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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In order to achieve power generation for the utilities sector in the nineties, the wind turbine
electric power generator technology was put in place. In their current form, wind driven power
stations represent not a replacement for the conventional power station but would exist as a
complement, thereby forming a part of the total electric generation mix. In principle, the wind
system could replace a part of the existing conventional generation capacity. More realistically,
they will cover the envisaged demands of power. This advantage leads to the wind turbine
technology undergoing a revolution. Researches are being carried out in different countries to
facilitate an improvement generation of power through the use of wind turbine.
With the recent surge of energy demand in Nigeria and the failure or near collapse of the
installed Gas and Hydro-electric power stations to meet the requirements of the Nigerian Nation, it
has become imperative to utilize the other forms or sources of energy in order to power the
Nigerian nation to industrialization. The industrialization process can be achieved through the use
of wind turbine technology. A reference can be drawn from Denmark; the annual growth rate of
the wind turbine industry has an averaged approximated percentage of 40% for recent years. The
Danish wind turbine manufacturing industry has become a major industrial player with an annual
turnover of 20Billion Dkr (Danish Krone) and a global market share of 50% in 2003 [Hills R.L,
2003].
Unlike the trend toward large-scale grid connected wind turbines seen in the West, the
more immediate demand for rural energy supply in developing countries, like Nigeria, is for
smaller machines in the 5 - 100 kW range. These can be connected to small, localized micro-grid
systems and used in conjunction with diesel generating sets and/or solar photovoltaic systems.
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Currently, the use of wind power for electricity production in developing countries is limited, the
main area of growth being for very small battery charging wind turbines (50 - 150 Watts). In Inner
Mongolia there are over 30,000 such machines used by farmer for providing power for lighting,
televisions, radios, etc. Other applications for small wind machines include water pumping,
telecommunications power supply and irrigation [www.windpower.dk, accessed 2008].
The wind turbines can be installed in a wind farm (an array of wind turbines) creating a
wind power station, with hundreds of megawatt. Standards for interconnection and transmission
level are still being developed and they keep making new challenges for the interface and control
of the wind turbine systems.
1.0.1 ENERGY PRODUCTION
Energy is the force, vigor and capacity to get things done. Several energy resources
exist in Nigeria classified into:
1. Non-renewable or conventional energy sources.
2. Non-conventional or renewable energy sources.
But despite the availability of these resources Nigeria still falls below world average in
terms of per capital energy consumption. The various forms of energy have in one way or the other
influenced the growth and development of Nigeria. This is evident in the various sectors involved
in energy consumption vis-à-vis, Industrial/energy, Utilities, transportation, commercial and
residential sectors. The harnessing of the various energy sources also has varying side effect due to
their conversion processes.
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1.0.1.1 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE
These are sources of energy which are not replenished or not capable of being
replenished. It includes energy from coal, crude oil and natural gas. In some cases, such energies
are being renewed but over a time scale, they may be considered effectively as non-renewable.
Nuclear energy supplies are strictly non-renewable [Malcoun Slesser, 1982].
The harnessing of conventional energy resources especially burning of fossil fuel has
resulted in the release of concentrated amounts of CO (Carbon Monoxide) in the atmosphere.
Although, the transport and energy sector has been the biggest culprits, most focus has been on the
energy sector. This has eventually led to the depletion of the ozone layer. Consequently, the green
house effect is seriously been felt by developed countries like china and America, they being the
worst hit by the depleted ozone layer due to their large industrial activity. Alternative sources of
energy have now sprung up as a result of this to correct the situation before it gets out of control.
1.0.1.2 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE
These are sources of energy that are constantly being created or renewed in a relatively
short period of time. Sources of energy which fall into these categories are wind, solar, water and
biomass. The harnessing of non-conventional energy resources has proven to be cleaner energy
alternatives since the conversion process of the energy are emission free. Wind driven power
systems represent a renewable technology, which may be described as mid-course in terms of its
development and maturity. It is a power technology which has evolved rapidly over the years and
has accumulated significant, large-scale, utility-connected experience.
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1.1 WIND ENERGY
Wind energy, a renewable energy source, is an alternative form of energy, which has
stood out as the most valuable and promising choice. This is not only due to the fact that wind
energy has a decentralized mode of operation that reduces transmission and distribution failures
but also because it is cheap, environmentally friendly, inexhaustible, price stable, free from control
and is virtually available in every part of the Nation in some amount.
Wind is air in motion, caused by the uneven heating of the earth by the sun. Wind
occurs when warm air rises and cooler air moves to fill the space. It is estimated that 2% of the
solar energy [www.wikipedia.com, accessed 2008] is constantly being interchanged between the
warm tropics and the cold polar caps. The rotation of the earth also produces wind.
The sun radiates the most heat over the equator and therefore, the air there is warmer.
Air from both the hemisphere is constantly moving towards the equator. The rotation of the earth
causes the cool wind to be deflected from east to west. As the surface of the earth heats and cools
unevenly, pressure zones are created that make air move from high to low pressure areas [Paul
Gipe, 1995].
1.2 WIND TURBINE
A turbine is a device which converts the stored kinetic energy in a fluid into rotational
mechanical work. There are several types of turbine, including steam turbine, gas turbine, water
turbine and wind turbine (or wind mills). The various turbines are widely used for the generation
of electricity and for the supply of motive power. The integration of wind-driven (wind turbine)
electrical generation system with the balance of utility system is straight forward and is
accomplished using standard utility components and practice.
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The process by which the kinetic energy of wind is used to generate mechanical power or
electrical energy is known as wind power or wind energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly
by machinery, such as a pump or grinding stone, the machine is usually called a wind mill. If the
mechanical power is converted to electricity, the machine is called a Wind Generator, Wind
Turbine, Wind Power Unit (WPU) or Wind Energy converter.
A wind turbine is a rotating machine that converts the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical energy and then to electrical energy. They are designed to exploit the wind energy that
exists at that location. With the energy untapped in the wind, serious research has been undergone
for the optimization of the design of a wind turbine. Small wind turbines with power outputs of
about 0.5KW to 10KW are common energy source for farms and isolated areas where energy from
the grid might be too expensive to install.
In its operation, wind turbine plants utilize no fossil fuels or radioactive materials.
Therefore, there is no associated risk of environmental degradation or contribution to global
warming which is a major side advantage of this project. The capital and maintenance cost
associated with scrubbers and other pollution control devices are eliminated. The cost of
continuing risk associated with the nuclear power station is eliminated.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WIND TURBINE
Wind turbines exist in various designs and configurations but they can be generally
grouped into the major groups which are
i. Horizontal-Axis Wind turbine(HAWT)
ii. Vertical-Axis Wind turbine(VAWT)
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1.3.1 VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE (VAWT)
Vertical-Axis Wind turbines are typically developed only for urban deployment changes in
wind direction have fewer negative effects on this type of turbine because it does not need to be
positioned into the wind direction. However, the overall efficiency of this turbine in producing
electricity is lower than Horizontal-Axis Wind turbines.
Historically, these turbine are categorized as Savonius or Darrieus types, according to the
principle used to capture the wind flow. For the Savonius type, the wind pushes speed is always
lower than the wind speed contrary to that, the shape of the rotor of the Darrieus type makes it
possible for the rotor to spin faster than the wind speed. The axis of rotation of the turbine blade is
vertical with respond to the ground and roughly perpendicular to the wind stream. Vertical axis
wind turbine design can be subdivided into two types namely, the lift and drag based designs.
