Bicol University

Institute of Architecture
Legazpi City, 4500

RESEARCH
WORK IN ICT
Prepared By:
Erwin O. Ariola
BS Architecture 3A
Submitted to:
Mr. Edzel Azotillo
ICT Instructor
Operating system (OS) - Is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for computer programs. It is a vital component of the system
software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to
function.
Function of OS
1. Managing resources
2. Providing a user interface
3. Running applications

4. Support for built in utility programs.

5. Control to the computer hardware
Components of OS

Process management

Memory management

I/O Device management

File system

Protection

Network management

Network services

User Interface

Types of operating system

1. Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is
commonly navigated by using a computer mouse.
2. Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and different times.
3. Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one
computer processor.
4. Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software
processes to run at the same time.
5. Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to
run concurrently.
6. Embedded System: The operating systems designed to operate on small machines like
PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources
Features of OS

Reliable.

Operational at all times.

Should coordinate and have good control of input and output operations and the devices
on which they are performed.

Enhance time sharing.

Example of devices use OS

Computer

Mobile phones

3d televisions

Video game

ATM (automated teller machine

Ticket Wending Machine

Example of devices don't use OS

Speed meters.

Digital Watches.

Micro ovens.

Washing machines.

Calculators.

Advantages of using Operating system

Easy to use

User friendly

Intermediate between all hardware and software of the system

No need to know any technical languages

Its the platform of all programs

Disadvantages

If any problems affected in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored
already

Unwanted user can use your own system

Process and Program

 A process invokes or initiates a program. It is an instance of a program that can be

multiple and running the same application. Example:- Notepad is one program and can be
opened twice.
Real Time Operating System - An operating system (OS) intended to serve real-time
application requests An RTOS has an advanced algorithm for scheduling.
Scheduling of RTOS
Running (executing on the CPU)
Ready (ready to be executed)
Blocked (waiting for an event, I/O for example).
Example of device with RTOS
Lynx OS is mostly used in real-time embedded systems, in applications for avionics,
aerospace, the military, industrial process control and telecommunications. Enea OSE is
one of the most widely used RTOS in the world.
According to mobile analyst firm, Vision Mobile, OSE has been deployed in over 1.75
billion mobile handsets, as of the end of June 2010. Enea OSE is shipped in hundreds of
millions of mobile phones each year and over half of the worlds 3G base stations.

DESKTOP AND SERVER OPERATING SYSTEM

Server OS - Also called a server OS, is an operating system specifically designed to run on
servers, which are specialized computers that operate within a client/server architecture to serve
the requests of client computers on the network. It is the software layer on top of which other
software programs, or applications, can run on the server hardware. Server operating systems
help enable and facilitate typical server roles such as Web server, mail server, file server,
database server, application server and print server.
Server platform can provide features like:

unlimited user connections

use of large amounts of memory
can act as web server, database server, email server and other server-like roles
optimized for network, instead of local application execution
extended management
extended fault tolerance to avoid downtimes
can hold a domain
expensive

Desktop OS - The control program in a user's machine (desktop or laptop). Also called a "client
operating system," Windows is the overwhelming majority while the Macintosh comes second.
There are also several versions of Linux for the desktop. Contrast with network operating
system.

Client platform can provide features like:

running client applications faster, like Office, Photoshop, Games
easy access to web services, like email, browsing, searching
rich media services
easy to use for non-expert users
can work on a domain as a member (professional edition only - home edition cannot join
a domain)
rich connectivity support (lan, wireless, bluetooth, etc)
cheaper than the server version

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

A computer operating system (OS) developed by Microsoft Corporation to run
personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI) for IBM-compatible
PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market. Approximately 90 percent of PCs run
some version of Windows.
The first version of Windows, released in 1985, was simply a GUI offered as an
extension of Microsofts existing disk operating system, or MS-DOS. Based in part on licensed
concepts that Apple Inc. had used for its Macintosh System Software, Windows for the first time
allowed DOS users to visually navigate a virtual desktop, opening graphical windows
displaying the contents of electronic folders and files with the click of a mouse button, rather
than typing commands and directory paths at a text prompt.
Subsequent versions introduced greater functionality, including native Windows File
Manager, Program Manager, and Print Manager programs, and a more dynamic interface.
Microsoft also developed specialized Windows packages, including the networkable Windows
for Workgroups and the high-powered Windows NT, aimed at businesses. The 1995 consumer
release Windows 95 fully integrated Windows and DOS and offered built-in Internet support,
including the World Wide Web browser Internet Explorer.
With the 2001 release of Windows XP, Microsoft united its various Windows
packages under a single banner, offering multiple editions for consumers, businesses, multimedia
developers, and others. Windows XP abandoned the long-used Windows 95 kernel (core software
code) for a more powerful code base and offered a more practical interface and improved
application and memory management. The highly successful XP standard was succeeded in late
2006 by Windows Vista, which experienced a troubled rollout and met with considerable
marketplace resistance, quickly acquiring a reputation for being a large, slow, and resourceconsuming system. Responding to Vistas disappointing adoption rate, Microsoft developed
Windows 7, an OS whose interface was similar to that of Vista but was met with enthusiasm for
its noticeable speed improvement and its modest system requirements.

