitate is filtered out and washed.
is partly evaporated
""'-
crystallize'. ---~-::t~-----.'
Excess zmc
Filter to remove
excess zinc
Su/furic
acid
Copper(//)
sulfate
Water
155 .
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is a term describing the chemical changes which occur when
an electric current* is passed through a liquid containing ions. Metals and
graphite conduct electric current because some electrons are free to move
through the crystal lattice*, but molten* ionic compounds* or compounds
which ionize* in solution conduct electric current by the movement of ions.
Electrolyte
Electrode
Inert electrode
An electrode that does not change during
electrol ysis, e.g. platinum. Some inert
electrodes do react with the substances
liberated.
Active electrode
An electrode, usually a metal, which
undergoes chemical change during
electrolysis.
Sodium
cation
Chloride
anion
ID
~
~
Copper Water
Su/fate
cation' molecule anion'
Non-electrolyte - a compound
which does not ionize'.
Electrolytic cell
A vessel containing the electrolyte (either
molten* or in aqueous solution*) and the
electrodes.
Positive terminal
Electrolytic cell
Negative terminal
of battery-- - - - _ _ _ of battery
1 56
-+
-+ -
Electron flow
Bubbles af
chlorine gas
Chloride ions
attracted ta
anode.
Reaction below --11--takes place.
Sodium metm
deposited
.,_~--:-rt---tt-
- --'
Anion, 130; Aqueous solution, 144; Cation, 1 30; Crystal lattice, 1 36;
Current, 159; Ionic compound, 131; Ionization, 130; Molten, 120.
Sodium ions
attracted ID
cathode.
Reaction beb
takes place.
PHYSICAL (HEMl5TRY
0
0
Time
Current
Double current
Time
C1
Double time
Current
Mass
Double mass
Double mass
to form an atom.
--t
Cu
If 1 faraday
(1 mote of
electrons) passes
through copper(//)
sulfote, two
electrons are
needed ta turn
each copper ion
into an atom.
Other
examples:
Electro-refining
A method of purifying metals by electrolysis.
Only the metal ions take part in electrolysis,
the impurities are lost.
Impure copper
Pure copper
anode -
cathode
- - -- t=i
cathode.
Cu2 + 2e -
Electrolysis in industry
Hence 1 faraday
causes Jl2 mole of
copper ions to be
produced from atoms
and deposited on the
cathode. Jl2 is
inversely proportional
to 2 - the charge on
a copper ion.
1Fproduces 1/3 mote
aluminum atoms from
its ions (A/1').
Voltameter or coulometer
A type of electrolytic cell used to measure
the amount of a substance liberated during
electrolysis.
Coulomb (C)
The SI unit* of electric charge. One coulomb
of electricity passes a point when one
ampere* flows for one second.
Faraday (F)
A unit of electric charge equal to 96,500
coulombs. It consists of the flow of one mole*
of electrons and therefore liberates one mole
of atoms from singly-charged ions.
Ampere, 60; Corrosion, 209; Mole, 1 39; Molten, 120;
Oxidation, 148; Reactivity series, 158; SI units, 96.
Copper(//) sulfate
solution
Impurities form
~!!!!!!!!!!!!l!!!l!!!!!~~w a sludge.
Metal extraction
A process which produces metals from their
molten* ores by electrolysis. Metals at the top
of the reactivity series* are obtained in this
way (see aluminum, page 176 and sodium,_
page 168).
Anodizing
The coating of a metal object with a thin
layer of its oxide. Hydroxide ions are
oxidized* at the metal anode in the
electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid, forming
water and oxygen, which oxidizes the
metal.
These aluminum camping flasks have
been anodized with aluminum oxide
to prevent them from corroding.
Electroplating
The coating of a metal object with a
thin layer of another metal by
electrolysis. The object forms the
cathode, onto which metal
ions in the electrolyte are
deposited.
stop co"oslon"'
(see sacrificial
protection,
page 159).
REACTIVITY
The reactivity of an element depends
on its ability to gain or lose the
electrons which are used for bonding
(see pages 130-134). The more
reactive an element, the more easily
it will combine with others. Some
elements are very reactive, others
very unreactive. This difference can
be used to produce electricity and
protect metals from corrosion*.
Potassium
Increasing reactivity
Sodium
Displacement
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Zmc
Increasing power to lose
electrons to form ions
Iron
Lead
Copper
Zn504(aq) + Cu(s)
Increasing power as
a reducing agent
Silver
Half cell
Platinum wire
Electrode'
of the metal
Electrons
left behind
on metal
I
-
I
I
Metal:;!
half cell
1- - - -
I
I
I
Platinum electrode 1
piece of platinum on -~which bubbles of gas
form. Acts as an
e~ectrode" of the gas.
I
I
-+I
I
I
I
I
I
1M' solution of - - - . - 1 I
hydrochloric acid.
~ __ -' __ __ _
158
I
I
I
I
I
I
:
~--------_J
in saMimo
PHY.SJCAL CHEMl.STRY
Electrochemical series
Lithium
Current
A flow of electrons (negatively-charged
particles) through a material. The SI unit*
of current is the ampere* (A), and current
is measured using an ammeter. A current
will flow in a loop, or circuit, between
two points if there is a potential
difference between them.
Potassium
Calcium
'Sodium
tendency of metals to
form positive ions.
Magnesium
AJ.uminum
Iron
,--tt;Jri--.
: \Y.J :
''
''
'
potential
difference
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
r - Potential difference
Current flows
if two points
with a
Zinc
are connected
with a
substance
which
conducts
electricity.
----------------------------- ov
Copper
Iodine
Silver
'''
'' , - - Electrons flow
Positive
charge
Negative
charge
tendency of non-metals
to form negative ions.
Mercury
is measured using a
voltmeter.
in a wire from
negative to
positive.
The size of
a current is
- - --
measured using
an ammeter.
Bromine
Chlorine
------- +1.36V
A car battery
consists of six
Porous pot
(allows liquid
to flow
through). ----..,
Zinc rod
7M* zinc
sulfate
solution
Sacrificial protection
Also known as cathodic protection
or electrical protection. A method of
preventing iron from rusting* by attaching
a metal higher in the electrochemical
series to it, which rusts instead.
Copper
foil
secondary cells
called lead-add
accumulators ....
1M*
copper(//)
sulfate
""-solution s - . ,
Iron hulls of
ships can be
protected by
attaching bars
of zinc to them.
>
electrochemical series.
RATES OF REACTION
The time it takes for a chemical
reaction to finish varies from less than
one millionth of a second to weeks or even
years. It is possible to predict how long a
particular reaction will take and how to speed
it up or slow it down by altering the conditions
under which it takes place. The efficiency of
many industrial processes is improved by
increasing the rate of reaction, e.g. by using
high temperature and pressure, or a catalyst.
Rate of reaction
A measurement of the speed of a reaction .
It is calculated by measuring how quickly
reactants are used up or products are formed.
The experimental method used to measure the
rate of reaction depends on the physical
states* of the reactants and products, and the
data from such an experiment is plotted on a
rate curve. The speed of a reaction varies as
it proceeds. The rate at any time during the
reaction is the instantaneous rate. The
instantaneous rate at the start of the reaction
is the initial rate. The average rate is
calculated by dividing the total change in the
amount of products or reactants by the time
the reaction took to finish .
Photosynthesis'
- the process by which
plants make their food
- is a photochemical
Photochemical
reaction
A reaction whose
reaction.
speed is affected by the
intensity of light, e.g. photosynthesis*.
Light gives reacting particles more energy
and so increases the rate of reaction.
Photochemical
reactions occur in
photography.
Silver crystals form where
light falls on the film,
recording the picture.
2AgCl(s)
2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
Collision theory
Explains why altering the conditions under
which a reaction takes place affects its rate. For
a reaction to take place between two particles,
they mustcollide, so if more collisions occur,
the rate.of reaction increases._ However, only
some coll isions cause a reaction, since not all
particles have enough energy to react (see
activation energy, right).
16
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Heat added
Heated particles
collide with
greater energy,
~~"-----~
so more react.
Low concentration
High concentration
Breaking a
forge block
into eight
smaller blocks
increases its
surface area.
Catalyst
Surface catalyst
pe.~arrtpo~itidp .oihydr_age!i_p~roxi.deL.
:
'
'
'
Hydrogen
Homogenous catalyst
A catalyst in the same physical state* as the
reactants.
Heterogenous catalyst
A catalyst in a different physical state* from
that of the reactants.
~ - - ,_:___ ----Reacti~n-c:ataJ.rsed-eY.
il- .;.___;____
:
---~---
__ ,__
--~
(!1_qriggfl_es-i'GY _~ftg__;_
; Uncatalysr!d reoction :
: Time
decomposes to
Promoter
form oxygen
and water.
The reaction
speeds up when a
~----~-----~-~
A catalytic converter in _
a car's exhaust system
rontains two metals, -----~;
platinum and rhodium,
llll!ich act as catalysts.
w xic carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons
dng to the metols and
rmct together to form
mrbon dioxide and
lllOter.
utocatalysis
I\ process in which one of the products of a
catalyst for the reaction.
~action acts as a
Inhibitor
A substance that slows a reaction. Some work
by reducing the power of a catalyst.
Enzyme
A catalyst found in living things which
increases the rate of reaction _in a
natural chemica l process. For
more about enzymes, see
page 333.
Spiders feed by secreting enzymes
onto their prey. The enzymes
speed up chemical reactions
that break down the food.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Many chemical reactions continue until one or all of the reactants are used
up, and their products do not react together. When a reaction reaches this
stage, it is said to have come to completion. Other reactions, however,
never reach this stage. They are known as reversible reactions.
Reversible reaction
Dissociation
Ammonium
Ammonium ------,,,<"chloride
sublimes' and
splits to form
hydrogen
chloride gas and
ammonia gds the forward
reaction.
Heat
----,,7"-- -
reaction.
~-------
Increase temperature
~;~r;~
nen
NH 3 (g)
- co/or fades
dioxide
~=
go>
Solid ammonium
chloride
~~~o!~~e
and
oxygen are
Decrease
temperature
forward reaction
NH 4 Cl(s)
tJ()""""
- gases recombine.
+ HCl(g)
I
Reverse reaction
Forward reaction
The reaction in which products are formed from
the original reactants in a reversible reaction.
It goes from left to right in the equation.
Closed system
A system* in which no chemicals can escape
or enter. If a product of a reversible reaction
escapes, for example into the atmosphere,
reaction can no longer move back the othet"
way. A system from which chemicals can
escape is an open system.
Equilibrium .
The canceling out of two equal but opposill!
movements. For instance, a person walki~
up an escalator at the same speed as the
escalator is moving down is in equ ilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is an example of
eq ui librium - it occ urs w hen the forward
and reverse reactions are takin g place, b:
are ca nce ling eac h other out.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Chemical equilibrium
Fast
Products
Reactants
Reactants
2NH 3 (g)
Nitrogen
H2
Products
Ammonia
Hydrogen
Endothermic'
Haber process'.
Exothermic'
N2
Products
First equilibrium
position
Reactants
forward reaction
N2
H2
II
Le Chatelier's principle
A law stating that if changes are made to a
system* in equilibrium, the system adjusts
itself to reduce the effects of the change.
OR
reaction increased.
Lower concentration of
products - rate of reverse
reaction decreased.
;::= AB(g):
Molecule of A
~ 0 Ga~ a
..,
11
Molecule of 8- ----ll-Q
Molecule.ofAB ---o-<"'~
'";;
~~""""-""'===='
reaction decreased.
--
reaction increased.
I
, 1
Periodic table
.R
0
WW.
II
Atomic number~
.
Chemical symbol*
Approx. relative
atomic mass*
Li
Be
11
12
Na Mg
Period
A horizontal row of elements in the periodic
table. There are seven periods in all. Period 1
has only two elements_:_ hydrogen and
helium. Periods 2 and 3 each contain eight
elements and are called the short periods.
Periods 4, 5, 6 and 7 each contain between
18 and 32 elements. They are called the long
periods. Moving from left to right across a
period, the atomic number* increases by
one from one element to the next. Each
successive element has one more electron in
the outer shell* of its atoms. All elements in
the same period have the same number of
shells, and the regular change in the number
of electrons from one element to the next
leads to a fairly regular pattern of change in
23
24
19
20
Ca : Sc
39
40
I 45
37
38
I 39
Rb Sr
85
88
I 89
55
56
I 57 I 58
59
60
61
62
Cs Ba : La : ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
133
87
88
I 89 I 90
I
I
141
144
147
150
91
92
93
94
__
.... _
--
Fr Ra 1Ac 1 Th Pa u Np Pu
223
226 I
~2~ ~2:1
231
238
237
242
This shows a regular pattern of change across Period 2 in the ability of elements to reduce* or oxldlze* other elements and compou
(see also page 166). Neon is the exception - it is unreactive.
*Atomic number, 127; Chemical symbol, 122; Electron configuration, Outer shell, 127;
Oxidation, Oxidizing agent, Reducing agent, Reduction, 148; Relative atomic mass, 1 38.
w_ _ _ _-
_ ----:
---
- - -
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Group
Group number
Group I
Group II
DMeta/s
Metalloids
Group VII
Group VIII
(or Group 0)
Ww~ww
Group name
The alkali metals (see
pages 768-169)
The alkaline-earth metals
Non-metals
G
R
0
G
R
0
G
R
0
G
R
0
G
R
0
:v
; :,I ;,,
He
4
---n"
---~
65
Gd Tb
66
67
68
69
70
Dy Ho
Er
Tm Yb
71
Lu
12
14
16
19
20
13
14
15
16
17
18
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
27
28
31
32
35.5
40
31
32
33
34
35
36
30 I
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
Se
Br
Kr
52
55
56
59
59
64
65
I 70
73
75
79
80
84
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48 I 49
50
51
52
53
54
Nb Mo Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd Ag Cd : In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
131
Zr
91
I 72
I
1 Hf
162
165
167
169
173
175 : 178.5
98
99
100
101
102
Cm Bk
Cf
Es
Fm Md No
249
251
254
253
103 I
I
Lr 1
I
257 I
253
Ne
51
97
256
10
48
159
-- - -- ----
Ti
96
- -----
24
157
247
29
23
22
1---,
28
27
26
25
11
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Cu
Zn : Ga Ge As
93
96
99
101
103
106
108
112 : 115
119
122
128
127
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
82
83
84
85
86
Ta
Re
Os
lr
pt
Au
80 I 81
I
Hg 1 TI
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
181
184
186
190
192
195
197
201 : 204
207
209
210
210
222
I
I
1
I
I
--~- ---------------------- -
Metal
Non-metal
Solids
(except mercury)
Shiny
Condact.Mty"
Good
MaNeab.lllty"
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Generally high
Generally low
(except carbon)
Generally high
Generally low
Property
Metal
An element with characteristic physical
properti es that distinguish it from a
non-metal. El ements on the left of a period
have meta lli c properties. Moving to the
right, the elements gradually become less
metalli c. El ements that are not distinctly
meta l or non-metal, but have a mixture of
properties, are called metalloids. Elements
to the right of metalloids are non-metals.
Mt?ilingp.;;oflt
I
11
I
--
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the study of all the elements
and their compounds except those compounds made
of chains of carbon atom s (see organic chemistry,
pages 190-205) . The properties and reactions of
inorgan ic elements and compo unds fol low certa in
patterns, or trends, in the periodic table*. By
The properties-and
looking up and down groups* and ac ross
reactions of elements
periods* of the tabl e, it is possibl e to pred ict
make them suitable for
particular purposes. For
the reaction s of el ements. .
example, oxygen and
hydrogen burn easily and
are used in rocket fuel.
""
"~
0
"';;;3
" "'""
:s ~~
" 3
"'
:;:
"'- ------........,
Melting paints and boffing paint5 of gares tend to decreas_
Elements go from metals to metal/aids to non-met-0/s (see
CJr.ig.;. 7 6 5)
..
r;-
""~
~
"
.s~
-.::
"'
-!!!
"'
~
~
~
-2
"'
G
~
.::i
.s0
c..
g.
;e
.E
.lS
-!Cl
"~
-2
...,
c:
t;
.s
...," .
...
~
IS
"'
.
c:
77
u
N
l'l
11
1'l
:i:i
211
Cr
6'
st
lt
Co
ISe
~ ~~
z
211
Mn f.e
M
n
Co
x
Nl
Cu
$10
59
211
JD
31
Zn [ G<i Ge Al
.U
10
11
1'
,.
! f;"'1";""
~ - --- ---- ~-- -- - - ~ -n -------- -- = =n .:
IC
:n
:::
x
S4
30
11
kr
19
SI
~
.g.
,,.
"~
s"'
~
:s
..s"
"'
:;~
"'
!!l
Q'
:it-
I ll'
-I
lmru l nmsl!Jonurln
t-
.M
"'
"ll""r.r to <>id!;ilng
ageuts-- ------.....
Predicting reactions
Throughout the inorganic section of this book,
each group* of elements has an introduction
and chart which summarize some of the
properties of the group's elements. Below the
charts are blue boxes which _highlight trends
going down the group. After the introduction,
more common group members are d~fined .
lnfqrmtiti.on on the other members of the
group cah often be determined from trends
in reactivity" 1i?Oing down the group.
:;~
""
Q.
""
0
~-
...,
0
~
~
IO
;, ; I ~
~
~
...,
-=--~-----
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen (H 2 ), with an atomic number* of one, is the
first and lightest element in the periodic table*, and
the most common in the universe. It is a diatomic*,
odourless, inflammable gas which only occurs naturally
on Earth in compounds. It is made by the reaction of
natural gas and steam at high temperatures, or the reaction
of water gas* and steam over a catalyst*. It is a reducing
agent*, burns in air with a light blue flame and, when heated, reacts
with many substances, e.g. with sodi um to form sodium hydride (all
compounds of hydrogen and one other element are hydrides).
Hydrogen is used, for example, to make margarines (see
Sucrose (C H 0
the sugar in sweets, is
hydrogenation, page 193) and ammonia (see Haber process,
a compound of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
page 180), and as a rocket fuel: See also pages 217 and 218.
12
Hydrogen atom
Electron~.
Proton
Hydrogen molecule
Hydrogen peroxide (H 2 0
'
2Na(s) + H2 (g)
Hydrogen is a
Hydrogen
2NaHCs)
Sodium hydride
reducing agent'.
CuO(s) + H2 (g)
Copper(//) oxide
11),
2)
' .
Sodium
22
Hydrogen
Water
Deuterium (D or ~H)
An isotope* of hydrogen with one proton* and
one neutron*. It makes up 0.0156% of natural
hydrogen. Water molec ules containing
deuterium a re called deuterium oxide (0 20) or
heavy water molecules. Heavy water is used in
nuclear reactors to slow the fast moving neutrons.
Tritium (T or ~H)
An isotope* of hydrogen with one proton*
a nd two neutrons*. It is ra re but is prod uced by
nuclea r reactors. It is radioactive*, emitting
beta particles*. Tritiated water contains some
water molecules in which a hydrogen atom has
been replaced by a tritium atom. It is used by
doctors -to find how much fluid a patient passes,
Water (H 2 0 )
An oxide of hydrogen and one of the
most common compounds on Earth. It is a
colorless, odorless liquid which freezes
at 0C, boils at 100C, has its greatest density
(1 g cm-3 ) at 4C and is the best
solvent known . It is made of
polar molecules* linked by
hydrogen bonds* and
is formed when
hydrogen burns
in oxygen . See
also pages 206
and 218.
bonds'
Diagram of a water
molecule (polar
molecule*)
Hydroxide
A compound made of a hydroxide ion (Off)
and a cation*. Solutions containing more O Hions than H ions are a lkaline. Many
hydroxides are not water-so lu ble, e.g. lead(ll)
hydroxide (Pb(OH) 2 ). However, the hydroxides
of Group I elements and some others are
wate r-solubl e.
Atomic number, 127; Beta particle, 128; Catalyst, 161; Cation, 130; Covalent bond, 132; Diatomic, 124;
Hydrogen bond, 134; Hydronlum Ion, 150; Isotope, 127; Neutron, 126; Oxidizing agent, 148; Periodic table, 164;
Polar molecule, 1 33; Proton, 126; Radioactivity, 128; Reducing agent, 148; Water gas, 1 79 (Carbon monoxide).
._..-J , - 1.) . I
Name of
element
Chemical
symbol
Lithium
Li
r ,.
,,
Relative atomic
mass ""
6.94
Electron
configuration
2,1
Sodium
Na
22.99
2,8,1
Potassium
39.JO
2,8,8,1
Rubidium
Rb
85.47
Cesium
Cs
132.90
~rancium
Fr
No known
stable isotope,..
Lithium (Li)
The least reactive element in Group I of
the periodic table and the lightest solid
element. Lithium is rare and is only found
in a few compounds, from which it is
extracted by electrolysis* . Jt burns in air
with a crimson flame. Lithium reacts
vigorously with chlorine to form lithium
chloride (LiCI) which. is used in welding
flux and air conditioners. A piece of lithium
placed in water glides across the surface,
fizzing gently.
Water
Lithium hydroxide
I
N
R
E
A
Hydrogen
'
After the reaction, the solution is strongly alkaline, due to the
lithium hydroxide fbrmM.
s
I
N
G
Appearance
Uses
Silver-white
metal
See below.
Soft, silver-white
metal
Soft, silver-white
metal
Complex
configuration
bul still one
outer e lectron,
I \_
Lithium
Reactivity
Soft, silver-white
metal
Soft metal wtth
gold sheen
See below.
See page 169.
To make
special glass
In photocells* and
as a catalyst
__} \
Going down the group, the reaction of the elements with water
gets more violent, each forming an alkaline solution and
hydrogen gas. The first three members tarnish in air and
rubidium and ~esium catch fire. fi:~ ~coup I elements a~
stored under oil because of their reactivity. They are soft enough
to be cut easily with a knife.
Sodium (Na)
A member of Group I of the periodic table,
found in many compound s. Its main ore is
rock salt (containing sodium chloride - see
also potassium). It is extracted from molten
sodium chloride by electrolysis*, using a
Downs' cell. Sodium burns in air with an
orange-yellow flame and reacts violently
with non-metals and water (see equation for
lithium and water, and substitute Na for Li .
It is used in sodium vapor lamps and as a
coolant in nuclear power stations.
Downs' cell (used to extract sodium from
molten sodium chloride by electrolysis*)
Electrolyte' of
molten sodium
chloride
(600 C)
Steel cathode* - ++-P"f':
encircling
anode* (molten sodium
+
produced here).
Graphite anode' (chlorine produced hew
Anode, 156 (Electrode); Catalyst, 161; Cathode, 156 (Electrode); Electrolysis, Electrolyte, 156;
Electron configuration, 127; Ionic compound, 131; Isotope, Outer shell, l27; Periodic table, 164;
Photocell, 345; Reducing agent, 148; Relative atomic mass, 138.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Potassium (K)
A member of Group I of the periodic table.
Potassium compounds are found in sea water
and rock salt (containing potassium chloride
- see also sodium). Potassium is extracted
from molten potassium chloride by
electrolysis*. It is very reactive, reacting
violentl y with chlorine and also with water
(see equation for lithium, and substitute K for
Li). It has few uses, but some of its
compounds are important.
Potassium reacting with water. It whizzes across the water giving
off so much heat that the hydrogen produced bursts into flames.
Potassium bums
with a lilac flame.
"
()G>
Soap . Q~
Sodium
carbonate
Water
Carbon
dioxide
!iD
GROUP II,
THE ALKALINE-EARTH M ETA LS
The elements in Group II of th e periodic table* are called the alkaline-earth
metals. The phys ica l properties of the members of G roup II follow certain
trend s, and, except beryllium, they all have simila r chemical properties.
Th ey are very reacti ve, thou gh less reacti ve than Group I elements. The
chart below shows some of thei r properties . These two pages co ntain more
information on magnesium, calcium and thei r compo unds. Magnesi um and
calcium are typical Group II elements.
mass*
element
9.01
configuration
2,2
Beryllium
Be
Magnesium
Mg
24.31
2,8,2
Calcium
Ca
40.31
2,8,8,2
Strontium
Sr
87.62
Complex
configuration,
but still 2 outer
e lectrons
Barium
Ba
137.34
Radium
Ra
Rare radioactive
metal
I
N
R
E
A
I
N
G
Silver-while
metal
Soft, silver-white
metal
See below.
See right.
In fireworks
Soft, silver-while
metal
Soft, sliverwhite metal
ln fireworks
and medicine
An isotope;' 1~ used
to treat cancer.
Going down the group, elements react more readily with both
water and oxygen (see magnesium ond calcium). They all
tarnih' in air, but barium reads so violently with both watw
and oxygen that it is stored under oil.
Magnesium (Mg)
A mem ber of G roup II of the periodic tab le. It
only occurs natura ll y in co mpounds, main ly
in eith er dolomite (CaCO,.MgCO, - a rock
made of magnesi um and calcium carbonate)
or in magnesium chloride (MgCl2 ) , fo und in
sea water. Magnesiu m is prod uced by the
electrolysis* of mo lten magnesium chl oride.
It burns in air w ith a bright white fl ame.
Hard, while
metal
2Mg(s)
Magnesium
0 2(9)
2Mg0(s)
Magnesium
oxide
Oxygen
Mg(s)
+ 2HCl(aq)
Magnesium
Hydrochloric
acid
-'
Mg(s)
MgCl2(aq) + H:z(gl
Magnesium
Cl2(g)
Chlorine
MgCb! Magl1e5F
eh~
H~
Magnesium
chloride
---.;~$"~~--
Mg(s)
Magnesium
+ H20(g)
Steam
MgO(s)
Magnesium
oxide
Alloy, 344; Chlorophyll, 255; Covalent compounds, 132; Electrolysis, 156; Electron configuration, 127;
Ionic compound, 131; Isotope, Outer shell, 127; Photosynthesi s, 254; Periodic table, 164;
Radio activity, 128; Reducing agent, 148; Relative atomic mass, 1 38; Tarnish, 345.
+ H2(g)
Hydrogm
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
-7
MgC'2(aq) + H20(1)
Hydrochloric
acid
Magnesium
chloride
Water
Calcium (Ca)
Calcium sulfate
A white solid that
occurs both as
CaCOJ(S)
Calcium
carbonate
Calcium
oxide
reaction
CaO(s)
Rev~ib/e
C02(g)
Carbon
dioxide
Water
-7
Carbon
dioxide
Ca(HCQ3)2(aq)
Caleium
bicarbonate
anhydrite calcium
sulfate (CaSO~) and
gypsum (CaS04 .2H 2 0 ).
TRANSITION METALS
Transition metals have certain properties In common - they are hard, tough,
shiny, malleable* and ductile*. They conduct* heat and electricity, and have
high melting points, boiling points and densities. Transition metals form
complex ions* which are colored in solution. They also have more than one
poss ible charge, e.g. Fe2 + and Fe3 +. Transition metals have many uses, some of
which are shown on these two pages. (Information on iron, copper and zinc
can be found on pages 174-175 .) The members of the inner transition series
(see page 165) are not shown here, as they are very rare and often unstable.
21
22
Sc
Ti
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Scandium
ntonium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Cobatt
Nickel
Copper
45
48
51
52
55
56
59
59
64
65
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Pd
Ag
Zr
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
YHrium
ZJrconlum
Niobium
Molybdenum
Tecl)nellum
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
89
91
93
96
99
101
103
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
I
I
I
I La
Nb
Iron
Lanthanum
Cadmium
106
108
112
78
79
80
Pt
Au
Hg
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
178.5
181
184
186
190
192
195
Cd
Silver
Hafnlum
139
Zinc
Gold
Mercury
197
201
O Iron
LJ Has various uses, some of which are described on page 174.
Scandium
Titanium
A
metal used to make strong, ~
.
_ ..
'; -- .._ . -
light, corrosion-resistant alloy>*
with high melting points, e.g. those
: :
used in aircraft wings, artificial hips, heart,
l
pacemakers, golf clubs and jewefry.
fj
t:/
EJ
Cobalt
ceramics.
Vanadium
Chromium
EJ
Manganese
172
Nickel
a catalyst*, in alloys *, in
electroplating* and in rechargeable
batteries. An alloy of nickel is used in
coins and stainless steel.
W Copper
LJ Has various uses, some of which are described on 1JO!!i! 175.
1:1 Zinc
LJ Has various uses, some of which a.re described on page 175.
Yttrium
Lanthanum
""' .
Zirconium
A rare metal used in alloys, abrasives*, flame-proofing
compounds and to absorb neutrons in nuclear reactors.
EJ
N/obium
.,
resistant to corrosion at high temperatures. Its
, '
alloys are used in jet engines and rockets.
'
EJ
Molybdenum
A hard, white metal that is used in alloys., e.g. special
steels. ft is used lo make ball bearings and lamp filaments.
Technetium
Hafnium
A metal used in control rods' in nuclear reactors to
absorb neutrons, and in alloys to make cutting tools.
Tantalum
Tungsten
A hard, gray metal that is resistant to corrosion. It is
used in alloys to make tools and lamp filaments.
EJ
Rhenium
EJ
EJ
Osmium
EJ
Ruthenium
A hard, brittle metal. ft is used in alloys and as
a catalyst.
Rhodium
EJ
Palladium
Silver
EJ
Cadmlum
Iridium
A rare, hard, unreactive _metal that looks like platinum
and is found with it. ft is used in medicine in radioactive
implants to control tumors and (with platinum) in heart pacemakers. It is also found in an alloy' used for fountain pen nib-tips.
Platinum
EJ
Gold
EJ
Mercury or quicksilver
Abrasive, Alloy, Amalgam, 344; Atomic number, 127; Catalyst, 16-1; Conductivity, 28, 63; Control rods, 94; Electrode, ,1 56;
Electroplating, 157; Fission (nuclear), 129; Gasoline, 199; Halides, 186; Hydrocarbons, 190; Isotope, 127; Neutron, 126;
Octane rating, 199; Oxidizing ~gent, 148; Radioactivity, 128; Thermocouple, 27.
'\)~ ~
\)
Steel
Reactions in
the furnace:
Heated limestone
forms calcium oxide
and gives off carbon
dioxide. Oxygen from
hot air reacts with
coke and also forms
carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide reacts
with coke to form
carbon monoxide.
C0 2 + C-+ 2CO
Iron ore is reduced
to iron by carbon
monoxide.
Fe 20 3 + 3CO
~2Fe + 3C02
Reversible
[ reaction
Slag removed__J
(impurities plus
calcium oxide).
[Molten iron
tapped off here.
wroLgM iron
is
used to make
crane hooks and
anchor chains.
Iran is found in
hemoglobin
in red blood cells.
oi
tlh~r~us~tiii~Ciiiiif
from spreading.
put
stop
Grease to
is put
on engine parts
to protect them
from rust.
Alloy, 344; Covalent compounds, 1 32; Ductility, 344 (Ductile); Electrochemical series, 159;
Hemoglobin, 286 (Red blood cells); Ionic compound, 131; Malleability, 345 (Malleable); Oxidation, 148; Periodic table.
Phosphoric acid, 182 (Phosphorus pentoxide); Reduction, 148; Reversible reaction, 162; Transition metals, 1 72.
Copper (Cu)
Copper(ll) or cupric
compounds
Compounds that contain Cu 2 ions, e.g.
copper(ll) sulfate and copper(ll) chloride.
Copper(ll) compounds dissolve in water to
form light blue solutions, and are much
more common than copper(I) compounds.
Copper(ll) sulfate (CuS04 ) has many uses,
e.g. in dyeing and electroplating*. It is
also used in Bordeaux mixture, which
ki lls molds growi ng on fruit and
vegetables. (See also test for._
water, page 218.) Copper(ll)
chloride (CuCl 2 ) is
used to remove
1!/11
sulfur from
It is used in alloys such as brass
(copper plus zinc) and bronze (copper
plus tin) to make "copper" coins,
and in cupronlckel (copper plus
Zinc (Zn)
An element in Period 4 of the periodic table*.
It is a si lvery, soft metal which tarnishes* in
air. It is too reactive to occur naturally, and its
main ores are zinc blende (ZnS), calamine
(ZnCO,) and zincite (ZnO). The z inc is
extracted by roasting the ore to form zinc
oxide (ZnO) and then reducing* it by heating
it with coke. Zinc is above hydrogen in the
electrochemical series*. It reacts with oxygen,
with steam when red-hot, and with acids. It is
used to coat iron and steel to prevent rust
(galvanizing - see also page 174 and
sacrificial protection, page 159) . It is also used
in alloys*, particu larly brass (copper and z inc).
/,'ff
Copper(//)
chloride is
used in
fireworks to
give a green
co/or.
Name of
element
Chemical
symbol
Relative atomic
Electron
configuration *
mass*
Boron
10.81
2,3
Aluminum
Al
26.98
2,8.3
Gallium
Ga
69,72
Indium
In
114.82
Thallium
TI
204.37
Aluminum (Al)
A member of Group Ill of the periodic table.
It is the most common metal found on Earth,
and occurs naturally in many compounds, e.g.
bauxite (see aluminum oxide) from which it
is extracted by electrolysis*. It is hard, I ight,
ductile*, malleable* and a good conductor of
heat and electricity. It reacts with the oxygen
in air to form a surface layer of aluminum
oxide which stops further corrosion. It also
reacts with ch lorine, dilute acids and alkalis.
0
T
R
E
N
D
Complex
configuration
but stm three
outer electrons
Reactivity
...
Appearance
Uses
Brown powder
or yellow crystals
White metal
See below.
Silver-white
metal
Soft, silVer-whlte
metal
Soft, silver-white
metal
Jn semiconductors*
3)
'
or alumina
Carbon
cathof*
forms
lining.
Carbon anode*
Steel
Molten
aluminum
metal
tapped
off here.
L.~~~
conducts electricity
//;<;:t'h*'t-7
better for its
weight than
copper.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
GROUP IV ELEMENTS
The elements in Group IV of the periodic table* are generally not very
reactive and the members show increasingly metallic properties going down
the group. For more about the properties of these elements, see the chart
be low, silicon and lead (this page) and carbon, pages 178-179.
_Some properties ~f Group IV elements
Name of
element
Chemical
symbol
Carbon
Silicon
Si
Relative atomic
mass*
12.0l
20.09
Electron
configuration
Reactivity
2A
2.8A
T
Germanium
i''' nn
Lead
Ge
R
E
N
D
72.59
Sn
11 8.69
Pb
207.!9
Complex
configuration
but still four
outer electrons
Silicon (Si)
Appearance
Uses
Solid non-metal
(see page 178)
Shiny, g ray
metalloid * solid
Grayish-white
metalloid' solid
Soft silver-white
metal
See below.
In transistors
Tin plating, e.g.
food containers
Soft silver-{:lray
metal
See below.
""'
Silicones
Lead (Pb)
A member of Group IV of the periodic table.
A soft, malleable* metal extracted from galena
(lead(ll) sulfide). It is not very reactive, though
it tarnishes* in air, reacts slightly with soft
water* and slowly with chlorine and nitric
acid. It forms ionic compounds* called
lead(ll) or plumbous compounds, e.g. lead(ll)
oxide (PbO), and covalent compounds*
called lead(IV) or plumbic compounds,
Sand is impure
quartz. Qua~
z
crystals are
used in
watches.
,~
L,~
Silicates
Silicon compounds that also contain a metal
and oxygen, e.g. calcium metasilicate (CaSi0 3 ),
and make up most of the Earth's crust. They are
used to make glass and ceramics.
I
1
....A
.. . I
/~
<<----,/
Electro::~:::;dl~:i:(::~:~::~~~::~es' ~/
CARBON
Carbon (C) is a member of Group IV
of the periodic table* (see also chart,
page 177). It is a non-metal and
has several allotropes*, including
diamond, graphite and
buckminsterfullerene, and an
amorphous* (unstructured) form charcoal. Carbon is not very reactive.
It only reacts with steam when
heated, and with hot, concentrated*
sulfuric or nitric acids (see equation
below). Carbon atoms can bond with
up to four other atoms, including
other carbon atoms. As a result, there
are a vast number of carbon-based
compounds (organic compounds see page 190). Living tissue is
made of carbon compounds,
and animals break down
these compounds to
liberate energy (see
Diamond is found in a
rock called kimberlite.
Rough diamonds are
dull but can be cut to
make glittering gems.
Diamond
A crystalline, transparent form of carbon. ~
It is the hardest naturally occurring
substance. All the carbon atoms are joined by
strong covalent bonds* - accounting for its
hardness and high melting point (3,750C).
Diamonds are used as abrasives*, glass
cutters, jewelry and on drill bits. Synthetic
diamonds are made by subjecting graphite
to high pressure and temperature, a very
costly process.
The crystal structure
of diamond
Each carbon atom is bonded to
four other carbon atoms by
covalent bonds' which are
arranged to form a tetrahedron.
Diamond is
harder and denser
than graphite.
carbon cycle,
page 209).
Carbon
Nitric
acid
Graphite
2CO(g)
Carbon
monoxide
Nitrogen
dioxide
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Carbon
Oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
2C(s)
+ 0 2 (g)
Carbon
Oxygen
Covalent ho.I
C
Carbon
+ 2Pb0
Lead(//)
oxide
C02 + 2Pb
Carbon
dioxide
Lead
Abrasive, 344; Allotropes, 136 (Allotropy); Amorphous, 135; Concentrated, 144; Covalent bond, 1 32;
Electrolysis, 156; Giant atomic lattice, 1 37; Inert electrode, 156; Oxides, 183; Periodic table, 164;
Reactivity series, 158; Reducing agent, 148; van der Waals' forces, 134.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Buckminsterfullerene
Coal
~---Double
covalent
bond*
Alf molecules of
buckminsterfullerene are
icosahedral they have 20
hexagons and
12 pen~agons.
--"~--f!'-"I''-
Single
covalent
bond*
Pentagonal
Hexagonal
r i n g - - - - - - _ , ."'""..,. - - - -' - - - - ring
:=
I
2W(aq) + CQ3r(aq)
Carbon fibers
Black, silky threads of pure ca_!:!2._o~ made from
organic textile fibers. They are stronger and
stiffer than other materials of the same we ight,
and are used to make ligbt boats.
Carbonates
Compounds made of a metal cation*
and a carbonate anion * (CO/-), e.g.
calcium carbonate (CaC0 3). Except Group I
carbonates, they are insoluble in water and
decompose upon heating. They all react
with acids to give off carbon dioxide.
GROUP V ELEMENTS
The elements in Group V of the periodic table* become increasingly
metallic going dow n the group _(see chart below).
SOme pro~rll9s Of~~ 'jl8g?e~~
c- -
Electron
configuration
Name of
element
Chemical
symbol
Nitrogen
14.00
2.5
Phosphorus
30.97
2.8,5
Arsenic
As
74.92
Anlh'nony
Sb
121 .75
Bismuth
Bi
208.98
Relative atomic
mass*
-~
Reactivity
I
N
R
E
A
Complex
configuration
but still five
outer electrons
""
I
N
G
--
--
__.
.:::::..,
Appearance
Uses
Color1ess gas
See below.
Non-metallic solid
(see page 182}
Three allotropes
Cone Is metallic)
Silver-white
metal
In semiconductors
ond alloys
In 1ype metal
and other alloys
'\.
All the atoms of Group V elements have five electrons in their
outer sheW. They all react to form covalent compounds
in which they share three ofthese electrons with three from
another atom, or atoms (see octet, page 127). Antimony,
bismuth and nitrogen also form Ionic compounds.
I
I
Nitrogen (N 2 )
Haber process
Lithium
Nitrogen
2Li3 N(s)
Lithium
nitride
reversible*_
Iron
catalyst'
+ 3H 2 (g)
N2 (g)
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
2NH3 (g)
400C
Ammonia
250 atmospheres
Haber process
Gases
puniitd
Hydrogen
'-=--+ Gases
compressed
J
Nitrogen
Uncombined
_JJ
nitrogen ar.d
nvtfrngen
recirculate.
Liquid
ammonia
tapped off.
+--
cases cooled
and
condensed.
NHl
+-gas
Recii:tion
chamber
qpntain~._.
catalyst
Allotropes, 136 (Allotropy); Alloy, 344; Catalyst, 161; Covalent compounds, 1 32; Diatomic, 124; Electron contlgurat ' - _
Exothermic reaction, 146; Fractional dlstlllatlon of llquld air, 183; Ionic compound, 1 31; Outer shell, 127;
Oxidation state, 149; Periodic table, 164; Relative atomic mass, 138; Reversible reaction, 1 62; Semiconductor, 65.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Ammonia (NH 3 )
A colorless, strong-smelling gas that is less
dense than air and is a covalent compound*
made by the Haber process. It is reducing
agent* and the only common gas to form an
alkaline solution in water: This solution is
known as ammonia solution (NH 4 0H) or
ammonium hydroxide. Ammonia burns in
pure oxygen to give nitrogen and
water, and reacts with c hlorine to
give ammonium chloride.
Cool
Jl:_-
1:-'
v
{/
Heat
Ammonium
chloride
NH4 Cl(g)
Ammonia
Hydrogen
chloride
C u(N03 ) 2 + 2H 2 0 + 2N02
Water
Nitrogen
dioxide
oxidizing agent*.
Nitrogen dioxide dimerizes (two molecules of the same
substance bond together) below 21 .S' C to form dlnitrogen
tetraoxide (N 2 0 4 ) , a colorless gas.
Below 21.s 0 c
recombines
>
Reversible
reaction
<
-
Group V (continued)
Nitric acid (HN0 3 ) or nitric(V) acid
A light yellow, oily, water-soluble liquid. It is
a covalent compound* containing nitrogen
with an oxidation state* of +5. It is a very
strong and corrosive acid which is made
ind ustrially by the three-stage Ostwald
process (shown below).
Stage 1: Ammonia reacts with oxygen.
Platinum-rhodium
catalyst*
4NH 3 + 502
Ammonia
Oxygen
4NO + 6Hp
-7
900C
Nitrogen
monoxide
Water
Nitrogen
monoxide
Oxygen
Nitrogen
dioxide
Nitregen
dioxide
Water
Oxygen
Nitrates or nitrate(V)
compounds
Solid ionic compounds*
containing the nitrate
anion* (N0 3- ) and a metal
cation* (see test for nitrate
ion, page 218). Nitrogen
Sodium nitrate
in a nitrate ion has an
(NaNO,) is used to
make gunpowder.
oxidation state* of +5.
Nitrates are salts* of nitric
acid and are made by adding a
metal oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
to dilute nitric acid. All nitrates are
water-soluble and most give off nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen on heating (some
exceptions are sodium, potassium and
ammonium nitrates).
Sodium and
ammonium
nitrates are used
as fertilizers.
Nitric acid
Phosphorus(P)
A non-metallic member
of Group V (see chart,
page 180). Phosphorus
only occurs naturally in
compounds. Its main ore
is apatite (3Ca3 (P0 4 ),.CaF2 ).
It has two common forms.
White phosphorus, the most
reactive form, is a poisonous,
waxy, white solid that bursts
into flames in air. Red
phosphorus is a dark red
powder that is not poisonous
and not very flammable.
The minerals
apatite (left) and
turquoise (right)
contain phosphorus.
5)
Red phosphorus on
the tip of a match reacts
when struck against the
chemicals on a matchbox
to produce a flame.
Anion, 130; Base, 151; Catalyst,-161; Cation, 130; Covalent compounds, 132; Dehydrating agent, 344;
Ionic compound, 131; Oxidation state, 149; Oxidizing agent, Reducing agent, 148; Rust, 174;- Salts, 153.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
GROUP VI ELEMENTS
The elements in Group VI of the periodic table* show increasing metallic
properties and decreasing chemical reactivity going down-the group. The
chart below shows some of the properties of these elements.
~~~---=
<
ll t''
-- - .---- Chemical
Relative atomic
mass
element
symbol
Oxygen
15.99
2,6
Sulfur
32.06
2 ,8,6
Selenium
Se
Reactivity
D
E
R
E
78.96
Tellurium
Te
127.60
Polonium
Po
Radioactive
element
Complex
configuration
but sttll six outer
electrons
I
N
G
- -e
..,
.J
Appearance
Uses
Colorless gas
(see below)
See below.
Yellow. non-metallic
solid (see page 184)
In photocells
Silver-white m etalloid*
solid
In alloys*, calored
glass, semiconductors
Metal
I \
The atoms of all the elements in Group VI have six electrons in their outer shell'.