The basic theoretical advantages of a vertical axis machine are:
1. The generator, gearbox etc. may be placed on the ground, and a tower may not be needed
for the machine.
2. No need of a yaw mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.
The basic disadvantages are:
1. Wind speeds are very low close to ground level, so although the tower might not be
needed, wind speeds will be very low on the lower part of the rotor.
2. The overall efficiency of the vertical axis machines is not impressive.
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3. The machine is not self-starting (e.g. a Darrieus machine will need a "push" before it starts.
This is only a minor inconvenience for a grid connected turbine).
It is in view of these disadvantages that the aim of this project is an efficient design that will
overcome these problems.
1.3.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE (HAWT)
The wind turbine design in this project falls under this category of wind turbine. In the
horizontal axis wind turbine, the propeller type rotor is mounted on a horizontal axis. The rotor
needs to be positioned in line with the wind direction by means of a tail or active yawing by a yaw
motor. The Horizontal-Axis Wind turbines are sensitive to the changes in wind direction and
turbulence which have a negative effect on performance due to the required reposition of the
turbine into the wind flow. The best locations for Horizontal-Axis Wind turbines are open areas
with smooth air flow and few obstacles.
Typical Horizontal-Axis Wind turbine either has two or three blades. These three bladed
wind turbines are operated “upwind’, with the blades facing into the wind and the alternator placed
at the top of the tower. The other type of horizontal axis wind turbine is the two blades,
“downwind” turbine. In both cases, the axis of the blade rotation is horizontal with respect to the
ground and roughly parallel to the wind stream.
All grid-connected commercial wind turbines today are built with a propeller-type rotor on
a horizontal axis (i.e. a horizontal main shaft). The purpose of the rotor, of course, is to convert the
linear motion of the wind into rotational energy that can be used to drive a generator. The same
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basic principle is used in a modern water turbine, where the flow of water is parallel to the
rotational axis of the turbine blades.
1.4 WIND CONVERSION PRINCIPLE
There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the
wind; these are through the creation of either lift or drag force (or through a combination of the
two). Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion, these being the forces felt by a
person (or object) exposed to the wind. Lift forces are the most efficient means of propulsion but
being more subtle than drag forces are not so well understood. The basic features that characterize
lift and drag are:
• drag is in the direction of air flow
• lift is perpendicular to the direction of air flow
• generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed
• with a good aerofoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the
drag
• lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices
There are two main families of wind machines, which would be described in the next
chapter: vertical axis machines and horizontal axis machines. These can in turn use either lift or
drag forces to harness the wind. The horizontal axis lift device is the type most commonly used. In
fact other than a few experimental machines virtually all windmills come under this category.
There are several technical parameters that are used to characterize windmill rotors. The tip-speed
ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of the extremities of a windmill rotor to the speed of the
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free wind. Drag devices always have tip-speed ratios less than one and hence turn slowly, whereas
lift devices can have high tip-speed ratios (up to 13:1) and hence turn quickly relative to the wind.
1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The problem statement of this project work is to design, analyze and prepare a model of a
wind turbine using computer program as a simulation tool for the intricate embodiments, wind
power requirements and in generating cost model for the wind turbine to enhance generation of
electricity in Ekiti state. A generator of 1.8KW capacity for the wind turbine is to be used as a case
study. The project work attempts to build upon prior and related researches on the feasibility of
using wind turbine in Ekiti state by taking metrological considerations thereby enabling the design
to be carried out using carefully followed design procedure, which covers design of the intricate
features or components and the installation of the same to give the complete functional system.
Proper material selection for the wind turbine would also be done in other to facilitate
efficient performance of the wind turbine. The design is simulated using the Visual Basic
(VBASIC) program that would cover the aforementioned simulation details.
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT WORK
The importance of power in the form of electricity cannot be overrated. One of the yard
stick to measure a developed nation is their level of industrialization. Electricity is the open secret
to a nation’s industrialization. To this end, it is necessary to have a reliable and stable electricity
supply to ensure development.
The research and development into alternative sources of energy, that is renewable, has
therefore, become of great significance. The design and modeling of a wind turbine for electric
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power generation, will go a long way into the building blocks for search and development of
means of harnessing alternate energy. The performance of the means or machines utilized for the
purpose of harnessing alternative energy can be improved upon by further research.
It is worthy of note, that this work “Design Analysis and Modeling Of a Wind Turbine “
comes at a time where power generation output has reached an unwanted and undesirable level,
which has made the hope for constant electricity a dream in the Nigerian nation.
1.7 BENEFITS OF THE WIND TURBINE
There are currently about 10 gigawatts (GW, or billion watts) of installed wind power
extracting devices in the world, with Germany and Denmark leading the way in Europe, and the
United States accounting for 1.7 GW[7]. The benefits of the wind turbine are being enjoyed in these
countries as their electricity requirements are met using the wind energy and Nigeria can venture
into using wind turbine to meet its power requirements following the success of the same in the
aforementioned countries.
Governments are increasingly looking towards wind power and other renewable energy
sources to combat increasing greenhouse gases and global warming. During its operating life, a
typical wind turbine can produce 80 times the energy used to build, operate, and dismantle it.
Public opinion is broadly in favour of wind power, but the environmental impact of wind farms
could be a barrier to future developments [www.wikipedia.com, wind turbine, accessed 2008].
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Fig 1. World installed capacity for wind turbines.
COUNTRY CAPACITY (KW)
GERMANY 20622
SPAIN 11615
US 11603
INDIA 6270
DENMARK 3136
CHINA 2604
ITALY 2123
UK 1963
PORTUGAL 1716
FRANCE 1567
REST OF THE WORLD 11005
TOTAL 74224
TABLE 1.1 World wind turbine capacity, installed. 2006
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1.7.1 ADVANTAGES OF WIND TURBINE OVER CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
SOURCES
1. Energy from wind turbines is renewable since average wind energy is always present and
available for use. There is no depletion in its use. This ensures continuity of the existence
of wind energy as a source of power. The conventional energy are not renewable, as such
use is limited and has to be managed. It is estimated that most conventional energy sources
would have depleted in the near future.
2. Wind energy is clean. The production of energy from the wind has no waste products or
emissions that can cause environmental degradation or hazard to human health.
Radioactive wastes from nuclear energy, carbon-monoxide from crude oil combustion,
deforestation are all negative side-effects of conventional energy sources.
3. Wind energy is cheap. The cost of construction of a array of wind turbine and its
maintenance is lower as compared to the cost of oil rigs, nuclear power plants and other
conventional energy sources of equal power output.
4. Wind energy has a decentralized mode of operation. This means that individuals can own
their energy supply. This ensures that the required energy demand is met for every power
load. There will be little waste.
1.7.2 DISADVANTAGES OF WIND TURBINE OVER CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
SOURCES
1. The energy produced from wind turbines is dependent on the wind speed available at that
particular area at a particular time. This restricts its flexibility to operates at any giving time
or location.
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2. When used in an array of wind turbines. The whistling sound can serve as a noise pollution
to nearby residence.
3. There is a limit to the power produced in wind turbines. As too large a wind turbine can be
very difficult to control. Conventional energy sources tend to produce higher power output.
1.8 JUSTIFICATION
The design analysis and modeling of a wind turbine requires an in-depth knowledge and
understand of the parameters involved and mode of operations of the various parts. Aerodynamic
modeling is used to determine optimum height of tower, control systems, number of blades and
blade shape for the wind turbine.