MS-DOS (Microsoft disk operating system)

Originally developed by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system
for IBM-compatible personal computers. The initial versions of DOS were very simple
and resembled another operating system called CP/M. Subsequent versions have become
increasingly sophisticated as they incorporated features of minicomputer operating
systems.

Windows 1.0 2.0 (1985-1992)

Introduced in 1985, Microsoft Windows 1.0 was named due to the computing boxes, or
"windows" that represented a fundamental aspect of the operating system. Instead of
typing MS-DOS commands, windows 1.0 allowed users to point and click to access the
windows. In 1987 Microsoft released Windows 2.0, which was designed for the designed
for the Intel 286 processor. This version added desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and
improved graphics support.

Windows 3.0 3.1 (19901994)

Microsoft released Windows 3.0 in May, 1900 offering better icons, performance and
advanced graphics with 16 colors designed for Intel 386 processors. This version is the
first release that provides the standard "look and feel" of Microsoft Windows for many
years to come. Windows 3.0 included Program Manager, File Manager and Print
Manager and games (Hearts, Minesweeper and Solitaire). Microsoft released Windows
3.1 in 1992.

Windows 95 (August 1995)

A major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system released in 1995. Windows
95 represents a significant advance over its precursor, Windows 3.1. In addition to
sporting a new user interface, Windows 95 also includes a number of important internal
improvements. Perhaps most important, it supports 32-bit applications, which means that
applications written specifically for this operating system should run much faster.
Although Windows 95 can run older Windows and DOS applications, it has essentially
removed DOS as the underlying platform. This has meant removal of many of the old
DOS limitations, such as 640K of main memory and 8-character filenames. Other
important features in this operating system are the ability to automatically detect and
configure installed hardware (plug and play).

Windows 98 (June 1998)

Windows 98 offers support for a number of new technologies, including FAT32, AGP,
MMX, USB, DVD, and ACPI. Its most visible feature, though, is the Active Desktop,
which integrates the Web browser (Internet Explorer) with the operating system. From
the user's point of view, there is no difference between accessing a document residing
locally on the user's hard disk or on a Web server halfway around the world.

Windows ME - Millennium Edition (September 2000)

The Windows Millennium Edition, called "Windows Me" was an update to the Windows
98 core and included some features of the Windows 2000 operating system. This version
also removed the "boot in DOS" option.

Windows NT 31. - 4.0 (1993-1996)

A version of the Windows operating system. Windows NT (New Technology) is a 32-bit

operating system that supports preemptive multitasking. There are actually two versions
of Windows NT: Windows NT Server, designed to act as a server in networks, and
Windows NT Workstation for stand-alone or client workstations.

Windows 2000 (February 2000)

Often abbreviated as "W2K," Windows 2000 is an operating system for business desktop
and laptop systems to run software applications, connect to Internet and intranet sites, and
access files, printers, and network resources. Microsoft released four versions of
Windows 2000: Professional (for business desktop and laptop systems), Server (both a
Web server and an office server), Advanced Server (for line-of-business applications) and
Datacenter Server (for high-traffic computer networks).

Windows XP (October 2001)

Windows XP was first introduced in 2001. Along with a redesigned look and feel to the
user interface, the new operating system is built on the Windows 2000 kernel, giving the
user a more stable and reliable environment than previous versions of Windows.
Windows XP comes in two versions, Home and Professional. Microsoft focused on
mobility for both editions, including plug and play features for connecting to wireless
networks. The operating system also utilizes the 802.11x wireless security standard.
Windows XP is one of Microsoft's best-selling products.