They need two electrons to fill their outer shell (see octet, page 12 7) and react
with other substances to form both Ionic and covalent compounds'. The
elements with the smallest atoms are most reactive as the atoms produce the
most powerful attraction for the two electrons.
Oxygen (02)
A colorless, odorless; diatomic* gas that
makes up 21 % of the atmosphere. It is the
most abundant element in the Earth's crust
and is vital for life (see internal respiration,
page 209). It supports combustion, dissolves
in water to form a neutral* solution and is
a very reactive oxidizing agent*, e.g. it
oxidizes iron to iron(lll) oxide. Plants
produce oxygen by photosynthesis* and
it is obtained industrially by fractional
distillation of liquid air. It has many uses,
e.g. in hospitals and to break down sewage.
See preparation of, and test for, oxygen, on
pages 217 and 218.
Ozone (03 )
A poisonous, bluish gas made of molecules
whic h contain three oxygen atoms. It is an
allotrope* of oxyge n found in the uppe r
atmosphere where it absorbs most of the Sun's
harmful ultraviolet radiation (but see ozone
depletion, page 210). It is produced when
e lectrical sparks pass th rough a ir, e.g. when
lightning occurs. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing
agent* and is sometimes used to sterilize water.
-+
-+
Dust is
removed.
to expand
causing it to
cool further.
-+
Waterand
carbon
- ---.
Oxides
Compounds of oxygen and one other
eleme nt. Metal oxides are mostly ionic
compounds* and bases*, e.g. calcium oxide
(CaO). Some metal and metalloid* oxides are
amphoteric*, e.g. aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 ) .
Non-metal oxides are covalent* and often
acidic*, e.g. carbon dioxide (C02 ).
*Acidic, 150; Allotropes, 136; Alloy, 344; Amphoterlc, Base, 151; Covalent compounds, 132; Diatomic, 124; Electron
configuration, 127; Ionic compound, 131; Metalloids, 165; Neutral, 151; Noble gases, 189; Outer shell, 127; Oxidizing agent, 148;
Periodic table, 164; Photocell, 345; Photosynthesis, 254; Radioactivity, 128; Relative atomic mass, 138; Semiconductor, 65.
SULFUR
Sulfur (S) is a member of Group VI of the periodic :
table* (see chart, page 183). It is a yellow, non-metallic
solid that is insoluble in water. It is polymorphic* and
has two allotropes* - rhombic and monoclinic sulfur.
Sulfur is found uncombined in underground deposits
Su/fur
(see Frasch process) and is also extracted from
atom
petroleum* and metal sulfides (compounds of sulfur
and another element), e.g. iron(ll) sulfide (FeS). Sulfur
Covalent
bond*
burns in air with a blue flame to form sulfur dioxide and
reacts with many metals to form sulfides. It is used to
Both rhombic and
sulfur are
vulcanize* rubber, and to make sulfuric acid, medicines and monoclinic
mode of puckered rings
fungicides*.
Rhombic sulfur
Plastic sulfur
Rhombic sulfur is
denser than
monoclinic sulfur as
the sulfur rings ore
more tightly pocked
together.
Flowers of sulfur
A fine, yellow powder formed when sulfur
vapor is cooled quickly. The molecules are in
rings of eight atoms.
Frasch process
The method used to extract sulfur from
underground deposits by melting it. Sulfur
produced this way is 99.5% pure.
Frasch process
I
S(,j/l,
Nrltitlr
Tliii,.1: ,lurkl<:e ws
und(Jfr
Su/fur deposit
3. Liquid suJJur (heavier than
water) col/eds in a pool.
Suih:Jr lf!.Y
5. Air bubbles
from compressed
air pipe lighten
molten sulfur,
helping it pass
bock up the wel.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 5)
A colorless, poisonous gas, which smells like bad
eggs. It dissolves in water to form a weak acid*.
It is given off when organic matter rots and
when a dilute acid is added to a metal sulfide.
Cu + 2H 2S04
CuS04 + 502 + 2H 20
-7
Copper Concentrated
sulfuric acid
Copper(//)
Su/fur
su/fate
dioxide
Water
Copper(//)
oxide
Copper(//)
su/fate
Dilute
sulfuric acid
not vice
versa~
Contact process
The industrial process used to make
sulfuric acid.
Contact process
Dry and pure su/fur dioxide and air are passed over a
catalyst of vanadium pentoxide at 450C.
Su/fur dioxide
Oxygen
Su/fur trioxide
503 + H2S04
-7
H2S201
Su/fur Concentrated
Fuming
trioxide
sulfuric acid sulfilric acid
Fuming
sulfuric acid
Water
Sulfuric acid
*Base, 151; Bleach, 344; Catalyst, 161; Cation, 130; Covalent compounds, 132; Dehydrating agent, 344;
Dibasic, 153; Electrochemical series, 159; Fumigation, 344; Hygroscopic, 206; Ionic compound, 131;
Oxidizing agent, Reducing agent, 148; Salts, 153; Strong acid, 152; Volatile, 345; Weak acid,] 52.
:.
+ Br2(I)
...
2KBr(aq)
+ l 2(S)
~--------~~
...........
- --.-.. -
Chemical
symbol
Fluorine
Relative atomic
mass*
18.99
Electron
c onfiguration
2,7
Chlorine
Cl
35.45
2,8 ,7
Bromine
Br
79.91
2,8 ,18,7
Iodine
126.90
Al
No stable
isotope*
Astatine
2,8,18, l8,7
Oxidizing
power
Reactivity
R
E
A
R
E
A
I
N
G
.....
I
N
G
Appearance
Pale yellow-green
gas
Pale green-yellow
gas
Dark-red fuming
liquid
Non-metallic
black-grai,csolid
Fluorine (F 2 )
A member of Group VII of the periodic table.
It is a diatomic* gas, extracted from fluorospar
(CaF 2 ) and cryolite (Na1 AIF 6 ). It is the most
reactive member of the group and is a very
powerful oxidizing agent*. It reacts with
almost alJ elements. See pictures for
some examples of its uses.
Fluorine reacts to form useful, stable organic
compounds', called fluorocarbons, e.g.
poly(tetrafluoroethene), or PTFE (see
also page 195). Skis are coated with
PTFE to reduce friction.
I\__
The atoms of all the .elements in Group VII contain seven
electrons in their outer shell' and they all react to form both
ionic and covalent compounds'. The elements at the top of
the group form more ionic compounds than those further
down the group.
-,,
atomic ~
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chlorine (Cl 2 )
A member of Group VII of the period ic table.
A poisonous, choking diatomic* gas which is
very reactive and only occurs naturally in
compounds. Sodium chloride (NaCl), its most
important compound, is found in rock salt
and brine. Chlorine is extracted from brine by
electrolysis*, using the Downs' cell (see
sodium, page 168 and also chlorine, page
216). It is a very strong oxidizing agent*.
Many elements react with ch lorine to form
chlorides (see equation below).
Chlorine gas reacts with sodium
to form sodium chloride common salt. Although chlorine
gas is poisonous and sodium is
extremely reactive, both
chemicals lose these dangerous
properties when they join
together to form sodium
chloride. In the laboratory, this
reaction takes place inside a
fume cupboard', so the
harmful gas does not escape.
2Na(s)
+ Cl2 (g)
Hydrogen
Chlorine
2NaCl(s)
Hydrogen
chloride
Chlorides
Compounds formed when chlorine
combines with another element. Chlorides
of non-metals (see hydrogen chloride) are
covalent compounds*, usually liquids or
gases. Chlorides of metals, e.g. sodium
chloride (NaCl), are usually solid, watersoluble, ionic compounds* made of a
chloride anion* (Ci-J and metal cation*.
See also page 218.
Chlorine
kills germs
found in
swimming
po"ols.
Bath of
concentrated
hydrochloric
acid ----"1~
Line of metal
Resin* covering
metal.
or sodium chlorate(!)
A crystalline, white solid,
stored dissolved in
water, and formed when
chlorine is added to a
cold, dilute sodium
hydroxide solution. It is
used in domestic bleach*
and also to bleach paper
pulp white for writing.
Bleached
writing paper
or sodium chlorate(V)
A white, crystalline solid,
formed when chlorine
is added to warm
concentrated sodium
hydroxide, and
also when sodium
hypochlorite is warmed.
Sodium chlorate
kills weeds.
Anion, 1 30; Base, 151; Bleach, 344; Cation, 130; Covalent compounds 132 Diatomic 124
Electrochemical series, 159; Electrolysis, 156; Fume cupboard, 224; G~lva~lzing, 1 74' (Ru:t);
Germicide, 344; Ionic compound, 131; Oxidizing agent, 148; Polar.solvent, 144; Resins, 345; Strong acid, 152.
Bromine (Br 2 )
A member of Group VII of the
periodic table* (the halogens see chart, page 186). It is a
volatile*, diatomic* liquid that gives off a
poisonous, choking vapor. It is very reactive
and only occurs naturally in co mpounds, e.g.
those found in marine organisms, rocks, sea
water and some inland lakes. It is extracted
from sodium bromide (NaBr) in sea water by
adding chlorine. Bromine is a strong oxidizing
agent*. It reacts with most elements to form
bromides, a nd dissolves slightly in water to
give an orange solution of bromine water.
Bromine compounds are used in medi ci ne,
photography, a nd disinfectants. It is used to
make 1,2-dibromoethane (CH 2 BrCH 2 Br)
which is added to gasoline to stop lead from
accumulating in engines.
Bromides
Compounds of bromine a nd one other e lement.
Bromides of non-metals are covalent
compounds* (see hydrogen bromide). Bromides
of metal s are usually ionic compounds* made .
of bromide anions* (Bn and metal cations*.
Excepting silver bromide (AgBr), they are a ll
water-soluble. See also page 218.
Iodine (1 2 )
A member of Group VII of the periodic table*
(the halogens - see chart, page 186): A
reactive, diatomic*, crystalline solid. It is
extracted from sodium iodate (NalO,) a nd
seaweed. It is a n oxidizing agent* and reacts
with many elements to form iodides. When
heated, it sublimes*, givi ng off a purple
vapor. Iodine is on ly slightly so luble in pure
water, however, it dissolves well in potassium
iodide (Kl) so lution and a lso in some
organic solvents.
The main food sources of Iodine are sea food, cod liver oil, fruit
and vegetables. Some table salt has iodine
added to it. Lack of iodine in the
diet means that the thyroid gland
cannot produce enough
thyroxln' hormone.
Thyroxin is
needed to
regulate body
metabolism.
People with a thyroxin
deficiency suffer from goitre.
Seaweed contains up
to 0.5% Iodine (by
weight).
;;;;
in
Iodides
'Acidic, 150; Anion, C<1tlon, 130; Cov<1lent compounds, 1321 Dl<1tomic, 124; Ionic compound; l 31;
.Periodic t<1ble, 1..64; Oxidizing <1gent, 148; Subllmatlon,T21; Thyroxin, 330; Volatile, 345.
Radon (Rn)
The last member of Group VIII of the periodic
table. It is radioactive*, occurring as a res'u lt
of the radioactive decay* of radium.
Argon (Ar)
The most abundant member
of Group VIII of the periodic
table. It is a colorless,
odorless, monatomic* gas
that makes up 0.9% of the air.
Obtained by the fractional
distillation of liquid air*, it is
totally unreactive, having no known
compounds. It is used in electrK:
light bulbs and fluorescent tubes.
Electric
light bulb
Krypton (Kr)
Helium (He)
The first member of Group VIII of the periodic
table. It is a colorless, odorless, monatomic*
gas found in the atmosphere (one part in
200,000) and in some natural gases in the
USA. It is obtained by the fractional distillation
of liquid air* and is completely unreactive,
having no known compounds. It is used in
airships and balloons, as it is eight times less
dense than air and not inflammable, and
also by deep-sea divers __....~~~~~~
to avoid "the
Xenon (Xe)
Helium-filled
airship
Neon (Ne)
A member of Group VIII of the
periodic table. A colorless,
odorless monatomic* gas
found in the atmosphere (one
part in 55,000). It is obtai ned
by the fractional distillation
of liquid air* and is totally
unreactive, having no known
compounds. It is used in neon
signs and fluorescent lighting .
as it emits an orange-red glow
when an electric discharge
passes through it at low
pressure.
Neon signs
Electron configuration, 127; Fractional distillation of liquid air, 183; Monatomk 1:?<::
Outer shell, 127; Periodic table, 164; Radioactive decay, Radioactivity, 128.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
tl{/
. \t
1
.\
\,:
Aliphatic compounds
Aromatic compounds
~---Side
chain - a
shorter chain of
carbon atoms coming
off the main chain.
or
The bonds linking the carbon atoms are midway between single and
double bonds' because some electrons are free to move around
the molecule.
Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds that contain only carbon
and hydrogen atoms.
Straight chain of carbon atoms in a butan-1-ol molecule.
No carbon atom is bonded to more than two other carbons.
Ethene
Methane
Functional group
Ethene molecule
- -- - - Two carbon atoms joined by
a double or triple bond'
are also functional groups.
190
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Homologous series
A group of organic compounds which
increase in size through the group by adding
a -CH 2 - group each time. All series (except
the alkanes*) also have a functional group,
e.g. the alcohol * hydroxyl group (-OH).
Members of a series have similar chemical
properties but their physical properties change
as they get larger. A homologous series has a
general formula for all its members.
Stereochemistry
The study of the 3-dimensional (3-0) structure
of molecules. Comparing the 3-0 structure
of very similar organic molecules, e.g.
stereoisomers, helps distinguish between them.
The 3-0 structure of a molecule is often shown
by a stereochemical formula* - a diagram that
shows how atoms are arranged in space.
Stereochemlcal formula
Structural
of methane
0
I
Methanol (structural
formula' CH1 0H)
- - - - - ,
I
I
- - - - - _I - - -
Hydroxyl functional
group
Isomers
Ethanol (structural
formula' CH1 CH2 0H)
Saturated compounds
Organic compounds whose molecules only
have single bonds* between atoms.
;
', ~
_,'
Part of a molecule
found in butter
Structural isomers
Compounds with the same molecular
formula*, but different structural formulas*,
i.e. the atoms are arranged in different ways .
The molecular formula' C2 H6 0 has two different
structural formulas '.
.,
_,I
Ethanol
CH3CH1 0H
Methoxymethane
CH3 0CH,
Unsaturated compounds
Organic compounds whose molecules have at
least one double or triple bond*.
Stereoisomers
Polyunsaturated compounds
A term used for compounds whose molecules
have many double or triple bonds*, e.g.
those found in soft margarir_ies.
.,
; Port of a molecule
',.... found in margarine
_,
~P=~'r""\l:#='1ii.!:ii,.
formulas ~.
'
polyunsaturated .
compounds.
Cis but-2-ene
Two stereoisomers
Double bond'
Alcohols, 196; Alkanes, 192; Double bond, 1 32; Molecular formula, 140; Slngle bond, i 32;
Stereochemical formula, Structural formula (shortened), 140; Triple bond, 132.
Trans but-2-ene
AL KAN ES
Alkanes, or paraffins, are all saturated* hydrocarbons* and aliphatic compounds*. They form
a homologous series* which has a general formula* of
CnH 2 n+2 As the molecules in the series increase in size, so
the physical properties of the compounds change (see chart
below). Alkanes are non-polar molecules*. They burn in air to
form carbon dioxide and water, and react with halogens*,
otherwise they are unreactive. Excepting methane, they
are obtained from petroleum*. They are used as fuels
inhotairballoons.
and to make other organic substances, e.g. plastics.
Name of
compound
Molecular
formula'
structural formula'
Methane
CH 4
Ethane
. Prooone
"l!iliani
..
Pe.rtt~. .
'" . '"l\.4.
"Me~~
Physical state
at25C
Boiling point
CH4
Gas
- 161.5
C 2H6
CH3CH3
Gas
-88.0
C,H 8
CH,CH2CH
Gas
-422
Mit
(OC)
<;At-/lQ
CH 3CH 2CH,CH~
Gas
--0.5
':!:;;,
C 5H12
CH,.CH2CH2CH2CH3
Liquid
36.0
"
liquid
69.0
CJiu
/\
The first part of the name indicates
the number of carbon atoms in the
molecule. The -ane ending means
the molecule is an alkane (see
page 214).
i.-
I'<. CH,Cli2CH,CH2CH,CH3
I\_
Gradual change of
state as molecules
get longer.
-ft
Methane (CH 4 )
Cycloalkanes
Ethane (C 2 H6 )
Substitution reaction
Propane (C 3 H 8 )
A member of the alkanes. A gas that is
~j usually obtained from petroleum*.
".
,,., ......
' ~+
,.
Methane
....... .
Chlorine
Chloromethane
Hydrogen
chloride
Aliphatic compounds, 190; Functional group, 190; General formula, 191 (Homologous series);
Halogens, 186; Hydrocarbons, 190; Molecular formula, 140; Non-polar molecule, 133 (Polar molecule,
Petroleum, 198; Saturated compounds, 191; Structural formula (shortened), 140.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ALKEN ES
Alkenes, or olefins, are unsaturated* hydrocarbons* and aliphatic
compounds*. Alkene molecules contain one-or more double bonds*
between carbon atoms. Those with only one form a homologous series*
with the general formula* CnHin As the molecules increase in size, their
physical properties change gradually (see below). Alkenes are non-polar
molecules*. They burn with a smoky flame and in excess oxygen are
completely oxidized* to carbon dioxide and water. Alkenes are more
reactive than alkanes, because of their double bond - they undergo addition
reactions, and some form polymers*. Alkenes are made by cracking* alkanes
and are used to make many products including plastics and antifreeze.
.. '
'"
~., ",,." .
5ol!i.! PJYP!~of ale.~ ':law":~ -~~
"7-
Name of
compound
Molecular
formula '
Physical state
at 25C
Boiling point
Elhene
C 2H4
CH2=CH2
Ga s
-104.0
(OC)
Propene
C3 H6
CH3CH=CH2
Gas
- 47.0
But- 1-ene
C4H8
CH3CH2CH=CH2
Ga s
-6.0
Pent-1-ene
C, H10
A CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
Liquid
30.0
/\
Thenumber denotes the position
of the double bond' in the
molecule. Alkenes are named in
the same way as alkanes, but end
in -ene, not -ane (see page 214).
\
Each molecule is one
-CH,- group longer. The
position of the double
bond' is shown.
I\__
\_
Gradual change from
gases to liquids to
solids as the
molecules get longer.
Ethene (C 2 H4 ) or ethylene
Propene (C 3 H6 ) or propylene
Addition reaction
Hydrogenation
Addition polymerization, 200; Aliphatic compounds, 190; Cracking, 198; Double bond, 132; General formula, 191 (Homologous
series); Hydrocarbons, 191; Molecular formula, 140;.fllon-polar molecule, 133 (Polar molecule); Oxidation, 148; Polymers, 200;
Saturated compounds, 191; Structural formula (shortened), 140; Triple bond, 132; Unsaturated compounds, 191.
ALKYNES
Alkynes, or acetylenes, are
unsaturated* (each molecule has a
carbon-carbon triple bond*) and
aliphatic compounds*. They are
hydrocarbons* and form a
homologous series* with a general
formula* CnH 2 n_2 Alkynes are
named in the same way as alkanes*,
but end in -yne, not -ane (see page
214). They are non-polar molecules*
with che m ical properties similar to
alkenes*. They burn with a sooty
flame in air, and a very hot flame in
pure oxygen. Alkynes are produced
by cracking*. They are used to make
plastics and solvents.
structural formulae of some alkynf!S
.(.
Name of
compound
Structural
formula'
Ethyne
CH=CH
Propyne .
CHCsCH
But-1-yne
CH3CH2CsCH
Ethyne (C 2 H 2 ) or acetylene
The simplest member of the alkynes. A .
colorless gas, less dense than air and with
a slightly sweet smell. It is the only common
alkyne. Ethyne undergoes the same reactions
as the other alkynes but more vigorously, e.g.
it reacts explosively with chlorine. It is used in
oxy-acetylene welding torches as it burns with
a very hot flame. Ethyne is made by cracking*
and is used to make polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) and other vinyl compounds.
. I
Ket ones
Compounds that contain a carbonyl group
(a -CO- functional group*). Ketones form a
homologous series* with a complex general
formula*. They are named like alkanes* but
end in -one, not just -e'. Most are colorless
liquids. They have chemical properties similar
to aldehydes but are not reducing agents*.
Molecule of
propanone
(CH 3 COCH,)
or acetone,
~r_:
.C:-.CS
t<. '\.
~ A~
l94
~'
--..__;
Addition reaction, 193; Aliphatic compounds, 190; Alkanes, 192; Alkenes, 193; Condensation reaction, 197; Cracking, 191
Functional group, 190; General formula, 191 (Homologous series); Hydrocarbons, 190; Non-polar molecule, 133; Oxidation
Polymerization, Polymers, 200; Reducing agent, 148; Structural formula, 140; Triple bond, 1 32; Unsaturated compounds, 191.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Carboxylic acids
Compounds that contain a carboxyl group
(a - COOH functional group*) and form a
homologous series* with a general formula*
C0 H20+1 COOH. Their names end in -oic acid
(see page 215). Pungent, colorless weak
acids*, they react with alcohols* to give esters
(see condensation reaction, page 197).
1
I
Carboxyl group
(- COOH)
1~
.
i(;'
~j
H.,dlr..__,,_.-.
.-..-. . . ..
--
Fluoro groups (- F
functional groups')
I
Carboxyl group - - 1
Dicarboxylic acids
I F
_ _ .J_
.l-- ~
:'-~~ ~ I
I
Molecule of
ethanedloic acid
((COOH)2 ) or oxalic
acid - a poisonous,
dicarboxylic
acid found in
Cl 1
Chiaro groups (- Cl
functional groups')
Freon is believed to
contribute to this
damage, so other
propellants are now used.
Molecule of
rhubarb leaves
but not stalks.
Esters
A homologous series* of compounds containing
a -COO- functional group* in every molecule.
They are unreactive, colorless liquids made by
reacting a carboxylic acid and alcohol* (see
condensation reaction, page 197). Found in
vegetable oils and an imal fats, they give fruit
and flowers their fl avors and smells. They are
used in perfumes and flavorings.
Primary amines
Compounds that contain an amino group
(-NH2 functional group*). They are weak
bases*, and have a fishy smell.
- --
Methylamine .
(CH,NH,), a
primary amine.
- --
M olecule of the
ester ethyl
ethanoate
(CH, COOCH2 CH,)
or ethyl acetate.
group
I
J - - - Amino group
'------1
Diamines
Compounds with two amino groups in
each molecule.
Alcohols, 196; Functional group, 191; Ge neral formula, 191 (Homologous series);
Halogens, 186; Ozone, 210 (Ozone depletion); Substitution reaction, 192;.-.
Volatile, 345; Weak acid, Weak base, 152.
I: ~
195 ,,
ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are organic compounds that contai n one or more hydroxyl groups
(-OH functional groups*) in each mo lecul e. The alcoho ls shown below in
the chart are all members of a homologous series* of alcoho ls wh ich are
aliphatic compounds* with the general formula* CnH 2n+1 0H. As the
molecules in the series increase in size, their phys ica l properties change
steadily. Some of the trends are shown in the chart below. A s a result of their
hydroxyl groups, alcohol molecules are polar*, and have hyd rogen bonds*.
Short-chain alcohols mix completely w ith water, but long-chain alco hols do
not as their molecules have more - CH 2- groups, making them less polar.
Alcoho ls do not ionize* in water and are neutral*. They burn, giv ing
off carbon d iox ide and water.
Name of
compound
Structural formula*
Physical state
at25 C
Methanol
CH 30H
Liquid
65.6
Ethanol
CH 3 CH 2 0H
Liquid
78.5
Boiling point
( OC)
Propan-1-ol
CH CH CH OH
Li uid
97.2
Bulan-1-ol
CH3CH2CH,CH20H
Liquid
117.5
Sodium
Sodium
ethoxide
Hydrogen
The members
gradually change
to solids as the
molecules get
longer.
CH 3CH 2CHO
Propan- 7-of
Propanal
CH 3CH 2COOH
Propanoic acid
Ethanol is used as
a solvent and in
methylated spirits. It
has many more uses
including perfumes,
paints, dyes, varnishes
and alcoholic drinks.
C H3CHOHCH 3
Propan-2 -ol
196
-+ CH 3COCH 3
Propanone
' Aldehydes, 194; Aliphatic compounds, 190; Alkanes, 192; Carboxylic acids, 195; Catalyst, 161; Functional group, 190;
General formula, 191 (Homologous series); Hydrogen bond; 134; Ionization, 130; Neutral, 151 ; Oxidation, 148;
. Polar molecule, 133; Relative molecular mass, 138; Structural formula (shortened), 140.
ORGAN IC C HEMISTRY
Alcoholic fermentation
Polyhydric alcohols
11
Laboratory fermentation
fermentation
mixture:
glucose*,
,..,ie.:':lr -
water and
yeast (ideal
temperature
is 37( ).
Bubbles
of carbon
dioxide gas
Glucose is broken
down ond ethanol
is produced.
Condensation reaction
A type of reaction in wh ich two molecules
react together to form one, with the loss of a
small molecu le, e.g. water. (See also
condensation polymerization, page 200.)
Example of a
Enzyme*
C 6 H 120
Glucose solution
from fruit or barley
2C02
Carbon dioxide
condensation reaction:
Ethanol
Ethanoic
acid
Ethyl ethanoate
Water
molecule
is lost
The numbers in the names of the alcohols give the position of the carbon atom that the
hydroxyl group is bonded to. (See pages 2 74-2 15 for more information on naming alcohols.)
Pl'imary di~illati!Jn
Refining
Fraction
A mixture of liquids with similar boiling points, obtained
Alkane
(Nonane)
Alkane
(Heptane)
Alkene
(Ethene*)
Reforming
A process which produces gasoline from lighter
fractions by breaking up straight chain*
alkanes* and reassembling them as branched
chain* molecules.
Petroleum - - -
Heavy fractions ~
(most viscous)
Furnace heats :::::=----111111i1
'i lliillilllli. . collected at
petroleum to 350(
bottom.
198
* Alkanes, 192; Alkenes, 193; Branched chain, 190; Catalyst, 161; Ethene, 193;
Hydrocarbons, 190; Natural gas, 192 (Methane); Straight chain, 190.
Refinery gas
Chemical feedstocks
Gasoline or petrol
A liquid frac .ion ob tained from
p rimary disflllation . It consists
of alkanes" with 5 to 12 carbon
atoms in their molecules and
ha~ a boiling point range of
40-150~ . See also cracking
;ind reformrng.
Octane rating
A measure of how well
gasoline burns, measured on
a scale of 0 to 100. It can be
increased by using an anti
knock agent such as methyltertiary-butyl-ether (C5 H12 0).
Gasoline
Kerosene or paraffin
A liquid fraction obtained from
primary distillation. Kerose ne consists
ofalkanes* with about 9-15 carbon
atoms in their molecules. It has a
boiling point ra nge of 150~2 5 0C.
as o fuel in jet
engines and
domestic heaters.
DlaeloH
Residue
The oil left after primary
distillation. It consists of
hydrocarbons* of ve ry high relative
molecular masses*, their molecules
containing up to 4 0 carbon atoms.
Its boiling point is greater than
350C. Some is used as fuel oil,
w hich is used to heat homes and
commercial bui ldings, as we ll as
to generate electric ity. The rest is
re-disti lled to form the substances
on the right.
Lubricating oil
A mixture of non-volatile* liqu ids
obta ined from the distillation of residue
in a vacuum.
Bitumen or asphalt
J!J,'',
'
Raad surfaces
and roofing
Picture representing a
Synthetic polymers
such as plastics (see
page 201) have manr
uses. Helmets for racing drivers are made
of thermosetting plastics reinforced with
synthetic fibers. Plastics used in the motorcycle
bodywork reduce vehicle weight and help to save futl..
polymer
Addition polymerization
Homo polymer
.
'
.
HH
pr~~~~re ff~~
+ . . + ~ fffl
. ... .... ... . ...
. . .- 200 c
-~ \ii JJJ
[.ie
Part of a
molecule
polythene
reaction.
Copolymer
Vinyl chloride
Vinyl chloride
monomer
monomer
polymer (homopolymer)
Condensation polymerization
Depolymerization
H
I
ID
r --
etc.-NtH
II -----
H
__ , I
H
I --
0 polymerization H: O
----, II
I : II
0 H
H 0
II
1, 6-diaminohexane
2 00
Hexanedioic acid
1, 6-diaminohexane
(monomer)
(monomer)
Hexanedioic
acid
Nylon 66 polymer
(copolymer)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Polystyrene or
poly(phenylethene)
e.g. nylons.
'
f
~ ~
A homopolymer
formed by the addition
polymerization of
styrene (phenylethene). \
.!
Plastics
Synthetic polymers that are easily molded. They
are made from chemicals derived from
petroleum* and are usually durable, light solids
which are thermal and electrical insulators.
They are often not biodegradable* and give
off poisonous fumes when burned. There are
two types of plastic - thermoplastics which
soften or melt on heating (e.g. polythene), and
thermosetting plastics which harden upon
heating and do not reme lt (e.g. plastic
used in worktops).
Polyesters
Copolymers, formed by the
condensation polymerization of diol*
and dicarboxylic acid* monomers.
The monomers are linked by
-COO- functional groups*, as
found in esters*.
Yachts have sails made of polyesters.
Same polyesters are produced as
fibers which are used in clothing
and furnishing materials.
Nylons
A family of polyamides. They are strong,
hard-wearing polymers which stretch but
do not absorb water or rot. They are used
in fabrics, often mixed with other fibers. See
condensation polymerization for the equation
for the manufacture of nylon 66.
Polythene
Also called poly(ethene) or poly(ethylene).
A homopolymer formed by the addition
polymerization of ethene* (see homopolymer,
page 200). Polythene is produced in two forn:is
(depending on the method used) - a soft mate rial
of low density, and a hard, more rigid, material of
high density. Polythene has a relative molecular
mass* of between 10,000 and 40,000 and is used
to make many things, e.g. polythene bags (soft
type), bowls used for washing (harder type).
Acrylic
Also called poly(methylmethacrylate) or
poly((l-methoxycarbonyl)-1-methylethene). A
homopolymer formed by addition polymerization.
It is often used as a glass substitute.
Methyl
methacrylate,
the acrylic monomer
Acrylic is
;::,:
Wt_
: : WJ
201
DETERGENTS
Detergents are substances which,
Soap
soapless detergents.
Detergent molecule
Saponification (soapmaking)
Soap-making factory
Measured amounts
of fats and sodium
hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide solutions are
continuously fed into a
large, hollow, column-like
structure. The column is
at high temperature and
pressure.
Hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chain
(tail end of molecule)
J~I
Hydrophilic functional group
(head end of molecule) ---~
Micelle
A spherical grouping of detergent molecules
in water. Oils and greases dissolve in the
hydrophobic center of the micel le. The
picture below shows how micelles of
dishwash ing liquid remove grease.
Saponification equation
Grease
C 17 H35COOyH2
C 17 H35COOyH
C 17 H35COOCH 2
3NaOH
Sodium hydroxide
molecules
Hydrophobic end of detergent
molecule embedded in grease.
The motion caused by washing the dishes,
and the attraction of the head end of the
detergent molecule to water, pull off the
detergent and grease. A mice/le (see left) is formed
when the grease is pulled off. Micelles then tend to keep grease
suspended in solution.
202
Saponlflcatlon
Sodium octadecanoate
(sodium stearote) soap
CH 20H
CHOH
I
CHPH
Propane- I, 2, 3-triol
carboxylic acids, 195; Esters, 195; Fats, 205 (Lipids); Functional group, 190; Hard water, 207; Hydrocarbons, 190;
Neutralization, 151; Non-polar molecule, 133 (Polar molecule); Salts, 153; Surface tension, 23.
Biodegradable detergents
Soa,pless detergents that are
broken down by bacteria
(see biodegradable, page
210). Foams from non-
biodegradable detergents
cannot be broken down
and cover the water,
depriving life of oxygen.
Nonbiodegradab/e
detergents kill
creatures living in
water as they stop
oxygen from dissolving
in the water.
Surfactants
Lubricating greases
use surfactanb to
make them gel better.
I
II
CH CH CH CH CH CH CH C Na
l\7\ I\ I\ l\ /\/\/\I
2
CH 3 CH2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH2 0
Ionic' end (polar nart of molecule)
---~I
Paints contain
surfactanb
to ensure
that the
pigment is evenly
mixed in, and that
the paint gives a
smooth finish and does
not drip.
Laundry powders
Soap or soapless detergents used to wash
clothes. They are better for fabrics than water
alone, as they make it easier to remove dirt.
There are two main types of laundry powders
- those used when hand-washing clothes
(usually soap powders) and those used in
washing machines. The latter are mostly
soapless detergents with other substances
added to keep the lather down and to
brighten the appearance of the fabric. When
they also conta in enzymes*, they are ca lled
FOOD
In order to survive and grow, living
organisms need a number of different
substances. These include the nutrients carbohydrates, proteins and fats (see
lipids) - which are all organic
compounds* made by plant
photosynthesis* and taken in by
animals. Also important are the
The human body
accessory foods - water and
needs a combination of
minerals, needed by both plants and
nutrientstokeephealthy.
animals, and vitamins, needed by animals only. Roughage, or fiber, is also
needed by many animals to help move food through the gut. Different
animals need different amounts of these substances for a healthy diet. For
more about minerals and roughage, see page 331.
Carbohydrates
Sucrose
Organic compounds* of varying complexity the most complex, made of many individual
units, being polysaccharides (see starch)
and the simplest, made of just one
unit, being monosaccharides. All
have the general formula* C.(H 2 0)Y.
Almost all living organ isms use the
monosaccharide glucose for energy.
Sugar
Starch
carbohydrates.
Glucose
A monosaccharide (see
carbohydrates) with the
molecular formula* C6 H120 6 , the
breakdown of which provides energy
for plants and animals. Plants make
their own by photosynthesis*, storing
it as starch until it is needed. Animals
take in all forms of carbohydrate, break
down the complex ones to glucose,
and store this as the polysaccharide
glycogen. For more about glucose, see
pages 330-331, 334-335 and 338-339.
Simplified equation showing energy released
when glucose is broken down in the body
Glucose
Oxygen
Carbon
taken in by dioxide
respiration
Water
(measured
in k])
CH20H
I
CH 20H
I
C-- 0
c-- 0 H H
\/ ~
\/ \/ ~
\ /\ ?H
o
Glucose unit
c-
~/\ / \ ?H
\/
~;\
r- r
bH
OH
General formula, 191 (Homologous series); Molecular formula, 140; Monomers, 200;
Natural -polymers, 201; Organic compounds, 190; Phqtosynthesls, 209; Polymer, 200.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Amino acids
Proteins
natural amino
Glycine
(amino acid)
H-
conta;n an amino
c -
cooH
group* anda
carboxyl group*.
Carboxyl group
I,
Vitamins
Organic compounds*
found in small amounts
in food. They are an
essential part of the diet
of animals. They are
needed to help enzymes*
catalyse* reactions in
the body. See page 339
for a list of vitam ins.
2.
represents the
particular order
of amino-acid units
(monomen*) in the
protein found in peanuts. Each
different protein has its amino
acids in a different order.
vitamin.
"""!
..lll
togethe~'"-----~
Example of a reaction
to make a fat
-.\ ,
Propane1,2,3-triol
CH20 - C- C11H 35
II
CHPH
Octadecanoic acid
(or stearic acid),
a long-chained
carbaxyl1c acid
I
CHO I
11
"'
C - C 17H35 + 3H20
O
Water
11
CH20 - C- C 17H35
Amino group, 195 (Primary amines); Carboxyl group, 195 (Carboxylic acids);
Catalysis, 161 (Catalyst); Enzyme, 161; Esters, 195; Monomers, 200; Natural polymers, 201;
Organic solvent, 345; Relative molecular mass, 138; Saturated compounds, Unsaturated compounds, 191 .
205
WATER
Water (H 2 0) is the most important
compound on Earth. It is found on
the surface and in the atmosphere,
and is present in animals and plants.
Vast amounts of water are used every
day in the home and in industry, e.g.
for manufacturing processes and the
cooling of chemical plants. Water
normally contains some dissolved
gases, salts* and pollutants* . See
also page 167.
A molecule of woter contoins one oxygen atom
and two hydrogen atoms.
0-
H o
Ice
The solid form of water. It has a
molecular lattice* in which the
molecules are further apart than
in water. This is caused by
hydrogen bonds* and means that
ice is less dense than water, and
that water expands when it freezes.
Atmospheric
water
Humidity
The amount of water vapor
in the air. It depends on the
temperature and is higher
(up to 4% of the air) in
warm air than cold air.
Over 70% of
the Earth's surface
is covered with
water.
Hygroscopic
Describes a substance which can absorb
up to 70% of its own mass of water
vapor. Such a substance becomes damp,
but does not dissolve. Sodium chlo ride is
an example of a hygroscopic substance.
Deliquescent
Describes a substance which absorbs
water vapor from the air and dissolves in
it, forming a concentrated* so lution.
Cube of icethe solid form
of water
Calcium chloride /en open to the oir absorbs water vapor and
forms a concentrated' solution.
Water cycle
The constant circu lation of water through the
air, rivers and seas.
Water vapor
condenses to
form clouds.
Efflorescent
Describes a crystal
which loses part
of its water of
crystallization* to the
air. A powdery coating
is left on its surface.
Combustion and
respiration'
Acid rain, 21 O; Concentrated, 144; Condensation, Evaporation, 121; Hydrogen bond, 134; Molecular lattice, 137; Polar
molecule, 1 33; Polar solvent, 144; Pollutants, 21 O; Respiration, 298; Salts, 153; Transpiration, 252; Water of crystallization, 135.
Water supply
Distilled water
Temporary hardness
Desalination
The treatment of sea water to remove
dissolved salts*. It is done by distillation* or
ion exchange.
"Scale" forms in
hard water.
Permanent hardness
Purification
The treatment of water to remove bacteria and
other harmful substances, and produce water
that is safe to drink.
At the "waterworks, water from a
reservoir trickles through beds
of clean gravel and sand, or
activated carbon, to remove
particles 'of mud and other solids.
Filter bed
Drinkable water
Hard water
W ater which contains calcium and
magnesium salts* that have dissolved from the
rocks over which the water has flowed (see
calcium, page 171 ). Water that does not
contain these salts is called soft water. There
are two types of hardness - temporary
hardness (which can be
removed relatively easily) and
permanent hardness (which
is more difficult to remove).
H ard water does not lather
with soap and forms a scum.
Soft water lathers easily
The types of mineral in
because it does not react
water depend on the
rocks it has flowed over.
with soap to form scum.
Ion exchange
A method of water softening (see permanent
hardness). Water is passed over a material
such as zeolite (sodium aluminum si licate),
which removes calcium and magnesium ions
and replaces them with sodium ions. Some
organic polymers* are also used as ion
exchange materials.
Deionized water
(water with ions
removed)
Ion exchange
mater i a l - - -Calcium and
magnesium ions
are replaced by
sodium ions.- -
--t;t--
- -:e-
Water softeners
Substances used to remove permanent
hardness. They react with the calcium and
magnesium salts* to form compounds which
do not react with soap.
Washing soda
Equation for the formation of scum
Calcium and
Soap
Scum
magnesium
(calcium and
Sodium
(sodium
ions (in hard + stearote) --7 magnesium + ions
water)
stearates)
* Crystals, 1 35; Distillation, 220; Hydrate, 154; Polymers, 200; Salts, 153.
21% oxygen
- essential for
respiration* of
-... -~--
18% nitrogen
- essential for
plant growth
Flame
0.91%noble
gases* - various
industrial uses
Combustion or burning
An exothermic reaction* between a substance
and a gas. Combustion usually takes place in
air, when the substance which burns combines
with oxygen. Substances can also burn in other
gases, though, e.g. chlorine. Combustion does
not normally happen spontaneously. It has to
be started by heating (see
activation energy,
page 160).
Natural gas* (mainly
methane) burns in gas cookers,
producing heat for cooking.----~~llLl"
Methane
Oxygen
from air
Carbon
dioxide
Water
vapor
A non-luminous
flame is produced
when there is
enough oxygen
for all of the
substance
to burn.
Unburned
Glowing
particles of
unburned
carbon
A luminous
flame is
produced when
there is not
enough oxygen
for complete
combustion.
Fuel
A substance which is burned
to produce heat energy. Most
fuels used today are fossil
fuels, which were formed from
the remains of prehistoric
animal and plant life.
Wood is the oldest
known fuel.
for
cooking
Fossil fuels,
such as
natural
gas* and
petroleum'
are extracted
from deep
under the
ground.
Rapid combustion
Combustion in which a
large amount of heat and
light energy is given out.
Rapid combustion can produce a
large volume of gas as well as heat.
This causes an explosion.
Slow combustion
A form of combustion which takes place at low
temperature. No flames occur. Internal respiration
(see page 209) is a form of slow combustion.
Calorific value
A measure of the amount of heat energy
produced by a specific amount of a fuel. The
table below shows the relative values for some
common fuels.
Heat energy in
kilojoules* per gram
Cake
Anthracite
Wood
*Anthracite, 1 79 (Coal); Coke, 179 (Coal); Exothermic reaction, 146; Fractional distillation of liquid air, 183; Gasoline, 199;
Kilojoule, 146; Natural gas, 192 (Methane); Noble gases, 19; Petroleum, 198; Pollutants, 21 O; Respiration, 298.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Corrosion
Photosynthesis
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Internal respiration
/ . nergy
from Sun
respiration,
pagemto
,298.
Carbon
d1ox1de released
air
A- -
\~
,. -~
;: . ',
~ ,~
Oxygen ........_.
fromair ~
+- wat~r
--
Food
C 6 H12 0 6 + 60 2
6C02 + 6H 20 + ENERGY
6C0 2 + 6H 20
Energy
~
from Sun
C 6 H120 6 + 60 2
Nitrogen cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen in atmosphere
Plants nitrogen
in plant
Eaten
by
proteins"'
Animals nitrogen
in animal
proteins
Combustion
of fossil fuels
Decay
Decay
Photosynthesis
Used to
produce
fertilizers.
Decay
Taken in
by roots.
Internal
Internal
Action of respiration respiration
bacteria of
in soil
denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrates in soil
of nitrogenfixing
bacteria
Plants carbon in
Internal
respiration
Fossilization
of remains
Decay
carbohydrates' t---E_a_
te_n_b""y--~
and proteins'
Carbohydrates, 204; Coal, 179; Glucose, 204; Haber process, 180; Oxidation, 148;
Petroleum, 198; Photochemical reaction, 160; Proteins, 205; Salts, 153.
Animals carbon in
mrbohydrotes
and proteins
POLLUTION
Pollution is the release into the land,
atmosphere, rivers and oceans, of
undesirable substances which upset
the natural processes of the Earth.
These substances are known as
pollutants. The major sources and
types of pollution are shown below.
Greenhouse effect
The trapping of solar
energy in the atmosphere
by carbon diox ide, causing an
increase in temperature. The burning
of fuels* creates more carbon dioxide,
making the problem worse. See also page 29.
Ozone depletion
Biodegradable
Describes a substance which is converted
to simpler compounds by bacteria. Many
plastics are not biodegradable (see also
biodegradable detergents, page 203).
Smog
Fog mixed with dust and soot. It is acidic
because of the sulfur dioxide produced when
fuels* are burned in industrial cities.
Su/fur dioxide,
produced by impurities
in fuels, is the major
cause of add rain.
Thermal pollution
The effect of releasing warm water from
factories and power stations into rivers and
lakes. This causes a decrease in the oxygen
dissolved in the water and affects aquatic life.
Acid rain
Rainwater which is more acidic than usual.
Rainwater normally has a pH* of between
5 and 6, due to dissolved carbon dioxide
forming dilute carbonic acid. Sulfur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen, products of the
combustion of fuels*, react with water in the
atmosphere to produce sulfuric and nitric
acids with a pH of about 3.
Eutrophication
An overgrowth of aquatic plants caused by an
excess of nitrates, nitrites and phosphates
from ferti lizers in rivers. It results in a shortage
of oxygen in the w ater, causing the death of
fish and other water life.
and
- --,.)