Thus, the successful completion of the design and subsequent modeling of the wind turbine
will stand to meet the power requirements of Nigeria and in particular, Ekiti State. It would result
in bringing the nation further ahead in its quest to meet the energy demands. This is in respect to
the contribution of the design to the advancement of industrialization which is a function of
availability of electric power.
1.9 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Designing a device to withstand all wind conditions is a complex engineering problem.
Wind turbines are by necessity large structures and are therefore subject to large forces. One of the
limitations inhibiting the realization of the major objective of this study stands out to be the non-
availability of wind speed, topographical data and other metrological information necessary to be
used as a guide to design and construction of the wind turbine.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
There has been a lot of development of the wind turbine during the last century, this
development however was somewhat sporadic with the most interest being shown in the
development of the wind turbines at times of high energy prices but when prices decreased, the
interest in wind turbine decreased along with them. This was the pattern up until the oil crisis
during the Yon Kippur in 1973, where Arabic states refused to ship oil to countries that supported
Israel in the conflict. This led to a sudden increase in the price of oil which in turn stimulated a
number of government funded programs of research into alternative energy sources. This was the
beginning of a concerted effort to produce utility scale machines in many countries such as Britain,
Denmark, Germany and the USA. The remarkable output of the wind turbine is directly attributed
to this period of sustained research born out of the oil crisis. [Wind energy, Microsoft Encarta
encyclopedia 2008]
Wind machines were first used in Persia (Now Iran) for irrigation and milling/grinding
grains around 260BC. The wind bearing the wind sails of the earliest wind mills was horizontal
with a vertical support. Europe, around the 12th century, wind mills appeared in France and
England and were called post mills. By 1900, Denmark had about 2500 wind mills for mechanical
loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated peak power of about 30MW. Wind power
was used as a source of mechanical energy on and for thousand of years. The Europeans were
using wind mills by 1000AD. The Dutch in their own case used the windmills to drain the land and
the Dutch settlers introduced windmills to the United States in the early 1600s.
[www.wikipedia.com, wind turbine, accessed 2008]
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The first wind turbine for electricity production was built by Charles F. Brush in 1888 and
1908. They were 92 wind driven electric generators with 4 bladed 23m diameter rotor for the
largest machines. In the UK, the first wind turbine, uses a battery charging machine installed in
1887 James Blyth in Scotland. The first utility grid connected to wind turbine, operated in the UK
was built by the James Brown Company in 1984. It had 18m diameter, three bladed rotor and an
output of 100KW. [Wind energy, Microsoft Encarta encyclopedia, 2008].
Daniel Halliday invented a new style for wind mill, which many believe encourage the
rapid settling of the American west. More than 6.5million wind mills were sold in the US (United
State) between 1880 and 1935. They were used to pump water, grind grain and cut lumber. Some
small electrical generating systems were used to produce direct current by 1900. Cheap electricity
was introduced in 1940’s and most of wind powered generating systems in rural area were
considered obsolete and fell into disuse. The exponential energy appetite of the industrialized
world consuming finite resources and the exponential growth in pollution associated with energy
production has renewed interest in wind power and wind turbine is the name given to a complete,
electricity generating windmill. [www.wikipedia.com, wind energy, 2008]
Several researches have been carried out on the viability of the wind turbine for power
generation. These researches cover the entire design of a wind turbine from the blade design to the
intricate control systems which allow for optimum performance. On the note-able work on the
theory of wind machines, using Betz equation shows a mathematical approach for evaluating
various parameters involved in the design of the wind turbine [M. Ragheb, 2008].
Philip D. 2004, research covered wind resources, the Origin of the wind. He showed how to
estimate available wind power and how a horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) works. Through
the use of relevant equations, he obtained the power coefficient using the Betz relation. Other
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aspects covered by his research which are essential to the wind turbine technology are the aerofoil
concept, Blade element–momentum theory, brakes, gearbox, generators and aesthetic
considerations
In an attempt to achieve optimization and power analysis of a wind turbine, Afolami, 2007,
improved the operation of a wind turbine through replacement of some components of the wind
turbine in other to collect data over a period of time thereby analyzing the amount of power
generated within a given wind direction, speed and location. The data obtained from the power
analyses was compared with that obtained from the wind data logger.
Michael Schmidt, 2007, showed that modern wind turbines have become an economically
competitive form of clean and renewable power generation. Optimizing wind turbines for specific
sites can further increase their economic competitiveness. In his study, he carried out an economic
optimization analysis of a variable speed, three blade, horizontal-axis wind turbine. The turbine
design parameters considered were the rotor diameter, hub height, and generator capacity. Blade
element momentum theory is used to calculate the power produced by the wind turbine rotor. The
Weibull distribution was used to model the wind resource. He showed that increasing the rotor
diameter increases the power delivered to the generator at all wind speeds up to the limit of
generator capacity. Increasing the generator capacity raises the limit on maximum power output.
Increasing the hub height of a wind turbine increases power output due to the higher wind speeds
at increased heights. However, all of these design changes involve an increase in capital cost. The
cost models used by him were taken from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
The potential of wind energy for power generation in Ekiti State, Nigeria, as studied by
Ogunleye and Emehelu, 2007, records and shows that Ekiti State with a land area of 7000Km2 has
2.1GW of wind energy potential. Though, it should be noted that the forecast above are on
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assumption that the whole 7000km is used, which is not possible. Analysis and calculations
including design procedures, wind speed data and location where investigated by them.
In this project, using an output capacity of up to 1.8KW for power generation in Ekiti State
as a case study and by working with prior or related research, the various embodiments, design
considerations, design procedures, material selection, installation procedures and computer
generated model for a wind turbine will be presented. Through a compromise between various
aspects of engineering, scientific and mathematical applications, a design was arrived at and is
presented in this project. A Model which includes, the mathematical modeling of the wind turbine
as a dynamic system and a computer model using Visual Basic programming language to simulate
the operational requirements and conditions of the wind turbine will be presented.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
For both small and large wind generators of turbines, it is essential that the pre-design stage
be preceded with the knowledge of the wind data such as; average wind speed, direction of wind,
topography of location and other meteorological data in order to know the amount of energy that
can be derived from such location. Wind data can be obtained from wind maps or from the
meteorology office. Unfortunately the general availability and reliability of wind speed data is
extremely poor in many regions of the world even in Nigeria. It is important to obtain accurate
wind data for the site in mind before any decision can be made as to its suitability to locate a wind
turbine there.
3.0.1 METEOROLOGY AND ANALYSIS OF WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL
In reference to the research of Ogunleye and Emehelu, 2007, raw field data on wind speed,
pressure, temperature and density were acquired from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency
(NIMET). These data are not available for Ado-Ekiti site but for Akure, the nearest location and
were used on the basis of relative comparability. Mean values for July were used for the analysis.
The table below shows the result of their findings
Month/Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
July 2.55 2.3 2.4 2.75 2.2 2.5
Table 3.1: Average Wind Speed Over Akure between 2001 and 2006 in m/s
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This gives and average wind speed for the stipulated period to be 2.45m/s.The wind speed
values were obtained at 1.7m anemometer height against required 10m hub height which implies
that the performance of the wind turbine is expected to be higher at 10m hub height where the
wind speed is expected to be 50% higher. The power output increases by a factor of eight for every
wind speed doubling. Economically, it is better to make the hub height 110m where the power will
be about twelve times the ground speed power generation. The analysis of wind energy potential is
carried out in accordance with the recommended practices for wind turbine testing by the
International Energy Agency(1990) and the aim is to carry out a power of performance test on a
designed wind turbine of predetermined power rating. The Simulated result will be useful in
determining if the quality of wind over the project site is good enough for wind turbine power
generation and it also will show the land space that needs to be made available for adequate power
generation and the expected power generation characteristics. The conclusion of the findings of
Ogunleye and Emehelu, 2007 shows that there is abundance of theoretical power in the wind
above Ado-Ekiti and as such, it serves as a good start-point to prove that at higher altitudes the
wind power is enough in quality and quantity to generate uninterrupted power in Ado-Ekiti.