Windows Vista (November 2006)

Windows Vista offered an advancement in reliability, security, ease of deployment,

performance and manageability over Windows XP. New in this version was capabilities
to detect hardware problems before they occur, security features to protect against the
latest generation of threats, faster start-up time and low power consumption of the new
sleep state. In many cases, Windows Vista is noticeably more responsive than Windows
XP on identical hardware. Windows Vista simplifies and centralizes desktop
configuration management, reducing the cost of keeping systems updated.

Windows 7 (October, 2009)

Windows 7 made its official debut to the public on October 22, 2009 as the latest in the
25-year-old line of Microsoft Windows operating systems and as the successor to
Windows Vista (which itself had followed Windows XP). Windows 7 was released in
conjunction with Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 7's server counterpart.
Enhancements and new features in Windows 7 include multi-touch support, Internet
Explorer 8, improved performance and start-up time, Aero Snap, Aero Shake, support for
virtual hard disks, a new and improved Windows Media Center, and improved security.

Windows 8 (Codename, Expected Release 2012)

Windows 8 is a completely redesigned operating system that's been developed from the
ground up with touchscreen use in mind as well as near-instant-on capabilities that enable
a Windows 8 PC to load and start up in a matter of seconds rather than in minutes.
Windows 8 will replace the more traditional Microsoft Windows OS look and feel with a
new "Metro" design system interface that first debuted in the Windows Phone 7 mobile
operating system. The Metro user interface primarily consists of a "Start screen" made up
of "Live Tiles," which are links to applications and features that are dynamic and update
in real time. Windows 8 supports both x86 PCs and ARM processors. Windows 8
debuted on Aug. 1, 2012.

Windows 10

Windows 10 is Microsoft's Windows successor to Windows 8. Windows 10 debuted on

July 29, 2015, following a "technical preview" beta release of the new operating system
that arrived in Fall 2014 and a "consumer preview" beta in early 2015. Microsoft claims
Windows 10 features fast start up and resume, built-in security and the return of the Start
Menu in an expanded form. This version of Windows will also feature Microsoft Edge,
Microsoft's new browser. Any qualified device (such as tablets, PCs, smartphones and
Xbox consoles) can upgrade to Windows 10, including those with pirated copies of
Windows.

BOOTSTRAPPING PROCESS
A bootstrap is the process of starting up a computer. It also refers to the program that
initializes the operating system (OS) during start-up.
DOS
MS-DOS and similar operating systems (PC-DOS, DR-DOS, and Freedos) use the following
boot process:
1. The initial system file (called IO.SYS or IBMBIO.COM) is loaded, and the initialization
code copies itself into the highest region of contiguous DOS memory and transfers
control to the copy.
2. The initialization code loads MSDOS.SYS (or IBMDOS.COM), which initializes the
base device drivers, determines equipment status, resets the disk system, resets and
initializes attached devices, and sets the system default parameters.
3. CONFIG.SYS is read multiple times. On the first pass any DEVICE statements are
processed in the order in which they appear; the drivers named are loaded and executed.
Then, any INSTALL statements are processed in the order in which they appear; the
programs named are loaded and executed. The SHELL statement is processed and loads
the specified command processor with the specified parameters. If the CONFIG.SYS file
contains no SHELL statement, the default COMMAND.COM processor is loaded with
default parameters. Loading the command processor overwrites the initialization code in
memory (because the job of the initialization code is finished).