. ._
tak.e:-~-up
/ <'- ---:~--
harmful
Plants
Smog
-.'---___.......- chemicals froin acid rain that
acid rain are
have been absorbed by the soil.
harmful to people and animals.
Anti-knock agent, 199 (Octane rating); Catalyt, 161; Chlorofluorocarbon, 195; Fuel, 208; Ozone, 183;
Petroleum, 198; pH, 152; Polystyrene, 201; Purification, 207; Radioactivity, 128; Ultraviolet radiation, 44.
Cl
i;;
"Cl
Metal
Symbol
;'
,."
,.3
Reaction
with air
Reaction
with water
Reaction
with dilute
strong acids*
Displacement*
reactions
Reaction
of carbon
dioxide
Reaction of
hydrogen
with oxide
Action
of heat
on oxide
CJ)
Action of
heat on
carbonate
Action of
heat on
nitrate
Symbol
::l
OQ
Potassium
if
CL
.s"
c
,::l
_,.
Sodium
Bum strongly
to form
oxides.
Na
!"'
.."'
..
;;
Calcium
Ca
"'
'~"'
a
::l
..
Magnesium
"'
Aluminum
Al
Zinc
Zn
IQ
Mg
React with
cold water
to produce
hydrogen
gas and
hydroxide.
Hydroxide
dissolves in
water to form
alkaline
solution.
React with
decreasing
vigor down
the series.
Explosive
reaction to
give hydrogen
gas and salt*
solution.
Decompose
to form
nitrite and
oxygen.
No reaction
<D ~
f'T1
::J
~ )>
Na
@"
CJ)
CJ)
No reaction
Ca
ro
ro
l'.lJ
Mg
-0
l'.lJ
OQ
ro
Iron
Bum, when
heated, to
form oxides.
Burn with
decreasing
vigor down th<
series.
Fe
Lead
Pb
Copper
Cu
Do not bum
wh en heated,
but form an
oxide layer
on surface.
No reaction
with cold
water. React
with steam
to form
hydrogen gas
and oxide.
React with
decreasing
vigor down
the series.
React to give
hydrogen gas
and salt'
solution with
decreasing
vigor down the
Ag
No reaction
Alf metals
displace ions
of metals
below them
from solution.
No reaction
No reaction
series.
Decompose
to form
oxide and
carbon
dioxide with
increasing
ease down
the series.
Decompose
to form
oxide,
oxygen and
nitrogen
dioxide with
increasing
ease down
the series.
Oxide
to metal
with
increasing
ease down
the series.
Carbon
dioxide is
formed.
No reaction
Al
Zn
Fe
reduced'
No reaction
Silver
n
-I
<
-
0 -I
"
,ii:
!"
:c
3 f'T1
"'
,"?
5
~
-I
Pb
Oxide
reduced* to
metal with
Cu
increasing
ease down the
series. Water
is formed.
I and ca:bon
dioxide.
and nitrogen
dioxide.
Ag
-<
V\
~ f'T1
OJ~
f'T1
V\
Symbol
Actinium
Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Carbon
c;
Atomic
number *
Approximate
relative
atomic mass*
89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
4
83
5
35
48
20
6
227
27
243
122
40
75
270
737
9
209
77
80
112
40
72
Density
(g cm-')
70. 7
2.7
77.7
6.62
1.4 t
5.73
3.57
1.85
9.78
2.34
3.72
8.65
7.54
2.25
Melting
Boiling
point ("C)
point ("C)
(brackets indicate approximations)
7,050
660
(1,200)
630
-1 89
-
(302)
714
1,280
277
2,300
- 7.2
327
850
3, 730 (sublimes*)
3,200
2,470
(2, 600)
1,380
- 186
67 3 (sublimes*)
7,640
2,477
1,560
3,930
58.8
765
7,487
4,830
(graphite*)
3.5 1
3,750
(diamond*)
Cerium
Ceslum
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Dysprosium
Erbium
Europium
Fluorine
francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
212
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Dy
Er
Eu
f
fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Pb
LI
Lu
58
55
77
24
27
29
66
68
63
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
2
67
140
733
35.5
52
59
64
762
167
752
79
223
757
70
73
797
778.5
4
165
49
53
77
26
36
57
82
3
71
715
127
192
56
84
739
207
7
11S
6.78
1.9
7.56 t
7. 79
8.7
8.89
8.56
9.16
5.24
7.17 t
7.95
5.93
5.4
19.3
73.3
0.747t
8.8
0.07 t
7.3
4.93
22.4
7.85
2. 76 t
6.79
11.3
0.53
9.84
795
28.7
- 101
7,890
1,492
1,083
1,410
1,500
826
-220
(27)
1,370
29.8
937
7,063
2,220
- 270
1,460
- 259
757
114
2,440
1,535
- 157
920
327
780
1,650
3,470
690
-34.7
2,482
2,900
2,595
2,600
2,900
1,440
- 188
3,000
2,400
2,830
2,970
5,400
- 269
2,600
- 252
2, 000
784
5,300
3,000
- 152
3,470
1,744
1,330
3,330
GfNE/Mi CHEMl5Tfl.Y
Element
Symbol
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Mg
Mn
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
NI
Nb
N
Os
0
Pd
p
Atomic
number*
12
25
80
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
76
8
46
15
Approximate
relative
atomic mass*
24
55
201
96
144
20
237
59
93
14
190
16
106
31
Boiling point
Melting
('C)
point (C)
(brackets indicate approximations)
Density
(g cm_,)
1.74
7.2
13.6
10.1
7.0
1.2 t
20.4
8.8
8.57
0.808 t
22.5
1.15 t
12.2
I.BT
(white)
(red')
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Su/fur
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Sm
Sc
Se
SI
Ag
Na
Sr
78
94
84
79
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
62
21
34
14
47
77
38
16
195
242
210
39
141
147
231
226
222
186
103
85
101
150
45
79
28
108
23
88
32
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
TI
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Xe
Yb
Zirconium
Atomi~
y
Zn
Zr
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
74
92
23
54
70
39
30
40
181
99
128
159
204
232
169
119
48
184
238
57
131
173
89
65
91
15.4
5
4.4 t
20.5
12.4
1.53
72.3
7.54
2.99
4.79
2.35
10.5
0.97
2.62
2.07
119
(monoclinic)
2,730
3,300
-196
5,000
-183
3,980
280
(white)
4,530
3,240
960
774
3,130
2,730
1,140
-61. 8
5,630
4,500
688
4, 900
7,900
2,730
685
2,360
2,2 70
890
1,380
444
(rhombic)
(monoclinic')
76.6
11.5
6.2
8.27
11.8
11.7
9.33
7.3
4.54
19.3
19.1
5.96
3.52
6.98
4.34
7.7
6.49
1, 100
2, 100
357
5,560
3,030
-246
(red)
1.96
Reltdiw~ atoml~
(white)
1,769
640
254
63.7
935
1,030
1,230
700
-77
3, 180
1,970
38.9
2,500
1,070
1,540
217
1,410
961
97.8
768
113
21.5
19.8
9.4
0.86
6.78
(rhombic')
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
650
1,240
-38.9
2,610
1,020
-249
640
1,453
2,470
-210
3,000
-218
1,550
44.2
590
2.34
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
fNFO~ A rlON
3,000
2,200
450
1,360
304
1,750
1,540
232
1,675
3,410
1, 130
1,900
- 112
824
1,500
420
1,850
444
5,420
3,500
990
2,800
1,460
3,850
1,730
2,270
3,260.
5,930
3,820
3, 000
-108
1,430
2,930
907
3,580
21 3
NAMING SIMPLE
ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Key to atoms
Carbon
atom
Hydrogen otom
Stage 2
Prefix used
~
meth-
etli~'
Two
~
Three
Four
propbut-
Five
pent-
Six
hex-
Eight
hept
Seven
~
~
oct-
Stage 1
Choose the sentence frorri a) to ij which
describes the unidentified molecule, then
go to the Stage 2 number indicated.
.a) The molecule contains only carbon and
hydrogen atoms and single bonds' .
Go to 7
Go to2
Go to 3
Go to4
Go to5
Go to 6
! Goto 8
IGo to9
Go to 7
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
21 4 Alkane.s, l 9?.; Alkenes, J"93; Alkynes, '194; Double bond, 132; Functional group, 190;
Halogens, ] 86; Organic c~mpounds, side chain, -190; Single bond, Triple bond, 132.
4b. If the -OH group is not at one end of the molecule, the
number of the carbon to which it is attached is given in front of the
name. The carbon atoms are always numbered from the end of the
molecule closest to the -OH group. For example:
2-methyl butane
formula
of CnH2n+1
The figure at the beginning of the name gives the number of the
carbon atom to which the side chain is joined. The carbon atoms
are always numbered from the ends of the chain closest to the
branch.
Chloromethane
Bromoethane
Chlorine
atom
' - .Oxygen
atom
I
Oxygen atom
...= 91
Propanone
Butanone
The end of the name is that which the molecule would have had
if all the halogen atoms had been replaced by hydrogen atoms
(see 1). With molecules of three carbon atoms or more, the name
includes the number of the carbon atom to which the halogen is
attached. The carbon atoms are always numbered from the end
of the chain closest to the halogen(s). For example:
3-/odoheKane
Iodine atom
I
Oxygen atom
These molecules are all ketones'.
Oxygen atom
Methanoic acid
2 -bromo, 1-chloropentane
Ethanolc acid
Chlorine
atom-
Bromine atom
All molecules in section 7 are carboKyllc acids'.
Alcohols, 196; Aldehydes, 194; Carboxylic acids, 'l95; General formula, .191 (Homologous series);
Halogenoalkanes,_195; Halogens, 186; Ketones, 194; Side chain, T90.
21 5
Calcium
carbonate
Hydrochloric
acid
Ca/_cj[jm
chloride
Water
r Dilute
Thistle
't I hydrochloric acid
funnel-
Water
FlatTrough
Carbon
dioxide
Carbon
dioxide
Marble chips
One-way valve
Preparing chlorine
Delivery tube
=====
Gas1tlliar
Chlorine
=~~=
(dehydrating agent*)
216
-7
Hydrochloric
acid
Preparing hydrogen
Flat-
Delivery tube
Hydrogen
Granulated zinc
Trough
Sodium
hydroxide
Sodium
carbonate
Water
Beehive shelf
Nitrogen
Trough
Sodium hydroxide
solution reacts with
carban dioxide in air
to produce sodium
carbonate and w ater.
0 2 (g) + 2Cu(s)
Carbon
dioxide
Hydrogen
Thistle
Dilute
fu~ {"; hydrochloric acid .
OxYge17
Copper
-7
2Cu0(s)
Copper(//)
oxide
Preparing oxygen
Tap
Oxygen
funnel-Hydrogen
peroxide
Flat-
Manganese(IV)
oxide
2HP2 (aq)
-7
Hydrogen p eroxide
2Hp(I) + 0 2 (g)
Water
Oxygen
Manganese(IV) oxide
Beehive shelf
217
LABORATORY TESTS
Va rious tests are used to identify subslances. Some of the tests invo lve
advan ed machinery, others are simple laboratory tests and all ar known
co llectively as qualitative analysis. Some of the more advanced tests are
shown on page 222; these two pages cove r si mple la boratory tests leadi ng to
the rdenti fication of wate1~ co mmon gases, a ~e l ection of anio ns"' and cations"'
(Le. components of compou nds) and some metals. The appearance or smc fl
of a substance often gives dues to its identi ty - these c:an be co nfir med by
test[ ng. rf there are no such c lues, then it is a matte r of prog ressrng th rough
the tests, graduaHy elimi nating po sibil ities (it is often a good idea to start
w ith a flame test). Often more than one lest is needed to iden tify an ion
{.anion or cation) , as only one parti cu lar ombination of r ulLs all onfi rm
its presence (compa re the te C and resu Its for lead, zjn c and magnesium }.
Results
White ~(JI) su/fate pr:rrllfllll' turns blue.
S}mool
Test
Carbon dioxide
COz
Results
Turns limewater dwdy.
fhldrogen
H~
O'~n
o,
Splint relights.
218
Anion
Svmbt1I
Bromide
Br-
Test
Add silver nitrate solution to a solution
of substance in dilute nitric acid.
Results
Pale yellow precipitate that dissolves
sllgltl:~ in ammonia solution.
co,z-
Carbonate
Chloride
er
Hydrogencarbonate
HCO,-
Iodide
Nitrate
NO;
Sulfate
so;-
Sulfite
so,z-
Sulfide
52-
Black precipitate.
Frame tests
Cation
Symbol
Flame color
Barium
Ba
Yellow-green
Calcium
Ca
Brick red
Copper
Cu
Blue-green
Lead
Pb
Blue
Lithium
Li
Crimson
Potassium
Lilac
Sodium
Na
Orange-yellow
Symbol
Test
Results
Al'+
I
Aluminum
Metal
,'
Ammonium
NH,+
Ca 2 +
a)-
Calcium
Copper(ll)
Cu 2 +
hn(ll)
Fe2 +
hn(/11)
Fe 3 +
Pb 2 +
l.ead(ll)
c) -
llagneslum
Mg''
11nc
Zn2 +
Ctl'Un,
i~V-
2 19
.J
INVESTIGATING SUBSTANCES
The investigation of chemical substances invo lves a variety of different
te~hniq4es . The first step is often to obtain a pure sample of a substance
(impurities affect experffnental (esults) . Some of the separati ng and purifying
techTJiques used to achieve this are expla ined on these two pages. A variety
of d ifferent methods are then used to find out the chemical composition and
the chemical arid phys ical properties of the substance (qualifative analysis),
and how much of it is p resent (quantitative analysis). For more information,
see also pages 218-219 and 222.
Decanting
Distillation
The process of
separating a liquid
from a solid that hos
settled, by pouring
the liquid carefully
out of the container.
Beaker( g
Liquid
Settled
solid
Filtering
The process of separating a liquid and a solid by pouring the
mixture through a fine mesh. The mesh (usually filter paper)
only lets liquid through.
Filtering through a
Buchner funnel is the
faster method, as the low
pressure in the flask sucks
the liquid rapidly through
the filter paper.
Co~B
:
water m
'
Distillate (/lquid
removed by distillation)
Filtrate (the
liquid only)
Centrifuging
cmtriflrl,lr
220
Thermometer to measure
temperature (see above)
Liebig condenser
(see above)
After
spinning
~~/;d
Liquid. This
is decanted
to separate
it from the
solid.
Cold
water in
-
7 \
""'=ar--
Heat
Round-bottomed flask
Mixture of liquids with
close boiling points
Solvent extraction
The process of obtaining a
solute by transferring it from its
original solvent to one in which
it is more soluble, and from which
it can be easily removed. It is a
method of separation often used
when the solute cannot be
heated, and makes use of a
particular property of the solvents,
i.e. whether they are polar or
non-polar solvents. Ether
extraction is an example.
Ether (non-polar
solvent*) added,
mixture shaken.
Layers allowed
to separate.
Chromatography
Crystallization
Paper chromatography
1.
Strip of blotting
paper suspended
in 10/vent, e.g.
propanone.
Spot of mixture, e.g. leaf extract
After removing from tank
Distance moved
by solvent* l
Original spot
of mixture
Solvent
front
Separated
components
of mixture
-m
-- -
2.
R__ -
~Crystals
form as
solution cools.
Contents of beaker
filtered to separate
crystals from solution.
3.
Desiccation
Desiccator
measurements.
- - Thermometer
glass melting
point tube
\\_..-~===!:=ft-- Solid
substance
to be dried
m
- -
Drying agent
e.g. anhydrous
calcium chloride
Heat
Anhydrous, 154 (Anhydrate); Drying agent, 344; Non-polar molecule, 133. (Polar molecule);
Non-polar solvent, Polar solvent, .1 44; Saturated, 1A4; Solubility, l4S; Solute, Solvent, 144;
Volatile, 345; Water of crystallization, 1'.35,
even temperature by
constant stirring. When
solid melts~ temperature
is recorded.
221
QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
There are two types of analysis to investigate substances : qualitative analysis
- any method used to study chemical composition - and quantitative
analysis - any method used to discover how much of a substance is present
in a sample. Below are some examples of both types of analysis.
Qualitative analysis
Quantitative analysis
Flame test
Used to identify metals. A substance is collected on the tip of a
clean platinum or nichrome wire. This is held in a flame to observe
the co/or with which the substance burns (see also p age 279).
Between tests, the wire is cleaned by dipping it in concentra ted
hydrochloric acid and then heating strongly.
Change of flame co/or to
g reen where copper burning
j
Clean platinum
wire with sample
of copper on tip
Volumetric analysis
A method of determining the
concentration of a solution using
titration. This is the addition of
one solution into another, using a
burette'. The concentration of one
solution is known. The first solution is
added from the burette until the end
point, when all the second solution
has reacted. ( The end point is
detected by using an indicator.)
The volume of solution from the
burette needed to reach the end point
is called the tlter. This, the volume of
solution in the flask and the known
concentration of one solution are used
to calculate the concentration of the
second solution.
Mass spectroscopy
A method of investigating the composition of a substance, in
particular the isotopes it contains. It is also used as a method
of quantitative analysis as it involves measuring the relative
proportions of isotopes or molecules in the substance. The
apparatus used is called a mass spectrometer.
Solu tion A
Apparatus used
for titrations
and an
'==="""II- Indicator
Gravimetric analysis
produced to ionize*
the substance. The
positive ions pass into
an electric field which
accelerates them.
A magnetic field
deflects the ions of
different masses by
different amounts.
Ion detector
~~o.Qe-c:
~
~ ~~
~
222
Peak showing
an - OH group
Peaks showing
a - CH2 - group
Peaks showing
a - CH,- group
Potassium dichr~mate
(K2 Cr2 0 7) is added
to a known
volume of
water.
Burette, 223;. Ethanol, 1.96; Fiitering, 220; Ionization, 130; Indicator, t 52;
Isotope, J-':7;: Predpltate, 145i Relative atomic mass, 13'8.
APPARATUS
Apparatus is chemical equipment The most common items are described
and illustrated be low and on pages 22+.225. Simple 2-D d iagrams used to
represent them are also shown, together with approximate ranges of sizes.
Beaker
Used to hold liquids. Shows approximote
volume.
Possible
capacities:
5-5,000ml
Condensers
Liebig condenser
Used to condense vapors. Vapor passes
through the central channel and is cooled
by water flowing through the outer pipe.
See distillation, page 220.
D
Beehive shelf
Used to support a gas jar while gas is
being collected by the displacement of
water. For examples of its use, see pages
216-27 7.
Delivery tube
A tube used to corry gases.
lengths.
5- 17cm
Reflux
Possible
lengths:
25-SOcm
Desiccator
Liebig
condenser - -
Length:
15.0cm
Water - - - - ;
circulates in
outer tube.
Vapor
condenses in
inner robe.- ---.:::=....
Reflux condenser
Evaporating basin
Bunsen burner
Used to provide heat for chemical
reactions. Its adjustable air-hole allows
some control of the flame temperature. If
lhe hole is closed, the flame is yellow and
roofer than the blue fla me produced when
lhe hole is open. See picture, page 208.
1 + 1 1 2.Scm
Crucible
Used to hold small quontities of solids
which are being heated strongly, either in
a furnace or over a bunsen burner. They
are made of porcelain, silica, fireclay,
nickel or steel.
[Q
Possible
diameters:
2.5-5.5cm
,/
Crystallizing dish
Durette
Used to add accurate volumes of
1---f"""-""""'
Filter paper
Paper which acts as a strainer, only allowing
liquids through, but no solid matter. Filter
paper is graded according to how finely it
is meshed, i.e. the size of particle it allows
through. ft is put in a filter or Buchner
funnel' to give support as the liquid
passes through, and the solid settles on
the paper. See filtering, page 220.
Mesh of fine filter
paper, magnified
many times.
Fiber-
Fossib/e
<qJOdties:
10-lOOml
- - - --1
Mesh of coarse
filter paper,
magnified
many times.
Possible
capocities:
700-2,000ml
Riter funnel,
223./
'
Flasks
Fractionating column
Used to separate components
Buchner flask
Ll ''"m' (_j
Gas jar
~
.
I .
fractional distillation,
page 220.
Possible lengths:
15-36cm
Conical flask
Used to hold liquids when carrying out
reactions and preparing solutions of
known concentration. They are used in
preference to beakil(,'i when it is
necessary to have a container that can
be stoppered. They have some volume
markings but these are not as accurate
as the markings on a pipette or
burette*.
Possible
cap
. acities:
25-2,000ml
Fume cupboard
A glass paneffed cupboard that contains
an extractor fan and encloses an area of
workbench. Dangerous experiments are
carried out in a fume cupboard.
f(
Funnels
'
Buchner funnel
__
\\
Gas syringe
Used to measure the volume
of a gas. It is used both to
receive gas and to inject gas
Capacity:
100ml
Flat-bottomed flask
Used to hold liquids when carrying out
reactions where heating is not required
(the flask stands on the workbench).
Possible
~
capacities:
) . ..
100-2,000ml
[Q] u
I
Round-bottomed flask
Used to hold liquids, especiaffy when
even heating is needed. Volume markings
are approximate. It is held in position
above the flame by a clamp.
:~;~~:~es:
Volumetric flask
JR
j l
100-2, OOOml
mJ
224
Possible
capacities:
10-2,000ml
6.. '
Tap funnel
For adding a liquid to
a reaction mixture
drop by drop. See
pages 216-21 7.
Gauze
Used to spread the heat from a flame
Filter funnel
Used when separating solids from liquids
by filtering (see page 220). Filter
5?rili~
"'=
Measuring cylinder
Used to measure the
Thistle funnel
Used when adding a
liquid to a reaction
mixture.
Length: 30cm
Separating funnel
Used when separating
immiscible* liquids.
First the denser liquiq is
run off, then the less
dense. See solvent
extraction, page 221.
OO i
~
rnmmh
approximate volume
of liquids.
Possible capacities:
5-2,000ml
f1
I
dJ
Pipeday triangle
Trough
r=ro:i;~;ey')~
~:::
Pipettes
Pipette
Used to dispense accurate
volumes of liquid. They
come in different sizes for
different volumes. The
liquid is run out of the
pipette until its level has
dropped from one volume
marking to the next.
/ ,oP' Q 0 9 Q Q 01
Tripod
Used with a plpeclay triangle or
gauze when heating crucibles*,
flasks, etc.
/)
- e e e e e e..11
/ ,ij
Dropping pipette or
teat pipette
Used to dispense small
volumes or drops of liquid.
It does not provide an
accurate measurement.
l rn
Thermometer
Used to measure temperature. They
are filled either with alcohol or with
mercury, depending on the temperature
range for which they are intended.
Tubes
Boiling tube
Small temperature
range: - 1Oto
Possible
capacities:
1-2ml
soc
Large temperature
range: -10 to 400(
Tongs
i.
A thick-walled
tube used to hold
substances being
heated strongly.
Possible length:
12.Scm
Testtube
A
tube used to hold
substances for simple
chemical reactions
not involving strong
heating.
M
u
Possible length:
7.5cm
Possible lengths:
50-IOOcm
Ignition .tube
Top pan balances
Used for quick, accurate weighing.
A disposable tube
used to hold small
quantities of
substances being
melted or boiled.
WIU
Spatula
Used to pick up small quantities of a so/id.
Possible lengths:
I?~
*Crucible, 223.
Watch glass
_.,....----
225
book. Each one is fol lowed by the name of the substance it stands fort. Capital
letters come alphab tical ly before small ones, i.e. each element is kept together
w ith its co mpounds. For example1 CH 30 H (methanol - a ca rbon compoun d} is
found in an alphabetical list after C (carbon), before lhe Ca (calcium) list begins.
Symbol
3Ca 3 (P04 ) 2 .Caf2
Ac
Ag
AgBr
AgCI
AgI
AgN03
Al
Al(OH) 3
A/2 0 3
A/2 0 3 .ZH2 0
'
A/2 (S04 ) 3
'
Substance
Symbol
Apatite
Pentane
Ascorbic acid
Glucose
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
CaH1a
Nonane
C,,H,.
Sucrose
C12 H22 0 11
C17H 35 COOH
Octadecanoic acid
Tetrachloromethane
CC/4
1, Zdibromoethane
CH2 BrCH2 Br
Vinyl chloride
CH,CHCI
Methyl group
-CH,
CH 3 CCH
Propyne
CH 3 CH2 CCH
Butl-yne
CH 3 CH,CH2 CH,OH Butan-l' ol
Propan-1-ol
CH 3 CH2 CH2 0H
Propanal
CH,CH,CHO
Chloroethane
CH3 CH2 CI
Propanoic acid
CH3 CH2 COOH
CH 3 CH2 0H
Ethanol
Sodium ethoxide
CH 3 CH2 0Na
Ethanol
CH,CHO
Propan-Z-ol
CH,CHOHCH 3
Chloromethane
CH3 CI
CH,COCH2 CH 3
Butanone
Proponone
CH,COCH3
Ethyl ethanoate
CH,COOCH2 CH,
Ethanol< acid
CH,COOH
Methyl amine
CH 3 NH2
Methoxymethane
CH 30CH 3
Methanol
CH 3 0H
Methane
CH4
CHCH
Ethyne
Carbon monoxide
co
-COCarbonyl group
Carbon dioxide
co,
-COOH
Carboxyl group
(COOH)z
Ethanediolc acid
COOH(CH,)4 COOH Hexaned/o/c acid
Actinium
Sliver
Sliver bromide
Sliver chloride
Sliver Iodide
Sliver nitrate
Aluminum
Aluminum hydroxide
Aluminum oxide
Bauxite
Aluminum sulfate
Am
Ar
As
At
Au
Americium
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Gold
B
B,03
BCI,
Ba
BaC/2
Be
Bi
Bk
Br/Br2
-Br
Boron
Boron oxide
Boron trlchloride
Barium
Barium chloride
Bery/I/um
Bismuth
Berkelium
Bromine
Bromo group
c
C2 H2
C2 H4
C2 H5 Br
C2 H5 CHO
C2 H5 C/
C2 H5 COOH
C2 H5 0H
c,H .
c,H.
c,H.
c,H.o
C,H,OH
c,H,
c,H.
C4 H8
C4 H9 0H
c,H, 0
c,H, 0
Carbon
Ethyne
Ethene
Bromoethane
Propanal
Chloroethane
Propanoic acid
Ethanol
Ethane
Propyne
Propene
Propanone
Propan- 1-ol
Propane
But-1-yne
But- 1-ene
Butan-1 -ol
Butane
Pent-1 -ene
Substance
C5 H 12
C6 H 8 0 6
c.H 12 0.
c.H,,
c,H,.
Ca
Ca 3 (P0.)2
CaC/2
CaCO,
CaC03 .MgC03
CaF2
Ca(HC0,)2
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaSiO,
Calcium
Calcium phosphate
Calcium chloride
Calcium carbonate
Dolomite
fluorospar
Cole/um
hydrogencarbonate
Calcium oxide
Cale/uni' hydroxide
Calcium metasll/cate
Symbol
Substance
Caso,
CaSO,.ZH2 0
Calcium sulfate
Gypsum
Cd
Ce
Cf
Cl/ C/2
-Cl
Cm
Co
CoC/2
Cr
Cadmium
Cerium
Col/fomlum
Chlorine
Chiaro group
Curium
Cobalt
Cobalt(ll) chloride
Chromium
Ceslum
Cs
Cu(N0 3 ) 2
CuO
CuS0 4
CuS0,.3Cu(OH),
Copper
Copper(/) oxide
Copper(/) chloride
Copper(ll) chloride
Malachite
Copper pyrites
Tetraammlne
copper(ll) sulfate
Copper(ll) nitrate
Copper(ll) oxide
Copper(ll) su/fate
Basic copper su/fate
D
D2 0
Deuterium
Deuterium oxide
Dy
Dysprosium
Er
Es
Eu
Erbium
Einsteinium
Europium
f/f,
-f
Ruorine
fluoro group
Fe
Fe,o,
fe2 0 3.xH2 0
feC/ 2
feC/ 3
fe(OH) 3
feS
FeS0 4
Iron
Haematite
Rust
lron(ll) chloride
lron(lll) chloride
lron(lll) hydroxide
lron(ll) sulflde
lron(ll) su/fate
Cu
Cu2 0
CuC/
CuC/2
CuCO,.Cu(OH),
(Cufe)S2
(Cu(NH3 ) 4 )S04
fm
fr
Fermium
Fmndum
Ga
Gallium
GE:Nf.~AL CHfl.USf~Y
Symbol
I Substance
Symbol
Gd
Ge
Gadolinium
H/ H2
H,co,
H2 0
H2 0 2
H2 S
H,s,0 1
H,so,
H,so,
H3 P04
HBr
HCI
HCHO
HCOOH
HI
HN01
HN0 3
Hydrogen
Carbonic acid
Water
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen sutnde
fuming sulfuric acid
Sulfurous acid
Sulfuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Hydrogen bromide
Hydrogen chloride/
Hydrochloric acid
Methanol
Methanoic acid
Hydrogen iodide
Nitrous acid
Nitric acid
He
Hf
Hg
HgS
Ho '
Helium
Hafnium
Mercury
Cinnabar
Holmium
1/11
In
Ir
Iodine
Indium
Iridium
K
K,co,
K2 Cr,0 1
K,so,
K2 SO.,Al2 (S04 ),
KBr
KC/
Kl
KMn04
KN0 3
KOH
Kr
Krf,
La
La,o,
LI
Li3N
L/CI
LiOH
Lr or Lw
Lu
Germanium
Mn
MnCl1
Mn02
Manganese
Manganese(IV) chloride
Pyrolusite/
Manganese(IV) oxide
Mo
Molybdenum
N/ N2
N2 0
N1 0 4
-NH2
NH1 (CH,) 6 NH2
NH3
(NH4 ),S04
NH4 CI
NH4 0H
NH4 N0 3
NO
N02
Nitrogen
Dinitrogen oxide
Dinitrogen tetraoxlde
Amino group
1,6-diaminohexane
Krypton
Krypton fluoride
Lanthanum
Lanthanum oxide
Lithium
Lithium nitride
Lithium chloride
Lithium hydroxide
Ammonia
Ammonium su/fate
Ammonium chloride
Ammonia solution
Ammonium nitrate
Nitrogen monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nal0 3
NaN0 2
NaN0 3
NaOCI
Na OH
Sodium
Sodium carbonate
Washing soda
Sodium sutnte
Sodium sulfate
Cryolite
Sodium aluminate
Sodium bromide
Sodium chloride
Sodium chlorate
Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
Sodium
hydrogensulfate
Sodium iodate
Sodium nitrite
Sodium nitrate
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium hydroxide
Nb
Nd
Ne
Niobium .
Neodymium
Neon
NI
HIS
Nickel
Nickel sutnde
No
Np
Nobelium
Neptunium
010,
-OH
Oxygen
Ozone
Hydroxyl group
Os
Os04
P2 0 5
Phosphorus
Phosphorus pentoxlde
Pa
Protactinium
Pb
Pbl1
Pb(N0,)2
PbO
Pb02
Lead
Lead(ll) iodide
Lead(ll) nitrate
Lead(ll) oxide
Lead(IV) oxide
Na
Na,co,
Na 1 C0 3 . 10H2 0
Na,so,
Na,so.
Na 3AIF6
NaAl(OH)4
NaBr
NaCl
NaCIO,
NaHC0 3
Potassium
Potassium carbonate
Potassium dichromate
Potassium sulfate
Aluminum potassium
sulfate-12-water
Potassium bromide
Potassium chloride
Potassium Iodide
Potassium
permanganate
Potassium nitrate
Potassium hydroxide
I Substance
NaHso.
o,
Symbol
INFDll."1ATiON
Substance
Pb(OC2 H5 ) 4
Pb(OH),
PbS
Tetr aethyl-lead
Lead(ll) hydroxide
Galena
Pd
Pm
Po
Pr
Pu
Palladium
Promethium
Polonium
Praseodymium
Platinum
Plutonium
Ra
Rb
Re
Rh
Rn
Ru
Radium
Rubidium
Rhenium
Rhodium
Radon
Ruthenium
s
so,
so,
Su/fur
Su/fur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Sb
Sc
Se
Antimony
Scandium
Selenium
SI
SIO,
Silicon
Silicon dioxide
Sm
Sn
Sr
Tin
Strontium
Pt
Samarium
Tm
Tritium
Tantalum
Terbium
Technetium
Tellurium
Thorium
Tita!Jium
Thallium
Thulium
Uranium
v
v,o,
Vanadium
Vanadium
pentoxide
Tungsten
Xe
Xefe4
Xenon
Xenon tetrafluoride
Osmium
Osmium tetroxlde
Yb
Yttrium
Ytterbium
Zn
ZnCI,
ZnCO,
ZnO
Zn(OH),
Zn(OH)CI
ZnS
znso.
Zinc
Zinc chloride
Calamine
Zincite/ Zinc oxide
Zinc hydroxide
Basic zinc chloride
Zinc blende
Zinc sulfate
Zr
Zirconium
T
Ta
Tb
Tc
Te
Th
Ti
TI
Lawrencium
p
Lutetium
Md
Mendelevium
Mg
MgC/1
MgC0 3
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgS04
Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium
chloride
Mt:bona!e
oxide
hydroxide
sulfate
227
,.
r
A
--
~-
..
,,
..
BIOLOGY
..
"
..
,
ABOUT BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of.living things. It examines the structures and
internal systems of different organisms and how these operate to
sustain individual life, as well as looking at the complex web of
relationships between organisms which ensure new life is created and
maintained. In this book, biology is divided into six color-coded
sections. The areas cov~red by these sections are explained below.
...
Ecology and
living things
Looks atthe complex
relationships between
all living things, and
their basic cellular
structure.
Zoology (humans)
Covers al I the major
terms of human biology.
In many cases, these
also apply to the
vertebrates in general
(see page 341 ).
Reproduction
and genetics
Botany
Covers the plant
kingdom. Introduces
the different types
of plants, their main
characteristics, internal
structures and systems.
..
Zoology (animals)
General biology
information
Examines the
component parts,
systems and behavior
typical of the major
animal groups.
..
~....
: ;;,~ .,.
.
v-r
CONTENTS
Ecology and
living things
232
234
236
238
240
Botany
242
244
246
248
251
252
254
256
258
260
262
Vascular plants
Stems and roots
Inside an older plant
Leaves
Plant sensitivity
Plant fluid transportation
Plant food production
Flowers
Reproduction in a
flowering plant
Seeds and germination
Fruit/ Vegetative reproduction
Zoology (animals)
264
266
268
270
272
273
274
276
Zoology (humans)
278
280
282
284
286
288
290
292
294
296
298
300
302
304
306
310
.312
314
316
318
The skeleton
Joints and bone
Muscles
Teeth
Blood
The circulatory system
The heart
Tissue fluid and the lymphatic system
The digestive system
Glands
The respiratory system
The urinary system
The central nervous system
The units of the nervous system
Nerves and nervous pathways
The skin
The eyes
The ears
The reproductive system
Development and reproduction
Reproduction
and genetics
320
322
324
327
Types of reproduction
Cell division for reproduction
Genetics and heredity
Genetic engineering
General biology
information
329
330
332
334
336
338
339
340
342
Fluid movement
Food and how it is used
Metabolism
Energy for life and homeostasis
Hormones
Digestive juices and enzymes
Vitamins and their uses
The classification of living things
Informal group terms
This tree
frog's toes
have adapted
to help it
cling to bark.
Biosphere
The layer of the Earth (including the
oceans and the atmosphere) which
is inhabited by living things. The
Q_iosphere's boundaries are the upper
atmosphere (above) and the first
layers of uninhabited rock (below).
Biomes
Desert
High temperatures (cold at night), very low rainfall.
Typical plants: cacti. Animals include jerboas, scorpions.
Temperate grassland
Open grassy plains. Hot summers and cold winters. Main
plants: grasses. Animals include prairie dogs.
Savanna
Scrub/and (maquis)
Mountains
Ice
Habitat
Ecosystem
The community
of plants and animals in a
given habitat, together with the
non-living parts of the environment
(e.g. air or water). An ecosystem is a
self-contained unit, i.e. the plants and
animals interact to produce all the material
they need (see also pages 234-235).
Community
The group of p lants and animals found in
one habitat. They all interact with each
other and thei r environment.
Ecosystem includes
environment, e.g.
air and water.
The community
includes antelopes
and ostriches.
Ecological succession
Ecological niche
Deciduous, 236.
WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM"
An ecosystem consists of a group (community*)
of animals and plants which interact with each
other and with their environment to produce a
self-contained ecological unit.
Food web
The complex network of food chains
in an ecosystem. A food chain is a
linked series of living things, each
of which is the food for the
next in line. Plants make
their food from non-living
matter by photosynthesis*
(they are autotrophic)
and are always the first
members of a chain.
Animals cannot make
their own food (they
are heterotrophic)
and so rely on the
-food-making
activities
of plants.
Water plants
Carbon cycle
The con~tant circulation of the element carbon through living things and the atmosphere.
Internal respiration'
by decomposers (tiny living
things, e.g. bacteria), caysing
process. of decay.
234
Pyramid of numbers
r~
T4
T1
...__~~~---""" TI
Number of individuals at
each trophlc level
Notes:
Producen - green plants,
which make their awn food.
Trophlc level T1 .
Nitrogen cycle
lhe constant ci rcul ation of the element nitrogen through living things, the soil and the atmosphere.
waste containing
n1Y~
Internal respiration by
decomposen (tiny living
things, e.g. bacteria), causing
IOC!isi of da .
Non-living compounds
of ammonia (containing
nitrogen) in soil or water
useqln
U.sea' "'
t
Un-living nitrogen
_,,,ounds
.llitrates) in soil
MJter
Internal
respiration
by bacteria
called nitrate
Non-living
nitrogen
compounds
(nitrites) in
badttria
5.0ll or Wf.ltet'
lnlernul
Prod1Jces respiration
by bacteria called
nltrlfying
Nitrogen fixation
(Internal respiration
by nitrogen-fix Ing
bacteria and bluegreen algae). Bacteria
found in soil (or
water) or in swellings
(root nodules) on
roots of leguminous
plants, i.e. plants
producing legumes .
lxiamu
35
Deciduous
Evergreen
A term describing perennials
which do not shed their leaves
at the end of a growi ng
season, e.g. firs.
Grand fir
Ephemeral
Carrots
are
biennials.
i /,~-~~ Annuals
1y:
Anadromous
Dormancy
Migrating geese
Migration
Traveling seasonally from one region to
another. This normally involves leav.i ng
an area in winter to find food elsewhere,
and returning in the spring to breed.
Migration is part of the life cycle of many
animals, especial ly birds.
A period, or periods, of
suspended activity which
is a natural part of the life
cycle of many plants and
Dormouse in
animals. Dormancy in plants
hibernation
occurs when conditions are
unfavorable for growth (normally in winter). In
animals, dormancy usually occurs because of
food scarcity, and is either called hibernation
or aestivation. Hibernation is dormancy in the
winter (typ ical of many animals, e.g. some
mammals*), and aestivation is dormancy in
drought conditions (occurs mainly in insects).
Life styles
The world has a vast diversity of living
things, each one with its own style of life.
This situation is a result of genetic
variation. The living things can be grouped
together according to shared characteristics,
either by formal classification, which is
based mainly on their inferred ancestry (see
charts, pages 340-341) or by more informal
groupings, based on general characteristics
-(see list, page 342).
Genetic variation
The span of
different forms of
life, each of which is a
Birds' wings are
variation and specifically
shaped for flight.
designed to survive its ' .
environment. For example,
fish and birds have streamlined
shapes ideal for swimming and flying.
Many living
things also
possess protectiv~(.;
f
measures such as ..,,thorns or poison
stings. These
protective designs
become established in
"
ff:
~
':.c;
A bee's sting
protects it from
predators.
Mimicry
A special type of genetic design, in
which a plant or animal (the mimic) has a
resemblance to another plant or animal (the
model). This is used especially for protection
(e.g. many unprotected irisects have the
coloring of those which sting), but also for
other reasons (bee orchids are mimics for
reproduction purposes - see page 259).
Model
Mimic
~
Wasp (protected with stinger)
Mammals, 341.
Hoverffy
. (unprotected)
THE STRUCTURE OF
LIVING THINGS
A living thing capable of a separate existence is called an
Plant cell
(cut away)
Cell membrane
Also called the plasma membrane or
plasmalemma. The outer surface of a cell. It
is semipermeable*, 'i.e. selective about which
substances it allows thr9ugh .
Cell membrane
------'~~
Cytoplasm
The material where all the chemical reactions
vital to life occur (see organelles). It generally
has a gel-like outer layer and a more liquid
inner one (see ectoplasm and endoplasm pictures, page 268).
Animal cell
(cut away)
Vacuoles
Fluid-filled sacs in the cytoplasm. They are
small and temporary in animal cells, and
either transfer substances (see Golgi complex
or contain fluid brought in (see pinocytosis,
page 329). Most plant cells have one large,
pednanent vacuole, filled wit~h cell sap
(dissolved minerals and sugars).
I 23s
Organelles
The organelles are ti-ny bodies in the \I
cytoplasm. Each type (listed below and on
page 240) has a vital role to play in the
chemical reactions within the cell.
Lysosomes
Round sacs containing powerful enzymes*.
They take in foreign bodies, e.g. bacteria, to
be destroyed by the enzymes. Their outer
skins do not usually let the enzymes out
"" into the cell (to break down its contents),
but if the cell becomes damaged, the skins
d isappear and the cell digests itself.
Ribosomes
Tiny round particles (most are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum). They are involved in
building up proteins from amino acid,s (see
page 330). Coded information (held by the
DNA in the nucleus) is sent to the ribosomes
in strands of a substance called messenger
RNA (mRNA). These pass on the codes so that
the ribosomes join the amino acids in the
correct order to produce the right proteins.
RNA* is present in at least two other forms
in the cells. The ribosomes are made of
ribosomal RNA (see nucleoli*), and
molecules of transfer RNA
tRNA) carry the amino acids
to the rib(ifgomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum or ER
A complex system of flat sacs, joining up
with the nuclear membrane (see nucleus).
It provides a large surface area for enzyme*
reactions. Rough ER has ribosomes on the
surface, where amino acids are combined
to make proteins (see page 330). ER with no
ribosomes is smooth ER. Smooth ER bears
enzymes for many other cell processes.
Golgi complex
Also called a Golgi apparatus, Golgi body
or dictyosome. A special set of m~branos
sacs, which collects, modifies and distributes
the substances made by the ER (e.g. proteins).
The substances fill the sacs, which gradually
swell up at their outside edges until pieces
''pinch off". These pieces, called vesicles, then
travel out of the cell via the cytoplasm and
cell membrane.
Golgi complex
Centrio/e
Cell membrane
Lysosome
Organelles
(continued)
Centrioles
Centriole
Cell division
Cell division is the splitting up of one cell
(the parent cell) into two identical daughter
cells. There are two types of cell division,
.bOth involving the division of the nucleus*
(karyokiness) followed by.the division of the
cytop asm* (cytokinesis). The first type of cell
d ivision (m itosi:s) is described on these two
pages. It prodt~ces new cells for growth and
also to rep l<.ice t he millions of cells which die
each day (rrorn damage, disease or simply
because they are ;'worn ouf'). It is also the
means of asexual reproduction* .in many
single-celled organisms. The seco'nd, spe.cial
typ of cel l divis ion produces the gametes*
(sex ceHs)whic::h will come together to form
a new livi ng thing. For more about this, see
pages 322 323_
Mitosis
'The division of the nucleus* when a plant
or animal cell divides for growth cir repair. It
ensures that the two new nuclei (daughter
nuclei) are each given the same number of
chromosomes* (the bodies which carry the
"coded" hereditary information). Each receives
the same number of chromosomes as were in
the original nucleus, called the diploid number.
Every living th ing has its own characteristic
diploid number, i.e. all its cells (with the
exception of the gametes*) contain the
same, spoc il'ic number of chromosomes,
grouped in identi cal pairs called homologous
chromosomes_ Hu mans have 46 chromosomes,
in 23 pa irs- Although mitosis is a continuous
process, .tt c:an be divided fur convenience sake
into four phases_ Before mitosis, however, there
i~ always an interphase.
lnter;phase
Mitochondrion
Plastids
Tiny bodies in plant cell
cytoplasm*. Some (leucoplasts)
store starch, oil or proteins.