This project describes an upwind Horizontal Wind turbine, whose rotor faces the wind. It
will have the advantage of avoiding the wind shade (Wind bending away from the tower) behind
the tower. This is in contrast to the downwind turbine whose rotor is placed in a different
configuration to that of the upwind. The rotor of the upwind turbines has to be made inflexible and
placed at some distance from the tower and this type of turbine will require a yaw mechanism to
keep the rotor facing the wind.
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3.1 ROTOR BLADE DESIGN
The rotor blade is the most important and most visible part of the wind turbine. It is
through the rotor that the energy of the wind is transformed into mechanical energy that turns the
main shaft of the wind turbine. It is expedient to start by describing why the blades are shaped the
way that they are and what really happens, when the blades rotate. The front and rear sides of a
wind turbine rotor blade have a shape roughly similar to that of a long rectangle, with the edges
bounded by the leading edge, the trailing edge, the blade tip and the blade root. The blade root is
bolted to the hub. The radius of the blade is the distance from the rotor shaft to the outer edge of
the blade tip. If a blade were sawn in half, one would see that the cross section has a streamlined
asymmetrical shape, with the flattest side facing the oncoming air flow or wind. This shape is
called the blade’s aerodynamic profile. The shape of the aerodynamic profile is decisive for blade
performance. Even minor alterations in the shape of the profile can greatly alter the power curve
and noise level.
3.1.1 BASIC THEORY OF BLADE OPERATION
The Basic theory governing the design considerations in terms of power in the wind, Betz
model and wind flow round a blade of a horizontal axis wind turbine are discussed below
(A) POWER IN THE WIND
The power in the wind is proportional to:
• the area of rotor blade being swept by the wind
• the cube of the wind speed
• the air density - which varies with altitude
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Power And Wind Speed
The amount of power that a wind turbine generates depends on the wind speed at the time.
The power curve describes the relationship between the wind speed and the power that the turbine
generates.
Fig 3.1 power – wind speed variation
At very low wind speed the turbine is unable to generate electricity. As the wind speed
increases to the cut-in speed the turbine begins to operate. Between the cut-in and the rated wind
speeds the turbine takes all the power it can from the wind. Above the rated wind speed and below
cut-out the turbine maintains a constant power output, called the rated power which is lower than
the actual available power in the wind but the maximum that the wind turbine is capable of
producing. The rated power level is chosen to give a high electricity production for low wind
turbine cost. This is achieved by limiting the electrical and physical loads. The rated power is the
same as the installed capacity.
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When wind speeds are very high the turbine shuts down to protect itself from damage. This
happens when the wind speed is higher than the turbine’s cut-out wind speed. The fact that the
power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed is very significant. This can be demonstrated
by pointing out that if the wind speed doubles then the power in the wind increases by a factor of
eight. It is therefore worthwhile finding a site which has a relatively high mean wind speed.
Air traveling at uniform velocity V,
Density Mass flow

Mechanical power out
Power in the wind Pw Pr
Area A
Fig 3.2 Air stream model covering an area
Kinetic energy of a portion of the flowing air of mass m is ½ mV2 and the rate of energy
flow (i.e. power) P for the whole flow is
= 1 mU 2 = 1 ρAU 3
2 2
Power = 1 ρAU 3
2
where: P is power in watts (W)
is the air density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m³)
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A is the swept rotor area in square metres (m²)
V is the wind speed in metres per second (m/s)
Where Pr is Mechanical power out
Pw is Wind power in
(B) BETZ THEORY AND ASSUMPTIONS USED
Betz’s law is analogous to the Carnot cycle efficiency in thermodynamics suggesting that
heat engine cannot extract all the energy from a given source of energy and must reject part of its
heat input back to the environment. Whereas the Carnot cycle efficiency can be expressed in terms
of the input temperature T1 and the heat rejection temperature T2, Betz’s equation deals with the
upstream wind speed U1 and the downstream wind velocity U2.The loss in efficiency of a heat
engine is caused by the heat rejection to the environment. The losses in efficiency for a practical
wind turbine are caused by the viscous drag on the blades, the swirl imparted to the air flow by the
rotor, and the power losses in the transmission and electrical system.
Betz theory is given below
• A wind turbine obstruct the flow of the wind completely
• The flow is spread out as it slows down
• Therefore not all of the power can be extracted
• The limit to how much power can be extracted was determined by Betz as
Cp = power coefficient
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Betz’s Limits: Assumptions
• Frictionless, incompressible and steady flow: uses Bernoulli equation P + ½ U2= constant
• Velocity varies in direction of rotor axis:1-D theory
• The work done by the fluid passing through the rotor is all converted into useful work
extracted from the turbine
Air Flow Rotor Area, A

velocity U1
Fig 3.3 Betz’s ideal model of wind turbine in comparism with Bernoulli principle
Bernoulli:
[Philip Davies, 2004]
Where P2, P2, P3 and P4, Represents Pressures at point 1,2,3 and 4
Momentum Balance
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Force Balance
Using
From equation 1 and 2, [Philip Davies, 2004]
When substituted in equation (4), ……………..(5)
Comparing equation (4) and (5)
Which shows that the air velocity U2 the rotor is the mean of the upstream and downstream
velocities U1 and U4
Axial Induction Factor
Introducing the axial induction factor ‘a’ as a measure of the decrease in axial air velocity
through the turbine and it is defined as:
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It has been shown that the velocity drops by the same amount before and after the turbine.
Therefore:
Now we can write the thrust on the rotor in terms of U1and a:
The rate at which work is transferred to the rotor Pr is given by the thrust times the velocity:
From the definition of power coefficient
At a = 1/3, a maximum value of Cp occurs, known as the Betz limit
The corresponding thrust is
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(C) AEROFOIL THEORY
Air flows more quickly over the top surface of an aerofoil than the bottom surface,
resulting in a pressure difference and lift. The lift on an aerofoil is several times the drag. As the
angle of attack ‘ ’ increases, lift increases until stall (a situation during which an angle of attack
becomes so large that the air flow no can longer flow smoothly, or laminar, across the profile)
occurs
where A is the area of the aerofoil
CL is the Lift coefficient
CD is the Lift coefficient
U is the apparent wind speed
Lift and Drag coefficients are determined experimentally in wind tunnels.
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LIFT
FAST
DRAG
SLOW
Fig 3.4 Air flow around an aerodynamic profile
(D) BLADE-ELEMENT MOMENTUM THEORY DESIGNING THE IDEAL ROTOR
This involves the combination of the Betz theory and aerofoil theory to determine the shape
of the ideal rotor. The conditions will vary from the hub to the outside of the rotor, so it is
imagined that the blade consists of small radial element, each r long.
Fig 3.5 Elemental radius
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Ideal Rotor : Relative Velocity And Lift
The tangential velocity of the blade is usually many times the wind speed. This gives rise to
a large lift force.
Relative velocity
Tip Speed Ratio
This is defined as speed of the blade tip divided by wind speed
At a radius r:
Where R is the radius of the whole blade
Making use of the Betz relation and assuming the ideal situation of a = 1/3:
The pitch angle can be expressed as
and therefore
Thrust On The Section Of The Rotor
Applying the Betz expression for thrust to just an annular section of the rotor.