4. If AUTOEXEC.BAT is present, COMMAND.COM loads and runs AUTOEXEC.BAT.

After the commands in AUTOEXEC.BAT have been executed, the DOS prompt appears
(unless AUTOEXEC.BAT calls an application program or shell of some kind, in which
case the user might operate the system without ever seeing a DOS prompt). If no
AUTOEXEC.BAT file is present, COMMAND.COM executes the internal DATE and
TIME commands, displays a copyright message, and displays the DOS prompt.
Windows 3.11
During the boot phase, CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT are executed, along with
the configuration settings files WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI. Virtual device drivers are
also loaded in the startup process: they are most commonly loaded from the registry
(HKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\VxD) or from the SYSTEM.INI file.
When all system configuration files and device drivers have been loaded, the 16-bit
modules, KRNL386.EXE, GDI.EXE, and USER.EXE, are loaded, then the 32-bit DLLs
(KERNEL32.DLL, GDI32.DLL, and USER32.DLL) are loaded. The 32-bit VxD
message server (MSGSRV32) starts MPREXE.EXE, which is responsible for loading the
network logon client (such as Client for Microsoft Networks, Microsoft Family Logon or
Windows Logon).
When a user is logging on to Windows, the startup sound is played, the shell (usually
EXPLORER.EXE) is loaded from the [boot] section of the SYSTEM.INI file, and startup
items are loaded.
Windows 95/98/2000
Step 1 - The ROM BIOS Bootstrap Process
1. When you start your computer, the ROM BIOS bootstrap loads from the FFFF0h
memory address. The following steps occur during the ROM BIOS bootstrap process:
2. The Power On Self-Test (POST) occurs.
3. The A drive is checked for the existence of a boot disk.
4. If a boot disk is not found in the A drive, the ROM BIOS bootstrap checks for a hard
disk. If a hard disk is found, the ROM loader transfers control to the operating system
loader.
5. The master boot record and partition table are read.
6. Microsoft and several original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) have defined a Plug and
Play BIOS specification. This specification defines the interactions between the Plug and
Play BIOS, Plug and Play devices, and option ROMs. If your computer has a Plug and
Play BIOS, the following additional steps are performed:
7. The Plug and Play BIOS checks non-volatile random access memory (RAM) for
input/output (I/O) port addresses, interrupt request lines (IRQs), direct memory access
(DMA) channels, and other settings needed to configure Plug and Play devices on the
computer.
8. All Plug and Play devices found by the Plug and Play BIOS are disabled.
9. A map of used and unused resources is created.
10. The Plug and Play devices are configured and re-enabled, one at a time.

Step 2 - The Master Boot Record and Boot Sector

The master boot record determines the location of the boot partition by reading the partition table
located at the end of the master boot record. Once the location of the boot partition is
determined, the master boot record passes control to the boot sector in that partition. The boot
sector contains the disk boot program and a table of disk characteristics. The boot sector checks
the BIOS Parameter Block (BPB) to find the location of the root directory, and then copies the
Io.sys file from the root directory into memory.
Step 3 - The Io.sys File
The following steps occur when the Io.sys file loads into memory:
1. A minimal file allocation table (FAT) file system is loaded.
2. The Msdos.sys file is read.
3. The "Starting Windows 95" message is displayed for <n> seconds, or until you press a
Windows 95 function key. The amount of time the message is displayed is determined by
the BootDelay=<n> line in the Msdos.sys file. The default is 2 seconds.
4. If you have multiple hardware profiles in Windows 95, you receive the following
message and must choose a hardware configuration to use:
5. Windows cannot determine what configuration your computer is in.
6. The Logo.sys file is loaded and displays a startup image on the screen.
7. If the Drvspace.ini or Dblspace.ini file exists, the Drvspace.bin or Dblspace.bin file is
loaded into memory.
8. The Io.sys file checks the system registry files (System.dat and User.dat) for valid data.
9. The Io.sys file opens the System.dat file. If the System.dat file is not found, the
System.da0 file is used for startup. If Windows 95 starts successfully, the System.da0 file
is copied to the System.dat file.
10. The Dblbuff.sys file is loaded if the "DoubleBuffer=1" is in the Msdos.sys file
11. If you have multiple hardware profiles in Windows 95, the hardware profile you chose is
loaded from the registry.
12. The Io.sys file processes the Config.sys file.
Step 4 - Real-Mode Configuration
1. The Config.sys file loads drivers into memory. If the Config.sys file does not exist, the
Io.sys file loads the following required drivers:
Ifshlp.sys
Himem.sys
Setver.exe
The Io.sys file obtains the location of these files from the "WinBootDir=" line of the
Msdos.sys file. These files must reside on the hard disk.
2. Windows 95 reserves all global upper memory blocks (UMBs) for Windows 95 operating
system use or for expanded memory support (EMS).
3. The Autoexec.bat file loads files and terminate and stay resident (TSR) programs into
memory.
Step 5 - The Win.com File and the Windows 95 Environment