Others - chloroplasts* contain chlorophyll*
(used in making food) .
Plastld (chloroplast')
240 A.sexual reproduction, 321 ; ChlorophyDl 255 ~gments); Chloropluts, 254; Clilro""'4tin, 2 J.S {N:udl!Ut);
Chrom<omes, 324; Cytoplasm. 2JB; CAmfiH, l20; N111;!,<,us,
i~!!; Rlhu~C>me..,
2 9.
Phases of mitosis
1. Prophase
3. Anaphase
Oa1J!1htw - --
-+-
d1romo.romfi
dmggedaplllt
'--- --Splndle
mlett1tu6Wes
<lwomoJome *
(pair of chromatids)
2. Metaphase
The nuclear membra ne* d isappears and
lhe spindle microt ubules surrou nd the
mosomes* (pai red chromatids). The
.
l!hromosomes move towa rds its eq uator
beco me attached by their centromeres
the spindle microtubules.
lpilde ---~~
mavwbules
- a spindle
~me*
at cbromatlds)
4. Telophase
The spindle m icrotubu lcs d isappea r a nd
a new nuclea r membrane~ fo rms a round
each group of da ughter chromo$omes.
This creates two new nuclei* (daughter
nuclei), inside w hich the. chromosomes
uncoil a nd once agai n form a thread -like
mass (chromatin*).
Cleavage furro w
(see cyl'Olt:ltteil~.
below)
I
Daughter I
chromosomes
I'
___,,,.....__...
-:f..~
(before .uncoiling)
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
Cellwali ~
Vesicles
containing
eel/wall
material.
:
-
... .. clJ
w
New cell wall
Doughier cells
241
VASCULAR PLANTS
Vascular
bundle
Xylem _ _...,.__ ..,
Phloem--
Vascular ---------!K"=-'--.1~11'
bundle
Phloem - - - - - --11--' 1111
Cambium - - - - --;;--"ll
........~
Longitudinal section of
young root, or young part
of a root (dicotyledon*)
Cambium
A layer of narrow, thin-walled cells between
the xylem on the inside and the phloem on
the outside. The cells are able to divide,
making more xylem and phloem. Such an
a rea of cells is cal led a meristem*.
Vessel
L _ _ Xylem_____J
Cambium
Sieve plate
Sieve tube
Phloem -
Phloem
Sieve tubes
Endodermis
Cortex
Pith or medulla
A layer of tissue inside the epidermis of
stems and roots. It consists mainly of
parenchyma, a type of tissue with large
cells and many air spaces. In some plants .
~ there is also some collenchyma, a type of
supporting tissue with long, thick-walled
cells. The cortex tends to get compressed
and replaced by other tissues as a plant
gets older.
Cuticle
A thin outer layer of a waxy substance called
cutin made by the epidermis above ground.
It prevents too much water from being lost.
Stem attachments
Shoot
A new stem growing out of a seed
or off the main stem of a plant.
' Bud
A small outgrowth on a stem. It develops either
into a new shoot or a flower.
Terminal bud
A bud growing at the end of a stem or shoot.
Axillary bud
Also ca lled a lateral bud
or secondary bud. A bud
situated in an axil - the
angle between a shoot or
leaf stalk and the stem
it is growing from.
Node
A place on a stem where a leaf, with or
without a leaf stalk, has been produced.
lnternode
The area of a stem or shoot between two nodes.
Lateral means
n of
the side".
BOTANY
Parts of a root
Types of roots
Root cap
Tap root
Growing point
An area just behind a root tip where the
cells divide to produce new growth.
Zone of elongation
The area of new cells produced by the
growing point, and lotated just behfnd it. The
eel Is stretch lengthwise as they take in water,
since their cell walls* are not yet hard. This
elongation pushes the root tip further down
into the soi l.
Piliferous layer
The you ngest layer of the epidermis*, or outer
skin, of a root. It is the area which produces
root hairs. It is found just behind the zone of
elongation. As the walls of the elongating cells
harden, the outermost cells become the
pi liferous layer. The older piliferous layer
(higher up the root) is slowly worn away, to be
replaced by a layer of ha rden.e d cells called the
exodermis (the outermost laye r of the cortex*).
Root hairs
Long outgrowths from the cells of the piliferous
layer. They ta ke in water and minerals.
Tap root
(carrot)
root
Fibrous roots
A system made up
of a large number
of equal-sized roots,
all producing smaller
lateral roots. The first
root is not prominent,
as it is in a tap root
system.
Adventitious roots
Roots which grow
directly from a stem.
Adventitious roots
grow out of bulbs*
(which are special
types of stem), or
from gardeners'
cuttings.
Adventitious roots
Aerial roots
Parts of a root
(See also root section,
poge 242.)
roots
Prop roots
.,
Zone of elongation Growing point-Root c a p - --
~ Bulb,
---+-
- -+-
___,f - - -- ---h
- - +- -- ---r'l
Mangrove ."
Prop roots
A plant which lives for many years, such as a tree, forms secondary tissue
as it grows. This consists of new layers of tissue to supplement the original
tissue, or primary tissue*. New supportive and fluid-carrying vascular tissue*
is formed toward the center of the plant and new protective tissue is produced
around the outside. The production of the new vascular tissue is called
secondary thickening, and results in what is known as a woody plant.
Vascular cylinder
A vascular cylinder develops as the first step of
secondary thickening in stems. More cambium*
forms between the vascular bundles*, and this
then gives rise to more xylem* and phloem *,
forming a continuous cylinder.
Secondary thickening
2. Slightly older
The year-by-year production of more fluidcarrying vascular tissue* in plants which live
, for many years, resulting in a gradual increase
in the diameter of the stem and roots . Each
year, new layers of xylem* (secondary xylem)
and phloem* (secondary phloem) are
.
produced by the dividing cells of the
cambium* between them. This process differs
slightly betwee n stems and roots, but the result
throughout the plant is an ever-enlarging core
of vascular tissue (which slowly "sq ueezes
out" the pith* in stems). Most of this core is
xylem, now also known as wood. The area of
phloem does not widen much at all, because
the xylem pushing outward wears it away.
Cambium _ _ __ __
,,___ ,
joins up.
Annual rings
The concentric circles which can be seen in a
cross section of an older plant. Each ring is one
year's new growth of xylem*, and has two
separate areas - spring wood and summer
wood . Soft spring wood (or early wood)
forms rapid ly early in the growing
season and has widely-spaced cells.
Harder summer wood (or late
wood) is produced later on. Its
cells are more densely packed.
as it
grows.
-&--&
First layer of
secondary
phloem formed------~"!!:..._.,......
5. After a
number of years
Many annual --1;.r-.~="inll
rings (secondary
xylem)
Sttondal'}'--'----
phloem
---'
BOTANY
..
Phellem or cork
A new cell layer produced by phellogen on its
outside. The cells undergo suberization, i.e.
become impregnated with a waxy substance
called suberin. This makes the outer layer
waterproof. The phellem cells slowly die
and replace the previous outer cell layer
(epidermis* in stems and exodermis* in
roots). Dead phellem cells are called bark.
Lenticel
(see below)
Loosely-packed cells
Bark stops the tree from drying out and protects it from disease. It
cannot grow or stretch, so it splits or peels as the trunk gets wider,
and new bark grows underneath.
Lenticels
Beech bark
Heartwood
Types of wood
Sapwood
Heartwood
The oldest, central part .
of the xylem* in an older
plant. The vessels* are filled
in and no longer carry fluids,
but they still prov ide support.
Cambium, Cort;ex, Epidermis, 243; Exodermis, 245 (Pillferous layer); Phloem, 243;
Merlstem, 244; Vascular tissue, 242; _Vessels, 243; Xylem, 243.
/
::~
..
I
Sapwood
LEAVES
The leaves of a plant, collectively
known as its foliage, are specially
adapted to manufacture food. They
do this by a process called photosynthesis. for
more about this, see pages 254-255. There are
.
many different shapes and sizes of leaves, but only
two different types. Simple leaves consist of a single leaf
blade, or lamina, and compound leaves are made up of
small leaf blades called leaflets, all growing from the
same leaf stalk. You can find out more about some of
the different leaf shapes on page 250.
Inside a leaf
Leaf poin4
or apex
Magnified view
Veins
~.....,....._
- - of veins. A leaf's
whole system
of veins is its
venation.
Leaf edge,
or margin
Leaf stalk, or
petiole. Some
leaves (sessile
il. - -
Spongy layer
Palisade layer
Lower
eP,ldermls*
Palisade
cells -
Stoma
Vascular tissue
Air space
BO TA NY
Leaf trace
Abscission layer
Guard cells
Pairs of crescent-shaped cells. The members of
each pair are found on either side of a stoma,
which they open and close by changi ng shape.
Th is controls water and gas exchange. Guard
cel ls are the only surface cel ls with chloroplasts*.
Ordinary cell ol
epidermis'
i.__....1.._~--.L....L..=::::::t"--. Vascu/ar
Special leaves
Stipule
A small ,
stalkl ess
leaf at the
base of a
leaf stalk in
many plants.
Tendril
A specia l
thread-like leaf
(or stem)
which either
twines around
or sticks to
a support.
Bract
Spine
A leaf at the
base of a
flower statk
in many
plants.
of a cactus. ft has a
reduced su rface area
to avoid losing much
water.
tissue
Leaf arrangements
Spiral
Leaves growing out
from points formin g a
spiral around the ste m.
u - - - - Spiral of
leaves
Box
Opposite
Leaf pairs whose
members grow from
opposite stem sides.
Trifoliate
Three
leaflets
grow from
the same point.
Palmate
Pinnate
The leaflets, or
pinnae (sing.
pin na), a re
in opposite
pairs.
Decussate
Special type of
trifoliate leaf.
Each leaflet has
three lobes.
Horse
chestnut
Rowan
Opposite
pairs
Ternate
Purple
loosestrife
Pairs at
right
Rosette or whorl
A circle of leaves
growing from orie
point.
~C-,m
oogk>
Rosette
Basal rosette
Primrose
A rosette
growing at the
base of a stem.
Basal
rosette
Perfoliate
Yellow-wart
Single or paired
leaves whose
bases are fused
around the stem .
around
stem
Leaf margins
Bipinnate/
tripinnate
A pinnate leaf
with pin nate
leaflets.
Entire
The leaf margin has no
indentations of any kind .
Serrate
The leaf margin has
tiny jagged "teeth" .
May also be lobed.
Lobed
The leaf margin forms
sections, or lobes.
May also be
serrate.
English
oak
--
-------~-
PLANT SENSITIVITY
Plants have no nervous system, but
they do still show sensitivity, i.e.
they react to certain forms of
stimulation. They do this by moving
specific parts or by growing. This is
called tropism. Positive tropism is
movement or growth toward the
stimulus and negative tropism is
movement or growth away from it.
Hydrotropism
Response to water.
For example, some
roots may grow out
sideways if there is
more water in that
direction.
Roots grow
tow ard water.
Phototropism
Response to light.
When the Iight
is sunlight,
the response
is called
heliotropism.
Most leaves and
stems show this
by curving around
to grow toward
the light.
Haptotropism or
thigmotropism
Response to touch
or contact. For
example, the
sticky hairs of a
sundew plant curl
around an insect
when it comes into
contact with them.
Stems curve
around to
face light.
haptotropism. Their
leaves respond to touch, snapping
up animals such as insects and small frogs.
Photoperiodism
Geotropism
Response to the
pull of gravity. This
is shown by all
roots, i.e. they all
Roots grow down
grow down
in response to
through the soil.
gravity.
Venus fly
traps show
Chrysanthemum
Larkspur
Snapdragon
(long.night
plant)
(shortnight
(night-neutral
plant)
p~ant)
')
Transpiration stream
Transpiration stream
A constant chain-of events inside
a plant. As the outer leaf cells
stoma*. I
lose water by transpiration, the
- concentration ofminerals and sugars
in th(E!ir vacuoles* becomes higher
than that of the cells further in.
Water then passes outward by
- osmosis*, causing more water to
be " pulled" up through the tubes
of the xylem* in the stem and roots
(hefped by capillary action) . The
Water replaced
roots then take in more water.
from inner cells.
Capillary action
The way that fluids travel up
narrow tubes (see also pa_ge 23).
The molecules of the fluid are
"pulled " upward by the attraction
between them and the molecules
of the tube.
Root pressure
A pressure which-builds up in the
roots of some plants. In all plants,
water travels in from the soil and on
through the layers of root cells by
osmosis*. In plants which develop
root pressure, the pressure of this
water movement is enough to
force the water some way up into
the tubes of the xylem* . It is then
"pulled" on upward by the
transpiration stream. In other plants,
the movement of water through root
cells is all due to the "pull " of the
transpiration stream.
Roots take in
more water.
BOTANY
Wilting
water is forced
out of pores
A phenomenon
- occurring in plants
which show root
pressure. The extra
pressure, added to
the "pull" of the
transpiration stream,
Wilting
Turgor
The state of the cells
in a h~?lthy plant
when its cells can take
in no more water. Each
eel I is then said to be
tur~
d. This means that
Healthy plant
w ater s passed by
osmosis"' into the cell sap* (dissolved
m iner~s and.sugars) in the cell's large
central vacuole*, and the vacuole has
pushed as far out as it can go. The vacuole
can push out no further because its outward
pressure (called turgor pressure) is equalled
by the opposing force of the ri gid cell wall*
(wall pressure). Turgid cells are important
because they enable a plant to stand firm
and upright.
Turgor
Plasmolysis
Root u _rrs-
- - - - --
Va.:rro/e''- -- - -containing
Not enough
,.
__J
water coming in
Plasmolysis
so
-i
-+.,.--
cell sap
Root
hair
L_
- --
- --U-_..:.-
No more water-
can enter.
Water leaving - - -cell intosoil
- --
..C:..'
PLANT FOOD
PRODUCTION
Most plants have the ability to make the food they. need for growth and
energy (unlike animals, which must take it in). The manufacturing process
hy which they make their complex food substances from other, simpler
substances is called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
The series of chemical
reactions (for basic
equation, see page
209) by which green
J,j plants make their
food. It occurs
mainly in the
palisade cells*.
Carbon dioxide is
combined with
water, using
energy taken in
from sunlight by
chloroplasts. This
produces oxygen
as well as the
plant's food
(see diagram,
page 255).
Photosynthesis in a
rosebay willowherb
plant
Sunlight
Vacuole'
Carbon
dioxide
Stoma
Carbon
,.,.,..,...,..,.,-- Cell in
epidermis' (no
chloroplasts)
Chloroplasts
absorb sunlight.
Palisade
cell'
substances
built up inside cells.
~---Food
Chloroplasts
tiny bodies in plant cells (mainl y in the
leaves) which contain a green pigment
called chlorophyll. This absorbs the Sun's
light energy and uses it to "power"
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts can move
around inside a cell, according to light
intensity and direction. See also page 240.
Carbon __,}f///I
dioxide ......
Strong
sunlight
Water
Nitrates and
minerals (e.g.
phosphorus
and calcium)
also taken in.
Used to build&~J:d~IJI~~
new tissue
(proteins).
.-J.,..
.::;...._."""--"' '~.._i
Chloroplasts
Weak
sunlight
Chloroplasts
change position.
Products of photosynthesis
Pigments
OOl.umn leaf
Water
Chlorophyll
PHOTOSYNTl;tESIS
RESPIRATION
reflects
1.,...:=:...::!...___J green light.
Other pigments
reflect other
~-----' co/ors.
Oxygen
Carbohydrates
Compensation points
Two points in a 24-hour period (normally
around dawn and around dusk) when the
processes of photosynthesis and internal
respiration* (see above) are exactly balanced.
chlorophyll
1. Around dawn
(compensation point)
3. Around dusk
(compensation point)
Oxygen
FLOWERS
.;....-----...- Buttercup
Receptacle
The expanded tip of the flower stalk, or
peduncle, from which the flower grows.
Petals
The delicate, usually brightly colored
structures around the reproductive organs.
They are often scented (to attract insects)
and are known collectively as the corolla.
Sepals
The small, leaf-like structures
around a bud , known collectively
as the calyx. In some flowers,
e.g. buttercups, they remain as a
ring around the opened petals; in
others, e.g. poppies, .they wither
and fall off.
I
I
~
Nectaries
Areas of cells at the
base of the petals
which produce a
Nectarheldat
sugary liquid called
base of petal
attracts
This
nectar.
insects need ed for pollination*. It is
thought that the dark lines down many
petals are there to direct an insect to the
nectar, and they are called honey guides.
Pollination, Reproduction, 258.
Petal
Carpel
perlanth.
Receptacle
Unopened
petals
Stamens
Ovaries
Female reproductive structures. Each is the
main part of the carpel and contains one or
more tiny bod ies called ovules*, each of
w hich contains a female sex cell. An ovule
is fixed by a stalk (funicle) to an area of the
ovary's inside wall called the placenta. The
stalk is attached to the ovule at a point ca lled
a chalaza.
Stigma
Androecium
Style
The part qf a carpel w hich joins the stigma
to the ovary. Many flow ers have an obvious
style, e.g. daffodils, but in others it is very
short (e.g. buttercups) o r almost no n-existent
e.g. poppies).
Gynaecium
The whole female reproductive structure,
m ade up of o ne o r more carpels.
Stigma
Stigma
Single
o~ule'
. . .. .
Ovary
Funic/e
Placenta
Poppy carpel
Stigma
Stigma
Hypogynous flower
Tulip
Perigynous flower
Buttercup carpels
One large
carpel
ovary
Epigynous flower
Daffodil
Receptacle----~
')'
REPRODUCTION IN A
FLOWERING PLANT
Reproduction is the creation of new life. All flowering
plants reproduce by sexual reproduction*, when a male
gamete* (sex cell) joins with a female gamete. ln flowering
plants, the male gametes (str ictly speaking only male nuclei*)
are held in pollen, and the female gametes in ovules.
Pollen
Tiny grains formed by the stamens* (male
parts) of flowers (see picture, right). Each grain
is a special cell which has two nuclei* . When
a pollen grain lands on an ovary* (female
body), one nucleus (the generative nucleus)
divides into two, forming two male nuclei
(reproductive bodies - see introduction ).
Generative -------~
nucleui
Ovules
Pollination
Fertilization
After pollination, one male nucleus (see
pollen) fuses with the egg cell in the ovule to
form a zygote* (the first cell of a new plant).
The other_joins with the two fused female
nuclei to form a eel.I which develops into the
endosperm*.
Pollination in
a poppy plant
Poppy ovary
(cross section)
Ovule
Cross sectioa
of ovary
lntegumentJ
--r-!i'.~---Pollen
tube
11'__,,,t--'.....-~
Nucleui of embryo
iac has divided up.
Ovules
Cross pollination
Self pollination
The pollination of a
plant by its own
pollen grains. For ;'/:
example, bee Iii...__,_"'
orchid tries to
attract male Eucera bees
(for cross pollination) by
looking and smelling like a
female bee. But if it is not
visited, its stamens* (male
11
po en to t e stigma 0 its
Bee
~,.-'I
....~
_.,f!'J
~~ .
- - -- - Po-U-en_s_o_<l_s _ro_oo
_d_y_ __ __ _ _ __ ovary*
p_a_r-ts_)_b_e
_n_d_o_ve_rbody).
_a
_n_d_ t-ra_n_s_fe_r_ _ orchid
__ _
(female
r
~>-- Single
Bell flower
Also called a
tubular or
campanulate
flower. Its petals
are joined to make
a bell shape.
Nettle-leaved
bellflower
Bell flower
.,
flower
Spurred flower
A flower with one
or more petals
extended
backward to
form spurs.
Flowerhead or
composite
flower
A cluster of tiny
flowers, or florets.
Lipped flower
A flower with
two "lips" - an
upper and lower
one. The upper
one often has
a hood.
Umbellifer
An inflorescence
with umbrellac
shaped
flowerheads
(umbels).
Ray florets
Florets with
one long petal.
Mid-summer
daisy
Ray - - - - /
florets
Disc florets
Florets whose
petals are all
the same size.
Pea flower
A flower with an
upper petal (the
standard), two side
petals (wing
petals) and two
lower petals
forming the keel
(which encloses the
reproductive parts).
Ups
Gorse
_ _ Standard
Keel
Dispersal or dissemination
The shedding of ripe seeds from the fruit of
a parent plant. This happens in one of two
main ways, depending on whether a fruit
is dehiscent or indehiscent.
Dehiscent
A word describing a fruit from
which the seeds are expelled
before the fruit itself disintegrates.
For example, a poppy capsu le has
holes in it, and the seeds are shaken
out by the wind. Other fruits, e.g. pea
pods; open spontaneously and "shoot"
the "Seeds out. In many cases, the
seeds may then be carried
by wind,. water or
other means.
Pea pods
burst open.
A word
and are eaten
by birds.
describing a
fruit which becomes
detached from the plant and disintegrates
to free the seeds. For example, the "keys" of
sycamores or the "parachutes" of dandelions
are carried by the air, and hooked burrs catch
on animal fur. The fruit then rots away in
./,;..
the ground to expose the seeds.
Edible fruits may be eaten by -. , ._......I,!J/-:,.
,
.
animals, which then expel the ~
seeds in their droppings. . . ::. :,; 1
. " '. 'I,~
-~
Strawberries are
eaten by
animals.
....:~
catch on
animals' fur.
Germination
Hypogeal
seedling.
Seed starting--to germinate
Testa ---~
--i
Plumule
Plumule
comes above
9r'Qli""1.
Radide
grows down.
BOTANY
Parts of a seed
Hilum
Plumule
A mark on a seed,
showing where the
ovule* was attached
to the ovary*.
Testa
The seed coat. It
develops from the
integuments*.
Testa
water in.
Radicle
The first root, or primary
root, of a new plant. It is
formed inside seed.
One
cotyledon
has been
removed.
Cotyledons
have been
opened out.
Plumule -+--~
.,.
Cotyledons -
Endosperm
A layer of tissue inside a
seed which surrounds the
developing plant and gives it
nourishment. In some plants,
e.g. pea, the cotyledons
absorb and store all the
endosperm before the seed
is ripe; in others, e.g. grasses,
it is not fully absorbed until
after the seed germinates.
Cross section of
a young bean
Cross section of
a mature bean
Endosperm
Endosperm
Cotyledon
Cotyledon
Cotyledon or seed-leaf
A simple leaf which forms
part of the developing
plant. In some seeds, e.g.
bean seeds, it absorbs
and stores all the food . .
from the endosperm.
Monocotyledons are plants
with one cotyledon, e.g.
grasses; in dicotyledons,
e .g. peas, there are two.
Epigeal
Coleoptile
Cotyledons
True leaves
Epigeal
(bean plant)
Plumule
Rad/cle
Grain of wheat
Bud protected
by coleoptlle
Coleoptile
FRUIT
A fruit contains the seeds of a plant.
True fruit deve lop purely from the
ovary*, false fruit develop from the
Grapefruit
receptacle* as well (e.g. a strawberry). Berry
Seed
The outer wall of a fruit is called the A fleshy fruit
which
contains
pericarp. In some fruits, it is divided
many seeds, e.g. a tomato
into an outer skin, or epicarp, a
or a grapefruit. The "flesh" of
fleshy part, or mesocarp, and an
citrus fruits is made up of tiny
inner layer, or endocarp. Listed
hairs, each one swollen up
and full of juice.
below are the main types of fruit.
Legume or pod
A fruit with seeds
attached to its inside
wall. It splits along its
length to open, e.g. a pea.
Pea pod
Nut
A dry fruit with a
hard shell, which
only contains one
seed, e.g. a
hazelnut or
a walnut.
a plum .
Grain
Also called
a caryopsis or kernel.
A small fruit whose wall has fused
with the seed coat, e.g. wheat.
Pome
A fruit with a thick, fleshy,
outer layer and a core, with
the seeds enclosed in a
capsule, e.g. an apple.
Parnes are examples of false
fruits (see introduction).
Drupe
A fleshy fruit with
a hard seed in the
middle, often known
as a "stone", e.g .. seed or
"stoneN
Artificial propagation_
Artificial propagation is the
c:ommercial process, in
agriculture and market
gardening, which makes use
of vegetative reproduction
(see opposite). The fact that
new plants need not
always grow from seeds
means that many more
plants can be produced
commercially than would
occur naturally.
Tomato seeds
surrounded
by juice
Capsule
Achene
A small, dry fruit, with only
one seed, e.g. a sycamore or
buttercup fruit. A "winged "
achene like a sycamore fruit
is a samara or key fruit.
Taking a cutting
Cutting in water
Cutting replanted
BOTANY
V EGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
l\s well as producing seeds, some
Rhizome
~
- -
Newbud-
Roots
Stolon or runner
Bulb
A short, thick stem surrounded by scaly leaves
scale leaves) which contain stored food
materia l. It is formed underground by an old,
dying plant, and represents the first, resting,
. stage of a new plant, which will emerge as a
shoot at the start of the next growing season.
E.g. a daffodil bulb (see picture above).
Tuber
A short, swollen,
underground stem
which contains stored
food material and
produces buds from
which new plants will
grow, e.g. a potato.
Grafting
Grafting
Corm
St~
ck ~'"' . ' Scion.
Stock-
'
I}.
Budding
~~~t~~:;g
L_
Stoc
Budding
A type of grafting where a bud and its
adjacent stem are the parts grafted.
- JI.
'
'I
' .,
__.
__
Segmentation
Meta mere
264
Classiflcation, 340.
markings.
~------Abdomen
Appendage
Bilateral symmetry
An arrangement of body
parts in which there is
only one possible body
division which will
produce two mirrorimage halves. It is typical
of almost all freelymoving anima ls. The
same state in flowers is
called zygomorphy (e.g.
in snapdragons).
Radial symmetry
Frog
Starfish
A radiating arrangement
of body parts around a
centra l axis, e.g. in
starfish. Jn such cases;
there are two or more -1==~~
possible body divisions
(sometimes in different
planes) which will
produce two mirrorimage halves. The same
state in flowers is cal led
actinomorphy (e.g. in
Several different divisions
produce mirror-image ta
buttercups).
ZOOLOGY (ANIMALS)
ody cavities
-
louth
Simplified cut-away
of a spider
Eye
tubules*
Digestive tube
Silk gland
Lung
book'
Hemocoel
The fluid-filled main body cavity (perivisceral
cavity) of arthropods*, e .g. insects, and
molluscs*, e.g. snails. In molluscs, it is more
of a spongy meshwork of tissue than a true
cavity. Unlike a coelom, a he mocoel
contains blood. It is an -expanded part of
the blood system, through which blood is
circulated. In some animals, the hemocoel
plays a part in excretion. In insects, for
instance, water a nd fluid waste seep into it,
and are then taken up by the Malpighian
tubules* projecting into it.
Mantle cavity
Heart
- - - - S hell
Spongy
hemocoel
meshwork
'----li'f~W'--"
inside.
Digestive waste comes out here and
leaves through a slit under the shell.
Arthropods, 341; Echinoderms, 341 ; Gills, 272; Inhalant siphon, 272 (Siphon); Lung books, Malplghlan tubules, 273;
265
ANIMAL BODY
COVERINGS
All animals have an enclosing
outer layer, or "skin", normally with
a further covering of some kind. In
many cases, the skin has many
layers, like human skin (see pages
310-311), and in most higher
animals its covering is soft, e.g. hair,
fur or feathers. Hard coverings, e.g.
shells, are found in many lower
animals and may form-their only
supporting framework, if they have
no internal skeleton (endoskeleton).
ln such cases, the covering is called
an exoskeleton. 'some of the main
body coverings are listed here.
Cuticle
A no'n- living,
Carapace
The shield-like shell of
a crab, tortoise or turtle.
waterproof, outer
layer in m any
Sc/erites (cuticle)
animals, ~ec;reted
by the skin. ln most arthropods*, it hardens to
form () _Supportive outer skeleton, or exoskeleton,
e.g: the shells of crabs and the tough outer
"coat'' of insects. The term cuticle is in fact
most often used to describe this insect "coat".
It consi-sts of a sugar-based s~bstance (chitin)
and a tough protein (sclerotin). It is often made
up of sclerites - separate pieces joined by
flexible, narrow areas. In other animals, e.g.
earthworms, the cuticle remains a soft, waxy
covering. (The term cuticle is sometimes used
to mean the stratum corneum* in humans.)
Scales
There are two different types of scales. Those
of bony fish, e.g. carp, are small, often bony
plates lying within the skin. Those covering
the limbs or whole bodies of many reptiles*
(e.g. the legs of turtles) are thickened
areas of skin .
Dermis'
P"eathers
Rectrices (sing.
rectrix) - tail feathers.
They control changes
of direction in flight.
The feathers
of the back,
shoulders and
wings are
sometimes
called the
- - -- - - ---'I
Primaries (furthest from the body) make up end section of wing (pinion).
---------'~
Feather follicles
Tiny pits in a bird's skin. Each one has
a feather in it, just like a hair in a hair
follicle*. The cells at the base of the
follicle grow up and out to form a
feather, and then die away, leav ing
their hard, tough remains.
'Hair follicles, 31 1.
267
ANIMAL MOVEMENT
Most animals are capable of movement from
place to place (locomotion) at least at some stage
of their lifrHplants can only move individual parts see tropism, page 251). The moving parts of animals vary
greatly. Many animals have a system of bones and muscles
similar to humans (see pages 278-283). Some of the parts
used in animal movement are shown on these pages.
Phagocytosis
Amoeba (single-celled
organism)
two pseudopodia.
L .
'
o"~''" 1
1. Amoeba forms
T
Food
particle
Nucleus Cytoplasm'
2. Pseudopod/a merge
around food particle.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
268
Nucleus
cytoplasm (ectoplasm)
around edge.
vacuole.
Some
white
blood
cells use phagocytosis
to engulf foreign bodies.
Contract/le
vacuole'
flagellum
Parapodia (sing.
parapodium)
Paired projections from
the sides of many aquatic
worms, used to move them
along. Each one ends in a
bunch of bristles, or chaetae
(sing. chaeta), which may also
cover the body in some cases.
ZOOLOGY (ANIMALS)
Swimmers
Flyers
Fins
Pectoralis muscles
Sheephead
wrass
Pectoralls minor
(pulls wing u p ) - - - -
-;:.,~
Keel -
i '
'I-" /
.,
- - -- - ----,i,+S<'"'
Median fins
The fins which run in a line down the center
of the back and the belly. In some fish, e.g.
eels, they form one long, continuous median
fin, but in most they are divided into the
dorsal, caudal (tail) and anal (or ventral) fins.
The dorsal fin and the anal fin control changes
of direction from side to side. The caudal fin
helps to propel the fish through the water.
Paired fins
The fins of a fish which stick .out from its sides
in two pairs: the pectoral fins and the pelvic
fins . They control .m ovement up or down.
Breastbone,
or stemum
Walkers
Unguligrade
Walking on hoofs at
the tips of the toes,
e.g. horses.
Digitigrade
Walking on the underside
of the toes, e.g. dogs and
cats.
Plantigrade
Walking on the underside
of the whole foot,
e.g. humans.
Filter-feeding
The "sieving" of food from
water, shown by many
aquatic animals. Barnacles,
for instance, sieve
out microscopic
organisms, or
plankton*, with
bristly limbs called
cirri (sing. cirrus).
4,.
~
Mouth closed
Mouth open
Water
and
food in
Frayed plates
of baleen
Carnassial teeth
The specially adapted last upper premolar*
and first lower molar* of carni vorous
mammals, used for shearing flesh.
Radula
2 70
Water out
ZOOLOGY (ANIMALS)
Arthropod mouthparts
Typical arrangement of
mouthparts (locust)
Hypopharynx. The
tongue (not visible here).
Used for sucking up
liquids.
c___
___;
Maxillae. In most
cases manipulate
food into mouth.
Grooves called _
-+"'.,,,,,
pseudotracheae
(sing. pseudotrachea)
- ---1-
-.).
Digestive structures
Crop
A thin-walled pouch, part of the gullet
(esophagus*) in birds; also a similar structure in
some worms, e.g. earthworms, and some
insects, e.g. grasshoppers. Food is stored in the
crop before it goes into the gizzard.
Gizzard
Rumen
The large first chamber of the complex
"stomach" of some plant-eating mammals*,
e.g. cows, into which food passes unchewed.
It contains bacteria which can break down
cellulose*. Other animals pass this substance
as waste, but these animals cannot afford to do
this, as it makes up the bulk of their food (grass).
Partially-digested food from the rumen is
digested further in the second chamber, or
reticulum, and then regurgitated to be chewed,
when it is known as the cud. When swallowed
again, it passes directly to the third and fourth
chambers - the omasum and the abomasum
(the true stomach) - for further processing.
Animals that chew the cud
(ruminate) are called
ruminants.
Reticulum
Rumen
Pigeon
Abomasum-
Cloaca/ aperture
~->..ir-"=:-r---
~~~
Cecum
Any blind-ended sac inside the body, especially
one forming part of a digestive system. In many
animals, e.g. rabbits, it is the site of an important
stage of digestion (involving bacterial breakdown
of cellulose* - see rumen). In others, e.g. humans
(see large intestine*), it has little use.
271
ANIMAL RESPIRATION , ,
The complex process-of respiration consists
of a number of stages (see introduction,
page 298) . Basically, oxygen is taken in
and used by body cells in the breakdown of
food , and carbon dioxide is expelled from the
cells and the body. On these pages are some of
the main animal respiratory organs. .
Gills
1. Mouth open
Internal gills
Gills inside the body, found in various forms
in a ll fish, most mollusks*, e.g. limpets, and
most crustaceans (a group of arthropods*
which includes crabs). Most fish have four
pairs of gills, with openings between them
r
called gill slits. In more advanced fish, e.g.
cod, they are covered by a flap called the
operculum . In more primitive fish, e.g. sharks,
they end in narrow openings in the skin on
the side of the head. Each gill consists of a
curved rod~ the gill bar or gill arch, with
many fine gill filaments, and even finer gill
lamellae (sing. lamella) radiating from it.
These all contain l?lood vessels.
Operculum has been removed.
Branch/a/ means
~---
Four
gills
External gills
Gills on the outside of the body, found in the
young stages of most fish and amphibians*,
some older amphibians and the young aquatic
stages of many insects (e.g. caddisfly larvae*
and mayfly nymphs*). Their exact form
depends on the type of animal, but in many
cases they are "frilly" outgrowths from the
head, e.g. in young tadpoles.
Tadpole
Siphon
Gii/
f//aments-----~
272
ZOOLOGY (ANIMALS)
Animai excretion
Excretion
Contractile vacuoles
Thin tubes leading in from the spiracles of
al l insects (and the most advanced spiders).
They form an inner network, often branching
into narrower tubes called tracheoles.
Oxygen from the air passes through the tube
walls to the body cells .. Carbon dioxide
leaves via the same route.
Flea
Trachea
Spiracle
Paramecium
Contractile
vacuole
Opening at
body surface
Tracheole
dioxide
out
Flame cell
M~::S~
Lung book
Nephrldlopore
Blood-filled --~~
plates
Bunches of cilla'
Malpighian tubules
Long tubes found in many arthropods*, e.g.
insects. They carry dissolved waste from
the main body cavity (hemocoel*) into
the rear of the gut. See picture, page 265.
Arthropods, 341; Cilia, 268; Coelom, 265; Hemocoel, 265; Larva, 277; Mollusks, .341.
t This is also the word for the human windpipe. See page 298.
273
ANIMAL SENSES.AND
COMMUNICATION
All animals show some sensitivity (irritability),
i.e. response to external stimuli ~uch as light and
sound vibrations. Humans have a high overall level
of sensory development, but individual senses in other animals may
be ~ven better developed, e.g. the acute vision of hawks. Listed here
are some of the main animal sense organs (and their parts). Their
responding parts send "messages" (nervous impulses) to the brain
(or more primitive nerve center), which initiates the response.
Tentacles
Long, flexible body parts, found in many
molluscs*, e.g. octopuses, and cnidarians*,
e.g. jellyfish ~ln most cases they are used for
grasping food or feeling, though the
longer of the two pairs found
in land snails and
Octopus
Prawn
Tentacles
Food-seizing
~.pincers called
che/ae (sing.
che/a).
A prawn has a
cepha/othorax - a
fused head and thorax.
Palps
Projections of the mouth parts of arthropods*,
e .g~ insects (see katydid picture, left). They
- - ---
Compound eyes
Catfish
Compound
eye view of a
flower (mosaic
image)
,.
Nerve endings
respond to water
by touch and taste.
movements.
Statocysts
Tiny organs of balance, found in many aquatic
invertebrates*, e.g. jellyfish. Each is a sac
with tiny particles called statoliths inside, e.g.
sand grains. When the animal moves, the
grains move, stimulating sensitive cells which
set off responses.
Lightsensitive cell
_system
Communication
Pheromone
Any chemica l made by an animal that
causes responses in other mem bers of the
spec ies, e.g. sexual attracta nts produced
by many insects_
Stridulation
The rubbing together of body .parts to
make a shri ll no ise (often used to attract
a mate). Katyd ids use their w ing edges.
Halteres
275
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
AND DEVELOPMENT
\.
a cleidoic egg
Viviparous
Eggs
New-born
piglets
suckling.
Pigs are
viviparous.
Oviparous
A term describing animals .in which the
development of the embryo* occurs in an egg
which has been laid by the mother. In some
cases, e.g. in birds, the male and female sex
cells join inside the femal e's body (internal
fertilization) a nd the egg already contains the
e mbryo when laid. In other cases, e .g. in
many fish, the many eggs
each just contain an
ovum (female sex cell)
when laid, and the
male then de posits
sperm (male
"'- sex cells)
over them
\ (external
\ fertilization).
Cleidoic egg
Amnion. Thin
Yolk (rich in
layer of tissue,
making amniotic
sac which contains
Clittfaz;u;
(sing.
chalaza).
Twisted
bands at
albumen,
holding
yolk in
place and
acting as
shock
absorbers.
Allantois. Has
many blood vessels,
which carry gases
between embryo and
outside. Also present
in early stages of
humandevelopment.
embryo
Oxygen
fn
Carbon
dioxide }
out
Gases exchanged
through shell
and air space.
Oviduct
Any tube in females through which either eggs
or ova (female sex cells) are d ischarged to the
outside. In some anim als, e.g. birds, the eggs
are fertilized on the way out (see oviparous).
Ovipositor
An organ extending from the back end of many
female insects, through which eggs are laid. In
many cases, it is long and sharp, and is used
to pierce plant or animal tissues before laying.
Metamorphosis
The growth and development of some animals
involves intermediate forms which are very
different from the adult form. Metamorphosis
is a series of su ch changes, producing a
comp lete or partial transformation from the
young form to th e adult.
Complete metamorphosis (two different fo rms between egg
and adult). The many insects which undergo it, e.g. butterflies,
are called endopteryogotes.
Spermatheca
A sac for sto rin g
sperm (male sex cells)
in th.e fema le of many
invertebrates*, e.g.
insects, and so me lower
vertebrates*, e.g. newts. The
fema le receives the sperm
and stores them until her
ova (sex cell s) are ready to
join with them (fertilization).
Some
hermaphrodite
rmimals (animals
with both male and
female organs), e.g.
earthworms, have
spermathed1e.
They "swap" sperm
when they mate.
,.
Nymph
-
'~-'=[
"'
277
THE SKELETON
The hum an skeleton is a fram e
of over 200 bones whic h
suppo rts and protects th e body
organs (th e viscera) a nd
provides a solid base for the
muscles to wo rk agai nst.
The bones of
the skeleton
cervical
vertebrae support the
Mandible
Seven
l.______
---j
Scapula or
shoulderblade
Cranium or skull
A case protecti ng the brain and fac ia l
organs. It is made of cranial a nd
facial bones, fused at lines ca ll ed
sutures. Th e uppe r j9w, fo r instance,
co nsists of two fused bones ca ll ed
maxillae (s ing. maxilla).
Cranium
72 thoracic
vertebrae --i'-7--~l!'i:S;;-::J~:Z'!!!~
support the
ribs.
The five
(lumbar)
region.
Lower jaw, or mandible,
attached by hinge Joint '.
Rib cage
A cage of bo nes formi ng the wa lls of
the thorax o r c hest a rea. It is made
up of 12 pa irs of ribs, th e thoracic
vertebrae a nd the sternum . The ribs
a re jo ined to the sternum by bands of
cartilage* ca ll ed costal cartilage, but
only the first seve n pairs jo in it d irectl y.
The last fi ve pa irs a re false ribs. The
top three of these join the ste rnum
i ndirectly ~ the ir costa l cartilage joins
that of the seventh pa ir. Th e bottom two
pa irs are floating ribs, o nl y attac hed to
the tho racic vertebrae at the back.
sacrum.
Coccyx. An area of
four fused coccygeal
vertebrae below
the sacrum.
Femur or
thlghbone
Isch/um.
Rib cage
Costa/ cartilage (allows
cage to expand and contract
during breathing) _ _-f,(.dib~Q....;.~Si~;;J)
Tarsals (ankle bones),
collectively called a
tarsus.
Phalanges (sing.
phalanx). The bones
of the digits fingers and toes.
metatarsus.
ZOOLOGY (H UMANS)
Vertebral column
Also called the spinal
column, spine or
backbone. A flexible
chain of 33 vertebrae
which protects the
spinal cord*, supports
the head and
provides points of
attachment for the
pelvis and rib cage .
Ped/des. Short
joining pieces.
Superior articular
processes. Form --;~'!!~;;;j~~jt.,
joints with
vertebra
above.
Transverse
Inferior articular
processes (underneath, not
or neural spine.
Splnous process
For muscle
attachment.
Vertebra - --
Vertebrae (sing.
vertebra)
The 33 bones of the
vertebral column . A
typical vertebra has a
thick "chunk" (the
centrum or body), various
projections, or processes
(named below) and a
central hole - the vertebral
foramen (pl. foramina).
The foramina together
form the neural, spinal
or vertebral canal,
through which the
spinal cord* runs.
Vertebral structure
The d ifferent verte brae are named around
the skeleton on the opposite page. The top
24 are movable and linked by invertebral
disks of cartilage*. The bottom nine are
fused together. They all have the typical
structure described above right, except for
the top two, the atlas and axis. The atlas
(top vertebra) has a special joint with the
skull which allows the head to nod. The
axis has a 11 peg" (the dens or odontoid
process) which fits into the atlas. This
forms a pivot joint, a type of joint which
allows the head to rotate.
Cap called
foramen
invertebral
----~
Facet.--
+--><oa
Area where
a rib is
attached.
Dens fits
in here.
I..
Axis
(from above)
Gliding joints
Also called sliding or plane joints. Joints in
which one or more fl at surfaces glide over
each other, e.g. those between the carpals*.
. They are more flexible than hinge joints.
"-..
Gliding joints
" ,, ' >-._(between carpals')
.
........
~'
. .
J: ""'
'
.. ~
--
..
Hinge joints
Joints (e.g. the knee joint) which work like
any hinge. Th-at is, the movable part (borie)
can only move in one plane, i.e. in either of
two opposing directions.
Hinge joint
(knee joint)
Ball-and-socket joints
The most flexible joints (e.g. the hip joint). The
movable bone has a rounded end which fits
into a socket in the fixed bone. The movable
bone can swivel, or move in many directions.
Patella'
Ball-andsocket joint
(hip joint~.~\.-'
- - Pelvis'
Socket -r--+.--~-...
Connective tissue
There are many diffecent types of
connective tissue in the body. They all
protect and Connect cells or organs and
have a basis of non-living material (the
matrix) in which living cells are scattered.
The difference between them lies in the
nature of this material. The various types of
tissue found at a joint, including bone itself,
are all types of connective tissue. They all
contain protein fibers and are either tough
(containing collagen fibers) or elastic
(containing elastin fibers).
The ease with which different types of tissue
grow and repair depends largely on the
amount of blood they contain. Periosteum
is vascular (has a blood supply) and repai rs
itself quickly. Cartilage is avascular (has no
blood supply) so takes longer to repair.
Periosteum
A thin layer of elastic connective tissue. It
surrounds all bones, except at the joints
(where cartilage takes over), and contai ns
osteoblasts - c~ll s which make new bone
cells, needed for growth and repair.