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Relative Velocity And Lift
Thrust
Lift force
Tangential Force
c
Tangential Velocity .
Relative Velocity
Approach Velocity
ig 3.6 Velocity and forces acting on a profile of chord length c
Equate with expression for
(B is number of blades)
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and using
Relative Velocity,
To give
Combining with the expression for
gives the following expression for aerofoil chord length in the direction of the pitch angle:
c = [Philip Davies, 2004]
And
Chord Width, Cw given by [Hugh Piggott, 2007]
When designing a wind turbine, the angle of attack, , depends on the pitch, , and a Blade
angle, . The blade angle or blade setting angle is given as, . In order to optimize the
lift force, and satisfy the Betz criterion, drag must be minimized. Therefore, a section has to be
chosen an angle of attack ‘ ’ where Lift/Drag ratio is high. Finding the best angle of attack can be an
involving process because the Drag and lift coefficients depends on both the section and the
Reynolds number (a measure of the size and speed of the blade). In practice, most sections produce
Lift
their best /Drag at an angle of attack ‘ ’ around 5 degrees.
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Therefore,
= - 5
Fig 3.7 Angles of the profile
Each blade element has a certain band of wind to process. As radius r grows smaller near
the centre, the amount of wind in the band gets smaller too. The outer parts if the blade therefore
does most of the work. The inner part is less important but needs a different shape. To satisfy the
Betz criterion, the wind in each part of the swept area of the rotor must be slowed down to 1/3 of
its upstream velocity, and this slowing down is down by the thrust force, which is very closely
related to the Lift force. That is, Neglecting Drag (very small error),
3.1.2 BLADE DESIGN FOR A 1.8KW WIND TURBINE
1. ROTOR DIAMETER
In choosing the rotor diameter for the required output, 1.8KW, in this project work, the
following procedures are taken into consideration
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A generator of capacity 1.8KW or more will have a RPM (REVOLUTION PER MINUTE) of a
specific value that corresponds to its output power. As such, the rotor diameter will be given by the
equation,
[Hugh Piggot, 2007]
In other to facilitate quick extraction of the required specification for the diameter of a
wind turbine, the table below gives the diameter to be used for various output requirement of the
wind turbine.
Diameter(m) Power (Watts)
1 50 – 100
2 250 – 500
3 500 – 1000
4-5 1000 – 3000
Source : [Hugh piggott, 2007]
Table 3.2 Relation between rotor Diameter and power output
It is thus apparent to choose a rotor diameter, D as 5 m so as to make effective use of the
wind available by providing a large swept area. This implies that the radius is 2.5 m for the
purpose of generating up to 1.8KW.
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5m
Fig 3.8 Diameter of rotor
2. TIP SPEED RATIO
The tip speed ratio will affect the rpm (revolution per minute) of the main shaft connecting
the
[Hugh Piggot, 2007]
The value of the tip speed ratio is chosen from between 5 and 8. Any value can be
selected. For purpose of this project the tip speed ratio, , is chosen as 5.
3. NUMBER OF BLADES (B)
Using the relation [Hugh Piggot, 2007]
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NUMBER OF BLADES,
Therefore, number of blades = 3
Why Odd Number Of Blades?
The most important reason is the stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of
rotor blades (and at least three blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating
the dynamic properties of the machine. A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability
problems for a machine with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the
uppermost blade bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the
lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
4. WIDTH OF THE BLADE
The width of the blade in the outer portion, will be obtained from the relation
[Hugh piggot, 2007]
Therefore taking , and
It has been noted that the outer part of the blade is the most important than the inner part. But the
inner part should be made wider, to help with starting torque.
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5. BLADE SETTING ANGLE,
The blade setting angle will be obtained along the section of the wind turbine blades. This
is also obtained together with the Chord length, pitch along the section. Radius R = 2.5m.The
Table below can be generated for the design in this project using the formulas obtained for chord
Width, pitch and Blade setting angle
r
/R (Sections) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Chord Width, Cw (m) 0.93 0.47 0.31 0.23 0.19
Pitch, ,(o) 34 19 13 10 8
Blade Setting Angle , , (o) 29 14 8 5 3
Table 3.3 Design parameters for blade
The blade root is tapered out wide to improve the starting and the tips are tapered down to
reduce the noise.
Starting torque can be estimated from the formula
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Where V is the Average wind speed, R is the Rotor Radius and is the Tip speed ratio.
For Ado-Ekiti, it is estimated that the Starting Torque will be 33.58Nm, that is when taking, V(z)
as 7.33m/s at a hub height of 10m, R as 2.5m and as 5
Where V(z) is obtained from the expression
Where Z is taken at Hub height of 10m
Zo is taken as 0.5m for a forest region [Philip Davies, 2004]
V is taken as 2.45m/s (estimated Average wind speed for Ado-Ekiti) [Ogunleye and Emehelu
2007].
To Calculate the shaft speed and Power Coefficient
Shaft rpm = 60 V(z)/ (D )
The shaft speed is thus equal to 140rpm = 14.66rad/s
It is generally reported that modern wind turbines operate at a slightly lower practical non ideal
performance coefficient as:
Cp.prac approx =0.4 = 40% [M. Ragheb, 2008]
Wind Power in,
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Where A is the rotor swept area, R2 and is the air density taken as 1.225kg/m3
Power Coefficient =
The maximum torque =
Note: Pw is mechanical power

LIFT
BLADE
SETTING
ANGLE
CHORD
RADIUS = 2.5
Fig 3.9 blade setting angle and radius and chord of blade respectively
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6. TWIST
Due to the variation in the blade setting angle along the profile length of the blade, the
blade twists as it comes closer to the center hub. This is so due to the difference in tangential
velocity. The higher the twist the easier the blade will turn at low torque but little speed will be
reached. The lower the blade setting angle the faster the blade will spin at the tip. This is due to the
fact that higher blade setting angles results in higher drag coefficient.
Fig 3.10 View of blade from the tip Fig 3.11 A 3d view of the blade
through to the hub from the tip
Fig 3.12 a 3d view of the blade from the front
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7. MASS OF BLADE
The mass of a blade can be estimated from the relation
Mass blade = 0.1452 * R2.9158 [Michael Schmidt, 2007]
Therefore, the mass of a blade is approximately 2.1Kg
For the three blades, = 6.3Kg
3.2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
3.2.1 GEAR BOX
One of the most important main components in the wind turbine is the gearbox. Placed
between the main shaft and the generator, its task is to increase the slow rotational speed of the
rotor blades to the generator rotation speed of 1000 or 1500 revolutions per minute(rpm).The
primary advantage for using a gearbox for changing speed is to enable the full power to be
transmitted at the different speeds. Electric motors and other prime movers are rated for a
maximum torque at the optimum speed.
One might think that the gearbox of a wind turbine could be used to change speed, just like
a normal car gearbox. However this is not the case with a gearbox in a wind turbine. In this case
the gearbox has always a constant and a speed increasing ratio, so that if a wind turbine has
different operational speeds, it is because it has two different sized generators, each with its own
different speed of rotation (or one generator with two different stator windings).