1. After the Autoexec.bat file is processed, the Win.com file is run.

2. The Win.com file accesses the Vmm32.vxd file. If there is enough available RAM, the
Vmm32.vxd file loads into memory, otherwise, it is accessed from the hard disk. This
may result in a slower startup time. The Vmm32.vxd file is similar to the Win386.exe file
used in earlier versions of Windows.
3. The real-mode virtual device driver loader checks for duplicate virtual device drivers
(VxDs) in the Windows\System\Vmm32 folder and the Vmm32.vxd file. If a VxD exists
in both the Windows\System\Vmm32 folder and the Vmm32.vxd file, the duplicate VxD
is "marked" in the Vmm32.vxd file so that it is not loaded.
4. Real-mode VxDs can be loaded into memory in any of the following ways:
Real-mode device drivers or TSRs that respond to the Windows 95 INT2F broadcast load
their embedded VxDs when Windows 95 starts.
Drivers internal to the Vmm32.vxd file that are not "marked" are loaded from the
following registry key:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\VxD
If the real-mode virtual device driver loader finds a "marked" driver, it changes its
registry entry from a VxD (a driver preceded with an asterix "*") to a file with a .vxd
extension so that the external driver is found in the Windows\System\Vmm32 folder.
When the external driver is found, it is loaded into memory.
VxDs that are not already loaded by the Vmm32.vxd file are loaded from the [386 Enh]
section of the Windows\System.ini file.
Some VxDs are required for Windows 95 to run properly. These required VxDs are
loaded automatically and do not require a registry entry
5. The real-mode virtual device driver loader checks that all required VxDs loaded
sucessfully. If not, it attempts to load the drivers again.
6. Once the real-mode virtual device driver loading is logged, driver initialization occurs. If
there are any VxDs that require real-mode initialization, they begin their process in realmode.
7. Vmm32 switches the computer's processor from real-mode to protected- mode.
8. A three-phase VxD initialization process occurs in which the drivers are loaded according
to their InitDevice instead of the order in which they are loaded into memory. The VxDs
are carried out in the following sequence:
a. SYS_CRITICAL_INIT (SYSCRITINIT)
Interrupts are disabled during this phase. This gives VxDs time to prepare for
device initialization without being interrupted by the system. No file I/O is
allowed during SYSCRITINIT, so all SYSCRITINITs are not written to the
Bootlog.txt file until after SYSCRITINIT is complete for all VxDs.
b. SYS_DEVICE_INIT (DEVICEINIT)
The bulk of the VxD initialization takes place during this phase. File I/O is
allowed during DEVICEINIT, so each VxD's DEVICEINIT is logged as it occurs.
The one exception is during Ifsmgr's DEVICEINIT. Ifsmgr takes over the real-

mode file system, and disk I/O is not allowed until Ifsmgr's DEVICEINIT
succeeds. For this reason, Ifsmgr does not appear in the DEVICEINIT phase.
When a DevLoader VxD is called, it loads other drivers it is responsible for,
regardless of their InitDevice order. The DevLoader examines the Registry and
finds drivers (for example, portdrivers [such as.mpd files]) and any associated
support drivers. It then initializes the device associated with these drivers. During
this phase, if a VxD failed to initialize, it was unable to properly communicate
with the hardware or service it drives. Typically, this is due to incorrect hardware
settings or the service not being installed.
The remaining static VxDs continue with the initialization phase. Also, dynamic
VxDs may begin initializing during this phase. They do not have a SYSCRITINIT
phase. However, a dynamic VxD may also load anytime after Windows 95 has
started.
c. SYS_INIT_COMPLETE (INITCOMPLETE)
VxDs that successfully pass the InitComplete phase should be working properly.
If a VxD was listed in one of the previous phases but is not successful in this
phase, that VxD is unloaded from memory.
GUI Components:
After all the static VxDs are loaded, the Krnl32.dll, Gdi.exe, User.exe, and Explorer.exe
(the default Windows 95 shell) files are loaded
Windows ME/NT/XP
The basic startup process is described in the following step-by-step procedures:
1. The partition boot sector loads Ntldr (NT Loader). It then switches the processor to
protected mode, starts the file system, and reads the contents of Boot.ini. The information
in Boot.ini determines the startup options and initial boot menu selections (dual-booting,
for example). If dual-booting is enabled and a non-NT/2000/XP OS is chosen,
Bootsec.dos is loaded. If SCSI drives are present, Ntbootdd.sys is loaded, which contains
the SCSI boot drivers.
2. Ntdetect.com gathers hardware configuration data and passes this information to Ntldr. If
more than one hardware profile exists, Windows uses the correct one for the current
configuration. If the ROM BIOS is ACPI compliant, Windows uses ACPI to enumerate
and initialize devices.
3. The kernel loads. Ntldr passes information collected by Ntdetect.com to Ntoskrnl.exe.
Ntoskrnl then loads the kernel, Hardware Abstraction Layer (Hal.dll), and Registry
information. An indicator near the bottom of the screen details progress.
4. Drivers load and the user logs on. Networking-related components (for example, TCP/IP)
load simultaneously with other services, and the Begin Logon prompt appears onscreen.
After a user logs on successfully, Windows updates the Last Known Good Configuration
information to reflect the current configuration state.
5. PnP detects and configures new devices. If new devices are detected, they are assigned
resources. Windows extracts the necessary driver files from Driver.cab. If the driver files