Ligaments
Bands of connective tissue which hold
together the bones of joints (and also
hold maFly organs in place). Most are
tough, though some are elastic, e.g.
between vertebrae*.
Femur
j.,
(long bone)
Medullarycavity
~:=~yellow
Beginning of
diaphysirnr
shaft
........ ....
,.
ZOOLOGY (HUMAN5)
"~
W"'
. ._~. tt\ .~.
l)._;i~,-: ~".\ ,..-~i~~~~'J'~f.
Spongy bone
}. :~~-~:~.~41 u: ~ '~t~ti.\
Trabeculae of
Compact bone
canal (carries
vessel in
from outside)
Lamellae
vessel in
Haversian
canal
Lacuna with
osteocyte
-:
.,
Bone marrow
Tendons or sinews
Cartilage or gristle
A tough connective,tissue. In some
joints (cartilaginous joints) it is the
main cushion between the bones
(e.g. vertebrae*). In joints with
synovial sacs, it covers the ends of
the bones and is called articular
cartilage. The end of the nose and
the outer parts of the ears are made
of cartilage. Young skeletons are
made of cartilage, though these
slowly turn to bone as minerals
build up (a process called
ossificatio, or osteogenesis).
Synovial
sac ----t-;~--":111
Pad of
adipose
(fatty) tissue
Articular
cartilage --'i+I-++-~-....-
Tibia (covered
by periosteum)
Fibula (covered
by perlosJerm1} -~---'
Femur (covered
by periosteum)
MUSCLES
Muscles are areas of special elastic
tissue (muscle) found al I over the
body. They may be either voluntary
muscles (able to be controlled by
conscious action) or involuntary
muscles (not under conscious
control ). The main types of muscles
are listed on this page.
Antagonistic pairs or opposing pairs
The pairs into which almost all muscles are
arranged. The members of each pai r produce
opposite effects. In any given movement, the
muscle which contracts to cause the movement
is the agonist or prime mover. The one which
relaxes at the same time is the antagonist.
Example of an antagonistic pair
(biceps and triceps)
Types of muscles
Skeletal muscles
All the muscles attached to the bones of
the skeleton, which contract together or in
sequence to move all the body parts. They are
all voluntary muscles (see introduction) and
are made of striated muscle tissue (see
opposite). Some are named according to their
position, shape or size, others are named after
the movement they cause, e.g. flexors cause
flexion (the bending of a limb at a joint),
extensors stra ighten a limb.
Cardiac muscle
The muscle which makes up almost all of the
wall of the heart. It is an involuntary muscle
(see introduction) and is made of cardiac
muscle tissue (see opposite).
Visceral muscles
The muscles in the walls of many
internal organs, e.g. the intestines ,...and blood vessels. They are all
involuntary muscles (see
introduction) and consist
of smooth muscle tissue
(see opposite).
Ulna
~---- past
Nervous stimulation
Most muscles are stimulated to move by
impulses from nerves running through the
body. For more about this, see pages 308-309.
Muscle spindle
A group of muscle fibers (see striated muscle)
which has the end fibers of a sensory nerve
cell (sensory neuron*) wrapped around it.
The end fibers are part of one main fiber
(dendron*). When the muscle stretches they
are stimulated to send impulses to the brain,
"telling" it about the new state of tension.
The brain can then determine the changes
needed for any further action.
enclosed by
membrane
(sarcolemma)
Cardiac muscle
A type of striated muscle tissue, making. up
the cardiac muscle of the heart. Its co'nsta~t
rhythmical contractions are caused by
stimulations from areas of the tissue which
produce electrical impu lses. Any nervous
imRulses
just increase or decrease this heart rate..
-
,.
TEETH
The teeth o r dentes ( ing. dens) help to prepare food for dige tion by
cu tt ing and grinding it up. Each tooth is set into the jaw, w hich ha a . oft
tissue covering ca lled gum (gingiva). During th eir lives, humans have two
sets of teeth (dentitions) - a tem porary et, or deciduous dentit ion, made
up of 20 deciduous teeth {a lso call d milk or baby teethJ, and a later
permanen1 dentition (32 permanent teeth).
Parts of a tooth
Neck or cervix
Crown
Root
The part of a tooth that is fixed in a socket in
the jaw. Incisors and canines have o ne root,
premolars have one or two and molars have
two or three. Ea c h root is he ld in place by
the tough fib~rs of a ligament* ca lled the
periodontal ligament. The fibers a re fixed to
the jawbo ne at one end, and to the cement
at the other. They act as shock absorbers.
Cement or cementum
A bone-like substance, sim il ar to enamel
but softer. It forms the thin surface layer of
the root and is attached to the jaw by the
periodontal ligament (see root).
Pulp cavity
Dentine or ivory
A ye llow substa nce which forms the seco nd
layer inside a tooth. _It is not as hard as enamel
but, like it, has many of the same constituents
as bone. It also contains collagen* fibers and
strands of cytoplasm*. These run out from the
pulp cells in the pulp cavity.
""olar
Enamel
A substance simi lar to bone, tho ugh it is
harder (the hardest substance in the body)
and has no living cells. It consists of tightlypacked crystals of apatite, a mineral which
contains calci um, phosphorus and fluorine.
. - - - - - --Crown
r-----::=,_ _ _ _ Chisel-
Enamel
shaped
crown
Neck
Pulp
cavity
Neck
Dentine
Pulp
cavity
Cement
Dentine
Root
Root
canals
Nerve
Single -~=..,~.:-P--6--'~I ~
blood
root
vessels
284
_..'--'--_._.___
Tiny
_ Cement
Types of teeth
Incisors
Sharp, chi e l-shaped Lee th, used for biting
and cutt ing. Eac h fas one roo, and them
1ue fo ur in eadi jaw, set at the fro nt of
the mouth .
Canines o r cuspids
Cone- haped Leeth fofte n called eye or dog
teeth}, u~ed to tear food. Eac h ha a harr
poinl (cusp) and one root. There are two in
ead jaw, one eac h side ot the incison;. In
ma ny mammals, tncy are long and c;urved.
T/til;;i molars
(wlsdnm f4"'th) -
1- - --
- -'"""-11c!
Premola rs or bicuspids
Bl unt broad teeth, u~ed fu r crus hi ng am.J
wi nd ing (fo und in the perm.;.ner.t set o i teeth
on l'y) . There (,Ire four in each jaw, t~\IO behind
eac h canine. E,1c; h has rwo sharp ridges
(cusps) ~nd one rnol, e cept the upper fi rst
premo lars, wh ich have lwo.
llldsan
P>rmohii'!.
(replace eight
(1 prtP:<'
tem,oorory
N-mpr~iry
1'ndscrs).
mooo}.
c~
Mal an (appear
/;,:.lti1:d pt'ttltOJarS"
am!' ri<J rlvl 1epiaer:
anv de-citlil()l)s itor.rt1J.
(rep/m.""t? foor
tem,1.'o(h"Gry
Mola1rs
CQnlrl!?S).
eigl;J
wisdom teeth .
W i. dom teeth
ln~
cor ,
'.
Single
Chisel-shaped
root
crown
<~
Single
root
Cusp
M
1G1
Three
roots
Four
cusps
Wisdom tooth
Canine
Molar
285
cells
carries many important substances in its plasma. Old, dying blood cells
are constantly being replaced by new ones in a process called hemopoiesis.
Blood constituents
Plasma
The pale liquid (about 90% water) which
contains the blood cells. It carries dissolved
food for the body cells, waste matter and
carbon dioxide secreted by them, antibodies
to combat infection, and enzymes* and
hormones* which control body processes.
UINGS
"\
Platelets or thrombocytes
Very small, disk-shaped bodies with no nuclei*,
made in the bone marrow*. They gather
particularly at an injured area, where they are
important in the clotting of blood.
Red blood
cells with
Red blood
cells without
oxygen
oxygen
K~ -1 ~-
l.!J~ ----~ ~~
REST Of BODY
Monocyte
J
Pseudopodium
*Bone marrow, 281; Circulatory system, 288; Diffusion, 329; Enzymes, 333; Hormones, 336; Lymphatic system,
Lymph nodes, 293; Lymphoid tissue, 293 (Lymphoid organs); Nucleus, 238; Phagocytosis, 268 (Pseudopodium).
Body defense
Antibodies
"Defense" proteins in body fluids, e.g. plasma.
They are made by lymphocytes (see white
blood cells) to combat antigens (see below)
in the body. A different antibody is made for
each antigen, and they act in different ways.
Anti-toxins neutralize toxins (poisons). Each
one joins with a toxin molecule, making an
antigen-antibody complex. Agglutinins stick
the bacteria or viruses together, and lysins
kill them by dissolving their outer membranes.
2. Antigen-antibody
complex
Platelets produce
thromboplastin.
Anti-toxin
(antibody)
Thromboplastin
acts on
._,........,~
4. Lysin
(antibody)
\ I
Antigen
fA.
Bacterium
breaks down
Antigens
Substances, mostly proteins, which cause
the production of antibodies to combat
them and any infection they may cause.
They may form part of bacteria.or viruses
which enter the body, or they may be toxins
(poisons) released by them. ABO blood
group antigens and antibodies (see above)
are present in the body from birth, ready
to combat foreign blood group antigens.
Enzymes, 333.
prothrombin.
----4.
Prothrombin turns
into thrombin.
fibrinogen
turns into
fibrin.
Thrombin
ads on
fibrinogen.
iiiiiiii~
Serum
A yellowy liquid consisting of the parts of the
blood left after clotting. It contains many
antibodies (produced to combat infections).
When injected into other people, it can give
temporary immunity to the infections.
,.
Arteries
Wide, thick-walled blood vessels, making up
the arterial system and carrying blood away
from the heart. Smaller arteries (arterioles)
branch off the main ones, and capillaries branch
off the arterioles. Except in the pulmonary
arteries*, the blood contains oxygen (which
makes it bright red)_ In all arteries it also carries
dissolved food and waste, brought into the heart'
by veins, and there transferred to the arteries.
These (:arry the food to the cells (via arterioles
and capillaries) and the waste to the kidneys.
Artery
Outer layer-
"'iF~~~~~~~X'\~Elastic
fibrous
~
tissue
Veins
Wide, thick-walled blood vesse ls, making up the
venous system and carrying blood back to the'.
heart. They contain valves to stop blood fl uwi ng
backward due to gravity, and are formed from
merging venules (small veins). These are
formed in turn from merging capillaries. The
blood contains carbon dioxide (except in the
pulmonary veins*) and waste matter, both
picked up from body cells by the capillaries. 1he
blood in the veins leading from the digestive
system and liver also carries dissolved food.
This is transferred to the arteries in the heart.
ALL OTHER
ORGANS
AND TISSUES
LIVER
.&.
KIDNEYS
DIGESTIVE
ORGANS
Capillaries
Arteries, arterioles, ~ Food and oxygen
~ used by organ's cells
caplllaries
Capillaries,
venules, veins
Dissolved food matler
' Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
~ Newly-digested food
1.1
[gJ Waste
r:::Ll
~ Waste disposed of
~ by organ's cells
. 288
* Hepatic portal vein, 297 (Liver); Pulmonary arteries; 291 (Pulmonary trunk);
Pulmonary veins, 291; Smooth muscle, 283 .
ZOOLOGY (H l/MAN.S)
Aorta
Hepatic artery
Celiac artery
Gastric artery
Hepatic vein - - -- -- - - - --'---- -.--,-"--'- _.I
Splenic artery
LY-'--~"'"',..-r-.,...,--_,,.,.__ __ _ _ Gastric vein
Hepatic portal vein- -- - - -- "T'- - - --\.
.r~----:::-----~
i---,....o.-- ----
Splenk vein
--r
.a.--~-----"'----,C;,-;
:
- - - - - -- -7
Right femoral
vem - -- - - - - - -- - -.- ;
i-~~---------
- -- - - --
--
Key to organs
0
0
0
Heart
Lungs
Liver
G) stomach
Spleen
8
0
0
0
Pancreas
Intestines
Kidneys
Gonads (sex
organs). See
page 3 16.
Aorta, 291; He p a t ic portal vein , 297 (Liver); Inferior vena cava, 291;
Renal a rteries, Re n al veins, 300 (Kidne ys).
._289
THE HEART
The heart is a muscular organ which pumps blood around
the blood vessels. (The heart and blood vesse ls together
are the cardiovascular system.) It is surrounded by the
pericardia! sac. This consists of an outer membrane (the
pericardium) and the cavity (pericardia! cavity) between it
and the heart. This cavity is filled with a cushioning fluid
(pericardia! fluid). The heart has four chambers - two atria
and two ventricles, all lined by a thin tissue layer called
the endocardium.
Position
of heart
Ventricles
Cardiac means
"of or near the-heart".
.....
Oxygenated blood
...
Deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary means
"of the lungs".
- -..t......_,;K"l..,,;:N!lii1!.'.'l. ,-4gj._,.,...,-..-......il:!:','- - --
Aorta
Brachiocephalic attftf-------.ir;;~
Muscular wall
Right venvlde - - --
------
~r---
Septum (thick
dividing wall)
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Aorta
Cardiac cycle
Pulmonary trunk
The artery* which carries blood needing fresh
oxygen out of the right ventricle. After leaving
the heart, it splits into the right and left
pulmonary arteries, one going to each lung.
Pulmonary veins
Four veins* which carry blood with fresh
oxygen to the left atrium. Two right pulmonary
veins come from the right lung, and two left
pulmonary veins come from the left lung . .
Aortic valve
r~=----- closed
Pulmonary
valve do.sed- - =r.--.,,r>t-tR.lflfr
<'-:;;;:, - r - -
left AV
valve open
Right AV
valve
open--~.,.._,_
Semilunar valves
Two valves, so called
because they have
crescent-shaped flaps. One
is the aortic valve between
the left ventricle and the
aorta. The other is the
pulmonary valve between
the right ventricle and the
pulmonary trunk.
Blood (without
oxygen) g<;el - --1-l-+---'
into ventride.
--- r
Blood (with
oxygen) goes
into ventride.
Closed flaps of
pulmonary valve
Aortic valve
Open flaps of
aortic valve
~----open
Atrioventricular valves or
AV valves
Two valves, each between an
atrium anq its corresponding
ventricle. The left AV valve,
or mitral valve, is a bicuspid
valve, i.e. it has two movable
flaps, or cusps. The right AV
valve is a tricuspid valve,
i.e. it has three cusps.
Pulmonary
valve open --l'llll"4~
Closed cusps of
left AV valve
'--t--i---left AV valve
Right AV ----11,l!mf'i'.valve closed
Open cusps of
right AV valve
Blood (without
oxygen) goes into
pulrnootrey -----==-----'
trunk.
closed
Blood (with
Tissue fluid
Also called intercellular or
interstitial fluid. A fluid which
surrounds the body cells. It seeps
out from the blood through the
walls of capillaries* (mainly at their
high-pressure ends, after they have
branched from arterioles*) and is
essentially plasma*, though with fewer
proteins. It carries oxygen and dissolved food
to the body cells, and carbon dioxide and
waste matter away from them. These latter
substances enter the capillaries (main-ly at their
low-pressure ends, before they form venules*).
The protein molecules not needed by the
cells are too large to re-enter the capillaries.
They pass, with some of the waste, into the
lymph capillaries (see lymph vessels), whose
walls are more easily penetrated .
Area drained by
right lymphatic
duct -----+-1-H~\---'
Subclavian
-+IH'Vft----
lymph node
I.
......
Blood
Body cells
and waste
Proteins and some waste
lb heart
\dt
veins--~H-!H.rnf-.,,.-----...!q;.H
lymph
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Lymphatic system
Lymph
The liquid in lymph vessels. It contains
lymphocytes (see lymphoid organs), some
substances picked up from tissue fluid
(especially proteins such as hormones*
and enzymes*) and also fat particles (see
lymph vessels).
Lymphoid organs
The lymphoid organs, or lymphatic organs,
are bodies connected to the lymphatic
system. They are all made of the same type
of tissue (lymphoid or lymphatic tissue)
and they all produce lymphocytes* disease-fighting white blood cells.
Thymus gland
A lymphoid organ in the upper part of the
chest. It is fairly large in children, reaches
its maximum size at puberty* and then
undergoes atrophy, i.e. it wastes away.
Tonsils
Lymph nodes or lymph glands
Small lymphoid organs found along the
course of lymph vessels, often in groups,
e.g. in the armpits. They are the main sites of
lymphocyte production (see above) and also
contain a filter system which traps bacteria
and foreign bodies. These are then engulfed
by white blood cells (fixed macrophages*) .
~~
Pharyngeal tonsil
A=------.r-- --ft'
Spleen
The largest lymphoid
organ, found just below
the diaphragm* on the
left side of the. body. It
holds an emergency
store of red blood cell!'
and also c;_ontains
white blood cells
(fixed macrophages*)
which destroy foreign
bodies, e.g. bacteria,
and old blood cells.
Palatine
tonsils ---+;
'""
~~~
--~.,.-'-'-~
Position of spleen
Diaphragm, 298; Endothelium, 288; Enzymes, 333; Fixed macrophages, 286 (White blood cells); Hormones, 336;
Lacteals, 295 (Small intestine); Lymphocytes, 286 (White blood cells); Puberty, 318; Subclavian veins, 289; Veins, 288.
Position of
digestive S)'Jtem
Alimentary canal
Esophagus or gullet
Cardiac sphincter
Esophagus
A sphincter is ony
ring of muscle.
Stomach
Pharynx
A cavity at the back of the mouth,
where the mouth cavity (oral or
buccal cavity) and the nasal cavities*
meet. When food is swallowed, the
soft palate (a tissue flap at the back of
the mouth) closes the nasal cavities
and the epiglottis* closes the trachea*.
Colon
Nasal cavity
--r--.'~ Hard palate
- Bolus (piece of swallowed
food) in oral cavity
Cecum
Tongue
Digestive juices, 296 (Digestive glands); Epiglottis, 298; Hard palate, 307;
Nasal cavities, 307 (Nose); Perivisceral cavity, 265; Trachea, 298.
Anus
Cardiac sphincter
Cardiac
sphlncttt---
--'
Stomach
A large sac in which the
early stages of digestion
occur. Its lining has
many folds (rugae,
sing. ruga) which flatten
out to let it expand.
Some substances, e.g.
Rugae ----rs~;;:::~
water, pass through its wall
'---=:::S-1'.~,......into nearby blood vessels, but almost all
Large intestine
the semi-digested food (chyme) goes into
A
thick tube receiving waste from the small
the small intestine (duodenum).
intestine, It consists of the cecum* (a
redundant sac), colon, rectum and anal
Pyloric sphincter
canal. The colon contains bacteria, which
Also called the pyloric valve or pylorus. A
break down any remaining food and make
muscular ring between the stomach and the
some
important vitamins. Most of the water
small intestine. It relaxes to let food through
In
the
waste passes through the colon wails
only after certain digestive changes have
into
nearby
blood vessels. This leaves a
occurred.
semi-solid mass (feces), which is pushed out
of the body (defecation) via the rectum, a~al
Small intestine
canal and anus - a hole su rrounded by a
A coiled tube with three parts - the duodenum,
muscular ring (the anal sphincter).
(the main site of digestion), jejunum and
ileum. Many tiny "fingers" called villi (sing.
Appendix
villus) project inward from its lining. Each
A small, blind-ended tube off the cecum
contains capillaries* (tiny blood vessels) into
(see large intestine).
which most of the food is absorbed, and a
lymph vessel* called a lacteal, which absorbs
recombined fat particles (see fats, page 330).
Mucous membrane or mucosa
The remaining semi-liquid waste mixture
A thin layer of tissue lining all digestive
passes into the large intestine.
passages (also other passages, e.g. the air
passages). It is a special type of epithelium*
(a surface sheet of cells), containing many
single-celled exocrfoe glands*, called mucous
glands. These secrete mucus - a lubricating
fluid which, in the case of the digestive
passages, also protects the passage walls
against the action of digestive juices*.
Peristalsis
Arteries, 288; Capillaries, 288; Cecum, 271 ; Digestive juices, 296 (Digestive glands);
Epithelium, 310 (Epidermis); Exocrine glands, 296; Lymphatic, 293 (Lymph vessels); Veins, 288.
GLANDS
Diaphragm
Llga111e11t' -
Rig~ r
Lefl
hepatic
duct
hepatic
d!'rt
Exocrine glands
Common
hepatic duct
Digestive glands
Exocrine glands which secrete
fluids called digestive juices into the
digestive organs. The juices contain
' enzymes* which cause the
breakdown of food (see chart, pages
338-339). Many of the glands are tiny,
and set into the walls of the digestive
organs, e.g. gastric glands in the stomach and
intestinal glands (or crypts of Lieberkiihn) in
the small intestine. Others are larger and lie
more freely, e.g. salivary glands. The largest
are the pancreas and liver.
Salivary glands (secrete saliva into mouth)
Only one side is shown - the three glands
are duplicated on the other side.
~----.......-
- - - --
Common
bile duct
Pancreatic
duct
Duct called
- - - stensen 's duct
Opening into
- - - mouth
5ubllngual gland.
Its ducts open into
11.r---:iE'-:t- - - the floor of the
....,,.._._,....-~
mouth.
called
Wharton's duct
~--<-----Duct
._,1 - - - - - - - - - - Submandibular
gland or
submaxlllary
gland
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Liver
The largest organ.
Left lobe
One of its many
roles is that of a
digestive gland, secreting
bile (see chart, pages 338339) along the common
hepatic duct. Another vital job
is the conversion and storage of
newly-digested food matter (see diagram,
page 331 ), which it receives along the
hepatic portal vein (see picture, page 289). _,
In particular, it regulates the amount of
glucose in the blood. It also destroys wornout red blood cells, stores vitamins and iron,
and makes important
blood proteins.
PANCREAS
Pancreas
A large gland which is both a
digestive gland and an endocrine gland.
It produces pancreatic juice (see chart,
pages 338-339), which it secretes along the
pancreatic duct, or duct of Wirsung. It also
contains groups of cells called the islets of
Langerhans. These make up the endocrine
parts of the organ, and produce the
hormones* insulin* and glucagon*.
Endocrine glands
Endocrine or ductless glands are glands which
secrete substances called hormones directly into
the blood (i.e. blood vessels in the glands). For
more about hormones, see pages 336-337. The
glands may be separate bodies (e.g. those below)
or cells inside organs, e.g. in the sex organs.
Pituitary gland
Also called the pituitary body or hypophysis. A
gland at the base of the brain, directly influenced
by the hypothalamus* (see also hormones, page
336) and made up of an anterior (front) lobe
(adenohypophysis) and a posterior (back) lobe
(neurohypophysis). Many of its hormones are
tropic hormones, i.e. they stimulate other glands
to secrete hormones. It makes ACTH , TSH, STH,
FSH, LH, lactogenic hormone, oxytocin and ADH.
Thyroid gland
A large gland around the larynx*. It produces
thyroxin and thyrocalcitonin.
Parathyroid glands
Two pairs of small glands embedded in the
thyroid gland. They produce PTH.
Brairr-----~,,....
Pineal gland--1~~~--:.;::_;."'/.'ITr~
Thyroid gland
Anterior
lobe
Parathyrold --c:;;~
Gall bladder
A sac which stores bile (made in the liver)
in a concentrated form until it is needed (i.e.
until there is food in the duodenum*). Its
lining has many folds (rugae, sing. ruga)
which flatten out as it expands. When
needed, the bile
is squeezed
along the
cystic duct
and the
common
bile duct.
Posterior .
lobe
Adrenal-4~~~~~'
glands
Pineal gland
Gall bladder
(cut away)
,.
Position of
respiratory system
Trachea or windpipe
Lungs
Larynx
The "voice box" at the top of the trachea . It
contains the vocal cords - two pieces of tissue
folding inward from the trachea lining and
attached to plates of cartilage*. The opening
between the cords is called the glottis. During
speech, muscles pull the cartilage plates (and
hence the cords) togethe r, and air passing out
through the cords makes them vibrate,
producing sounds .
. - - - - - -The epiglottis is a
flap which closes the
trachea while food
goes down the
esophagus.
Esophagus
Diaphragm
Diaphragm or midriff
A sheet of muscular tissue whi ~h separates the
chest from the lower body, or abdomen. At
rest, it lies in an arched position ~ forced up b~
the abdomen wa.lllielow it.
Bronchioles
The millions of tiny tubes in the lungs, all
accompanied by blood vessels. They branch
off tertiary bronchi (see bronchi) and have
smalrer branches called terminal bronchioles,
each .one ending in a cluster of alveoli.
Breathing
Breathing is made up of inspiration
(br~athi n g in) and expiration (breath ing
out). Both actions are normally automatic,
controlled by nerves from the respiratory
center in the medulla* of the brain. This
acts when it detects too high a level of
carbon dioxide in the blood.
Inspiration or inhalation
The act of breathing in. The diaphragm
contracts and flattens, lengthening the
chest cavity. The muscles between the ribs
(intercostal muscles) also contract, pulling
the ribs up and outward and widening the
cavity. The overall expansion lowers the air
pressure in the lungs, and air rushes in to
fill them (i.e. to equalize internal and
external pressure). -~
Inspiration
in
lntercostal muscles
contract, pulling ribs
up and outward.
Diaphragm - --:-if
flattens
pulmonary veins*).
Tertiary
bronchus
Expiration or exhalation
Terminal
bronchioles
Bronchial means
"of the bronchi or
bronchioles. "
Capillaries'
dioxide out
alveoli
Diaphragm relaxes
From pulmonary
artery* ----~
lntercostal muscles
relax, ribs move down
and inward.
lnferior- ---jF----,,,.--1;.,--,
vena cava*
Renal means
"of the
kidneys".
Ureter
Female
bladder
(cut away)
Kidneys
Two organs at the back of the body, just below
the ribs. They are the main organs of excretion,
filtering out unwanted substances from the
blood and regulating the level and contents of
body flu'ids (see also homeostasis, page 335) .
Blood enters a kidney in a renal artery and
leaves it in a renal vein.
Ureters
The two tubes. which carry urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.
Kidney
(cut away)
. - - - - - - - - - Area shown in
picture, page 3 0 L
11 1+---~---
. i:.~""f---
Hole
called ------='~-..;:--
urethral orifice
Entry point
of ureter
Positions of urinary
sphincters
Urethra
The tube carrying urine from the bladder out
of the body (in men, it also carries sperm* see penis, page 316). The expulsion of urine
. is called urination or micturition.
Urea
A nitrogen-containing (nitrogenous)
waste substance which is a product of
the breakdown of excess amino acids*
in the liver. It travels in the blood to-the
kidneys, together with smaller amounts
of similar substances, e.g. creatinine.
Urine
The liquid which leaves the kidneys. Its
main constituents are excess water, urea
and minerals.
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Inside a kidney
Diagram of a
renal corpuscle
(cut away)
convoluted tubule
Afferent
arteriole ~
.._
_.
(blood in)
Efferent
arteriole
(blood out)
Bowman's
capsule
Nephrons
The tiny filtering units of the
kidneys (there are about one
million per kidney). Each
consists of a renal corpuscle
and a uriniferous tubule.
Renal corpuscles or
Malpighian corpuscles
The bodies which filter
fluids out of the blood. Each
consists of a glomerulus and
a Bowman's capsule.
To renal
To pelvis
vein
'---
Glomerulus
- - - From renal
artery
Bowman's capsule
The outer part of each renal corpuscle. It is
a thin-walled sac around the glomerulus.
ADH, Aldosterone, 336; Amino acids, 330 (Proteins); Arteriole, 288 (Arteries);
Capillaries, 288; Hormones, 336; Venule, 288 (Veins).
Brain
The organ which controls
most of the body's
activities. It is the only
organ able to produee
"intelligent" action ~
action based on pas"".
experience (stored
information), present
events and future plans.
It is made up of millions
of neurons* (nerve cells),
arranged into sensory,
association and motor
areas. The sensory areas
receive information
(nervous impulses) from
all body parts and the
association areas
analyze the impulses
and make decisions.
The motor areas send
i mp ul~~orders) to
muscles or glands. The
impulses are carried by
the fibers of 43 pairs of
nerves - 12 pairs of
cranial nerves serving
the head, and 31 pairs
cif spinal nerves (see
spinal cord) .
Spinal cord
A long string of nervous tissue running down
from the brain inside the vertebral column*.'
Nervous impulses from all parts of the body
pass through it. Some are carried into or
away from the brain, some are dealt with in
the cord (see involuntary actions, page 309).
31 pairs of spinal nerves branch out from
the cord through the gaps between the
vertebrae*. Each spinal nerve is made up of
two groups of fibers: a dorsal or sensory root,
made up of the fibers of sensory neurons*
(bringing impulses in), and a ventral or motor
root, made up of the fibers of motor neurons*
(tak ing impulses out).
Neuroglia or glia
Stiffened cells which support and prote~the
nerve cells (neurons*) of the central ner , us
system. Some produce a white, fatty
.
substance called myelin (see also Schwann
cells, page 304). This coats the long fibers
found in the connective areas of the brain an ~
the outer layer of the spinal cord, and leads to
these areas being known as whfte matter. I
Gray matter, by contrast, consists mainly of
cell bodies* and their short fibers, and its
neuroglia do not
produce myelin .
J '
--:tr.'--'"-..= .--..:::;..- - -
'+--+---..'!.......,_,...--
*Cell body, 304; Hormones, 336; Motor neurons, 305; Neurons, 304;
Sensory neurons, 305; Vertebrae, Vertebral column, 279.
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Thalamus
The .area which carries out the fi rsl, ba ic
Hyporhalamus
The m.astcr controller
of most inner body
func ti ons. It controls tl e
autonomic nervous
system* (the ne1ve cells
causi ng u nconsc i m~~
acrion, e.g. food
movement through
the intestines) and
the action of the
decision-ma.ki ng,
peech, learning,
memory and imaginatio n.
Cerebellum
Tt-ie area which
coordinates muscle
move ment an.cl balance,
two things under. the
overa ll control of the
cerebrum.
- -
f'v
Spin al cord
cushions thr
Midbrain or mesencephalon
An area joining the diencephalon to the
pons. It carries imp~lses in towa rd the
thalamus, a nd out from the cerebrum
towa rd the spinal cord.
Pons or pons Varolii
A junction of nerve fibers* which forms a
link between the parts of the brain and
the spinal cord (via the medulla).
B Motor areas. Each tiny part sends out impulses ta a specific muscle.
0 Association areas. Interpret impulses and make decisions. Some specific ones are:
6. Visual association area. Produces sight.
7. Aud_itoly association area. Produces hearing.
DFencephalon
A collective term fo r the
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
maintenance of table
internal cond iLio ns.
,.
An assodation neuron,
found in the brain and
spinal cord (see page 305)
Schwann cells)
Typical association
neuron (in gray
matter*, so no
myelin sheath)
Nerve fibers .
The fibers (axon and dendrites) of a
neuron. They are extensions of the
cytoplasm* of the cell body and carry the
vital nervous impulses. Most of the long
nerve fibers which run out round the body
(belonging to sensory or motor neurons)
are accompanied by neuroglial* cells.
These are called Schwann cells and they
produce a sheath of myelin* around
each fiber.
End branches
Dendrites
The nerve fibers carrying impulses toward a
cell body. Most neurons have several short
dendrites, but one type of sensory neuron
has just one, elongated dendrite, often
called a dendron. The endings of these
dendrons form receptors* all over the body,
and the dendrons themselves run inward to
the cell bodies (which are found in ganglia*
just outside the spinal cord).
J 04
Axon
The single long nerve fiber which carries
impulses away from a cell body. The axons of
all association and sensory neurons and some
motor neurons lie in the brain and spinal cord.
Those of the other motor neurons run out of the
spinal cord to autonomic ganglia*, or further to
effectors (see motor neurons).
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Types of neuron
From
receptor
Synapses
Synapse
-I
'------'==-~"-------~
Sensory neurons
(only one shown)
bring impulses from
eyes and fingers.
Neurotransmitter
builds up in end o f - --,,f t=
dendrite branch
Impulse ---7_~7";
sent on
Dendrite
',
Cell body
Association neurons
Also called relay, internuncial or
connecting neurons, or interneurons.
Special linking neurons, present in
vast numbers in the brain and spinal
cord. They are involved in picking up
impulses (from seQsory neurons),
interpreting the sensory information,
and passing impulses to motor
neurons to initiate actions.
Receptors, 307.
Dendrite
To muscles . _ .
Mixed
nerve
Outer sheath
(epineurium)
6. Association
Tactile means
"perceptible by
the sense of
touch".
carries impulses to
higher areas of brain.
passes impulses to
dendrites' of third
Fascicle
3. Axon'
of first order
sensory neuron.
~ -~"!l""'J;~~
Fascicle sheath
(perineurium)
Fiber sheath
(endoneurium)
r-----
2. Dendron of first
order sensory
neuron carries.
. --;'.
' ,
impulses toward
spinal cord.
Afferent
means
"leading
toward".
'
~ 1. Receptor in skin (Meissner's
corpuscle') stimulated by contact.
Association neurons, 305; Axon, Cell body, 304; Connective tissue, 280; Dendron, 304 (Dendrites);
Meissner's corpuscles, 311; Motor neurons, 305; Neurons, 304; Sensory neurons, 305; Spinal nerves, 302 (Spinal cord).
ZOOLOGY (HUMAN5)
Receptors
Nose
Sense organs
The highly special ized sensory orga ns of the
body, each with many receptors. They are the
nose, tongue, eyes and ea rs. For more about
eyes and ears, see pages 312-315.
Divisions of the afferent system
------
Na1al means
"of the nose".
Central and
eripheraf nervou>
'I
Olfactory
hain
(dendrite>' of
olfactory cell)
~Al/nerve
Oral means
"of the mouth".
cel/s in~y. .
Hard palate
(bony roof
of mouth) ---lll~i>"
Soft palate
(soft flap
of tissue) - -l-;f---Allllill
Ungual means
"of the tongue".
Cross section of
tongue
Taite bud
Efferent >yrtem. Nerve
cells taking impulses
down and out (see
pages 308-309).
Afferent 1y1tem.
Nerve cells bringing
impulses in and up.
Recepton {dendron
endings) send impulses.
Tongue
Somatjc affer ent
1yrtem. Nerve cells
bringing impulses
from recepton near
body surface and
1keletal mu1dei '.
V"11ceral afferent
1y1tem. Nerve cells
bringing impulses
from receptan deep
inside body.
Association neurons, 305; Axon, Cell body, 304; Dendron, 304 (Dendrites);
Mucous membra ne, 295; Pharynx, 294; Sensory neurons, 305; Skeletal muscles, 282.
Voluntary actions
Actions wh ich result from conscious
activity by the brain, i.e. ones it
consciously decides upon, e.g. lifting a
cup. We are always aware of these actions,
which involve skeletal muscles* on ly. The
impulses which cause them originate in
higher areas of the brain (especially the
cerebrum*) and are carried by nerve cells
of the somatic efferent system.
Lifting a cup is a
voluntary action.
Simplified
neural pathway.,
of voluntary
action (somatic
efferent system)
Central and
peripheral
nervous systems.
1. Association
neuron in higher
- - - -.....,,,..,
BRAIN
upper motor
neuron.
In each of these
diagrams, only
one of each type
of neuron .. is
show[! (in reality,
there would be
more involved).
2. Axon of upper
Afferent system.
Netve cells
bringing impulses
in and up (see
pages 3 06-307).
Efferent system.
Netve cells taking
impulses down
and out Efferent
means "leading
away from.
- - --
Section of
spinal cord
3. Axon' of
Somatic efferent
system. Netve cells
Autonomic nervous
system (visceral
efferent system). Netve
taking impulses to
body surface (skeletal
muscles'). Cause
voluntary actions.
autonomic actions.
308
Sympathetic
division. Netve cells
Parasympathetic
division: Netve cells
whose impulses
prepare body for
action, e.g. increase
heart rate.
I
\
'
Association neurons, 305; Axon, 304; Cerebrum, 303; Dendrites, 304; Motor end-plate, 28 3-; Motor neurons, 305;
Neural pathways, 306; Neurons, 304; Skeletal muscles, 282; Spinal nerves, 302 (Spinal cord).
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Involuntary actions
Automatic actions (ones the brain does not
consciously decide upon). There are two
types. Firstly, there are the constant actions
of inner organs, e.g. the beating of the heart,
of which we are not normally aware. The
impulses which cause them originate in the
lower brain (especia lly the hypothalamus*)
and are carried by nerve cells of the
autonomic nervous system. They are called
autonomic actions. The other involuntary
actions are reflex actions.
The heartbeat is an
autonomic adion.
Simplified neural
pathway-of
autonomic action
(sympathetic division
of autonomic
nervous system)
Reflex actions
Involuntary actions of which we are aware.
The term is most often used to refer to
sudden actions of skeletal muscles*, e.g.
snatching the hand away from something
hot. The impulses which cause such an
action are carried by nerve eel Is of the
somatic efferent system and the entire
neural pathway* is a "short-circuited" one,
called a reflex arc. In the case of cranial
reflexes (those of the head, e.g. sneezing),
this pathway involves a small part of the
brain; with spinal reflexes (those of the rest
of the body), the brain is not actively
involved, only the spinal cord.
Pulling your hand
away from an
intense source of
heat is a refleK
action.
1. Association
neuron'* in lower
brain passes
impulses to
dendrites of
upper m11tor - -+ - - - - ''?-"'-
neuron.
Simplified
reflex arc
(spinal reflex)
AKon* of second order
sensory neuron (see page
306) carries impulses to brain
to "tell" it what has happened.
I
1. Pain receptor'
stimulated
2. Dendron of first
distance
(inside nerve)
~---Long
Section of
Cdlbodies'-------~-----1
(and dendrites') of
postgangllonic motor
neurons (sympathetic
division) lie in bulging masses
(autonomic ganglia) close
to spinal cord.
Longdistance
(inside
nerve)
~spinal cord
I
'
.
'
'
4. Axon of
association neuron*
passes impulses to
dendrites of lower
motor neuron.
\ \_
4. Axon of pregangllonlc
5. Axon of postganglionic
motor neuron carries
impulses to organ.
impulses to dendrites of
postgangllonic motor neuron.
* Association neurons, 305; Axon, Cell body, 304; Dendron, 304 (Dendrites); Hypothalamus, 303;
Motor end-plate, 2_83; Neural pathways, 306; Pain receptors, 31 l; Skeletal muscles, 282.
6. Movement of
muscle stimulated at
motor end-plate'.
THE SKIN
The skin or cutis is the outer body covering, made up of several tissue
layers . It registers external stimulation, protects against damage or
infection, prevents drying out, helps regulate body temperature, excretes
waste (sweat), stores fat and makes vitamin D *. It contains many tiny
structures, each type with a different function. The entire skin (tissue
layers and stru ctures), is called the integumentary system.
Epidermal layers
Epidermis
The thin o uter layer of the skin which forms
its epithelium (a term for any sheet of ce ll s
which forms a surface coveri ng or a cavity
lining). It is made up of several layers (strata,
sing. stratum), shown in the picture, right.
1. Stratum corneum (horny or comified layer). Flat, dead
cells filled with l<eratin (a fibrous, waterproofing protein). The
cells are continually worn away or shed.
.Stl'lllllllD
splnioJUlll
Ridqe; of the
diumls rul~ rl
Stnitvnr
bcuafe
dMYNllpapillc>c
(sing. papJlla)
Subcutaneous layer
Dermis
Melanin
A brown pigment* which shields against
ultraviol et light by absorbing the light
energy. It is found in all the layers of the
epidermis of people from tropical areas,
giving them dark skin. Fair-skinned
people only have melanin in their lower
epidermal layers, but produce more
when in direct su nlight, ca using
a suntan .
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Epidermis
Hair shaft
receptors*, i.e. they send impulses to ~~----------the brain when the skin makes
.--~
i
contact with an object.
2. Sebaceous glands
Exocrine glands* which open
into hair follicles. They produce
an oil called sebum which
waterproofs the hairs and
epidermis and keeps
them supple.
4 . Hair follicles
Long, narrow tubes, each containing
a hair. The hair grows as new cells are
added to its base from the cells lining
the follicle. Its older cells die as keratin
forms inside them (see stratum
corneum).
5. Pain receptors
Nerve fiber endings in the tissue of most
inner organs and in the skin (in the
epidermis and the top of the dermis). They
are the receptors* which send impulses
when any stimulation (e.g. pressure, heat,
touch) becomes excess ive. This is what
causes a sensation of pain.
8. Pacinian corpuscles
6 . Hair plexuses or root hair plexuses
Special groups of nerve fiber endings. Each
forms a network around a hair follicle and
is a receptor*, i.e. it sends nervous
impulses to the brain, in this case when
the hair moves.
Capillaries, 288; Exocrine glands, 296;
Receptors, 307; Urea, 300.
THE EYES
The eyes are the organs of sight, sending nervous impulses to the brain
when stimulated by light rays from external objects. The brain interprets the
impulses to produce images. Each eye consists of a hollow, spherical capsule
(eyeball), made up of several layers and structures. It is set into a socket in
the skull (an orbit), and is protected by eyelids and eyelashes.
Vitreous humor. Fluid similar to aqueous humor, but stiff and jelly_ _ _ _ _ _ like. Fills space called posterior cavity.. Keeps shape of eyeball,
protects nervous layer (retina) and helps to "bend" (refract) light.
Aqueous humor. Watery liquid with sugars, salts and proteins.
Fills space called anterior cavity. Protects lens and nourishes
front of eye. Constantly drains away and is replaced.
Iris. Opaque disk of tissue, with blood vessels and central hole
(pupil). Contains muscle fibers, same in concentric circles,
others which radiate out from center ta edge. Former
contract to decrease pupil size (in bright light), latter
contract to increase it (in dim light). Has various amounts
of pigment*, producing eye co/ors.
Pupil. Central hole in iris.
Lens
Cornea. Transparent continuation of sclera. Protects front
of eye and "bends" (refracts) light rays onto lens.
Conjunctiva. Thin mucous membrane*. Lines eyelids and
~---
Lens
The transparent body whose role, like
that of any lens, is to focus the light rays
passing through it, i.e. "bend " (refract)
them so that they come to a point, in
this case on the retina (for more about
lenses and refraction, see pages 50-53).
A lens consists of many thin tissue
layers and is held in place by the fibers
of a ligament* called the suspensory
ligament. These join it to the ciliary
body, which can alter the lens sliape so
that light rays are always focused on the
retina, w hatever the distance of the
object being looked at. This is known
as accommodation . The rays form an
upside-down image, but this is
corrected by the brain.
_..."--- --+-
Light rays
from close
......,~--+- object
Lang
i--- distance
I
t:
Fibers of su!pensory
ligament pulled tight.
ZOOLOGY (HUMAN5)
Retina
The innermost layer of tissue at the back of
the eyeball, made up of a layer of pigment*
and a nervous layer consisting of millions of
sensory nerve cells (sensory neurons*) and
their fibers. These lie in chains and carry
nervous impulses to the brain. The first cells
in the chains are receptors*, i.e. their end
fibers (dendrons*) fire off the impulses when
they are stimulated (by light rays). These fibers
are called rods and cones because of their
shapes. The receptors are photoreceptors
(i.e. stimulated by light).
Close-up area
of retina
Choroid
Macula
Jutea
.- .
.. '
Rott Gii/es.a1dcr.~and~"""
~i..;:""CI
"
'
Sciera
nerve, leading to
Layer of
pigment
brain.
Lachrymal
gland
Eyelashes
! adlrrn:ml
Gtmals
L__ Retina _ _ J
THE EARS
The two ears are the organs of hearing and balance. Each one is divided
into three areas - the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
Outer ear or external ear
-"
,,__/'.~====s;;~-1"-- Vestibule.
1gt;1; 9t tissue,
Central cavity
of inner ear.
Eustachian tube or
auditory tube. Air-filled 1
tube leading to pharynx.
Keeps air pressure on both
sides of eardrum the same.
Opens to pharynx if
adjustments are to be made.
~,__
Cochlear duct
Tectorial
memb,,,_
sea/a
tympani.
Cochlear duct
A spiralling tube within the cochlea, connected
to the saccule. It contains endolymph (see
inner ear) and a long bodY.(;3.lled the organ
of Corti. This contains special hair cells whose
hairs project into the endolymph and touch a
shelf-like tissue layer (tectorial membrane).