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4
1. Hollow Shaft
1 2. High Speed Shaft for

generator
3. Large toothed wheel
4. Small toothed wheel
Fig 3.13 Section through the gearbox
Simple Drive Train Rules
1 For any pair of meshing gears the angular velocity ratio is given by
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where
= Input speed (rad/s), = Output speed (rad/s)
Number of teeth on input gear, z2 Number of teeth on output gear
d1 Pitch Circle Diameter of the input gear, d2 Pitch Circle Diameter of the output gear
The sign is - (Reversing) if both gears are external and + (Same direction)if one gear is a ring
(internal gear)
2 For a train of gear wheels the overall angular velocity ratio is given by
= Product of teeth No's Driving gears / Product of teeth No's Driven gears
= Product of pitch diameters (Driving gears) / Product of pitch diameters (Driven
gears)
Low Speed Gear From Rotor And High Speed Gear To Generator
A Spur gear would be designed as follows to meet the requirements of the project
T1 T1
D1 D2
1 2
Fig 3.14 Schematic diagram showing arrangement of high speed and low speed gears
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D1 diameter of shaft or low speed gear, D2 is diameter of high speed gear
T1 is number of teeth on low speed gear, T2 is number of teeth on high speed gear
The torque to be transmitted by the gear is taken as the maximum torque = 130Nm
The main shaft speed or low speed gear is 1 = 140rpm = 14.66 rad/s
The speed of the generator is taken as 2 = 1,120rpm
The Velocity ratio is thus =
The distance, d, between the main shaft and the generator shaft is taken as 450mm
But
Therefore,
The pitch line velocity of the drive
[Khumi and Gupta, 2005]
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Velocity factor = , (since the pitch line velocity is less than 12.5m/s)
It is recommended that the main shaft’s gear be made of cast Steel and that for the generator shaft
be forged steel. The allowable static stress for the cast steel is less than that for forged steel; the
design should be based upon that for the cast steel.
Taking the allowable static stress for the gear material as
The gear is designed for 20o stub gear teeth and the Lewis factor for the gear is
but T1 = D1/ m
where T1 is number of teeth, D1is diameter of the gear and m = module
therefore, [Khumi and Gupta, 2005]
Maximum tangential force on the gear
Also maximum tangential force on the gear
(assuming b = 10m. The number of teeth on the high speed gear should be sufficient so as to avoid
interference v (a phenomenon where the tip of a tooth undercuts the root in the mating gear) so as
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to allow both gears mesh. Therefore, the minimum number of teeth should be 14 teeth [Khumi and
Gupta, 2005] )
which gives the value of m as 2mm and can be taken as 5mm
m = 5mm
Face width of the gear
For the 20o stub involute gear whose teeth is able to take heavy load.
The following are the standard proportion for the gears designed above
PARTICULARS 20O STUB INVOLUTE GEAR VALUE
Addendum 0.8 m 4mm
Deddendum 1m 5mm
Working depth 1.60 m 8mm
Minimum total depth 1.80 m 9mm
Tooth thickness 1.5708 m 7.854mm
Minimum clearance 0.2 m 1mm
Fillet radius at root 0.4 m 2mm
Table 3.4 The standard proportion for the 20o stub involute gears
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450mm
1200mm
1000mm 250mm
Fig 3.15 schematic section view through the gear box showing specified dimensions
Gearbox Design Features
The design of the gearbox includes the following features.
• Input and output shaft relative positions and orientation
• Support of external forces on shafts
• Design and rigidity of casing
• Type, dimensions and strength of gears
• Method of changing speed /direction if required
• Design and strength of gear shafts
• Gearbox bearings
• Lubrication
• Noise and vibration
• Couplings to shaft
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• Fixing /support of gearbox
Gearbox Casing
The large gearbox casings are generally castings from cast iron or steel. Cast iron is a rigid
material with excellent vibration damping properties.
The important criteria in the gearbox casing design are listed below.
• Inclusion of safe lifting points to allow installation
• Support of the shaft bearings and hence the gear loadings;
• The transfer of the developed gear forces to supporting structure or further drive element;
• Containment of lubricant and exclusion of foreign matter;
• Providing a safety and noise barrier;
• Dissipation of the heat generated by gear friction
• Aiding testing, installation, and maintenance by containing all element in one unit;
• Providing convenient access to internals for inspection & maintenance
• Aesthetic benefits
• Enable accessible location of nameplate with all of the gear unit details
Mounting
• Foot mounted on vertical surfaces
• Foot mounted below horizontal surface
• Flange mounted onto the prime mover
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There is the need f providing an Oil Cooler for the gear box because of the heat generated in
the gearbox. The lubricating oil in the gearbox becomes hot and thus, there is the need to have it
cooled so that it can be re-circulated and allow efficient performance of the gears in the gearbox
3.2.2 MAIN SHAFT DESIGN
Normal Load acting between the tooth surfaces
[Khumi and Gupta, 2005] )
Weight of Gear 1
Resultant Load acting the Gear
Bending Moment, M, on the shaft due to resultant load
Where X is the distance between the centre of the gear and the centre of the bearing taken as 0.7m
in this design
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Main
Bearing Main
Hub Shaft Low speed gear
0.7m
1m
Fig 3.16 Layout of the connection from the hub to the high speed gear
Therefore, M = 401.34Nm
The shaft is under the combined effect of torsion and bending, therefore the equivalent torque is
Where
Diameter of the Gear shaft or Main shaft, d
(taking shear stress for the shaft material and key as 40MPa)
d = 38mm say 100mm (incorporating measures to ensure safe operation)
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Fig 3.17 End view of the main shaft showing the Flange to be bolted to the hub
Hollow Shaft (that connects main shaft to Gearbox) specifications
Fig 3.18 Hollow shaft specification
Shaft material for the low speed shaft to generator is hardened and ground steel
The key cross section to be used is specified in a table for standard parallel, tapered and gib
head keys [Khurmi and Gupta, 2005].
For the Main shaft, that is on through the hollow shaft, where d = 110mm, the standard
parallel key cross section is
Thickness (mm) = 18
Width(mm) = 32
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For the Hollow shaft, that is on through the gear, where d = 100mm, the standard parallel
key cross section is
Thickness (mm) = 18
Width(mm) = 32
3.2.3 HIGH SPEED SHAFT DESIGN (GENERATOR SHAFT)
Normal Load acting between the tooth surfaces
Weight of Gear 1
Resultant Load acting on the Gear
Bending Moment, M, on the shaft due to resultant load
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Where X is the distance between the centre of the gear and the centre of the coupling taken in this
design as 0.4m
Brake
High speed gear Coupling
0.4m
1m
Fig 3.19 Layout of the connection between coupling, brake and the high speed gear
Therefore, M = 150Nm
The shaft is under the combined effect of torsion and bending, therefore the equivalent torque is
Te = (M2 + T2)
Where T = (WT x D2)/2 = 16.25Nm (D2 = 0.1m)
Te = (1502 + 16.252)
Te = 150.9Nm
Diameter of the Gear shaft or Main shaft, d
Te = ( /16) x x d3
150.9 = ( /16) x 40 x 106 x d3
(taking shear stress for the shaft material and key as 40MPa)
d = 26.8mm say 35mm (incorporating measures to ensure safe operation)
Shaft material for the high speed shaft to generator is forged steel
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head keys[Khurmi and Gupta, 2005].
For the high speed shaft, that is on through the gear, where d = 35mm, the standard parallel
key cross section is
Thickness (mm) = 8
Width(mm) = 12
3.2.4 CLAMPING UNIT
By the means of a clamping unit the main shaft of the wind turbine is coupled to the
gearbox. The gear has a hollow shaft that fits over the rear end of the main shaft. Torque between
the two components is transferred by friction between the two. A clamping unit, normally
composed of an inner ring and two outer rings with conical facings, is placed on the outside of the
gear’s hollow shaft. When the main shaft is placed inside the hollow shaft during the assembly of
the wind turbine, the conical facings of the clamping unit are loosely positioned on the hollow
shaft. Following control of the correct alignment of the gear and the main shaft, the rings are
tightened by the means of a large number of bolts. The outer rings are thereby pressed together,
while the inner ring, positioned on the hollow shaft is pressed inwards under the tightening of the
bolts.