are not found, the user is prompted to provide them. Device detection occurs
simultaneously with the operating system logon process.
Window Vista
The boot sequence is the following:
1. The BIOS loads the Master Boot Record (MBR) of the hard drive. It contains the
followings structures: Master Partition Table and the Master Boot Code.
2. Master Partition Table: This small bit of code that is referred to as a table that contains a
complete description of the partitions that are contained on the hard disk.
3. Master Boot Code: Is the small bit of computer code that the BIOS loads and executes to
start the boot process.
4. The Master Boot Record, when fully executed, transfers control to the boot program
stored on the first sector of the active partition (Boot Sector).
5. The boot program loads the file that the Boot Sector has hardcoded inside: in this case it
loads the file NTLDR.
6. NTLDR file is responsible, among other things, for reading the BOOT.INI file and shows
us a menu to select the Operating System (in the case that we have two or more system

OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a
component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require
an operating system to function.
A. Linux

Linux is the best-known and most-used open source operating system. As an

operating system, Linux is software that sits underneath all of the other software on a
computer, receiving requests from those programs and relaying these requests to the
computers hardware.
For the purposes of this page, we use the term Linux to refer to the Linux kernel,
but also the set of programs, tools, and services that are typically bundled together
with the Linux kernel to provide all of the necessary components of a fully functional
operating system. Some people, particularly members of the Free Software
Foundation, refer to this collection as GNU/Linux, because many of the tools
included are GNU components. However, not all Linux installations use GNU
components as a part of their operating system. Android, for example, uses a Linux
kernel but relies very little on GNU tools

How does Linux differ from other operating systems?

In many ways Linux is similar to other operating systems you may have used before,
such as Windows, OS X, or iOS. Like other operating systems, Linux has a graphical
interface, and types of software you are accustomed to using on other operating

systems, such as word processing applications, have Linux equivalents. In many

cases, the softwares creator may have made a Linux version of the same program
you use on other systems. If you can use a computer or other electronic device, you
can use Linux.
But Linux also is different from other operating systems in many important ways.
First, and perhaps most importantly, Linux is open source software. The code used to
create Linux is free and available to the public to view, edit, andfor users with the
appropriate skillsto contribute to.
Linux is also different in that, although the core pieces of the Linux operating system
are generally common, there are many distributions of Linux, which include different
software options. This means that Linux is incredibly customizable, because not just
applications, such as word processors and web browsers, can be swapped out. Linux
users also can choose core components, such as which system displays graphics, and
other user-interface components.

What is the difference between Unix and Linux?

You may have heard of Unix, which is an operating system developed in the 1970s at
Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others. Unix and Linux are similar
in many ways, and in fact, Linux was originally created to be similar to Unix. Both
have similar tools for interfacing with the systems, programming tools, filesystem
layouts, and other key components. However, Unix is not free. Over the years, a
number of different operating systems have been created that attempted to be unixlike or unix-compatible, but Linux has been the most successful, far surpassing its
predecessors in popularity.
Who uses Linux?
Youre probably already using Linux, whether you know it or not. Depending on
which user survey you look at, between one- and two-thirds of the webpages on the
Internet are generated by servers running Linux.
Companies and individuals choose Linux for their servers because it is secure, and
you can receive excellent support from a large community of users, in addition to
companies like Canonical, SUSE, and Red Hat, which offer commercial support.
Many of the devices you own probably, such as Android phones, digital storage
devices, personal video recorders, cameras, wearables, and more, also run Linux.
Even your car has Linux running under the hood.
Who owns Linux?
By virtue of its open source licensing, Linux is freely available to anyone. However,
the trademark on the name Linux rests with its creator, Linus Torvalds. The source
code for Linux is under copyright by its many individual authors, and licensed under
the GPLv2 license. Because Linux has such a large number of contributors from
across multiple decades of development, contacting each individual author and

getting them to agree to a new license is virtually impossible, so that Linux remaining
licensed under the GPLv2 in perpetuity is all but assured.
How was Linux created?
Linux was created in 1991 by Linus Torvalds, a then-student at the University of
Helskinki. Torvalds built Linux as a free and open source alternative to Minix,
another Unix clone that was predominantly used in academic settings. He originally
intended to name it Freax, but the administrator of the server Torvalds used to
distribute the original code named his directory Linux after a combination of
Torvalds first name and the word Unix, and the name stuck.
B. Mac OS

an operating system that was designed for the Apple Macintosh computer. It was
developed by Apple Inc., who also created Apple I, as well as a number of other more
modern products including the iPod, iPhone, and iPad. The main competition to the Mac
OS is the Windows operating system, the most popular OS by a large margin.