The bases of the cells are attached to nerve
fibers (dendron* endings).
Nerve fibers -
---
perilymph running
down and around
from apex of spiral.
~--- Hair ~
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Head tilts
Nerve Fibers
(receptors') send
impulses to brain.
Hair cells
Saccu/e
Cupula moved
by movement of
endolymph, and
pulls on hairs.
Semicircular canals
A system of three looped cavities. They are
part of the inner ear and are positioned on
the three different planes of movement, at
right angles to each other.
Semicircular ducts
Three looped tubes inside the semicircular
canals. Each contains endolymph (see inner
ear) and a special sensory body, which
lies across the basal swelling (ampulla,
pl. ampullae) of the duct. The sensory bodies
(cupulae, sing. cupula) work in a very similar
way to maculae (see saccule) - each consists of a jelly-like mass (without otoliths) and hair
cells. They send the brain information about
rotation and tilting of the head.
2.
The male
reproductive system
epididymides).
Ureter'--~
Bladder'
Comma-shaped
. organ enclosing
coiled tube where
sperm are stored.
Sperm-~,....,J..r""
---"~--""...,;:_
between tubules)
duct
Penis
seminal
fluid'.
-~~~=~----''----- seminal
Duct from
{'.
vesicle
Opening of duct
from prostate
gland
Urethra'
Secrete mucus*.
~Anus, 295 (Large intestine); Bladder, 300; Ejaculation; 319 (Copulation); Endocrine glands, 297;
~ametes, 320; Hormones, 336; Mucus, 295 (Mucous membrane); Puberty, 318; Receptors, 307;
Seminal fluid, 319 (Copulation); Sexual reproduction, 320; Ureters, 300; Urethra, 300.
ZOOLOGY (HUMANS)
Vulva or pudendum
~---------- Fallopian
. . - -- - - -- - Ovarian ligaments
(attcxh ovaries 10 utrrw)
Funnel-shapea
opening called
Narrow ar"''
of UlerJs calkd
lnfundlbulum
urvfc.ul ca11al
Ovarian follicles
Areas of tissue appearing regularly
in the ovaries after puberty*. Each
contains a maturing ovum (see ovaries).
roo1it~slai
The follicles gradually get larger and begin to
Ovary
secrete hormones* (see estrogen, page 336).
(cut away)
Each round of follicle production results in only
Uterus or womb
The hollow organ, inside which a developing
baby (fetus*) is held, or.from which the ova
(see ovaries) are discharged (see menstrual
cycle, page 318). It has a lining of mucous
membrane* (the endometrium), covering a
muscular wall with many blood vessels.
Vagina
The muscular canal leadi ng from the uterus
out of the body. It carries away the ova (see
ovaries) and endometrium (see uterus)
during menstruation*, receives the penis
during copulation* and serves as the birth
canal. Its lining produces a lubricating fluid .
Thin borderof.
skin called hyme,n
(opening from
u~thra)
1111 1\~~,.-,-'--'
Vaginal orifice -
-'-->.C;;:"i
(opening from
Cabla mlnora
(.or inner labia)
vagina)
Anus- - - - - - - '
Labia majora
(or outer labia)
Anus, 295 (Large intestine); Copulation, 319; Corpus luteum, 318 (Menstrual cycle); Fetus, 319 (Pregnancy);
Gametes, 320; Honnones, 336; Ligaments, 280; Menstruation, 318 (Menstrual cycle); Mucous membrane, 295;
Ovulation, 318 (Menstrual cycle); Puberty, 318; Receptors, 307; Urethra, 300.
Breasts, or
mammary
glands, develop
(special glands for
producing milk).
Larynx'
enlarges
(voice gets
deeper).
Menstrual cycle
A series of preparatory changes in the uterus*
lining (endometrium), in case of fertilization.
The lining gradually develops a new inner
layer rich in blood vessels. If a fertilized ovum
(female sex cell) does not appear, this new
layer breaks down and leaves the body via the
vagina* (menstruation). Each menstrual cycle
lasts about 28 days and they occur
continuously from puberty (usually between
the ages of 11 and 15 - see left) to menopause
(usually between 45 and 50), when ova
production ceases. The events of the menstrua.
cycle run in conjunction with the ovarian
cycle - the regular maturation of an ovum in
an ovarian follicle*, followed by ovulation
(the release of the ovum into a Fallopian
tube*), and the breakdown of the corpus
luteum. This body is formed from the burst
Graafian follicle* (it does not break down if aovum is fertilized). Both cycles are controlled
by a group of hormones* (see pages 336-337
Menstrual cycle I Ovarian cycle
Day 1
Shoulders
and chest
broaden. +--h-- -
Day 14/15
Whole
body
becomes
more
muscular.
Penis*
enlarges.
Testes' begin
to produce
sperm (male
sex cells).
Hair appears-+--+---'
around sex
organs
(pubic
hair).
Ovaries' begin
to produce
ova (female sex
cells), ovulation
and menstrual
cycles begin.
Hair appears
around sex
organs (pubic
Uterus lining
mid-way through
thickening
Day27/28
Unfertilized ovum in
uterus
- - -.a.
hair).
Uterus lining
fully thickened
*Fallopian tubes, 317; Graafian follicle, 317 (Ovarian follicles); Hormones, 336; Larynx, 298; Ovaries, 317;
Penis, 316; Progesterone, 336; Sexual reproduction, 320; Testes, 316; Uterus, Vagina, 317.
Copulation
Fertilization
A process which
occurs after
ejaculation if the
penetrate5 onam.
sperm (male sex
Hudi'm: wm
cells) meet an ovum
fuse wi#1 owm
nucleus .
(female sex cell) in a
.Fallopian tube*. One
sperm penetrates the
ovum's outer skin (zona
pellucida). Its nucleus* fuses
with that of the ovum, and the
first cell of a new baby (zygote*) is
formed. The new cell travels toward the
uterus*, undergoing many cell divisions
(cleavage*) as it does so. The ball of cell?
formed from these divisions then becomes
embedded in the uterus wall (implantation),
after which it is called an embryo*.
Penis"' Jn----~
Sperm duct
Seminal
Sp"1'm-- -----
P~gnancy
Pregnancy, or gestation, is the state
of carrying yourig. The time between
fertilization and giving birth
(parturition) is the gestation period
(about 9 months in hurnar}~L and
the new developing
individual in the uterus*
is called a fetus, a term
usually used insteadof
embryo* after about
two months of
pregnancy. A serie-?
of powerful muscular
contractions called
labor occur just
before parturition.
mothert
~
lntervillous
spaces. Filled
f - --
with blood
from mother~
blood vessels.
~-----
Chorionic viii/.
Finger-like
projections
containing
blood vessels
leading from
umbilical cord.
Fetus
(eight months)
_ _____,._v-"-""'liii_
....._.,.......,...,.,.
--\""'11....,&.M
Arteries, 288; Cleavage, 320 (Embryo); Fallopian tubes, 31 7; Nucleus, 238; Ovaries, 31 7; Penis, 316; Progesterone, 336;
Prostate gland, Seminal vesicles, Sperm ducts, Testes, 316; Urethra, 300; Uterus, Vagina, 317; Veins, 288; Zygote, 320.
.--
r YPES OF REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the creation of new life, a process
which occurs in all living things. The two main types
are sexual and asexual reproduction, but there is also
a special case called alternation of generations.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction i~ the type of
reproduction shown by all flowering plants
and most animals. It involves the joining
(fusion) of two gametes (sex cells), one rhiile
and one female. This process is called
fertilization , and is further described on pages
258 (flowering plants), 319 (humans and
similar animals) and 276 (other animals}.
The two gametes each have only half
the number of chromosomes*
(called the haploid number*) as the
plant or animal which produced
them. This is achieved by a
~pecial kind of cell division (see
. pages 322-323} and ensures that
when the gametes come together,
the new individual produced .has
tne correct, original number of
chromosomes (called the
diploid number*).
320
4. Cells continue to
divirfe, to form a
Embryo
A new developing individl,lal. Jt grows fro m
one ceH {the zygote) by ~series of cell
-divis1ons (see pages 240-241) qHed cleavage.
In humans, this first produces a ballofcells
(morula} from the one original and then a
larger, hollow ball (blastocyst).
After implantation*, this is
caHed the embryo.
As it grows, the
cells become
differentiated, i.e.
each develops into
one kind of cell,
e.g. a nerve cell.
Zygote
The first cell of a new t\ving thing. It is
formed when a male and.female gamete join
(see sexual reproduction).
J~)
Human embryo
(at eight weeks)
*Chromosomes, 324; Diploid number, 240 (Mitosis); Flagella, 268; Haploid number, 322 (Meiosis);
Implantation, 319 (Fertilization); Nucleus, 238; pterus, 317.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the. simplest form
of reproduction,. occurring in many simple
plants and animals. There are a number of
different types, e.g. binary fission (a simple
organism dividing into two identical ones),
vegetative reproduction*, gemmation and
sporulation, but they all share two main
features. Firstly, only ori'e parent is needed
and secondly, the new ind ividual is
always genetically identical to this parent.
Gemmation
Called budding in animals. A typehf
asexual reproduction occurringin many
simp'fe plants and animals,_e.g. hyd.ra.
It involves the formation of a group of
cells whjch grows out bf. the organism
and develops into a new rndividual. It
either breaks away from the parent or
~ip colonial* anlmals, e.g1 corals) it stays attached (though s~lf-contained).
Sporulation
The productic;m of
bodies caHed spores
by simple plants,
e.g. fllf'lgi and mosses.
After dispersal by wind
Spores of this tommifu
puffball (a complex fungus)
or water, these develop
disperse through a hole
.into new plagts. There are
that forms in the ball.
two types of spmes. One type is produced (e.g:
in complex fungi, mosses and .ferns) by a special
kind of cell =division (see pages 32-2-323) which
=/s;a feature. of sexual reproduction. The new
plants are not the same as the parent (see
alternation of generations). Another kind of
spore, however, is produced -in plants .such. as
simple fungi by ordinary cell division (see pages.
240-241). The spores develop into plants which
. ar(!: identical to the parent {an jniporta.n t fe'!tre of
as.exual reproduction). Although Dnly one parent is
needed in both cases, true asexual reproduction really only .occurs with the second type.
Simple fungus
(bread maid)- -
Bud forms:on
parent organism
Bud
grows.
Bud separates
from
parent.
Alternation of generations
A reproductive process found in many
simple animals and plants, e.g. jellyfish and
mosses. _In the an imals, a form produced by
sexual reproduction alternates with one
produced asexually. In the plants, though,
the a lternation is really between two stages
of sexual reproduction . One plant body
(gametophyte) produces another
(sporophyte) by sexual reproduction. This
then produces spores (see sporulation)
which grow into new gametophytes.
However, the spores are made in the same
way as gametes (see pages 322-323) and
they (and the gametophytes) have only half
the original number of chromosomes*. The
gametophytes produce gametes by ordinary
cell division (see pages 240-241 ), as there is
no need to halve the chromosomes again.
Spore capsule
,: ,
::
___J
(Sportmgli;nl)
cutllWay
.
Mesh of
threads
(mycellum)
Alternation of
generations (moss)
Archegonlum
(female organ)
cutaway
Water-filled
rosette~
Archegonlum
produces female
gametes (by
ordinary cell
division). These
receive male
gametes which
"swim" to them
in rainwater
which collects
in rosette.
Anther/dium
(male organ)
cut away
\ijj
Water-filled
roseti
..
Sporangium (capsule).
Spores formed inside by
special cell division, giving
each haploid number' of
chromosomes*.
Antherldlum
produces male
gametes (by
ordinary cell
division). They
are splashed
by rain into
archegonium,
where they
"swim" to
female gametes.
<lloili------11
321
'M~riy
cells within a living thing can divide to produce new cells for growth
and" repair(see pages 240-241 ). There is, however, a second type of cell
Cbromatid pieces
crossing over
Chromatid pieces
have swapped.
" \ I,..
-..i
mlcrotubu/es*----1i._~
[~
~wr-- ~4
Homologous
,,, \ '
Centriole'
Metaphase
Gmtronninr- - - - - . .
(OOdv foiQing iwo
chromuUds)
:-mnw:'\..
Homologous
chromosomes
hmot~ow
dlromo.r411U!'J (eadl
a pair of dHMHJtJds)
formjng ~.
322
. Centromere -~~~~~UJ~
attached to
spindle
microtubufe
Ana phase
Telophase
Homologous
chromosomes
Contracting
micro tubules
,..--..
'\
New nuclear
Chromosomes
membrane"'
(about to uncoil)
in
I\ I\
...
nuclei).
meiotic division
(spermatitb in
animals)
Mature into
- - spermin
animals and
simple plants
Two cells formed from first meiotic division divide ag ain (see
second meiotic divblon). In animals, resulting four cells called
spermatltb and mature into. male gametes (sex cells), or
sperm. In simple plants, four cells either develop into sperm or
into type of spore involved in alternation of generations.
In flowering plants, nuclei' of four cells each divide again
(mitosis'). Resulting cells (pollen' g rains) each have two nuclei
(one later divides again to form two male nude/').
Two cells
result from
Ii
second-meiotic
division
Remaining cell (ootid
in animals, embryo sac in flowering
plan ts)
- - -
dies away.
Second polar
body dies away.
Matures into
ovum in animals
Alternation of generations, 321; Centrioles, 240; Chromatin, 238 (Nucleus); Chromosomes, 324;
Cytoplasm, 238; Gametes, 320; lnterphase, 240; Male nuclei, 320 (Gametes); Mitosis, 240;
Nuclear membrane, 238 _(Nucleus); Pollen, 258; Spores, 32T (Sporulation).
'
323
-~ --~
r1
Pair of
homologous
chromosomes
Nucleic acids
nucleotide
DNA---
Gene is series of
"rungs" (paired
nucleotides)
---~
Genes
Sets of "coded" instructions which make up
the DNA molecule of a chromosome (in
h umans, each DNA molecule is thought to
contain about 1,000 genes). Each gene is a
connected series of about 250 "rungs" on the
DNA "ladder". Since the order of the "rungs"
varies, each gene has a different "code",
relating to one specific c haracteristic (trait)
of the organism, e .g. its blood group* or
the composition of a hormone*. With the
exception of the sex chromosomes, the genes
carried on paired homologous chromosomes
see chromosomes) are also paired, and run
down the chromosomes in the same order
(one member of each pair on each
c hromosome). These paired genes control the
same characteristic and may give identica l
instructions. However, their instructions may
also be different, in which case the instructions
from one gene (the dominant gene) will "mask
out" those from the other (the recessive gene),
unless incomplete dominance or codominance .
is showr-i. Two such non-identical genes are
called alleles or allelomorphs.
ri, -~-- Homologous---
'o-z
-
chromosomes
- -- - --
Genes
(fjJ'
controlling
hair
co/or in same
Dd Person is heterozygous
for hair co/or, i.e. instructions
from two genes are different.
Recessive gene
d (orders fair
hair). Recessive
genes always
written in
lower case.
:;:
__J
Dd
_ __ _ Homologous _
_ __
chromosomes
'~ 8:,~e~~::: e~
.... ....
-:;; ;
....
hair.
-s
.
Person is homozygous
for hair co/or, i.e.
instructions from two
genes are identical.
~ ~
.. .
~-=-o
o-=-,
White comellia
Red camellia
Pink camellia
Codominance
A special situation where a pair of genes
controlling the same characteristic give
different instructions, neither is dominant (see.
genes), but both are represented in the result.
The human blood group* AB, for example,
results from equal dominance between a
gene for group A and one for group B.
Dominant gene D
(orders dork hair)
-.
-::-
DD
The two examples have different genotypes for hair co/or, i.e.
different sets of instructions (DD and Dd), but are the same
phenotype, i.e. the resulting characteristic is the same (dark hair).
Sex chromosomes
One pair of homologous chromosomes (see
chromosomes) in all cells (all the others are
called autosomes). There are two different
kinds pf sex chromosomes, called the X and Y
chromosomes. A male has one X and one Y.
The Y c hromosome carries the genetic factor
(not a gene as such) determining maleness,
thus al l individuals with two X chromosomes
are femal e.
..__;;::
-~~
Male
Y chromosome (shorter, lacks
many genes - see sex linkage,
page 326) . .
J@
"11':_. _
I_
X chromosome
........
....,.
Inheriting genes
Every new organism inherits its
Paired genes
controlling ---->..<:.!
hair co/or
Example male
parent with fair,
\:Z)
~
L+
Only possible
combination
of genes in
sex cells
Dark,
curly
hair
Dark,
straight
hair
Fair,
curly
hair
Fair,
straight
hair
H-1(.9014
chromosomes*
Sex linkage
The two sex (X) chromosomes* in a female
contain many paired genes* (like all
chromosomes*), but the Y chromosome* in a
male lacks partners for most of the genes on
its mate (the X). Thus any recessive* genes on
the X will show up more often in males (see
below). The unpaired genes on the X are
called sex-linked genes.
'
One gene in
sex cell from
male parent
t.
:f:\\'
One gene
in female
I!;
w
Co/or-blind mother
~:
New pair of
genes on new
homologous
chromosomes
in first cell of
new baby.
would not be
co/or-blind, but
would be
"carriers" of
X'X'
Possible
offspring
Father with
normal sight
x<Y
Sons would
be co/ourblind.
recessive
\;}
x<X'
X'Y
X'Y
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is the deliberate alteration of DNA* within a cell
nucleus* in order to modify an organism or population of organisms. It is
used to create new products which are beneficial to sciencer agriculture,
medicine and industry. New uses for genetically engineered organisms are
being discovered all the time.
Gene cloning
The main technique of genetic engineering.
Des irable genes* are duplicated artificially
by inserting DNA molecules (containing
the genes) into other organisms, such as
fast-breeding bacteria, which then reproduce
the DNA. Gene cloning is a complex process.
The most common method is shown below.
Pharming
The use of plants or animals to produce
genetically modified pharmaceutical products.
For example, a sheep has been genetically .
engineered to produce milk which contains
alpha-1 antitrypsin, a drug which is beneficial
to cystic fibrosis patients.
Gene cloning
7. DNA containing a
particular desirable
gene"', known as
target DNA, is
removed from a
donor cell.
DNA
-Cell debris
Donor cell
Protein manufacture
Target
DNA
Normal chromosomes
Plasmid carrying
antibiotic resistance
~s,
continued
Ovum* from
source A
Sperm* from
fertilized* ovum*
source B
I
(27)
Haploid
number* of
chromosomes*
rJ
(27)
Haploid
number of
chromosomes
Diploid number* of
chromosomes from
sources A and B.
Genome mapping
Making a detailed list of the nucleotides*
contained in the genome (genetic code)
of any organism. Scientists have already
mapped the genome of a yeast cell, and
are currently mapping the three billion
nucleotides contained in a human
ger<ame. They intend to complete this task
early in the twenty-first century. The
resulting map will er:iable them to identify
every gene* in human chromosomes* and
understand what each one does.
Ovum* from
source A, with
chromosomesr
removed
G+
No
chromosomes
Chromosomes
from any body
cell in source B
Ovum* ready to
grow into new
sheep.
.::::::~:: ..
:=:.cs~l ::
-...::::"...
Diploid
number* of
chromosomes
Diploid number
of chromosomes.
Genetically identical
to source B, no genes
from source A.
Genetic diagnosis
The identification of illness by examination
of genes*. Scientists can already identify
some genetic disorders, which show up as
irregularities in the nucleotide* sequence.
For example, Huntingdon's chorea (an
illness which causes gradual physical and
mental deterioration) can now be detected in
a fetus*. Such research could also make it
possible to identify a gene which makes
people more susceptible to some cancers.
Once identified, treatment could be applied
to prevent the cancer from developing.
Organ modification
Introducing genes which encourage body
organs to heal themselves. One new
technique encourages the hearts of patients
needing bypass surgery to grow new blood
vessels themselves.
When the heart is growing inside
an embryo*, a particular gene*
* Arte~ies, 288; Chromosomes, 324; Diploid number, 240 (Mitosis); Embryo, 320; Fertilization, 319; Fetus, 319 (Pregnancy);
Genes, 325; Gene cloning, 327; Haploid number, 322 (Meiosis); Nucleotides, 324 (Nucleic acids);
Ovum, 320 (Gametes); Sexual reproduction, 320; Sperm, 320 (Gametes).
FLUID MOVEMENT
The movement of substances
around the body, especially their
movement in and out of cells, is
essential to the life of an organism.
Food matter must be able to pass
into the cells, and waste and
harmful material must be able to
move out. Most solids and liquids
travel around the body in solutions,
i.e. they (solutes) are dissolved in a
fluid (the solvent - normally water).
Diffusion
The movement of molecules of a
substance from an area where they are in
higher concentration to one where their
concentration is lower. This is a two-way
process (where the concentration of a
solute is low, that of the solvent will be
high, so its molecules will move the other
way) and it ceases when the molecules are
evenly distributed. Many substances, e.g.
oxygen and carbon dioxide, diffuse into
and out of cells.
Cell membrane.
All cell membranes
are semipenneable
Concentration of
oxygen (solute) higher
than inside cell.
(selectlvely-penneable), i.e.
If concentration of
fluid'
Water molecules ~--....,,
(solvent) pass in
(osmosis) until concentrations
Glucose
molecules
cannot leave.
Concentration
of water (solvent)
Cell membrane
Active transport
Tinue
fluld*~--r--
Concentration of
glucose (solute) lower
outside cell (fluid is
hypoton/c to cell).
Osmosis
The movement of molecules of a solvent
through a semipermeable membrane (see
below, left) which lowers the concentration of
a solute on the other side of the membrane, and
evens out the concentrations either side. This is
a one-way type of diffusion, occurring when the
molecules of the solute cannot pass the other
way. Osmotic pressure is the pressure which
builds up in an enclosed space, e.g. a cell,
when a solvent enters by osmosis.
Oxygen
molecules
diffuse into cell
(small enough to
pass through
membrane).
Pinocytosis
The taking in of a fluid droplet by inward-folding
and separation of a section of cell membrane*
(forming a vacuole*) . Most cells can do this.
Proteins
A group of substances made up of simpler
units called amino acids. These contain
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and, in
some cases, sulfur. Most protein molecules
consist of hundreds, maybe thousands, of
amino acids, joined together by links called
peptide links into one or more chains called
polypeptides* . The many different types of
protein each have a different arrangement of
amino acids. They include the structural
proteins (the basic components. of new cells)
and catalytic proteins (enzymes*), which
play a vital role in controlling cell processes.
Plants build up amino acids from the
substances they take in (by photosynthesis*),
and then build proteins from them. Animals
take in proteins and break them down into
single amino acid molecules by digestion
(see page 338). These are then transported
in the blood tO all the body cells and
reassembled into the different proteins
needed (see ribosomes, page 239 and
also page 205).
Fats
A group of substances made up of ca rbon,
hydrogen and a small amount of oxygen
(see also lipids, page 205). Plants build fats
from the substances they take in, and their
seeds hold most as a store of food. This
can be converted to extra glucose (see
carbohydrates) to provide energy for the
growing plant. Digestion of fats in animals
produces fatty acids and glycerol (see page
338). If these need to be broken down for
energy (as well as glucose), this occurs in
the liver. This results in some products which
the liver can convert to glucose, but others
it cannot. These are instead con verted
elsewhere to a substance which forms a
later stage of glucose breakdown .
Fatty ac ids and glycerol not needed for
energy are immediately recombined to form
fat particles and stored in various body areas,
e.g. under the skin (see subcutaneous layer,
page 310).
Like all animals, humans cannot build thier own nutrients, and rel)
on the food they eat for energy. This comes either from plants, e.g.
fruit and vegetables (see picture, left), or animals, e.g. meat and mA:.
Roughage or fiber
Vitamins
Starch
Built up to form
(complex
carbohydrate). Token
Broken down
to form
in as plant matter by
animals.
Minerals
..
Broken down
in internal
respiration,
producing energy
In animals,
In animals, if not
needed straight away
In plants, if not
needed straight away
In plants,
when
needed for
energy. In
Glycogen
Converted into
when needed
for energy
Glucose
animals, in
digestion.
(simple carbohydrate)
Proteins
In new
developing plants
to build new
growth. Hardly
ever in animals.
In animals, if
needed for energy
(but see fats)
In plant seeds.
In animals, if
storage space for
,glycogen "full".
-----
1-
'
_,
(see proteins)
Amino acids
In animals, in digestion
- .--,. _
..
METABOLISM
Metabolism is a collective term for all the complex, closely-coordinated
chemical reactions occurring inside an organism. These can be split into
two opposing sets of reactions, called catabolism and anabolism. The rates
of the reactions vary in response to variations in the organism's internal and
external environments, and they play a major role in keeping internal
conditions stable (see homeostasis, page 335).
Catabolism
Anabolism
Metabolic rate
The overall rate at which metabolic reactions
occur in an individual. In human beings, it
varies w idel y from person to person, and in
the same individual under different cond itions.
It increases under stress, when the body
temperature rises and during exercise,
hence the true and accurate measurement
of a person's metabolic rate is a measurement
taken when the subject is resting, has a normal
body temperature, and has not recentl y
exercised. This is called the basal metabolic
rate (BMR) and is expressed in kilojoules per
square meter of body surface per hour (see
measuring method and calculations, opposite).
People with high BMR can eat large
amounts without putting.on weight, because
their catabolism of food matter (in the cells)
happens so fast that not much fat is stored.
This fast rate of reactions also often results in
"excess" energy (i.e. energy not needed for
anabolism), so they may appear to have a lot
of "nervous energy". People with low BMR put
on weight easily and often appear to have
little energy.
The metabolic rate is influenced by a
number of hormones*, especially STH,
thyroxin, adrenalin and noradrenalin. For
more about these, see chart on pages 336-337.
Kilojoule
A unit of energy, specifi cally used in biology
when referring to the amount of heat energy
produced by the catabolism of food, and hence
when measuring a person's basal metabolic
rate (see metabolic rate). The calculations
involved in measuring BMR combine certain
known facts about the number of kilojoules
produced by the breakdown of different
substances, with a measurement of oxygen
consumption obtained under controlled
conditions (see below and right).
To determine a person's basal metabolic rate
(BMR = kl m-' hr-')
1. Facts known (determined using a piece of apparatus called a
calorimeter):
a) If 1 liter of oxygen is used to break down carbohydrates, c.21.21 kf
are produced (i.e. enough heat energy to heat c.5,050g water by 1(}.
b) With fats, the result from 1 liter oxygen is c.19.74kf.
c) With proteins, the result from 1 liter oxygen is c.19.32kf.
~::ilF
2. First calculation:
Heat energy generated when
food (in general) is broken down
using 1 liter of oxygen = the
average of the three figures
above, i.e. 20.09kj (provided
subject measured has taken in
equal amounts of all three
foodstuffs).
Calculations (example):
1. (Measured) Subject used 1.S liters oxygen in 5 minutes.
2. Hence he would use 18 liters oxygen in 1 hour (1.5 x 12).
3. (Known) 20.09kf produced when food broken down by
1 liter oxygen.
4. Hence 361.62kf produced iffciod broken down by 18 liters
oxygen (20.09 x 18).
Drum rotates
Soda lime
absorbs the
carbon dioxide.
Enzymes
Special proteins (catalytic proteins) found in
all living things and vital to the chemical
reactions of life. They act as catalysts*, i.e.
they speed up reactions without themselves
being changed. Many enzymes are aided by
other substances, called co-enzymes, whose
molecules are able to "ca rry" the products
of one reaction (cata lyzed by an enzyme) on
to the next reaction.
catalyst, 161.
Aerobic respiration
In longer,
less intensive
periods of activity, e.g.
jogging, cells are able to
meet their oxygen need
for longer, but tactic
acid does build up slowly.
Oxygen
Pyruvic acid
Carbon
dioxide
Oxygen debt
A situation which occurs when extreme
physical exercise is undertaken by an
organism which shows aerobic respiralim
Under these circumstances, the oxygen
organism 's cells is used up faster than
be taken in. This means that there is not
enough to break down the poisonous I"_
acid produced in the first, anaerobic, _
respiration. Instead, the acid undergoes
anaerobic reactions to convert it to lacli
(much less harmful). This begins to bu
and the organism is said to have acqu
oxygen debt. This is "paid off" later ~
in oxygen faster than usual to break oo
lactic acid, by breathing heavily,. fore>
NH 2
I
I
H- C
\
- c/
II
C.,_
""" N
Adenine
OH
Ribose
OH
OH
O-P- 0-P-O-P-OH
II
0
II
0
OH OH
_..
ATP
Adenosine
trlphosphate
ADP
Adenosine
Phosphate
diphosphate
group
The reaction is reversible'.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the
Crocodile
gaping to
maintenance, by an organism,
lo~e heat
of a stable internal environment,
i.e. a constant temperature, stable composition,
level and pressure of body fluids, constant
metabolic rate*, etc. This is vital if the
organism is to function properl y.
Homeostasis requires the detection of
any deviation from the norm (caused by new
internal or external facto rs) and the means to
correct such deviations, and is practiced most
efficiently in birds and mammals*, e.g. humans.
Their detection of deviations is ach ieved by the
feedback of information to controlling organs.
The blood glucose level, for example, is
constantly being detected by the pancreas (i.e.
informati on is "fed back"). The correction of
deviations is achieved by negative feedback,
i.e. feedback which "tells" of deviations and
results in a change of action. If the glucose
1vel gets too high, for example, the pancreas
reacts by producing more insulin* to reduce it
(see also antagonistic hormones, page 336).
Most homeostatic actions a~e, like the
insulin example, controlled by hormones,
many of which are in turn controlled by the
hypothalamus* in the brain. An example of the
importance of the hypothalamus in homeostasis
is the control of body temperature. A ll birds and
mammals, e.g. humans, are homiothermic
(warm-blooded), i.e. they can keep a constant
temperature (about 37C in humans) regardless
of external conditions (the opposite is
poikilothermic, or cold-blooded). A "thermostat"
area of the hypothalamus: called the preoptic
area, detects any changes in botjy temperature
and sends impulses either to
the heat-losing center or to
the heat-promoting center
(both also found in the
hypothalamus). These
areas then send out nervous
impulses to cause various
heat-losing or heat-promoting
actions in the body. .
Energy
HORMONES
Hormones are pedal hemical
1
' messengers'' wh ich control vario u
activities i nside an organism. These pages
homeostasis .
Regulating factors
Speda r chem ica ls whid1 co ntroJ the production of
a number ot hormones, and hence? ma ny vrta l body
functions. They are sent to the anterior lob oi the
Hormones
or
Oxytod n
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) or vasopres-sim
Thyroxin
TCT
(thyrocalcitonin) or calcltonln
Gastrin
CCK (cholecystokinin)
Secretin
PZ (pancreozymin)
Enterocrinin
and insul'n (see chart) are xamp les. When the blood
pan(;rea~
336
Insulin
Glucagon
Where produced
Effects
Stimulates growth by increasing rate at which amino acids are built up to make
proteins in cells .
.-
Stimulates ovulation (page 378), formation of corpus luteum (page 318) and
its secretion of estrogen and progesterone. Works with estrogen and
progesterone to stimulate thickening of lining of uterus (page 31 7). In men,
causes production of androgens.
Increases rate of food breakdown, hence increasing energy and raising body
temperature. Work s with STH in the young to control rate of growth and
development. Contains iodine.
Increases level of calcium in blood by increasing its release from bone (see
above). Decreases phosphorus level.
Stimulate liver to release more glucose into blood, to be broken down for energy.
Stimulate increase in heart rate, faster breathing and blood vessel constriction.
uriniferous tubules
Stimulate increase in rate of food breakdown for energy, and thus increase
resistance to stress. Lessen inflammation.
31 9) during pregnancy.
readiness.
Mostly in interstitial
organs, page 316).
sex characters at
Cells in stomach
Stimulate pancreas to produce pancreatic juice (page 338) and secrete it into
duodenum (por 295).
Stimulates liver to convert more glucose to glycogen for storage (page 331). Also
speeds up transport of glucose to cells.
bladder and
337
~:~lGE:STIVE
All the.di'gestive juices* ofthe human body (secreted into the intestines by
digestiye glands*) contain enzymes* wh ich control the breakdown offood
into sirnple soluble substances. These are called digestive enzymes and can
-B'e:dlvided into three groups. Amylases (or diastases} promote the breakdo\
- .0((:,arbohydrates* (the final result being monosaccharides - see terms usea
~rigb!). Proteinases (or peptidases) promote the breakdown of proteins into
amino acids* by attacking the peptide links (see proteins, page 330). lip
promote the breakdowr1of fats into glycerol and fatty acids (see fats, page
.~J Of The chart belowJists the different digestive juices of the body, togetf,~
with their enzymes and the actio n of these enzyrnes.
Digestive juice: Saliva
>
1 ~:,
;;.,,.,
>> >> >>
"
...
' ~
.
-~
Produced by: Intestinal glands' in small intestine lining. secretion into small intestine (see enterocrlnln, page 336).
Digestive enzymes:
1. Maltose (amylase)
2. Sucrose (or invertase or saccharase) (amylase)
3. Lactose (amylase)
4. Enterokinase. See note 2.
Actions:
1. Breaks down maltose (disaccharlde).
2. Breaks down sucrose (dlsaccharide).
3. Breaks down lactose (dlsaccharlde).
4. Completes breakdown of proteins (dlpeptides).
Products:
1, Shorter polypeptides
2, 3. Curds, i.e. milk solids
4. Intermediate compounds
Products:
1. Glucose (or dextrose) (monosaccharlde)
2. Glucose and fructose (monosaccharldes)
3. Glucose and galactose (monosaccharides)
4. Amino acids*
Notes
Actions:
1, 2, 3. Continue breakdown of proteins* (long and shorter
polypeptides).
4. Continues breakdown of carbohydrates'.
5. Breaks down fat ' particles.
Products:
1, 2, 3. Dipeptldes and some amino acids'.
4. Maltose (dlsaccharide)
5. Glycerol and fatty acids (see fats, page 330).
~"'' Amino a dds, 330 (Proteins); Carbohydrates, 330; Digestive lulces, 296 (Digestive glands);
~
,,.
Enzymes, 333; Fa~sr 330; Gall bladder,297; Oastrlc glands, Intestinal glands, 296 (Digestive glands);
Mucous membrane, 29 s;' Proteins; 330i SalWliry glands, 296.
Terms used
Polysaccharides
The most complex carbohydrates . Eoch is o chain of
monosaccharide molecules. Most carbohydrates taken
into the body are polysaccharides, e.g. starch (the main
polysaccharide in edible plants) and glycogen (the main one
in animal matter). For mare about starch and glycogen, see
page 331.
Disaccha.rides
Compounds of two monosaccharlde molecules, either
forming intermediate stages in the breakdown of
polysaccharides or (in the case of sucrose and lactose)
taken into the body as such. (Sucrose is found in sugar beet
and sugar cane, lactose occurs in milk.)
Monosaccharides
The simplest carbohydrates. Almost all result from
palysaccharlde breakdown, though fructose is taken into
the body as such (e.g. in fruit juices), as well as resulting from
sucrose breakdown. Glucose is the final result of all action on
carbohydrates (fructose and galactase are converted to glucose
in the liver).
Polypeptides
The complex form taken by all proteins-entering {he body. Eai::h
is a chain of hundreds (or thousands) of amino acid' molecules
(see proteins, pages 330).
Dipeptides
Chains of two amino acid molecules, forming intermediate
stages in the breakdown of polypeptides.
Vitamin B complex
Vitamin D (calciferol)
Sources: Liver, fish-liver oils, oily fish, dairy products, egg yolk,
margarine, special substance (provitamin 03) in skin cells
(converted to vitamin D when exposed to sunlight).
Sources: All found in yeast and liver. All except 812 found
in wholewheat cereals and bread, wheatgerrn and green
vegetables, e.g. beans (812 not found in any vegetable
products). 82 and 812 found especially in dairy products. Most
also found in eggs, nuts, fish, lean meat, kidneys and potatoes.
86, folic acid and biotin also made by bacteria in intestines.
Uses: Most needed for growth and maintenance of healthy
tissues, e.g. muscles (81, 86), nerves (81, 83, 86, 812), skin
(82, .83, BS, 86, 812) ond hair (82, 85). Several also aid
continuous function of body organs (85, 86, lecithin). All
except folic ocid, biotin and lecithin are essential co-enzymes,
aiding in breakdown of foods far energy (internal
respiration '). Many (especially 82, 86, 812) also co-enzymes
aiding build-up of substances (proteins) for growth and
regulatory or defence purposes. 812 and folic acid vital to
formation of blood cells, ll-5 and 86 vital to manufacture of
nerve chemicals (neurotransmitters*).
Vitamin E (tocopherol)
Sources: Meat, egg yolk, leafy vegetables, nuts, dairy products,
margarine, cereals, wholemeal bread, wheatgerm, .seeds, seed
and vegetable oils.
Uses : Not yet fully understood. Protects membranes from some
molecules which could bind and cause cancer.
Vitamin K (phylloquinone or
menaquino~el.
Amino adds, 310 (Proteins). Carbohydr;ites, 330; Co-en~,vmcs., 133 (Eriz)' m~s}; DNA, 324 (Nucleic adds);
Epl11h:eHum. 11 0 (Epldennl~); Internal r 5pirMion, 334; Nl!urotransmllteu. 305 (Synapse);
Pigm nts, .255; Protcim, 330; Prothrombin, 267 (Clotting); PTH, 33.6: Retim1, 313.
339
THE CLASSIFICATION
OF LIVING THINGS
"
wm~
mengeli
Callicore
cyllene
Nomenclature
The naming of organisms. Names of
species are given in Latin so that all biologists
world-wide can follow the same system. This
is necessary as species are often known by
various common names in different parts of
the world. For example, one type of herring,
Alosa pseudoharengus, has six different
names throughout its geographical range.
Every organism has a two word name.
This is called the binomial system. The first
word is a generic name (from the genus) and
the second identifies the species within that
genus. The Latin names are governed by
The International Comm ission for Zoological
Nomenclature, at the Natural History Museum
in London. Most names make direct reference
to specific characteristics of the species, such
as size, shape or habitat. The giant anteater, for
example, is called Myrmecophaga tridactyla
(myrmeco = ant, phag = eat, tri = three, and
dactyl= fingers). This describes
the food it eats and the
three large digging
claws at the end
of each foreleg.
Giant
anteater
Plant divisions
The Plant Kingdom is separated into the following major divisions:
_,
Chlorophyta
Green
algae
~.\
W'
Bryophyta , ..
Mosses,
liverworts
..._JI:
Pterophyta
Ferns ~
Each division is divided further into classes, but only the classes of the largest division,
Classes
340
* Cotyledon, 261 .
Dicotyledons
Have two cotyledons,
e.g. buttercup.
Klngdomst
Animals
Multicellular, lack
cell walls*, cannot
photosynthesize
Plants
MulUcellula,.,
cellulose cell walls',
photosyntheslze
_ Pl'Orista
Fungi
Cell walls*, but Jack
cellulose, cannot
photosyntheslze
Phyla
Sub-phyla
Classes
Orden
Families
Annelids
Worm-like,
round
segmented
bodies
Amphibians
Cold-blooded, soft
skin, live in water
and on land
Birds
Warm-blooded,
feathers, wings,
oviparous*
Carnivores
Flesh eaters,
have large,
pointed teeth
Cetaceans
Aquatic
mam mals
Cebidae
New world (North
and South
American) monkeys
Fish
Cold-blooded,
scales, fins,
breathe with gills
Ungulates
Have hoofs. Divided
into even- and oddtoet! ungulates.
Cercopithecoldae
Hominids
Old world
(Eurasian and
African) monkeys
Walk upright,
short face,
small teeth
Genera
Australopithecus
Extinct hominid,
heavy skull and
facial features
Homo hobilis
Extinct hominid
Homo erectus
Extinct hominid, taller
and bigger brain than
Homo habllis
Urochordates
Sack-like unsegmented
body, only lan1a has
notochord
Cephalochordates
Fish-like body,
with notochord
in head
Bats
Mouse-like,
have wings,
nocturnal
Mon era
Orgamsms
_withoutnuclei*J
such as b acteria
Platyhelminthes
Worm-like,
trar
Vertebrates
Internal s keleton made of bone or
cartilage. Animals that are not
vertebrates are called Invertebrates.
Mammals
Warm-blooded,
hair,._milk for
young
Reptiles
Cold-blooded,
scaly skin,
oviparous*
Primates
Flexible hands and
feet, with opposable
first digits
Pongidae
Old world
apes
Rodents
Have constantly
growing Incisor'
teeth
20
others
(and others)
Homo
Large skull,
distinct dental
features
Homo sapiens
Modern
human
t Viruses are not included in classical taxonomy. They consist of nucleic acid' within a protein coat and can only "live" and reproduce
when living in other cells. Therefore they are not classified as organisms, although they show m any of the characteristics of living things.
Cladistic classification
' Cell wall, 238; Cellulose, 331 (Roughage); Exoskeleton, 266; Incisors, 285; Larva, 277; Multicellular, 238;
Nucleic acids, 324; Nucleus, 238; Oviparous, 274; Photosynthesis, 254; Unicellular, 238.
Parasites
Plants or animals which live in or on other living plants or
animals (the hosts), and feed off them, e.g. mistletoe and fleas.
Not all are harmful to the host.
Mutualists
Plants
Xerophytes
Plants which can survive long periods of time without water,
e.g. cacti.
Hydrophytes
Plants which grow in water or very wet soil, e.g. reeds.
Mesophytes
Plants which grow under average conditions of moisture.
Halophytes
Plants which can withstand very salty conditions, e.g. sea pinks.
Lithophytes
Plants which grow on rock, e.g. some mosses.
Commensals
A pair of living things which associate closely with each other,
one deriving benefit without affecting the other. One type of
worm, for instance, is very often found in the same shell as a
hermit crab. One of the most common examples of commensalism
is the existence of house mice wherever there are humans.
Social or colonial
Predators.
Animals which kill and eat other animals (their prey), e.g. lions.
Bird predators, e.g. hawks, are called rapt ors.
Sessile
Epiphytes
Plants which grow on other plants, but only to use them for /
support, not to.feed off them, e.g. some mosses.
~
Saprophytes
Plants which live on decaying plants or animals, feed off them,
but ore not the agents of their d_eath, e.g. some fungi.
Animals
Detritus feeders
Animals which feed on debris from decayed plant or animal
matter, e.g. worms.
Scavengers
Large detritus feeders, e.g. hyenas, which feed only on dead
flesh (animal matter).
Territorial
Holding and defending a territory (an area of land or
water) either singly or in groups, e.g. many fish, birds and
mammals. This is usually linked with attracting a mate
and breeding.
Abyssal
Living at great depths in the sea, e.g. oorfish and gulper eels.
Demersal
Living at the bottom of a lake or the shallow sea, e.g. angler fish
and prawns.
Sedentary
Staying mostly in one place (but not permanently attached),
e.g. sea anemone.
Nocturnal
Active at night and sleeping during the day, e.g. owls and bats.
In the case of animals, this term refers to those which are not
free to move around, i.e. they are permanently fixed to the
ground or other solid object, e.g. barnacles. With plants, it
describes those without stalks, e.g. stemless thistles.
Pelagic
Living in the main body of a lake or the sea, as opposed to at the
bottom or at great depths. Pelagic creatures range from tiny
plankton through medium-sized fish and sharks to very large
whales. The me.dium-sized and large ones are all animals, and are
called nekton (from the Greek for "swimmif!g thing"), as they swim.
Plankton
Aquatic animals and plants, vast numbers of which drift in
lakes and seas, normally near the surface (plant plankton
is phytoplankton, and animal plankton is zooplankton).
Plankton is the food_ofmany fish and whales and is thus vital to
the ecological balance (food chains ') of the sea. Most are small
Littoral
Living at the bottom of a lake or the sea near the shore, e.g.
crabs and seaweed.
Benthos
All abyssal, demersal and littoral plants and animals, i.e. all
those which live in, on or near the bottom of lakes or seas.
DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE
Glossary and index
GLOSSARY
Abrasive
Coolant
Adhesive
A substance which sticks to one or more other substances (see
adhesion, page 23) .
Alloy
A mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal. It has
its own properties (which are metallic), independent of those of its
constituents. For example, brass' is an alloy of copper and zinc, and
steel' is an alloy of iron and carbon (different mixes give the steel
different properties).