The inner ring now presses so hard against the hollow shaft that the inner part of the hollow
shaft is in turn pressed hard against the main shaft. It is because of this pressure that the torque is
transferred from the main shaft to the wind turbine gear hollow shaft. It might be thought that the
hollow shaft is shrink-fitted on the main shaft as a result of pressure from the clamping unit.
Transferred torque is dependent upon friction between the main shaft and the hollow shaft.
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Therefore it is vital that the components are carefully cleaned and completely dry, before they are
assembled. If they are at all greasy, they could slip in relation to each other during high loads, for
example during the cut-in process in strong wind conditions. The main shaft’s torque is transferred
by forces across a parallel key (a parallel key is often called a wedge, even though it is not wedge
shaped). This assembly method is not often used with a large shaft, there being too great a risk that
in time the different parts could loosen, unless they fit uncommonly well together [Henrik, s.
1999].
Fig 3.20 Clamping Unit
3.2.5 THE HUB
The hub is the central part of the wind turbine, which supports the turbine blades on the
outside and connects to the low-speed rotor shaft inside the nacelle. The blades on the wind
turbines are bolted to the hub. Bolts from the blade pass through a flange on the cast hub. The
flange bolt-holes are elongated, enabling the blade tip angle to be adjusted. There are some blades
that have a pitching mechanism or a blade setting angle mechanism that changes this angle of the
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blade depending on wind speeds. This is used as a form of braking mechanism or to prevent erratic
behavior of the wind turbine at high wind speeds.
Hub Length = 1.25 x Main Shaft Diameter
= 2 x 100mm = 200mm = 0.2m
Hub Diameter= 3 x Main Shaft Diameter
= 3 x 100mm = 300mm= 0.3m
0.2m
Fig 3.21 front view of hub
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Fig 3.22 isometric view of hub
Number of bolts to be used to connect the main shaft’s flange to the Hub is 10
Given the torque to be transmitted as 130Nm.And the radial distance from the center of the
main shaft to the hole for the bolt taken as 58mm
Shearing load carried by the flange coupling is
Pd = T / Rp = 130 x 103 / 58mm
Pd = 2241.37N
dc = core diameter of the bolt
Resisting load on bolt = Pd = ( /4) x dc 2 x n x
Where n = number of bolts
Taking allowable shear stress, , for the bolt as 30MPa = 30N/mm
dc =3.08mm
Incorporating factor of safety in the design, this would be taken as 17mm. This corresponds to
value of M20bolt and core diameter of 16.933mm [Khurmi and Gupta, 2005].
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Threaded hole (10Nos) 17.3mm
0.03d
Fig3.23 Design specification for the Main Shaft
3.2.6 MAIN BEARINGS
All modern wind turbines have spherical roller bearings as main bearings. The term
spherical means that the inside of the bearings outer ring is shaped like a cross section of a ball.
This has the advantage of allowing the bearings inner and outer ring to be slightly slanted and out-
off-track in relation to each other without damaging the bearing while running. The maximum
allowable oblique angle is normally 1/2 degree, not so large, but large enough to ensure that any
possible small errors in alignment between the wind turbine shaft and the bearing housing will not
give excessive edge loads, resulting in possible damage to the bearing. The spherical bearing has
two sets of rollers, allowing both absorption of radial loads, WR , (across the shaft) from the weight
of the rotor, shaft, etc. and the large axial forces , WA , (along the shaft) resulting from the wind
pressure on the rotor. The main bearings are mounted in the bearing housings bolted to the main
frame. The quantity of bearings and bearing seats vary among the different types of wind turbines.
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102mm
Fig 3.24 Internal diameter of bearing inner ring
Fig 3.25 Isometric section and a complete view of the spherical roller bearing
Dynamic equivalent Load for the spherical roller bearing is the constant stationary radial
load which if applied to the bearing with rotating inner ring and stationery outer ring, would give
the same life as that which the bearing will attain under the actual conditions of load and rotation
and is given as
W = X. V. WR + Y. WA
X is the radial load factor
Y is the axial load factor
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For the bearing to be used for the 1.8KW wind turbine whose bore is 102mm, a ratio, e , for
the category of bore (100mm – 200mm) is defined to have a value of 0.26.
When WA / WR < e, then the value X is taking as 1 and Y as 2.6
When WA / WR >e, then the value X is taking as 0.67 and Y as 3.9
Where V= A rotation factor = 1 for self aligning bearing like spherical bearing
Since the wind turbine is a machine that operates almost 24 hours a day, depending on the
wind and atmospheric conditions, the life of bearing in hours will be above 30, 000 and it is the
number of revolutions which the bearing will run before the first evidence of fatigue develops in
the material of one of the rings or any of the rolling elements [Khurmi and Gupta, 2005].
Each bearing arrangement has advantages and disadvantages, and the evaluation of these
properties have provides each individual type with its own setup. The main bearings are always
lubricated by greasing, no matter which bearing arrangement is selected. Special grease having
viscose properties even in hard frost is used. Sealing of the bearing housing is insured by the use of
a labyrinth packing. No rubber sealing is used; the labyrinth with its long and narrow passageway
prevents grease from escaping. Water and dirt are prevented from entering from the outside by the
long passageways filled with grease, which is constantly and slowly trying to escape from the
bearing. This may appear to be a rather primitive arrangement, but labyrinth packing is a much
used method where there is great risk of pollution by water and dirt. It is more expensive to use
than a rubber sealing, because the labyrinth is complicated to fabricate on machine tools, however
the seal is not subject to wear, and under normal conditions it is a safe method to keep out the
pollutants that otherwise in a short time could ruin roller bearings [Henrik, S. 1999]
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3.2.6 COUPLING
The coupling is placed between the gearbox and the generator. Once again it is not possible
to consider the coupling as the same as a clutch in a normal car. One cannot engage or disengage
the transmission between the gearbox and the generator by pressing a pedal, or in some other such
way. The transmission is a permanent union, and the expression “coupling” should be understood
as a junction made by a separate machine component. The coupling is always a “flexible” unit,
made from built-in pieces of rubber, normally allowing variations of a few millimeters only. This
flexibility allows for some slight differences in alignment between the generator and the gearbox.
This can be of importance under assembly and also during running operation, when both gearbox
and generator can have tendencies for slight movement in relation to each other [Henrik, S, 1999].
L = 1.5d
d D=2d D1=3d
L = 1.5d
Fig 3.26 Coupling Specification
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d = 35mm
L = 52.5mm
D = 70mm
D1 = 105mm
head keys [elements [Khurmi and Gupta, 2005].
For the generator shaft, that is on both sides of the elastometric coupling, where d = 35mm,
the standard parallel key cross section is
Thickness (mm) = 8 and Width(mm) = 12
Fig 3.27 A 3-D view of the coupling
3.3 NACELLE
This is the structure at the top of the wind turbine tower just behind the wind turbine blades
that houses the key components of the wind turbine, including the rotor shaft, gearbox, and
generator.