History of Mac OS
The first version of the Mac OS, part of the "Classic" Mac OS series, was originally
released in the mid-1980s. It did not possess a command line and could only run one application
at a time. The first version of the Macintosh operating system to be named "Mac OS" was
version 7.6, the most recent version is called Mac OS X.
Apple OS History
Year

Event

1978

In June of 1978 Apple introduces Apple DOS 3.1, the first operating system for the
Apple computers.

1984

Apple introduces System 1.

1985

Apple introduces System 2.

1986

Apple introduces System 3.

1987

Apple introduces System 4.

1988

Apple introduces System 6.

1991

Apple introduces System 7 operating system May 13, 1991.

1995

Apple allows other computer companies to clone its computer by announcing its
licensed the Macintosh operating system rights to Radius on January 4.

1997

Apple introduces Mac OS 8.

1997

Apple buys NeXT Software Inc. for $400 million and acquires Steve Jobs, Apples

cofounder, as a consultant.
1999

Apple introduces Mac OS 9.

1999

Apple releases Mac OS X Server 1.0 on March 16, 1999.

2001

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.0 code named Cheetah and becomes available March
24, 2001.

2002

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.2 code named Jaguar and becomes available on August
23, 2002.

2003

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.3 code named Panther October 25, 2003

2004

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.4 code named Tiger at the WWDC on June 28, 2004.

2007

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.5 code named Leopard October 26, 2007.

2008

Apple introduces MobileMe at the WWDC on June 9, 2008.

2009

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.6 code named Snow Leopard at the WWDC on June 8,
2009.

2010

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.7 code named Lion at the "Back to the Mac" event on
October 20, 2010.

2012

Apple releases Mac OS X 10.8 code named Mountain Lion on July 25, 2012.

2013

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.9 code named Mavericks at the WWDC on June 10,
2013.

2014

Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.10 code named Yosemite at the WWDC on June 2,
2014.

Design concept of Mac OS

Apple's original concept for the Macintosh deliberately sought to minimize the user's conceptual
awareness of the operating system. Many basic tasks that had required more operating system
knowledge on other systems could then be accomplished by mouse gestures and graphic controls
on a Macintosh. This would differentiate it from its contemporaries such as MS-DOS, which use
a command-line interface consisting of tersely abbreviated textual commands.
The core of the system software of early Macintoshes is held in ROM, with updates originally
provided on floppy disk, freely capable at Apple dealers. The user's involvement in an upgrade of
the operating system is also minimized to running an installer, or replacing system files using the
file manager.
C. NetWare

Novell developed with NetWare a network operating system that no complex and over
weighted GUI needs for use on servers. Novell provides simple but powerful text-based menus
on the command line for the configuration since the first NetWare release.
NetWare needs only low hardware requirements and has memory protection. It protects
single processes from each other and is very stable through this in operation. Virtual memory is
used reliably. By IFS file systems can be exchanged. This operating system is used for all sorts of
fields of application. Use as a directory service, Internet server, Intranet server, file server or also
application server is part of it.
The first release of NetWare was 1983 for the operating system DOS. In 2005 the current
version of the network operating system Open Enterprise Server was published in different
variants. Either with NetWare 6.5 kernel or Linux kernel of the Suse Enterprise 9 server, no
matter which variant is used the same services are available.
NetWare 3.0
With the version NetWare 3.0 the 32-bit performance of the Intel 386 CPUs could already
be used fully. The following versions 3.1 and 3.11 eliminated many bugs from the main
release. NetWare 3.11 had great popularity in companies and worked very reliable and
stable. NetWare can respectively manage at most 32 TByte hard disk storages for at most
64 Volumes per servers. Novell cancelled the support for the version 3.2 in the year 2002.
NetWare 5.0
Structure information
- 64 Mb RAM, 550 Mb fixed storage disks are minimal
- SMP up to 32 CPUs, ASMP
- Monolithic kernel
- preemptive multitasking
- integrated Java applications and development tools (JVM)
- 32-bit operating system
- 64-bit file system NSS (Novell Storage Services)
System environment
- graphical installation
- TCP/IP is standard protocol now (before IPX/SPX)
- Program format is NLM (NetWare Loadable Module)
- Configuration over Novell Client32 possible
- Web optimized, offers network management
- JavaScript and VB Script support
- Reads FAT16 partitions
- Server connects different platforms
- Maximum size of Volumes: 8 terabyte with NSS
- New network functions like WAN Traffic manager
- DHCP and DNA integrated in NDS 8