Dehydrating agent
Amalgam
An alloy of mercury with other metals. It is usually soft and may
even be liquid.
Antacid
A substance which counteracts excess_stomach acidity by
neutralizing' the acid. Examples are aluminum hydroxide and
magnesium hydroxide.
Concentrated
sulfuric acid
C 6 H1P 6(s)
Bleach
A substance used to remove co/or from a material or solution. M ost
strong oxidizing' and reducing agents' are good bleaches. The
most common household bleach is a solution of sodium hypochlorite
(also a highly effective germicide). The equation below shows the
products of the reaction between sodium hypochlorite and a
colored material.
Colored material
NaOCI +
Sodium
hypochlorite
NaCl
Sodium
chloride
Decolorized
.i- oxidized'
material
Glucose
6C(s)
+ 6Hp(i)
Corban
Water
Drying agent
A substance used to absorb moisture from another substana:
which only removes water molecules from in and around
substance, not separate hydrogen and oxygen atoms from
molecules. The substance itself is not changed (see also.,..,,....,
page 221, and dehydrating agent). Phosphorus ,..,.,,...,,,,
(P,0 5 ) is an example:
Calibration
The "setting up 11 of a measuring instrument so that it gives
the correct reading. The instrument is normally adjusted during
manufacture so that it reads the correct value when it is measuring
a known standard quantity, e.g. a balance would be adjusted to
read exactly 1kg when a standard 1kg mass was on it.
Phosphorus
pentoxide
CuS04 .5Hp(s)
Hydrated' copper(//)
sulfate
CuS04 (s) +
5HP
Anhydrous'
copper(//) su/fate
Calorimetry
The .measurement of h.eat change during a chemical reaction
or event involving heat transfer. For example, measuring the
temperature rise of a known mass of a substance when it is heated
electrically is used to find specific heat capacity', and the
temperature rise of a mass of water can be used to calculate the
energy produced by a fuel when it is burned (see bomb
calorimeter diagram, page 1-4 7).
Coefficient
A constant for a substance, used to calculate quantities related to
the substance by multiplying it by other quantities. For example, the
force pushing two materials together multiplied by the coefficient
of friction for the surfaces gives the frictional force'.
Constant
A numerical quantity that does not vary. For example; in the
equation E = mc2 (see also page 84), the quantity c (the speed of
light in a vacuum) is t/ie constant. E and m are variables because
they can change.
Ductile
Describes a substance which can be "stretched. It is
metals which can be drawn out into thin wire, e.g.
substances show varying degrees of ductility (see pcI9r
also yield point, page 23.
Fumigation
The killing of pests such as insects by poisonous ~
dioxide, ot smoke.
Fungicide
A substance used to destroy harmful fungi, e.g_
growing on crops.
Germicide
A substance-used to destroy bacteria, esp<'CDI}
disease (germs).
*Anhydrous, 154 (An hydrate); Brass, 112, 1 75 (Zinc); Coefficient of friction, Frictional force, "7;
Hydrated, 154 (Hydrate); Neutralization, 151; Nuclear power station, 94; .
Oxidation, Oxidizing agent, Reducing agent, 148; Specific heat capacity, 31; Steel, 174.
GLOSSARY
Graduations
Marks .used for measurement, e.g. those on a measuring cylinder
or a gas syringe'.
Reciprocal
The value obtained from a number when one is divided by it, i.e. the
reciprocal number of x is 1/x. For example, the reciprocal of 10 is 0.1.
Inert
Refrigerant
Inert) gases'.
Inversely proportional
When applied to two quantities, this means that, for example, if one
is doubled, the other is halved.
Latex
A milky fluid produced by plants, particularly that produced by the
rubber tree, from which raw natural rubber is extracted (and which
also forms the basis of some adhesives). Also certain similar
synthetic polymers*.
Resins
Substances used as adhesives. They are often insoluble in water.
Natural resins ore organic compounds secreted by certain plants
and insects. Synthetic resins are plastic materials produced by
polymerization*.
Malleable
The ratio of the length of the side opposite to the angle to the length
of the hypotenuse (the longest side) in o right-angled triangle. It
depends on the angle.
Mean
A synonym for overage, i.e. the sum of a collection of values divided
by the number of values in the _collection.
.
Superheated steam
Steam above a temperature of 1O!J'C. It is obtained by heating
water under pressure.
System
A set of connected ports which have an effect on each other and
form a whole unit, e.g. a digestive system or the substances
involved in a reaction at chemical equlllbrium '.
Meniscus
The concave or convex surface of a liquid, e.g. water or mercury. It is
caused by the relative attraction of the molecules to each other and
to those of the contdine; (see also adhesion and cohesion, page 23.
and parallax error, page 102).
Ore
A naturally-occurring mineral from which an element (usually a
metal) is extracted, e.g. bauxite, which yields o/uminum.
Tarnish
Ta lose or partially lose shine due to the forma.tion of a duff surface
layer, e.g. silver sulfide on silver or lithium oxide on lithium.
Tarnishing is a type of co"oslon*.
Organic solvent
An organic liquid in which substances will dissolve.
Variable
A numerical quantity which can take any value. For example, in the
equation E = mc2 (see also page 84), E and mare variables since they
con take any value (although the value of E depends on the value of
m). The quantity c (the speed of light in a vacuum) is a constant.
Proportional
When applied to two quantities, this means that they hove a
relationship such that, for example, if one is doubled, so is the other.
Volatile
Describes a liquid that evaporates easily, e.g. gasoline, or a solid
that sublimes easily, e.g. iodine.
Rate
The amount by which one quantity changes with respect to another,
e.g. acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.
Note that the second quantity is not necessarily time in all cases. If a
graph of Y against X is plotted, the rote of change of Y with respect
to X at a point is the gradient at that point.
Raw material
A material obtained from natural sources for use in industry, e.g. iron
ore, coke and limestone ore the raw materials used to produce ir,on
(see picture, page 714).
Volume
A measurement of the space occupied by a body. See page .1O1 for .
calculations of volume. The SI unit' of volume is the cubic meter (m 3).
Vulcanization
The process of heating row natural rubber (extracted from latex)
with su/fur. Vu(canized rubber is harder, tougher and fess
temperature-sensitive than. row rubber (the more sulfur used, the
greater the .difference). This is because the sulfur atoms form cross/inks between the chains of rubber molecules (see picture, page 201 ).
Acceleration, 11; Chemical equilibrium, l .63; Chlorofluor.o carbons, 195;_Corrosion, 209; Diges.tive system, 294;
Evaporation, 121; Gas syringe, 224; Measuring cylinder, 224; Noble gases, T89; Polymerization, 200;
SI units, 96; Sublimation, 121 ; Synthetic polymers, .201; Velocity, l O; Visible light spectrum, 54.
INDEX
The page numbers listed in the index are of th ree different types. Those
printed in bold type (e.g. 92) indicate in each case w here the main
definition(s) of a word (or words) can be found . Those in li ghter type
(e.g. 92) refer to supplementary entries. Page numbers printed in italics
(e.g. 92) indicate pages where a word (or w ords) can be found as a small
print label to a picture. If a page number is follow ed by a word in brackets,
it means that the indexed word can be found inside the text of the definition
indicated. If it is followed by (I), the indexed w ord can be found in the
introductory text on the page given. Bracketed singulars, plurals, symbols
and formulas are given where relevant after indexed word s. Synonyms are
indicated by the word "see", or by an oblique stroke (/) if the synonyms fall
together alphabetically.
a-decay, see Alpha decay
a-particles, see Alpha particles
a- rays, see Alpha rays
a- sulfur, see Alpha sulfur
13-decay, see Beta decay
13-particles, see Beta particles
13-rays, see Beta rays .
13- sulfur, see Beta sulfur
y-radiography, see Gamma
,radiography
y-rays, see Gamma rays
.(.
A
Abdomen, 264 (Segmentation),
294 (Alimentary canal),
298 (Diaphragm)
Aberration,
Chromatic, 55
Spherical, 49
ABO blood groups, 287
Abomasum, 271 (Rumen)
A-bomb, see Atom bomb
Abrasive, 344
Abscisic acid, 249 (Abscission
layer)
Abscission layer, 249
Acid(s) (cont'd)
Dicarboxylic, 195
Ethanedioic ((COOH),), 195
Ethanoic (CH 3 COOHJ, 757, 195,
197, 215(7)
juice)
Folic, 339 (Vitamin B complex)
Formic, see Methanoic acid
Fuming sulfuric (H 2 S2 0 7 ),
185 (Contact process)
Hexanedioic (COOH(CH 2 ) 4 COOH),
200
INDEX
Acid(s) (cont' d)
Sulfuric (H 2S04), 150, 155, 185, 210
(Acid rain), 216 (Ethene),
217 (Hydrogen), 218 (Nitrate
anion), 219 (Calcium cation),
344 (Dehydrating agent)
Sulfuric(IV), see Sulfurous acid
Sulfuric(VI), see Sulfuric acid
Sulfurous, 751, 185
Weak, 152
Acidic, 150
Acid radical, 153
Acid rain, 206, 210
Acid salt, 153
Acoustics, 40 (I)
Acoustic waves, see Sound waves
Acrylic, 194, 201
ACTH, 336
Actin, 205, 283 (Striated muscle)
Actinium (Ac), 164, 212
Actinomorphy, 264 (Radial symmetry)
Action, Capillary, 23, 252
Action, local, 68
Action, Point, 57
Actions (human body), 308-309
Autonomic, 309 (Involuntary
actions)
Involuntary, 309
Reflex, 309
Voluntary, 308
Activation energy (E), 160
Active electrode, 66 (Electrode), 156
Active transport, 329
Activity series, see Reactivity series
Addition polymerization,_200
Addition reaction, 193
Additive mixing, 55 (Color mixing)
Adenine, 324
Adenohypophysis, see Anterior lobe
Adenoids, see Pharyngeal tonsil
Adenosine, 335 (ADP)
Adenosine diphosphate, see ADP
Adenosine triphosphate, see ATP
ADH, 336
Adhesion, 23
Adhesive, 344
Adipose tissue, 28 1,
310 (Subcutaneous layer)
ADP, 335
Adrenal glands, 297, 337
Adrenaliri/Adrenin, 336
Adrenocorticotropic hormone/
Adrenocorticotropin, see ACTH
Advanced gas-cooled _reactor
(AGR), 95
Advantage, Mechanical (M.A.), 20
Adventitious roots, 245
Aerial parts (pla nts), 244
Aerial roots, 245
Aerobic respiration, 334
Aerometer, see Hydromete r
Aestivation, 237 (Dormancy)
Afferent, 306
Afferent arteriole, 301 (Glomerulus)
Anaphase,
(meiosis), 323
(mitosis), 241
AND (logic gate/operation), 110, 111
Androecium, 257
Androgens, 316 (Testes), 336, 337 (LH)
Aneurin, see Thiamine
Angle,
Critical, 51
Visual, 55
Angle of deviation, 57
Angle of incidence (i), 47, 50
Angle of reflection (r), 47
Angle of refraction (r), 50
Angular acceleration, 77
Angular magnification, 55 (Visual
angle)
Angular velocity, 77
Anhydrate, 154
Anhydride, 151
Anhydrite calcium sulfate (CaS04 ), 171
(Calcium sulfate)
Anhydrous, 154 (Anhydrate)
Animal(s), 264-277, 341 (I)
Higher, 264 (I)
Lower, 264 (I)
Animal starch, see Glycogen
Anions, 66 (Ionic theory of
electrolysis), 88 (Ionization),
>
130, 218
Annelids, 341
Annual rings, 246, 247
Annuals, 236
Annular eclipse, 46
Anode, 66 (Electrode), 156 (Electrode)
Anodizing, 157
Anomalous expansion, 32
Antacid, 344
Antagonist, 282 (Antagonistic pairs)
Antagonistic hormones, 336
Antagonistic pairs (muscles), 282
Antennae (sing. antenna), 274
Anterior cavity (eye),
3 72 (Aqueous humor)
Anterior lobe (pituitary gland), 297
Anther, 257 (Stamens)
Antheridium, 321
Anthophyta, 340
Anthracite, 179 (Coal), 208
Antibodies, 287
Anti-diuretic hormone, see ADH
Antigen(s), 287
Rhesus, 287 (Rhesus factor)
Antigen-antibody complex,
287 (Antibodies) .
Antihemophilic globulin, 327 (Protein
manufacture)
Anti-knock agent, 199 (Octane rating)
Antimony (Sb), 112, 165~ 180, 212
Antineutrino, 87 (Beta decay)
Antinodal lines, 38, 39 (Antinodes)
Antinodal points/Antinodes, 39, 43
Anti-toxins, 287 (Antibodies)
Anus, 294, 295 (Large intestine)
INDEX
B
Baby teeth, see Deciduous teeth
Backbone, see Vertebral column
Back e.m.f., 60 (Electromotive force)
Background count, 88 (Background
radiation)
Background radiation, 88
Backward reaction, see Reverse
reaction
Bacteria (sing. bacterium), 327 (Gene
cloning)
Denitrifying, 209, 235
Nitrate, 235
Nitrifying, 235
Nitrogen-fixing, 209, 235 (Nitrogen
fixation)
Balance (equipment),
Current, 60 (Ampere)
Spring, 22
Top pan, 225
Balanced equation, 141
Baleen, 270 (Filter-feeding)
Ball-and-socket joints, 280
Barbels, 275
Barbs, 26 7 (feathers)
Barbules, 267 (Feathers)
Barium (Ba), 164, 170, 21 2,
219 (flame tests)
Barium chloride (BaCl 2 ), 218 (Anions)
Bark, 247 (Phellem)
Barometer, 25
Simple, 25
Basal metabolic rate,
332 (Metabolic rate)
Basal rosette, 250
Base (chemistry), 150 (I), 151
Strong, 152
Weak, 152
Base (transistor), 65
Basic, 151 (Base)
Basic copper sulfate
(CuS04 .3Cu(OH)2 ), 175 (Copper)
Basicity, 153
Basic oxygen process, 174 (Steel)
Basic quantities, 96
Basic salt, 154
Basic SI units, 96
Basic zinc chloride (Zn(OH)CI), 154
Bastard wing, 269
c
Cadmium (Cd), 112, 165, 173, 212
Calamine (ZnC0 3), 175 (Zinc)
Calciferol, see Vitamin D
Calcite, 171 (Calcium carbonate)
Calcitonin, see TCT
Calcium (Ca), 164, 170, 171, 207, 211 ,
212, 219 (Flame tests, Cations)
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HC0 3 l,),
171, 207 (Temporary hardness)
Calcium carbonate (CaC0 3),
141 (Trivial name), 153, 171,
179 (Carbonates), 207 (Temporary
hardness), 216 (Carbon dioxide)
Calcium chloride (CaCl 2), 138, 149,
171, 206, 216, 221 (Desiccation)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OHJ,), 171
Calcium metasilicate (CaSi0 3),
177 (Silicates)
Calcium oxide (CaO), 171, 174,
183 (Oxides)
Calcium stearate, 207
Calcium sulfate (CaS0 4 ), 171,
185 (Sulfates)
Anhydrite, 171 (Calcium sulfate)
Calibration, 344
Californium (Cf), 165
Callipers, Vernier slide, 100
Calorific value, 208
Calorimeter, Bomb, 147
Calorimetry, 344
Calyx, 256 (Sepals)
Cambium, 242, 243, 246 (Vascular
cylinder), 247
Cork, see Phellogen
Camera, 54
Candela (cd), 96
Canines (teeth), 285
Capacitance (C), 59, 97
Capacitor, 59, 11 0
Electrolytic, 59, 11 0
Paper, 59
Polyester, 59 (Paper capacitor)
Variable, 59, 110
Capacity,
(electrochemical cells), 69
Heat (C), 31
Specific heat (c), 31, 112
(volume), 101
Capillaries, 288, 292 (Tissue fluid)
Lymph, 293 (Lymph vessels)
Capillarity/Capillary action, 23, 252
Capillary tube, 23i 24, 26 (Liquid-inglass thermometer)
Carapace, 266
Carbohydrates, 204, 209, 254-255, 330,
338, 339
Carbon (CJ, 83, 88 (Background
radiation), 91 (Radiocarbon dating),
127, 138, 148, 165, 174 (Steel),
177, 178, 209, 211 , 212, 214-215,
234, 330
Carbonates, 150 (Acid), 155 (method 2),
179, 211, 218 (Anions)
Carbon cycle, 209, 234
Carbon dating, see Radiocarbon dating
Carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), 133, 140, 148,
150 (Acid), 169, 171, 174, 178,
179, 183 (Oxides), 197, 204, 208,
209 (Photosynthesis), 210, 211, 216,
21 7 (Nitrogen), 218 (Gases, Anions),
234, 254-255, 288, 298-299
Carbon fibers, 179
Carbonic acid (H 2C0 3 ), 179 (Carbon-
dioxide), 21 0 (Acid rain)
Carbon monoxide (CO), 174, 178,
179, 210
Carbon resistor, 62 (Resistor)
Carbonyl group (-CO-), 194 (Ketones),
214 (f), 215 (6)
Carboxyl group (-COOH),
195 (Carboxylic acids),
205 (Amino acids), 214 (g), 215 (7)
Carboxylic acids, 195, 202 (Soap),
205 (Lipids), 215 (7)
Carboxypeptidase, 338 (Pancreatic juice
Cardiac, 290
Cardiac cycle, 291
Cardiac muscte, 282
Cardiac muscle (tissue), 283
Cardiac sphincter, 294, 295
Cardiovascular system, 290 (I)
Carnassial teeth, 270
Carnivores, 234 (Secondary
consumers)
Carotene, 255 (Pigments), 310,
339 (Vitamin Al
Carotid arteries, Common, 290
Carpals, 278, 280
Carpel, 256, 257
Carpus, 278 (Carpals)
Cartilage, 281
Articular, 281 (Cartilage)
Costa), 278 (Rib cage)
Cartilaginous joints, 281 (Cartilage)
Caryopsis, see Grain
Casein, 338 (Gastric juice)
Castes, 342 (Social)
Cast iron, 112, 174 (Iron)
Catabolism, 332
Catadromous, 236 (Anadromous)
Catalysis, 161 (Catalyst)
Catalyst, 161, 333 (Enzymes)
Heterogenous, 161
Homogenous, 161
Surface, 161
Catalytic cracking/Cat cracking,
198 (Cracking)
INDEX
Dry, 69
Electrolytic, 66, 156
Half, 158
Leclanche, 69
Nickel-cadmium, 69 (Alkaline cell)
Primary, 69, 159 (Cell)
Secondary, 69, 159 (Cell)
Simple, 68
Standard, 69
Storage, see Secondary cell
Voltaic, 68 (I)
Cell body, 304, 305
Cell division, 240-241 , 322-323
Cell membrane, 238, 239,. 329
Cell plate, 241 (Cytokinesis)
Cell sap, 238 (Vacuoles), 253 (Turgor)
Cellular respiration, see Internal
respiration
Coefficient of expansion,
Areal (jl), 32
Linear (a), 32
Volume (y), 32
Coefficient of friction (), 7
Coefficient of kinetic friction,
7 (Coefficient of friction)
Coefficient of static friction ,
7 (Coefficient of friction)
Coelom, 265
Co-enzymes, 333 (Enzymes),
339 (Vitamin B complex, Vitamin CJ
Coherent waves, 38 (I)
Cohesion, 23
Coil (electromagnetism), 74
Flaf}Plane, 7 4
Primary, 79
Secondary, 79
Coitus, see Copulation
Coke, 174, 179 (Coal), 208
Coleoptile, 261
Collagen, 280 (Connective tissue),
339 (Vitamin C)
Collarbone, see Clavicle
Collecting duct/tubule, 301
Collector, 65 (Transistor)
Collenchyma, 243 (Cortex)
Collision, 13
Collision theory, 160
Colloid, 145
Colon, 294, 295 (large intestine)
Colonial, 342
Color(s), 54-55
Complementary, 55
Primary, 55
Secondary, 55
Color mixing, 55
Column chromatography, 221
Combustion, 208
Enthalpy change of/Heat of, 146
Rapid, 206
Slow, 208
Commensals, 342
Common bile duct, 296, 297 (Gall bladder)
Common carotid arteries, 2 90
Common hepatic duct, 296, 297 (Liver)
Common iliac arteries, 289
Common iliac veins, 289
Community, 233
Climax, 233 (Ecological succession)
Pioneer, 233
Successional, 233
Commutator, 76
Compact bone, 281
Companion cells, 243 (Phloem)
Compass, Plotting, 72 (Magnetic field
lines)
Compensation points, 255
Complementary colors, 55
Complete metamorphosis, 277
Completion (chemical reaction), 162 (I)
Complex ion, 154 (Complex salt)
Complex salt, i 54
INDEX
"
Decussate, 250
Defecation, 295 (large intestine)
Deflection, Full-scale, 77 (Ammeter)
Deflection system (oscilloscope), 81
Deformation,
Elastic, 23
Plastic, 23 (Yield point)
Dehiscent, 260
Dehydrating agent, 344
Dehydration, 154
Deionized, 207
Deliquescent, 206
Delivery tube, 223
Delocalization, 134, 137 (Giant
metallic lattice)
Demagnetization, 71
Demersal, 342
Dendrites, 304
Dendron, 304 (Dendrites)
Denitrifying bacteria, 209, 2 35
Dens, see Denies
Density (p), 24-25, 97, 112, 113,
212-213
Magnetic flux, 72
Optical, 50 (Snell's law)
Relative, 24
Relative vapor, 143
Surface, of charge, 5 7
Density bottle, 24
Denies (sing. dens),
(teeth), 284 (I)
(vertebrae), 279
Denticles, 266
Dentine, 284
Dentition, 284 (I)
Deciduous, 284 (I)
Permanent, 284 (I)
Deoxygenated, 290 (Atria)
Deoxyribonucleic acid, see DNA
Deoxyribose, 324
Dependent variable, 98
Depolarizing agent,
68 (Polarization)
Depolymerization, 200
Derived quantities, 97
Derived SI units, 97
Dermal papillae (sing. papilla), 310
Dermis, 310, 311
Desalination, 207
Desert (biome), 232
Desiccation, 221
Desiccator, 221 (Desiccation), 223
Destructive distillation of coal,
179 (Coal)
Destructive interference, 39
Detergent(s), 202-203
Biodegradable, 203
Enzyme, see Biological laundry
powders
Non-biodegradable,
203 (Biodegradable detergents)
Soapless/Synthetic, 203
Detergent molecule, 202, 203
Detritus feeders, 342
INDEX
E
Ear(s), 314-315
External, see Outer ear
Inner/Internal, 314, 315
Middle, 314
Outer, 314
Ear canal, 314 (Outer ear)
Eardrum, 314
Early wood, see Spring wood
Ear ossicles, 314 (Middle ear)
Earphone, 75
Ecdysis, 277 (Larva)
Echinoderms, 265 (Coelom), 341
Echo, 41
Echolocation, 41 (Echo)
Echo-sounding, 41 (Echo)
Eclipse, 46
Annular, 46
Lunar, 46 (Eclipse)
Partial, 46
Solar, 46 (Eclipse)
Total, 46
Ecological niche, 233
Ecological succession, 233
Ecology, 232 (I)
Ecosystem, 233, 234 (I)
Ectoplasm, 268
Edaphic factors, 232 (I)
Eddy current, 79
Effectors, 305 (Motor neurons), 308 (I)
Efferent, 308
Efferent arteriole, 301 (Glo~erulus)
Efferent neurons, see Motor neurons
Efferent system, 308-309
Somatic, 308
Visceral, see Autonomic nervous
Efficiency, 20
Efflorescent, 206
Effort, 20 (I)
Egg(s), 276
Cleidoic, 276 (Eggs)
Egg cell, 258 (Ovules), 320 (Gametes),
323 (Gamete production, female)
Einsteinium (Es), 165
Einstein's mass-energy formula, 84
Ejaculation, 316 (Sperm duct),
319 (Copulation)
Elastic, 22 (Elasticity)
Elasticity, 22
Elastic limit, 22
Elastic potential energy, 8
Elastin, 280 (Connective tissue)
Electrical protection, see Sacrificial
protection
Electric bell, 75 (Electric buzzer)
Electric buzzer, 75
Electric charge (Q), 56-59, 97
Electric current (I), 56 (I), 60-64,
96 (Ampere), 159
Electric energy, 9
Electric field, 58 (I), 105, 107
Electric field lines, 107
Electric force, 6, 105, 107
Electricity, 56-69, 74-79
Static, 56-57
Electricity supply, 61
Electric meters, 77
Electric motor, 76
Electric wind, 57 (Point action)
Electrochemical cell, see Cell
(electrochemistry)
.( ,
Electrochemical equivalent,
67 (Faraday's laws of electrolysis)
Electrochemical series, 159
Electrode, 66, 156
Active, 66 (Electrode), 156
Hydrogen, 158
Inert, 66 (Electrode), 156
Platinum, 158
Electrodeposition, see Electroplating
Electrode potential (E), 158
Electrolysis, 66-67, 156-157
Faraday's laws of (First, Second),
67, 157
Ionic theory of, 66, 156
Electrolyte, 66, 156
Electrolytic capacitor, 59, 11 0
Electrolytic cell, 66, 156
Electromagnetic energy, 9 (Electric
energy)
Electromagnetic force, 6
Electromagnetic induction, 78-79
Electromagnetic potential energy, 8
Electromagnetic spectrum, 44, 113
Electromagnetic waves, 34 (I), 44-45
Electromagnetism, 74-76
Electromagnets, 75-76
Electromotive force (e.m.f.), 60, 159
Electron(s), 80-8 1, 83, 86 (Beta
' particles), 87 (Beta decay), 88-90,
11 3, 126, 128 (Beta particle)
Valency, 130
Electron config~ration, 127
Electronegativity, 133
Electron gun, 80
Electron multiplier, 90
Electron pairs, 132 (I)
Electron shells, 83, 126
Electron tube, 80 (I)
Electron volt (eV), 84
Electrophorus, 57
Electroplating, 67, 157
Electropositive, 133 (Electronegativity)
Electro-refining, 67, 157
Electroscope, 56
Condensing, 56 (Electroscope)
Gold leaf, 56 (Electroscope)
Pulse (Wulf), 89
Electrostatic force see Electric force
Electrostatic induction, 5 7
Electrostatics, First law of, 56
Electrovalency, 131
Element(s), 4, 122, 164-165, 212-21 3
Trace, 331 (Minerals)
Eluent, 221 (Chromatography)
Elytra (sing. elytron), 266
Embryo, 260 (I), 276,
3 19 (Fertilization), 320
Embryo sac, 258 (Ovules),
323 (Gamete production, fe male)
E.m.f., see Electromotive force
Emitter, 65 (Transistor)
Empirical formula, 140
Emulsification; 338 (Bile)
Emulsion, 145
INDEX
Error(s), 102-103
Parallax, 102
Reading, 1 03
Zero, 102
Erythrocytes, see Red blood cells
Escape velocity, 19
Esophagus, 294, 295
Esterification reaction,
197 (Condensation reaction)
Esters, 195, 197 (Condensation
reaction)
Estrogen, 336, 337 (FSH, lH)Ethanal
(CH 3 CHO), 2 15 (5)
Ethane (C 2 H6 ), 192, 193, 2 14 (1)
Ethane-1,2-diol, 197
Ethanedioic acid ((COOH),J, 150, 195
Ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH), 150, 15 1,
195, 197, 215 (7)
F
Face-centered cubic (particle
arrangement), 137
Facet,
(bones), 279
(compound eyes), 275
Facial bones, 278 (Cranium)
Fahrenheit scale, 27
Fallopian tubes, 3 77, 319 (Fertilization)
False fruit, 262 (I)
False ribs, 278 (Rib cage)
Families, 340 (I)
Farad (F), 59, 97
Faraday (F), 157
Faraday's constant, 11 3
Faraday's iron ring, 78 (Mutual induction)
Faraday's law of induction, 78
Faraday's laws of electrolysis (First,
Second), 67, 157
Fascicles,
(muscles), 283 (Striated muscle)
(nerves), 306
Fast reactor/Fast breeder reactor (FBR), 95
Fats, 204 (1), 205 (Lipids), 293 (lymph),
295 (Small intestine), 330, 331, 338
Fatty acids, 330 (Fats), 338 (I, Pancreatic
juice)
Feather(s), 267
Contour, 267 (Feathers)
Down, 267
Flight, see Remiges
Primary, 267 (Remiges)
Secondary, 267 (Remiges)
Feather follicles, 26 7
Feces, 295 (large intestine)
Feedback, 335 (Homeostasis)
Negative, 335 (Homeostasis)
Feedstocks, Chemical, 199
Femoral arteries, 289
Femoral veins, 289
Femur, 278, 280, 28 1
Fenestra ovalis, see Oval window
Fenestra rotunda, see Round window
Fermentation, Alcoholic, 197
Fermium (Fm), 165
Ferric compounds, see lron(lll)
compounds
Ferromagnetic, 70
Force(s) (cont' d)
Static frictional , 7
Tension, 7
Turning, 14-15
Van der Waals', 134
Force field, 6, 104-107
Forced oscillation, 17
Foreskin, 3 76
Forest (biomes),
Coniferous, 232
Deciduous, 232
Tropical, 232
Formaldehyde, see Methanal
Formalin, 194
Formation, Enthalpy change of/
Heat of, 147
Former (electromagnets), 74 (Coil)
Formic acid, see Methanoic acid
Formula (pl. formulas) , 140, 226-227
3-dimensional structural, see
Stereochemical formula
Displayed, 140
Einstein's mass-energy, 84
Empirical, 140
Full structural, see Displayed formula
General, 191 (Homologous series)
Lens/mirror, 49
Molecular, 140
Shortened structural, 140
Stereochemical, 140,
191 (Stereochemistry)
Formula mass, Relative/Formula weight,
see Relative
molecular mass
Forward biased, 65 (Diode)
Forward reaction, 162
Fossil fuels, 208 (Fuel), 234
Fovea/fovea centralis, 313 (Macula
lutea)
Fractional distillation, 220
Fractional distillation of liquid air,
180 (Nitrogen), 183 (Oxygen),
189 (I), 208 (I)
Fractional distillation of petroleum, see
Primary distillation
Fractionating column, 183,
198 (Primary distillation),
220 (Fractional distillation), 224
Fractions (petroleum distillation), 198
Heavy, 198 (Fraction)
Light, 198 (Fraction)
Fractions (units), 96
Francium (Fr), 164, 168, 212
Frasch process, 184
Free fall, 19
Free oscillation, see Natural oscillation
Freezing, 30, 121
Freezing point, 30 (Freezing),
121 (Freezing)
Freon (CCl 2 F2 ), 195
Frequency (f), 16, 35, 97
Beat, 42 (Beats)
Fundamental, 43 (Modes of vibration)
Natural, 17 (Natural oscillation)
INDEX
Tap, 224
Thistle, 224
Fuse (electric), 61
Fusion (change of state), 121
Molar enthalpy change of/Molar heat
of, 146 (Enthalpy change of
reaction), 147
Specific latent heat of, 31, 112,
146 (Enthalpy change of reaction)
Fusion, Nuclear, 85, 93, 94 (Fusion
reactor), 129
Fusion (reproduction), 320 (Sexual
reproduction)
Fusion bomb, 93
Fusion reactor, 94
G
Gadolinium (Gd), 165, 212
Gain (oscilloscope control), 81
Galactose, 338 (Intestinal juice),
339 (Monosaccharides)
Galena (PbS), 177 (Lead)
Gall bladder, 297, 337 (CCK)
Gland(s) (cont'd)
Silk, 265
Sublingual, 296
Submandibular/Submaxillary, 296
Sudoriferous, see Sweat glands
Suprarenal, see Adrenal glands
Sweat, 311
Tear, see Lachrymal glands
Thymus, 293
Thyroid, 297, 337 (TSH, Thyroxin, TCT)
Uropygial, 267 (Uropygium)
Glans, 316
Glia, see Neuroglia
Gliding joints, 280
Glomerular filtrate, 301 (Glomerular
filtration)
Glomer_ular filtration , 301
Glomerulus, 301
Glottis, 298 (Larynx)
. Glucagon, 336
Glucose (C6 H120 6 ), 197 (Alcoholic
fermentation), 204, ~09,
330 (Carbohydrates), 331,
334 (Anaerobic respiration),
338 (Intestinal juice),
339 (Monosaccharides), 344
Glycerine/Glycerol,
(biology), 330 (Fats),
' 338 (I, Pancreatic juice)
(chemistry), see Propane-1 ,2,3-triol
Glycine, 205
Glycogen, 204 (Glucose), 331,
338 (Saliva), 339 (Polysaccharides)
Glycolysis, 334 (Anaerobic respiration)
Gold (Au), 112, 165, 173, 175, 212
Gold leaf electroscope,
56 (Electroscope)
Golgi complex/apparatus/body, 239
Gonadal arteries, 289
Gonadal veins, 289
Gonads, 316 (I)
Graafian follicle, 317 (Ovarian follicles),
31 8 (Menstrual cycle)
Gradient,
(graphs), 98
Potential, 58 (Potential)
Temperature, 28 (Conductivity)
Graduations, 345
Grafting, 263
Graham's law of diffusion, 5, 143
Grain, 262
Granular layer, see Stratum granulosum
Graphite, 95 (Thermal reactor), 178, 212
Graphs, 98-99
Grassland (biome), 232
Temperate, 232
Gravimetric analysis, 222
Gravitation, 18-19
Newton's law of, 18
Gravitational constant (G), 18 (Newton's
law of gravitation), 113
Gravitational field, 104, 106
Gravitational field lines, 106
Gravitational force, 6, 104, 106
H
Haber process, 180
Habitat, 233
Hafnium (Hf), 165, 173, 212
Hair(s), 268 (Cilia), 274 (Vibrissae),
310-311 , 325, 326
Olfactory, 307 (Nose)
Pubic, 318
Root, 245
Hair erector muscles, 311
Hair follicles, 311
Hair plexuses, 311
Half cell, 158
Half-life (T1/2), 87, 129
Half-wave rectification, 65
Halides, 186 (I)
Alkyl, see Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes, 195, 215 (9)
Halogens, 165, 186-188, 214 (I), 215 (9)
Halophytes, 342
Halteres, 275
Hammer, see Malleus
Haploid number, 322 (Meiosis), 326 UJ
Haptotropism, 251
Hard (magnets), 70
Hard palate, 307
Hard water, 207
' Harmonics, 43.
Haustra (sing. haustrum), 294
Haversian canals, 281 (Compact bone)
H-bomb, see Hydrogen bomb
Heart, 288, 289, 290-291
Heartwood, 243 (Xylem), 247
Heat, see Heat energy
Latent (l), 30, 31, 146 (Enthalpy
change of reaction)
Specific latent (I), 30
Heat capacity (CJ, 31
Specific (c), 31, 112
Heat energy, 9, 28-33
Radiant, 29 (Radiation)
Heat-losing center, 335 (Homeostasis)
Heat of combustion, see Enthalpy
change of combustion
Heat of formation, see Enthalpy change
of formation
Heat of fusion,
Molar, see Molar enthalpy change
of fusion
Specific latent, 31, 112,
146 (Enthalpy change of reaction)
Heat of neutralization, see Enthalpy
change of neutralization
Heat of reaction, see Enthalpy change
of reaction
Heat of solution, see Enthalpy change
of solution
Heat of vaporization,
Molar, see Molar enthalpy change
' of vaporization
Specific latent, 31, 146 (Enthalpy
change of reaction)
Heat-promoting center,
335 (Homeostasis)
Heat transfer, 28-31
Heavy (precipitate), 145
Heavy fractions, 198 (Fraction)
Heavy water, see Deuterium oxide
Heliotropism, 251 (Phototropism)
Helium (He), 93, 128 (Alpha particle),
165, 189, 212
Hematite (Fe 20 3), 174 (Iron)
Hemocoel, 265
Hemoglobin, 286 (Red blood cells)
Hemopoiesis, 286 (I)
Henle; Loop of, 301 (Uriniferous
tubules)
Hepatic artery, 289
Hepatic duct(s),
Common, 296, 297 (Liver)
Left, 296
Right, 296
Hepatic portal vein, 289, 297 (Liver)
Hepatic vein, 289
INDEX
Hormone(s) (cont'd)
Somatotropic, see STH
Thyroid-stimulating, see TSH
Tropic, 297 (Pituitary gland)
Horny layer, see Stratum corneum
Hosts, 342 (Parasites)
Human growth hormone, see STH
Humans, 278-319, 341
Humerus, 278, 282
Humidity, 206
Humor (Aqueous, Vitreous), 312
Hydathodes, 253 (Guttation)
Hydrate, 154
Hydrated, 154 (Hydrate)
Hydrated iron(lll) oxide, see Rust
Hydration, 144 (Solvation)
Hydraulic press, 21
Hydrides, 149 (rule 5), 167 (I)
Hydrocarbons, 191
Hydrocarbon waxes, 199
Hydrochloric acid (HCI), 143, 154,
170, 171, 187 (Hydrogen chloride),
216 (Carbon dioxide, Chlorine),
217 (Hydrogen), 218 (Anions),
222 (Flame test), 338 (Gastric juice)
Hydrocortisone, 336
Hydrogen (H/H 2 ), 94 (Fusion reactor),
132, 133, 134 (Hydrogen bond),
150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 164, 167,
170, 180 (Haber process), 211, 212,
214-215, 217, 218 (Gases), 330
Hydrogenation, 193
Hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), see Fusion
bomb
Hydrogen bond, 134
Hydrogen bromide (HBr), 188
Hydrogencarbonates, see Bicarbonates
Hydrogen chloride (HCI), 130, 133,
143, 146, 148, 150, 162, 181, 187,
192, 216 (Chlorine)
Hydrogen iodide (HI), 188
Hydrogen peroxide (H 20 2 ), 167,
217 (Oxygen)
Hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), 148, 185
Hydroiodic acid, 188 (Hydrogen iodide)
Hydrolysis, 154
Hydrometer, 24
Hydronium ion (H 30+), 150, 152, 167
Hydrophilic, 202 (Detergent molecule)
Hydrophobic, 202 (Detergent molecule)
Hydrophytes, 342
Hydrostatic skeleton, 265 (Body
cavities)
Hydrotropism, 251
Hydroxides, 151, 152, 155, 167, 211
Hydroxyl group (-OH),
191 (Homologous series), 196 (I),
214 (d and 4)
Hygroscopic, 206
Hymen, 317
Hypertonic, 329
Hypogeal, 260
Hypogynous flower, 257
Hyponome, 272 (Siphon), 274
Hypopharynx, 277
Hypophysis, see Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus, 303,
335 (Homeostasis),
336 (Hormones),
337 (Oxytocin, ADH)
Hypotonic, 329
J
Jar(s) (apparatus),
Gas, 224
Leyden, 59
Jejunum, 294, 295 (Small intestine)
Jet engine, 13
Joints, 280-281
Ball-and-socket, 280
Cartilaginous, 281 (Cartilage)
Fixed, 280 (I)
Gliding, 280
Hinge, 280
Pivot, 279 (Vertebral structure)
Plane/Sliding, see Gliding joints
Synovial, 280 (Synovial sac)
Joule (]), 8 (I), 97
Jugular veins (External, internal), 290
INDEX
Juice,
Digestive, 296 (Digestive
glands), 338
Gastric, 337 (Gastrin), 338
Intestinal, 337 (Enterocrinin), 338 .
Pancreatic, 297 (Pancreas),
336 (Secretin, PZ), 338
K
Karyokinesis, 240 (Cell division)
Karyolymph, see Nucleoplasm
K.E., see Kinetic energy
Keel,
(animals), 269 (Pectoralis muscles)
(plants), 259 (Pea flower)
Keepers (magnets), 71 (Selfdemagnetization)
Kelvins (K), 27 (Absolute temperature
scale), 96, 143 (Absolute
temperature scale)
Keratin, 267 (Feathers), 310 (Stratum
corneum), 311 (Hair follicles)
Kernel, see Grain
Kerosene, 199
Ketones, 194, 215 (6)
Key fruits, see Samara
Kidneys, 288, 289, 300
Kilogram (kg), 96
Kilojoule (k)), 146, 333
Kinematics, 10 (I)
Kinetic energy (K.E.), 9
Kinetic friction, Coefficient of,
7 (Coefficient of friction)
Kinetic frictional force, 7
Kinetic theory, 5, 123
Kingdoms, 340 (I)
Animal, 340, 341
Plant, 340, 341
Kirchhoff's laws, 63
Kneecap, see Patella
Krill, 270 (Filter-feeding)
Krypton (Kr), 165, 189, 212
Krypton fluoride (KrF2 ), 189 (Krypton)
K-shell, 83 (Electron shells)
L
Labeling, 91 (Radioactive
tracing), 129
Labia (sing. labium),
(humans), 317 (Vulva)
(insects), 271
Labor, 319 (Pregnancy)
Labrum, 271
Lachrymal canals, 313 (lachrymal
glands)
Lachrymal ducts, 313 (lachrymal
glands)
Lachrymal glands, 313
..:.