NetWare 5.1
- Application platform for internet & intranet applications
- NDS 8, Novell Directory Services, efficient database model
- supports NFS (Network file system), AFP (Apple Filing Protocol)
- optimized for the services of Microsoft Office 2000
- supports the web publishing (NetWare Net publisher optional)
- NetWare Enterprise Web server 3.6 with Front-page support or Apache web server
- Novell International Cryptographic Infrastructure module, 56-bit encryption, 128-bits
optional
- NetWare client for Windows 2000, planned for Mac and Linux
- uniform user administration for different platforms
- use as a FTP server
- NetWare Management Portal, Administration of network installations over a browser
- Cluster services upgradeable as Add-On
- Hardware requirements for the full installation: 512 Mb RAM, 2 Gb hard disk storage
NetWare 6.0
- Cluster services integrated, up to 32 NetWare server in one system group
- Console One as a NetWare management program
- NFA (Native File Access) replaces the NetWare client, access from different platforms
possibly, supported:
- CIFS (Computer Internet File System) for Windows Clients
- AFP (AppleTalk Filing Protocol) for Mac Clients
- NIS/NFS for Unix Clients
- FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for data exchange
- NSS 3.0 (Novell Storage Services), up to 8 Tb Hard disk storage, 64-bit processing depth
- Mirroring of NSS partitions with Raid 0 and Raid 1, use of virtual partitions, Storage Pools,
up to 255 Logical Volumes
- I-Folder for virtual work directories and synchronization tasks (with comparison by-bits),
with I-Folder client by HTTP(S), Blowfish (128-bits)
- I-Print is further development of NDPS (Novell Distributed Print services), inclusive Drive
Map for graphical location plan
- IPP (Internet Printing Protocol) for control of printers over the Internet
- Minimum: Pentium II or AMD K7 (Server class), 256 mb RAM, DOS partition with 200
mbyte of size, 2 Gb for sys Volume
NetWare 6.5
- support for Mac, Windows and UNIX networks
- modul-based Installation, server profiles for App, DNS, Print, ...
- Browser based administration and control
- E-Directory, formerly NDS (as like Active Directory of Microsoft)
- simplified Administration and use of network resources
- Virtual Office portal, remote access to working environment
- counts on OpenSource solutions, mySQL is integrated

- Minimum: Pentium II or comparable, 512 mbyte RAM, 200 mbyte start partition and 2
gbyte for system partition
Performance

File service instead of disk service

Aggressive caching
Efficiency of NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)
Non-preemptive OS designed for network services

UTILITY SOFTWARE
Is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It is a
type of system software used to support the computer infrastructure, distinguishing it from
application software which is aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption
capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the
reverse operation.
Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either
the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of
accidental deletion).
Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .
Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.
Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a
target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may
be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry
their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.
Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one
user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.
Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve programming
errors. Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems.
Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompressed the contents of a
disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.

 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase
efficiency.
Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its
own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each
folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the
used space.
Disk storage utilities
File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management,
email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, moving,
copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
Memory testers check for memory failures.
Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a
computer.
Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment
or security.
System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.
System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.

DEVICE DRIVERS
In computing, a device driver (commonly referred to as a driver) is a computer program
that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver
provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other
computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details of the
hardware being used.
A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications
subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the
driver, the driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back to the driver,
the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware dependent
and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any
necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface.

Purpose
Device drivers simplify programming by acting as translator between a hardware device
and the applications or operating systems that use it. Programmers can write the higher-level
application code independently of whatever specific hardware the end-user is using.
Applications
Because of the diversity of modern hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many
different environments. Drivers may interface with:

Printers
Video adapters
Network cards
Sound cards
Local buses of various sortsin particular, for bus mastering on modern systems
Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards,
USB, etc.)
Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA,
SATA, SCSI)
Implementing support for different file systems
Image scanners
Digital cameras

For hardware:

Interfacing directly
Writing to or reading from a device control register
Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS)
Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers)
Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different

For software:

Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources

Implementing only primitives
Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g., TWAIN)
Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g., PostScript)