Lens(es), 52 (I)
Achromatic, 54 (Spectrometer),
55 (Chromatic aberration)
Concave, 52, 53
Converging, 52
Convex, 52, 53
Diverging, 53
(eye), 312
Eyepiece, 54, 55
Objective, 54; 55
Projection, 55
Lens assembly (camera), 54
Lens formula, see Mirror formula
Lenticels, 247
Lenz's law, 78
Leslie's cube, 29
Leucocytes, see White blood cells
Leucoplasts, 240 (Plastids)
Lever, 21
Leyden jar, 59
LH, 336
LHRF/LH releasing factor,
336 (Regulating factors)
Lichens, 342 (Mutualists)
Lieberkiihn, Crypts of, see Intestinal
glands
Liebig condenser, 220, 223
Life cycle, 236 (I)
Lifting magnet, 75
Ligament(s), 280
Ovarian, 317
Periodontal, 284 (Root)
Suspensory, 312 (lens)
Light, 46-55
Laws of reflection of, 47
Laws of refraction of, 50
Principle of reversibility of, 49, 50
Reflection of, 47-49
Speed of, 113
Visible, 45, 54-55 (Color), 113
Light dependent resistor (symbol
for), 110
Light emitting diode (LED), 65, 110
Light fractions (petroleu m),
198 (Fraction)
Lightning, 57
Lightning conductor, 57 (Lightning)
Lignin, 243 (Vessels)
Lignite, 179 (Coal)
Limestone, 171 (Calcium
carbonate), 174
Limewater, 171 (Calcium hydroxide),
218 (Gases)
Limit,
Elastic, 22
Proportional, see Limit of
proportionality
Limiting force, 7 (Static frictional force)
Limit of proportionality, 22 (Hooke's
law), 23
Linear (molecule), 133
Linear acceleration, 14 (I)
Linear coefficient of expansion (a),
32, 112
Linear equilibrium, 15
Linear magnification, 49
Linear momentum, Law of
conservation of, 13
Linear motion, 10
Lines of flux/force, see Field lines
Lingual, 307
Lingual tonsil, 293 (Tonsils)
Lipase(s), 338 (I)
Gastric, 338 (Gastric juice)
Pancreatic, 338 (Pancreatic juice)
Lipids, 205
Lipped flower, 259
Liquefaction, 121
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
199 (Refinery gas)
Liquid air, Fractional distillation of,
180 (Nitrogen), 183 (Oxygen),
189 (I), 208 (I)
Liquid-in-glass thermometer, 26
Liquid nitrogen, 180 (Nitrogen)
Liquid state, 5, 120
Liter (I), 101
Lithium (Li), 164, 168, 180, 212,
219 (Flame tests)
Lithium chloride (LiCI), 168 (Lithium)
Lithium hydroxide (LiOH), 168
Lithium nitride (Li 3 N), 1BO
Lithophytes, 342
Litmus, 152
Littoral, 342
Liver, 289, 294 (I), 297
Load, 20 (I)
Useless, 20
Lobe(s),
Anterior (pituitary gland), 297
(leaves), 250 (lobed)
(liver), 296, 297
Posterior (pituitary gland), 297
Lobed (leaves), 250
Local action, 68
Locomotion, 268 (I)
Locus; 325
Logic gates, 111
Lone pair (electrons), 133
Longitudinal waves, 35
Long-night plants,
251 (Photoperiodism)
Long periods (element groups),
164 (Period)
Loop of Henle, 301 (Uriniferous tubules)
Lorentz force, 76, 77
Loudness, 42
Loudspeaker, 76, 110
Lower animal, 264 (I)
Lower fixed point, 26 (Fixed point)
Lower motor neuron, 308, 309
L-shell, 83 (Electron shells)
Lubricating oil, 199
Lumbar, 278 (Lumbar vertebrae)
Lumbar vertebrae, 278
Luminous flame, 208
Luminous intensity, 96
Lunar eclipse, 46 (Eclipse)
M
Machine(s), 20-21
Perfect, 20
Macrohabitat, 232 (Biomes)
Macromolecule, 125
Macrophages (Fixed, Wandering),
286 (White blood cells)
Macula (pl. maculae), 315 (Saccule)
Macula lutea, 313
Maggot, 277 (larva)
Maglev train, 75
Magnesium (Mg), 112, 130, 148,
149, 164, 170, 207, 211, 213,
21 9 (Cations)
Magnesium carbonate (MgC0 3 ), 155
Magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ), 755,
170 (Magnesium), 171
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)i),
151, 171
Magnesium oxide (MgO), 149,
170, 171
Magnesium stearate, 207
Magnesium .sulfate (MgS04 ),
150, 171
Magnet(s), 70-79
Lifting, 75
Molecular, see Dipoles
Per,;.,anent, 70 (Hard)
Temporary, 70 (Soft)
Magnetic, 70 (I)
Magnetic axis, 70
Magnetic energy, 9
Magnetic equator, 73
Magnetic field(s), 72-73, 105, 107
Radial, 76 (loudspeaker)
Magnetic field lines/flux lines, 72, 1 07
INDEX
Membrane(s) (cont'd)
Synovial, 280 (Synovial sac)
Tectorial, 314 (Cochlear duct)
Tympanic, see Eardrum
Membranous labyrinth, 314 (Inner ear)
Memory (computers), 111
Random access (RAM), 111 (Memory)
Read only (ROM), 111 (Memory)
Menaquinone, see Vitamin K
Mendelevium (Md), 165
Mendel's laws, 326
Meninges (sing. meninx), 303
Meniscus, 345
Concave, 53 (Concave lens)
Convex, 53 (Convex lens)
Menopause, 318 (Menstrual cycle)
Menstrual cycle, 318, 337 (FSH,
Estrogen)
Menstruation, 318 (Menstrual cycle)
Mercury (Hg), 112, 113, 165, 173,
210, 213
Meridian, Magnetic, 73
Meristem, 244
Apical, 244 (Meristem)
Mesencephalon, see Midbrain
Mesenteric arteries (Inferior,
Superior), 289
Mesenteric veins (Inferior, Superior), 289
Mesenteries, 294 (Alimentary canal)
Mesocarp, 262 (I)
Mesophyll, 248 (Spongy layer)
Mesophytes, 342
Messenger RNA, 239 (Ribosomes)
Metabolic rate, 332
Basal, 332 (Metabolic rate)
Metabolism, 332
Metacarpals, 278
Metacarpus, 278 (Metacarpals)
Metal(s), 165
Alkali, 1 65, 168-169
Alkaline-earth, 165, 170-171
Transition, 165, 172-175
Metal extraction, 67, 157
Metallic bonding, 134
Metallic lattice, Giant, 137
Metalloids, 165 (Metal)
Metameres, 264 (Segmentation)
Metameric segmentation/Metemerism,
264 (Segmentation)
Metamorphosis (Complete, Incomplete),
277
Metaphase,
(meiosis), 322
(mitosis), 241
Metatarsals, 278
Metatarsus, 2 78 (Metatarsals)
Meter (m), 96
Newton (Nm), 14 (Moment)
Meter bridge, 63 (Wheatstone bridge)
Meter(s) (electric), 77
Moving iron, 77
Methanal (HCHO), 194
Methane (CH 4 ), 125, 133, 190, 191, 192,
198 (I), 208, 214 (1)
Motion (cont'd)
Translational, 10 (I)
Uniform circular, 17 (Circular motion)
Wave, 34 (I)
Motor (electric), 76
Motor areas, 302 (Brain), 303
Motor end-plate, 283
Motor nerves, 306 (Nerves)
Motor neuron(s), 305, 308 (Efferent
system)
Lower, 308, 309
Postganglionic, 309
Preganglionic, 309
Upper, 308, 309
Motor root, see Ventral root
Moving coil galvanometer,
77 (Galvanometer)
Moving iron meter, 77
mRNA, see Messenger RNA
M-shell, 83 (Electron shells)
Mucosa, see Mucous membrane
Mucous glands, 295 (Mucous
membrane)
Mucous membrane, 295
Mucus, 295 (Mucous membrane)
Multicellular, 238 (I)
Multimeter, 77
Multiple(s) (un its), 96
Multiple proportions, Law of, 125
Multiplier, 77 (Voltmeter)
Electron, 90
Mumetal, 73
Muscle(s), 282-283
Cardiac, 282
Extrinsic eye, 313
Hair erector, 311
lntercostal, 299 (Inspiration)
Intrinsic eye, 3 12 (Ciliary body)
Involuntary, 282 (I, Cardiac muscle,
Visceral muscles)
Oblique, 31 3
Pectoralis, 269
Rectus, 313
Skeletal, 282, 308
Visceral, 282
Voluntary, 282 (I, Skeletal muscles)
Muscle fibers, 283 (Striated muscle)
Muscle spindle, 283
Muscle (tissue), 283
Cardiac, 283
Smooth, 283
Striated/Striped, 283
Visceral, see Smooth muscle
Musical scale, 43 (Musical sounds)
Musical sounds, 43
Mutual induction, 78
Mutualists, 342
M-value, 1 39 (Mofarity)
Mycelium, 32 1
Myelin, 302 (Neuroglia), 304 (Nerve
fibers)
Myofibrils, see Fibrils
Myofilaments, see Filaments (muscles)
Myosin, 205, 283 (Striated muscle)
INDEX
N
NAND (logic operation), 11 0, 111
Naptha, 199 (Chemical feedstocks)
Nasal, 307
Nasal cavities, 294 (Pharynx),
307 (Nose)
Nasolachrymal duct, 313 (lachrymal
glands)
Natural frequency , 17 (Natural
oscillation)
Natural gas, 192 (Methane, Ethane),
198 (I), 208
Natural oscillation, 17
Natural period, 17 (Natural oscillation)
Natural polymers, 201, 204 (Starch),
205 (Proteins)
Natural resins, 345 (Resins)
Natural selection, 237 (Genetic
variation)
Neck (bones of), 278
Neck (teeth), 284
Nectar, 256 (Nectaries)
Nectaries, 256
Negative feedback, 335 (Homeostasis)
Negative terminal, 159 (Cell)
Negative tropism, 251 (I)
Nekton, 342 (Pelagic)
Nematocyst, 270 (Cnidoblasts)
Nematodes, 341
Neodymium (Nd), 164, 213
Neon (Ne), 165, 189, 213
Nephridia, 265 (Coelom), 273
Nephridiopore, 265, 273 (Nephridia)
Nephrons, 301
Neptunium (Np), 164, 213
Nerve(s), 306
Cranial, 302 (Brain)
Mixed, 306 (Nerves)
Motor, 306 (Nerves)
Optic, 312, 313
Sensory, 306 (Nerves)
Spinal, 302 (Spinal cord)
Nerve fibers, 304
Nervous system, 302-309
Autonomic, 303 (Hypothalamus),
308
Central, 302-303
Peripheral, 304 (1), 306 (I)
Neural canal, 279 (Vertebrae)
Neural pathways, 306, 308, 309
Neural spine, see Spinous process
Neuroglia, 302
Neurohypophysis, see Posterior lobe
Neuron(s), 304 (I)
Afferent, see Sensory neurons
Association/Connecting, 305
Efferent, see Motor neurons
First order sensory, 306, 309
lnternuncial, see Association neurons
Lower motor, 308, 309
Motor, 305, 308 (Efferent system)
Postganglionic motor, 309
Neuron(s) (cont'd)
Preganglionic motor, 309
Relay, see Association neurons
Second order sensory, 306, 309
Sensory, 305, 306 (Afferent system)
Third order sensory, 306
Upper motor, 308, 309
Neurotransmitters, 305 (Synapses),
339 (Vitamin B complex)
Neutral (substance), 151
Neutral (wires), 61
Neutral equilibrium, 15
Neutralization, 151
Enthalpy change of/ Heat of, 146
Neutral point, 72
Neutrino, 87 (Beta decay)
Neutron number (N), 82
Neutrons, 82, 113, 126
Fission, 92 (Nuclear fission )
Newton (NJ, 6, 97
Newton meter (Nm), 14 (Moment)
Newton's law of gravitation, 18
Newton's laws of motion, 12-13
Niacin, 339 (Vitamin B complex)
Niche, Ecological, 233
Nickel (Ni), 112, 165, 172, 213
Nickel-cadmium cell, 69 (Alkaline cell)
Nickel sulfide (NiS), 172 (Nickel)
Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid,
see Niacin
Night-neutral plants,
251 (Photoperiodism)
Niobium (Nb), 165, 173, 213
Nitrate bacteria, 235
Nitrates/Nitrate(V) compounds, 155,
182, 209, 21 O (Eutrophication),
211, 218 (Anions), 235
Nitric acid (HN0 3 J, 178, 181 (Nitrogen
dioxide), 182, 21 0 (Acid rain),
218 (Anions)
Nitric(V) acid, see Nitric acid
Nitric oxide, see Nitrogen monoxide
Nitrides, 180 (Nitrogen)
Nitrifying bacteria, 235
Nitrites/ Nitrate(lll) compounds, 182,
210 (Eutrophication), 211, 235
Nitrogen (N/ N 2 ), 132, 165, 180,
183, 208, 209 (Nitrogen cycle),
210 (Acid rain), 213, 217, 235, 330
liquid, 180 (Nitrogen)
Nitrogen base, 324
Nitrogen cycle, 209, 235
Nitrogen dioxide (N02 ), 125, 162, 178,
181, 182, 210, 211
Nitrogen fixation, 235
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 209,
235 (Nitrogen fixation )
Nitrogen monoxide (NO), 162,
181 , 182
Nitrogenous, 300 (Urea)
Nitrogen oxide, see Nitrogen monoxide
Nitrous acid (HN0 2 ), 181 (Nitrogen
dioxide)
Nitrous oxide, see Dinitrogen oxide
Objective lens,
(microscope), 54
(telesco pe), 55
Oblique muscles, 313
Octadecanoic acid (C17 H35 COOH),
202 (Soap), 205
Octan-3-ol, 2 15 (4b)
Octane rating, 199 ..
Octet, 83 (Electron shells), 127
Oddi, Sphincter of, 296, 337 (CCK)
Odontoid process, see
Dentes (Vertebrae)
Ohm (0 ), 62 (Resistance), 97
Ohm's law, 62
Oil(s),
Crude, see Petroleum
Diesel, 199
(food), 205 (Lipids)
Fuel, 199 (Residue)
Gas, see Diesel oil
Lubricating, 199
Olefins, see Alkenes
Oleum, see Fuming sulfuric acid
Olfactory area, Primary, 303
Olfactory bulb, 307
Olfactory cells, 307 (Nose)
Olfactory hairs, 307 (Nose)
Olfactory sensations, 307 (Nose)
Omasum, 271 (Rumen)
p
Pacinian corpuscles, 311
P.ain receptors, 311
Paired fins, 269
Palate,
Hard, 307
Soft, 294 (Pharynx), 307
Palatine tonsils, 293 (Tonsils)
INDEX
Parallax, 47
Parallax error, 102
Parallel (components), 64
Parallelogram rule, 108
Paramagnetism, 72
Paramecium, 268, 273
Parapodia (sing. parapodium), 268
Parasites, 342
Parasympathetic division (nervous
system), 308
Parathormone/Parathyrin, see PTH
Parathyroid glands, 297, 337 (PTH)
Parathyroid hormone, see PTH
Parenchyma, 243 (Cortex)
Parent cell, 240 (Cell division)
Parking orbit, see Geo-stationary orbit
Parotid gland, 296
Partial eclipse, 46
Partial pressure(s), 143
Dalton's law of, 143
Particle accelerators, 86 (Radioisotope)
Parturition, 319 (Pregnancy)
Pascal (Pa), 25, 97
Passage cells, 243 (Endodermis)
Patella, 278, 280, 28.1
P.E. see Potential energy
Pea flower, 259
Peaks (waves), see Crests
Pectoral fins, 269 (Paired fins)
Pectoralis muscles, 269
Pedicles, 279
Peduncle, 256 (Receptacle)
Pelagic, 342
Pelvic fins, 269 (Paired fins)
Pelvic girdle, see Pelvis (skeleton)
Pelvis,
Renal (kidneys), 300
(skeleton), 278
Penis, 316, 319 (Copulation)
Pent-1-ene (C5 H10), 193
306 (I)
Peristalsis, 295
Peritoneum, 265 (Coelom),
294 (Alimentary canal)
Perivisceral cavity, 265 (Body cavities),
294 (Alimentary canal)
Permanent dentition, 284 (I)
Permanent hardness (water), 207
Permanent magnets, 70 (Hard)
Permanent teeth, 284 (I)
Permeability, 73
Peroxides, 149 (rule 4)
Petals, 256,
Wing, 259 (Pea flower)
Petiole, 248
Petroleum, 198-199, 208, 209,
Fractional distillation of, see Primary
distillation
pH, 152, 210 (Acid rain)
Phagocytosis, 268 (Pseudopodium)
Phalanges (sing. phalanx), 278
Pharming, 327
Pharyngeal tonsil, 293 (Tonsils)
Pharynx, 294
Phase (cardiac cycle),
Diastole, 291
Systole, 291
Phase (cell division),
(meiosis), 322-323
(mitosis), 241
Pitch,
(mechanical), 21 (Screw jack)
(sound), 43
Pith, 243
Pituitary gland/body, 297, 303,
336 (Hormones), 337
Pivot joint, 279 (Vertebral structure)
Pixels, 81
Placenta,
(humans), 3 19, 337 (Estrogen)
(plants), 257 (Ovaries)
Placoid scales, see Denticles
Planck's constant, 84
Plane coil, see Flat coil
Plane joints, see Gliding joints
Plane mirror, 4 7
Plankton, 270 (Filter-feeding), 272 (Gill
rakers), 342
Piano-concave, 53
Piano-convex, 53
Plant(s), 242-263, 340 (I)
Leguminous, 235 (Nitrogen fixation)
Long-night, 251 (Photoperiodism)
- Night-neutral, 251 (Photoperiodism)
Short-night, 251 (Photoperiodism)
Vascular, 242-243
Woody, 246 (I)
Plantigrade, 269
Plasma, 286
Plasmalemma/Plasma membrane, see
Cell membrane
Plasmids, 327 (Gene cloning)
Plasmolysis, 253
Plastie (quality), 22 (Elasticity)
Plastic(s) (substan ces), 201
Thermosetting, 200, 201 (Plastics)
Plastic deformation, 23 (Yield point)
Plastic sulfur, 184
Plastids, 238, 240
Platelets, 286
Platinum (Pt), 112, 165, 173, 182, 213,
222 (Flame test)
Platinum electrode, 158
Pleura, 298
Pleural cavity, 298 (Pleura)
Pleural fluid, 298 (Pleura)
Pleural membrane, see Pleura
Pleural sac, 298 (Pleura)
Plexuses (Hair/Root hair), 311
Plotting compass, 72 (Magnetic field
lines)
Plumage, 267 (Feathers)
Plumbic compounds, see Lead(IV)
compounds
Plumbous compounds, see Lead(ll)
compounds
Plumule(s),
(birds), see Down feathers
(plants), 261
Plutonium (Pu), 92 (Induced fission) ,
95 (Fast reactor), 128, 164, 213
Pnp transistor, 65, 11 0
Pod, see Legume
Poikilothermic, 335 (Homeostasis)
Point(s),
Antinodal, see Antinodes
Boiling, 30 (Vaporization), 31,
121 (Boiling), 212, 213
Compensation, 255
End, 222 (Volumetric analysis)
Fixed (lower, Upper), 26
Focal, see Principal focus
Fretlzing, 30 (Freezing),
121 (Freezing)
Growing (roots), 245
Ice, 26 (Fixed point)
Melting, 30 (Melting), 31,
120 (Melting), 212, 213
Neutral, 72
Nodal, see Nodes
Steam, 26 (Fixed point)
Triple, 96 (Kelvin)
Yield, 23
Point action, 57
Point of incidence, 47, 50
Polar bodies, 323 (Gamete production,
female)
Polar bond, 133
Polarization (bonding), 133 (Polar bond)
Polarization (cell s), 68
Polar molecule, 133
Polar solvent, 144
Pole(s) (magnets), 70
Consequent, 71
North/North seeking, 70 (Pole)
South/South seeking, 70 (Pole)
Pole(s) (mirrors), 48
Pollen, 257 (Stamens), 258,
323 (Gamete production, male)
Pollen sacs, 257 (Stamens)
Pollen tube, 258 (Pollination)
Pollination, 258
Cross, 259
Self, 259
Pollutants, 210 (I)
Pollution, 210
Thermal, 210
Polonium (Po), 87, 165, 183, 213
Poly((l-methoxycarbonyl)-1methylethene), see Acrylic
Polyamides, 201
Polyatomic, 124
Poly(chloroethene), see Polyvinyl
chloride
Polyesters, 201
Polyester capacitor, 59 (Paper
capacitor)
Poly(ethene), see Polythene
Poly(ethylene), see Polythene
Polyhydric alcohols, 197
Polymerization, 200
Addition, 200
Condensation, 200
Polymers, 200-201
Man-made, see Synthetic polymers
Natural, 201 , 204 (Starch),
205 (Proteins)
Synthetic, 200, 201
INDEX
Propene (C 3 H6 ), 193, 2 74
Properties,
Chemical, 119
Molecular, 22-23
Physical, 118, 119, 212-213
Qualitative, 119
Quantitative, 119
Thermometric, 26 (Thermometer)
Prophase,
(meiosis), 322
(mitosis), 241
Proportional, 345
Inversely, 345
Proportionality,
Limit of, 22 (Hooke's law), 23
Proportional limit, see Limit of .
proportionality
Prop roots, 245
Propylene, see Propene
Propyne (C 3 H4 ), 194, 2 14
Prostate gland, 3 76
Protactinium (Pa), 728, 164, 213
Protection,
(biol ogy), 237
Electrical/Sacrific-ial, 159
Proteinases, 338 (I)
Protein manufacture, 327
Pupil, 3 12 (Iris)
Pure, 123
Purification, 207
PVC, see Polyvinyl chloride
PWR, see Pressurized water reactor
Pyloric sphincter/valve/Pylorus, 294, 295
Pyramidal (molecule), 133
Pyramid of biomass (ecology), 235
Pyramid of numbers (ecology), 235
Pyramids (Renal/Medullary),
300 (Medulla)
Pyridoxine, 337 (Vitamin B complex)
Pyrolusite (Mn0 2 ), 172 (Manganese)
Pyruvic acid, 334 (Anaerobic respiration)
PZ, 336
Q
Q-shell, 83 (Electron shells)
Qualitative analysis, 218 (I),
220 (I), 222
Qualitative properties, 119
Quanta (sing. quantum), 84 (Quantum
theory)
R
Rachis, see Shaft (birds)
Radar, 45 (Microwaves)
Radial magnetic field, 72 (Loudspeaker)
Radial symmetry, 264
Radiant heat energy, 29 (Radiation)
Radiation, 9, 29, 86-87, 128 (I)
Background, 88
Cosmic, 88 (Background radiation)
Infra-red (IR), 45, 113
Ultraviolet (UV), 44, 85, 113
Radicle, 261
Radioactive decay, 87, 128
Radioactive decay curve, 129
Radioactive implants, 91
Radioactive isotope, see Radioisotope
Radioactive series, see Decay series
Radioactive tracing, 91, 129
Radioactivity, 86-87, 88-91, 128-129
Radiocarbon dating, 91, 129
Radiograph,
(gamma rays), 91 (Gamma radiography),
(x-rays), 44
Radiography,
Gamma, 91
(x-rays), 44
Radioisotope, 86, 128 .
Radiology, 91, 129
Radiotherapy, 91, 129 (Radiology)
External beam, 91
Radio waves, 44 (1), 45, 113
Radium (Ra), 87, 129 (Half-life), 164,
170,213
Radius (bone), 278, 282
Radius of curvature (r), 48
Radon (Rn), 165, 189, 213
Radula, 270
Random access memory (RAM)
(computers), 111 (Memory)
Range,
(force field), 6
Sonic, 40 (I)
Ranvier, Node of, 304
Rapid combustion, 208
Raptors, 342 (Predators)
Rare earths; see Lanthanides
Rarefactions (waves), 35
Rare gases, see Noble gases
INDEX
s
Sac(s),
Amniotic, 276 (Amnion), 319
Embryo, 258 (Ovules), 323 (Gamete
production, .female)
Pericardia!, 290 (I)
Pleural, 298 (Pleura)
Pollen, 257 (Stamens)
Synovial, 280
Yolk, 276 (Yolk)
Saccharase, 338 (Intestinal juice)
Saccule/Sacculus, 314, 315
Sacral vertebrae, 2 78
J N DEX
Shielding (magnetism), 73
Shinbone, see Tibia
Shock wave, 40
Shoot, 244
Shortened structural formula, 140
Short-night plants,
251 (Photoperiodism)
Short periods (eleme nt groups),
164 (Period)
Shoulderblade, see Scapula
Shunt, 77 (Ammeter)
Shutter (camera), 54
Side chain (atoms), 190, 214 (h),
215 (8)
Sieve plates, 243 (Sieve tubes)
Sieve tubes, 243
Sign convention, 11
Real is positive, 49
Significant figures, 103
Silica, see Silicon dioxide
Silica gel, 221 (Desiccation)
saicates, 177
Silicon (Si), 112, 165, 177, 213
saicon dioxide (Si02), 177
Silicones, 177
Silicon(IV) oxide, see Silicon dioxide
Silk gland, 265
Silver (Ag), 112, 160; 165, 173,
2ri, 213
Silver bromide (AgBr), 188 (Bromides)
Silver chloride (AgCI), 145, 160
Silver iodide (Agl), 188 (Iodides)
Silver nitrate (AgN03), 145, 218
(Anions)
Sillple barometer, 25
5i11p1e cell, 68
5illple cubic (particle
arrangement), 137
5iiilple leaves, 248 (I)
5iiilple microscope, 54 (Microscope)
me, 345
5iilews, see Tendons
5ilgle bond, 132, 21 4 (a and 1)
5ilgle touch (magnets), 71
5iMiettd, 70 {Ferromagnetic)
5iioasesJ, 307
llood, 316 (Penis)
-...uidal (waveform), 61
. . . . . 272
b:balant, 272 (Siphon)
lllulant, 265 (Mantle siphon),
'I72 (Siphon)
Yantle, 265
SI ...its, 96-97
&.sic, 96
Derived,97
~ muscles, 282, 307, 308
!lideton, 278-279
Hydrostatic, 265 (Body cavities)
!iliil, 266(1), 310-311
~- see Cranium
~ 174, 175 (Copper)
Sl;iloed lime, see Calcium hydroxide
5liE callipers, Vernier, 100
Slide projector, 55
Sliding frictional force, see Kinetic
frictional force
Sliding joints, see Gliding joints
Slow combustion, 208
Small intestine, 294, 295
Smog, 210
Smoke, 145
Smooth ER, 239 (Endoplasmic
reticulum)
Smooth muscle, 283
Snell's law, 50
Soap, 202, 207
Soapless detergents, 203
Social, 342
Sodium (Na), 82, 127, 131, 148,
164, 168, 196,"207, 211, 213,
219 (Flame tests)
Sodium aluminate (NaAl(OH)4 ), 151
Sodium aluminum silicate,
see Zeolite
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHC03 ), 169
Sodium bromide (NaBr), 188 (Bromine)
Sodium carbonate (Na2 C03), 169, 206,
207, 217
Sodium chlorate (NaCl03 ), 187
Sodium chlorate(!), see Sodium
hypochlorite
Sodium chlorate(V), see Sodium
chlorate
Sodium chloride (NaCl), 737,
141 (Trivial name), 145, 153; 156,
169, 187 (Chlorine, Chlorides), 344
Sodium ethoxide (CH 3 CH 2 0Na), 796
Sodium hydrogencarbonate, see Sodium
bicarbonate
Sodium hydrogensulfate
(NaHS04 ), 153
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 151,
155, 169, 202, 216 (Ethene),
217, 219 (Cations)
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI), 187,
344 (Bleach)
Sodium iodate (Na103 ), 188 (Iodine)
Sodium nitrate {NaN03), 145,
169, 182
Sodium octadecanoate, 202
Sodium stearate, 202, 207
Sodium sulfate (Na2 S04); 135, 155
Sodium sulfite (Na2 S03 ),
185 (Sulfites)
Soft (magnets), 70
Softene rs, Water, 207
Softening, Water, 207 (Permanent
hardness)
Soft palateL)94 (Pharynx), 307
Soft water,-20'7 (Hard water)
Solar eclipse, 46 (Eclipse)
Solenocytes, see Flame cells
Solenoid, 74
Solidification, 120
Solid state, 5, 120
Solubility, 145
Solubility curve, 145 (Solubility)
Soluble, 145
Solute, 144, 329 (I)
Solution, 144 (I), 329 (I)
Ammonia (NH 4 0H), 181 (Ammonia),
218 (Anions}, 219 (.Cations)
Aqueous, 144
Enthalpy change of/Heat of, 147
Molar, 139
Non-aqueous, 144 (Aqueous
solution)
Standard, 139
Solvation, 144
Solvay process, 169 (Sodium carbonate)
Solvent, 144, 329 (I)
Aqueous, 144
Non-aqueous, 144 (Aqueous
solution)
Non-polar, 144
Organic, 345
Polar, 144
Solvent extraction, 221
Somatic afferent system, 307
Somatic efferent system, 308
Somatotropic hormone/Somatotropin,
see STH
Sonar, 41 (Echo)
Sonic boom, 40
Sonic range, 40 (I)
Sonometer, 43
Sound(s), 40-43
Musical, 43
Speed of, 40
Sound waves, 40-43
South/South seeking pole, 70 (Pole)
Spatula, 225
Speaker, 76, 11 0
Species, 340 (I)
Specific gravity, see Relative density
Specific heat capacity (c), 30, 112
Specific latent heat (I), 30
Specific latent heat of fusion, 31 , 112,
146 (Enthalpy change of reaction)
Specific latent heat of vaporization, 31 ,
1 46 (Enthalpy change of reaction)
Spectator ion, 141
Spectrometer, 54 (Color)
Mass, 138 (I), 222 (Mass spectroscopy)
Spectroscopy,
Mass, 222
Nuclear magnetic resonance
(n.m.r.), 222
Spectrum, 345
Electromagnetic, 44, 113
Nuclear magnetic resonance
(n.m.r.), 222
Visible light, 54
Speed, 10
Average" 10 (Speed)
Instantaneous, 1 0 (Speed)
Sub- and Supersonic, 40
Uniform, 10 (Speed)
Wave, 35
Speed of Iight, 113
Speed of sound, 40
Stratum corneum, 3 10
Stratum germinativum, 3 10
Stratum granulosum, 3 10
Stratum spinosum, 310 (Stratum
germinativum)
Stress, 22 (Hooke's law)
Breaking, 23
Yield, 22 (Yield point)
Striated, 283 (Striated muscle)
Striated muscle, 283
Stridulation, 275
Striped muscle, see Striated muscle
Strong acid, 152
Strong base, 152
Strong electrolyte, 66, 156
Strontium (Sr), 129, 164, 170, 213
Structural formula,
3-dimensional, see Stereochemical
formula
Full, see Displayed formula
Shortened, 140
Structural isomers, 191
Structural proteins, 330 (Proteins)
Structure, Atomic, 82-83, 126-12 7
Style (flowers), 257
Styrene, 201 (Polystyrene)
Subatomic particles, 82 (1), 126 (I)
Sub-classes, 340 (I)
Subclavian arteries, 289, 290
Subclavian veins, 289, 290,
293 (lymph vessels)
Subcritical mass,' 93 (Critical mass)
Subcutaneous, 311 (Subcutan.eous layer)
Subcutaneous layer, 310, 3 11
Suberin, 247 (Phellem)
Suberization, 247 (Phellem)
Sub-kingdoms, 340 (I)
Sublimation, 30, 121
Sublingual glands, 296
Submandibular glands/Submaxillary
glands, 296
Sub-phyla, 340 (I)
Subsonic speed, 40
Substitution reaction, 192
Subtractive mixing, 55 (Color mixing)
Successional community, 233
Succession, Ecological, 233
Succus entericus, see Intestinal juice
Sucrase, 338 (Intestinal juice)
Sucrose (C12 H22 0 11 ), 204,
338 (Intestinal juice),
339 (Disaccharides)
Sudoriferous glands, see Sweat glands
Sulfate(IV) compounds, see Sulfites
Sulfate(VI) compounds/Sulfates, .154,
185, 218 (Anions)
Sulfides, 184 (I), 218 (Anions)
Sulfites, 185, 218 (Anions)
Sulfur (S), 12 1, 136, 148, 155, 165, 183,
184, 213
Alpha (a-sulfur), see Rhombic sulfur
Beta (j3-sulfur), see Monoclinic sulfur
Flowers of, 184
Monoclinic, 136, 184, 213
INDEX
Sulfur (cont'd)
Orthorhombic, see Rhombic sulfur
Plastic, 184
Rhombic, 136, 184, 213
Sulfur(IV) oxide, see Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur(VI) oxide, see Sulfur trioxide
Sulfur dioxide (S02 ), 151, 185,
210 (Smog, Acid rain)
Sulfuric acid (H 2S04), 150, 155, 185,
210 (Add rain), 216, 217,
218 (Nitrate anion), 219 (Calcium
cation), 344 (Dehydrating agent)
Fuming (H2S20 7), 185 (Contact
process)
Sulfuric(IV) acid, see Sulfurous acid
Sulfuric(VI) acid, see Sulfuric acid
Sulfurous acid (H2S03 ), 150, 185
Sulfur trioxide (S03), 185
Summer wood, 246 (Annual rings)
Superconductor,
179 (Buckminsterfullerene)
Superficial fascia, see Subcutaneous
layer
Superheated (liquid), 90 (Bubble
chamber)
Superior (ovary), 257 (Hypogyrious
flower, Perigynous flower)
Superior articular processes, 279
Superibr mesenteric artery, 289
Superior mesenteric vein, 289
Superior vena cava, 290, 291
Superposition, 38 (Principle of
superposition)
Supersaturated,
(sol utio n), 145
(vapor), 90 (Cloud chamber)
Supersonic speed, 40
Suprarenal glands, see Adrenal glands
Surface area (measurement of), 101
Svmce c;itaJyst,. l6J
Surface den~ity of charge, 57
Surface tension, 23
Surfactants, 203
Susceptibility~ 70
Suspension, 145
Suspensory ligament, 312 (lens)
Sutures, 278 (Cranium)
Sweat, 311 (Sweat glands)
Sweat duct, 311 (Sweat glands)
Sweat glands, 311
Swim bladder, 269
Switch, 64, 11 0
Changeover, 64
Double pole, 64
Rotary, 64
Symbol(s),
Chemical, 122, 2 12-213, 226-227
(quantities a nd units), 96-97; 99,
11 0, 11 3
State, 141
Symbol equation, 98
Symmetry (Bilateral, Radial), 264
Sympathetic division (nervous system),
308
Synapses, 305
Synaptic cleft/gap, 305 (Synapses)
Synaptic knob, 305
Synovial capsule, see Synovial sac
Synovial fluid, 280 (Synovial sac)
Synovial joints, 280 (Synovial sac)
Synovial membrane, 280 (Synovial sac)
Synovial sac, 280
Synthesis, 122, 332 (Anabolism)
Direct, 155
Synthesis reactions, 332 (Anabolism)
Synthetic.detergents, see Soapless
detergents
Synthetic diamonds, 178 (Diamond)
Synthetic polymers, 201
Synthetic resins, 345 (Resins)
Syrinx (pl. syringes), 275
System, 238 (1), 345
System (chemistry),
Closed, 162
Open, 162 (Closed system)
System(s) (human body),
Afferent, 306-307
Arterial, 288 (Arteries)
Autonomic nervous,
303 (Hypothalamus), 308
Cardiovascular, 290 (I)
Central nervous, 302-303
Circulatory, 288-289
Digestive, 294-295
Efferent, 308-309
lntegumentary, 310 (I)
Lymphatic, 293
Nervous, 302-309
Peripheral nervous, 304 (I), 306 (I)
Reproductive, 316-317
Respiratory, 298-299
Somatic afferent, 307
Somatic efferent, 308
Urinary,. 300-3 01
Vascular, see Circulatory system
Venous, 288 (Veins)
Visceral afferent, 307
Visceral efferent, see Autonomic
nervous system
System(s) (physics),
Deflection (oscilloscope), 81
Pulley, 20, 21
Systematic name, 141
Systole phase, 291 (Cardiac cycle)
T
. Tactile, 306
Tagma (pl. tagmata),
264 (Segmentation).
Tangent, 34S
Tannin, 2SS (Pigments)
Tantalum (Ta), 112, 165, 173, 21 3
Tap funnel, 224
Tap root, 24S
Target cells, 336 (Hormones)
INDEX
Trivalent,
(covalency), 733
(electrova lency), 131
Trivial name, 141
tRNA, see Transfer RNA
Trophic level, 235
Tropical forest (biome), 232
Tropic hormones, 297 (Pituitary gland)
Tropism (Negative, Positive), 251 (I)
Trough (equipment), 225
Troughs (waves), 34
True fruit, 262 (I)
True weightlessness, 19
Truth tables, 111
Trypsin, 338 (Pancreatic juice)
Trypsinogen, 338 (Note 2)
TSH, 336
Tube(s) (biology),
Eustachian/Auditory, 3 74
Fallopian, 311, 319 (Fertilization)
Pollen, 258 (Pollination)
Sieve, 243
Uterine, see Fallopian tubes
Tube(s) (chemistry/physics),
Boiling, 225
Capillary, 23, 24, 26 (Liquid-in-glass
thermometer)
Delivery, 223
Discharge, 80
Electron, 80 (I)
Fluorescent, 80 (Discharge t_ube)
Geiger-Muller, 89 (Geiger counter)
Ignition, 225
Maltese cross, 80
Test,_225
X-ray, 80
Tube nucleus, 258 (Pollination)
Tuber, 263
Tubular reabsorption, 301
Tubular secretion, 301
Tubule(s),
Collecting, see Collecting duct
Distal convoluted, 301 (Uriniferous
tubules)
Malpighian, 265 (Hemocoel), 273
Proximal convoluted,
301 (Uriniferous tubules)
Renal, see Uriniferous tubules
Seminiferous, 316 (Testes)
Urinifcrous, 301 , 337 (ADH,
Aldosterone)
Tundra (biome), 232
Tungsten (W), 112, 165, 173, 213
Turbine, 9, 94
Turgid, 253 (Turgor)
Turgor, 253
Turgor pressure, 253 (Turgor)
Turning forces, 14-15
Turns ratio, 79
Tympanic organs/Tympani (sing.
tympanum), 275
Tympanic canal, see Scala tympani
Tympanic cavity, see Middle ear
Tympanic membrane, see Eardrum
u
Ulna, 278, 282
Ultrasonic waves, 40 (Ultrasound)
Ultrasound, 40
Ultrasound scanning, 40,
41 (Echo)
Ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation),
44, 85, 713, 210 (Ozone
depletion)
Umbellifer, 259
Umbels, 259 (Umbellifer)
Umbilical cord, 319
Umbra, 46 (Shadow)
Ungu lates, 341
Ungu ligrade, 269
Unicellular, 238 (I)
Unified atomic mass units (u),
83 (Relative atomic mass)
Uniform acceleration,
11 (Acceleration)
Uniform circular motion, 17
Uniform speed, 10 (Speed)
Uniform velocity, 10 (Velocity)
Units,
International system/SI (Basic,
Derived), 96-97
Unified atomic mass (u), 83 (Relative
atomic mass)
Universal indicator, 152
Unsaturated compounds, 191
Unstable equilibrium, 15
Upper fixed point, 26 (Fixed point)
Upper motor neuron, 308, 309
Upward displacement of air,
216 (Chlorine), 217 (Oxygen)
Uracil, 324
Uranium (U), 92 (Induced fission),
94 (Fission reactor), 95 (Thermal
reactor, Fast reactor), 128, 129,
164, 213
Urea, 300
Ureters, 300, 3 16
Urethra, 300, 316, 319
Urethral orifice, 300, 311
Urinary bladder, see Bladder
Urinary sphincters (External, Internal),
300 (Bladder)
Urinary system, 300-301
Urination, 300 (Urethra)
Urine, 300, 301
Uriniferous tubules, 301, 337 (ADH,
Aldosterone)
Urochordates, 341
Uropygial gland, 267 (Uropygium)
Uropygium, 267
Useless load, 20
Uterine tubes, see Fallopian tubes
Uterus, 317, 318 (Menstrual cycle),
337 (LH, Oxytocin, Estrogen)
Utricle/ Utriculus, 314, 315
UV radiation,
see Ultraviolet radiation
v
Vacuole(s), 238, 239, 329 (Pinocytosis)
Contractile, 268, 273
Food, 268
Vacuum flask, 29
Vagina, 317, 319 (Copulation)
Vaginal orifice, 317
Valency, see Covalency/
Electrovalency
Valency electron, 1 30
Valve(s),
Aortic, 291 (Semilunar valves)
Atrioventricular/AV, 29l
Bicuspid, 291 (Atrioventricular
valves)
Mitral, 291 (Atroventricular valves)
Pulmonary, 291 (Semilunar valves)
Pyloric, see Pyloric sphincter
Semilunar, 291
Tricuspid, 291 (Atrioventricular
valves)
. Vanadium (V), 165; 172, 213
Vanadium pentoxide (Vi05),
172 (Vanadium), 185 (Contact
process)
Van de Graaff generator, 57
Van der Waals' forces, 134
Vane (feathers), 261
Vapor,-5, 120 (Gaseous -state)
Vapor density, Relative, 143
Vaporization, 30, 121
Molar enthalpy change of/Molar
heat of, 146 (Enthalpy change of
reaction), 147
Specific latent heat of, 31; 146
(Enthalpy change of reaction)
Variable(s), 345
Dependent, 98
Independent, 98
Variable capacitor, 59, 110
Variable resistor, 63, 11 O
Vascular, 280 (Connective tissue); 289
Vascular bundles, 242 (Vascular tissll~)
Vein(s) (cont'd)
Gastric, 289
Gonadal, 289
Greatsaphenous, 289
Hepatic, 289
'Hepatic portal, 289, 297 (Liver)
Inferior mesenteric, 289
Internal jugular, 290
Pancreatic, 2 89
Pulmonary, 290, 291
Renal, 289, 300 (Kidneys)
Splenic, 289
Subclavian, 289, 290, 293 (Lymph vessels)
Superior mesenteric, 289
Vein(s) (leaves), 248
Velocity (v), 10, 97
Angular, 17
Average, 10 (Velocity)
Escape, 19
Instantaneous, 10 (Velocity)
Relative, 11
Terminal, 19
Uniform, 10 (Velocity)
Velocity profiles, 23
Velocity ratio (V.R.), 20
Vena cava (pl. vena cavae),
Inferior, 289, 290, 291
Superior, 290, 291
Venation (leaves), 248
Venous system, 288 (Veins)
Ventilation, 298 (I)
Ventral, 269
Ventral fin, 269
Ventral root, 302 (Spinal cord)
Ventricles,
(brain), 303
(heart), 290
Venules, 288 (Veins)
Vernier scale, 100
Vernier slide callirers, 100
Vertebrae (sing. vertebra), 278, 279, 302
Cervical, 278
Coccygeal, 278 (Coccyx)
Lumbar, 278
Sacral, 278
Thoracic, 278, 279
Vertebral canal, see Neural canal
Vertebral column, 279
Vertebral foramen, 279 (Vertebrae)
Vertebrates, 265 (Coelom),
277 (Spermatheca), 341
Vesicle, 239 (Golgi complex)
Vessels,
Blood, 288 (I)
Lymphatic/lymph, 293
(plants), 243
Vestibular canal, see Scala vestibuli
Vestibule (ear), 314
Vibration, Modes of, 43
Vibrational kinetic energy, 9 (Kinetic
energy)
Vibrissae (sing. vibrissa), 274
Villi (sing. villus), 295 (Small intestine)
Chorionic, 319
w
Wall pressure, 253 (Turgor)
Wandering macrophages, 286 (White
blood cells)
Washing soda (Na2 C0 3 10H2 0),
169 (Sodium carbonate), 207
IN~
Whiskers, see Vibrissae
White blood cells/corpuscles, 266
White matter, 302 (N euroglia)
White phosphorus,
162 (Phosphorus), 213
Whorl, see Rosette
Wilson cloud chamber, 90
Wilting, 253
Windpipe, see Trachea (humans)
Wing(s), 267, 269
Bastard, 269
Wing petals, 259 (Pea flower)
Wires (symbols for), 110
Wirsung, Duct of, see Pancreatic duct
Wisdom teeth, 265
Womb, see Uterus
Wood, 208, 246 (Secondary
thickening)
Spring/Early, 246 (Annual rings)
Summer/late, 246 (Annual rings)
Woody perennials, 236 (Perennials)
Woody plant,'246 (I)
Word equation, 98, 141
Work, B (I), 97
Wrought iron, 11 2, 174 (Iron)
x
Xanthophyll, 255 (Pigments)
X-axis (graphs), 98
X chromosomes, 325 (Sex
chromosomes), 326 (Sex linkage)
Xenon (Xe), 129, 165, 169, 213
Xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4 ), 169 (Xenon)
Xerophytes, 342
X-intercept (graphs), 98
X-plates (osci lloscope), 8 1 (Deflection
system)
X-radiography, 44
X-ray crystallography,' 136
X-rays, 44, 85, 113
X-ray tube, 60
X-shift (oscil loscope control), 81
Xylem, 242, 243, 246 (Secondary
thickening), 252
Primary, 242 (Primary tissue)
Secondary, 246 (Secondary
thickening)
y
Y-axis (graphs), 98
Y chromosomes, 325 (Sex
chromosomes), 326 (Sex linkage)
Yeast, 197 (Alcoholic fermentation)
Yellow marrow, 261 (Bone marrow)
Yellowspot, see Macula lutea
Yield point, 23
Yield stress, 23 (Yield point)
Y-intercept (graphs), 98
Yolk, 276
Yolk sac, 276 (Yolk)
Young's modulus, 22, 11 2
Young's slits, 36
Y-plates (osci ll oscope), 81
Ytterbium (Yb), 165, 213 .
Yttrium (Y), 164, 173, 213
z
Zeolite, 207 (Ion exchange)
Zero error, 102
Zinc (Zn), 112, 137, 155, 159,
165, 173, 175, 211 , 213,
217 (Hydrogen), 219 (Cations)
Zinc blende (ZnS), 175 (Zinc)
Zinc chloride (ZnCl 2), 217
Basic, (Zn(OH)CI), 154
Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH),),
151 (Amphoteric)
Zincite (ZnO), 175 (Zinc)
Zinc oxide (ZnO), 175 (Zinc)
Zinc sulfate (ZnS0 4 ), 155, 158, 159
Zirconium (Zr), 165, 173, 213
Zona pellucida, 319 (Fertilization)
Zone of elongation, 245
Zooplankton, 342 (Plankton)
Zygomorphy, 264 (Bilateral symmetry)
Zygote, 258 (Fertilization),
319 (Fertilization), 320
Zymase, 197 (Alcoholic fermentation)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Cover designers: Russell Punter and Zoe Wray
by:
Photograph credits:
The ultrasound scan on page 40 is reproduced w ith the kind
permission of Charlotte Tomlins.
Alfred Pasieka I Science Photo Library (45, bottom left);
Digital Vision (45, bottom right; 93, bottom right; 206, top right).
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