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1100mm
1500mm
2000mm
Fig 3.28 Schematic diagram of showing dimensions of the nacelle
Hub Main bearing Coupling
Generator
Location of Yaw
drive/ tower
Main shaft Gear Box
Fig3.29 Arrangement of components in the nacelle of the wind turbine
Streamlining (rounding or giving an aerodynamic shape to any protruding features and to
the nacelle itself) reduces any noise that is created by the wind passing the turbine. Turbines also
incorporate design features to reduce vibration and any associated noise.
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Fig. 3.30 An assembly of a wind turbine
3.4 TOWER
The tower is to be 10m tubular low carbon steel pipe standing several meters above the
ground to take effective advantage of the wind speed of the particular location where it is to be
installed. The tower is to have a curved surface area that reduces the effect of wind thrust on the
tower and the outside diameter of the tower from this design is taken 1200mm with thickness up to
60mm so as to include safety during operation. As most modern wind turbines are configured in an
upwind configuration the issue of rotor-tower interaction has largely been focused on this
configuration. When the rotor is situated upwind of the tower the main contributor to the
interaction is the reduction in velocity of the oncoming flow as a result of the presence of the
tower. To obtain sufficient clearance, the distance between the rotor and the tower on an upwind
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turbine is always fairly high, which therefore causes the disturbance of the tower to be quite
limited.
Rotor
Blade
Nacelle
Hub
10m
Tower
Fig 3.31 Wind turbine parts
Wind Turbine Foundations: Wind turbine footings are exposed to tremendous load of the turbine
and moment due to wind. Wind turbine foundations are very specialized types of footings because
of their shape, design, load path provided and components. The footing is more like a "mechanical
device" than a foundation. Wind turbine foundations are generally octagonal in shape. The
diameter of the footing may vary anywhere from 50ft to 65ft (15240mm – 19812mm) with an
average depth of 4 to 6 feet (1219.2mm – 1828.8mm). An 8ft to 9ft (2438.4mm – 2743.2mm)
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pedestal (includes the height of the footing) of 18ft to 20ft (5486.4 mm- 6096mm) diameter is
provided. The figure below shows the plan view and section of the octagonal footing.
8ft-9ft
Figure 3.32 Footing Geometry
Generally, a wind turbine footing can experience loading. The loadings can be given as
Axial and Shear load. The foundation must be able to withstand these loads. The base of the wind
turbines has 160 holes of diameter, 38mm, on the inside and outside edge. Outside edge diameter
for this design is taken as1360mm and the inside edge diameter 990mm.
1200mm
Fig 3.33 The base of a Wind Turbine tower to be bolted to the foundation
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Fig 3.34 Wind Turbine Foundation Details
The soil pressure under extreme loading should be less than the allowable bearing pressure
of the soil. In certain site conditions, it is possible to have flooding and extreme wind conditions
simultaneously. The footing should be able to withstand the extreme wind loads along with
buoyant forces [RAM/STAAD Solution Center, 2007]
3.5 GENERATOR CHOICE FOR A 1.8KW WIND TURBINE
A 1.8KW wind turbine generator will have a RPM ranging from 1,000 rpm to 1,500 rpm,
but also some operates even to 2,000rpm. The RPM of the generator shaft and that of the Main
shaft would facilitate easy deduction of the gear ratio. The asynchronous generator described here
is the most common type of generator used in wind turbines. It is often referred to as the induction
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generator, too. The asynchronous generator is in reality a type of motor that can also operate as a
generator. The motor consists of two main parts, the stator and the rotor. The stator contains a
series of coils, the number of which must be divisible by three. The motor illustrated in the figure
below has six coils, placed in slots on the inside of the stator, a cylinder assembled of thin iron
plates. The rotor sits on an axle placed inside this stator. The rotor is also assembled of thin iron
plates. A row of thick aluminum bars joined at each end with an aluminum ring, fit in key ways on
the outer surface of the rotor.
1. Generator shaft
2. Rolling bearings
3. Rotor
4. Rotor aluminum bar
5. Rotor aluminum
ring
6. Stator
7. Coil
8. Stator plates
9. Coil heads
10. Ventilator
11. Connection box
Figure 3.35 Components of an asynchronous motor
On account of bearing friction the motor must produce a little torque to keep rotating, and
therefore cannot run at exactly the same speed as the rotating magnetic field. As soon as the speed
slows down, there will be a difference between the speed of the rotating magnetic field and the
rotor. The rotor thus again experiences a variation in the magnetic field that induces a current in
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the rotor windings. This current then produces a magnetic field in the rotor, and the rotor can
produce a torque. During motor operation, the stator experiences a constantly changing magnetic
field, being dragged round by its rotating magnetic field. During this process, electrical current is
induced in the stator, which results in a power consumption.
It is imperative to note that, the slower the rotor turns in relation to the rotating magnetic
field of the stator, the stronger the induction in the stator, and therefore the greater the power
consumption. The fact that the rotor has no torque at the precise synchronous rotational speed and
therefore will always run slightly slower has given this motor type its name, the asynchronous
motor. The torque curve of the asynchronous electric motor, also operating as a generator, is
shown below. At speeds below the synchronous rotational speed, the motor yields a positive
torque.
Fig 3.36 Torque curve
If a wind turbine is connected to the grid during a period of no wind, the asynchronous
generator will operate as a motor and drag the rotor blades round like a large electric fan. The wind
turbine therefore is disconnected from the grid during periods of calm. The wind turbine is
likewise disconnected during periods of low wind speeds, allowing the blades to slowly rotate. The
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control system of the wind turbine however constantly monitors the rotational speed, and after the
blades reach a certain pre-set level, the system permits a gradual cut-in to the grid. During the
induction process, in reality it is not an electric current that is created, but an electromotive force
giving rise to a certain current dependent upon the resistance. Due to the heat generated from the
generator, it is necessary that a heat exchanger be provided to dissipate the heat generated.
3.6. THE YAW MECHANISM
The yaw drive is the system of components used to cause the yaw motion and is used to
keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Yaw drives can be obtained as
standard equipment from manufacturers of electrically operated motors. The Yaw motor Powers
the yaw drive. A large yaw speed will produce gyro effects that will result in large loads on the
wind turbine. The yaw speed must therefore be small enough for gyro effects to become negligible.
A Wind vane present on the wind turbine is to measure wind direction and communicates with
the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Yawing systems and pitching systems of wind turbines are normally provided with one or
more drive units, each comprising a drive motor, possibly a geared motor, and a pinion which
transfers torque directly from the drive motor to an output gear part, e.g. in the form of a toothed
gear ring, and preferably by means of intermeshing teeth. The general objective of a wind turbine
yaw drive is to direct the wind turbine into the direction of the wind.
It is recommended that soft yaw drives be used to perform the function of facing the wind
turbine into the wind. Soft yaw drives have many advantages over conventional yaw drives for
wind turbines. The nacelle of the wind turbine is free to rotate, although heavily damped, during all
operational and non-operational events. The need for yaw brakes disappears and the yawing
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moments generally decrease considerably. The introduction of damping is beneficial for the wind
turbine system as a whole and is one way to deal with lateral tower oscillations and blade edge
oscillations. Soft yaw drives are available as packages composed from standard components,
which are beneficial for the life cycle cost of the wind turbine system, and have been certified by
the main certification bodies.
Fig 3.37 Principle of a soft yaw drive
The softness of the system is most easily accomplished by the hydrodynamic coupling that
is inserted between the high-speed end of each yaw gearbox and its corresponding electrical motor,
the latter furnished with a passive brake.
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Yaw gears
Powering
electric motor
Connected to
nacelle base
Fig 3.38 A simple description of the operation of the yaw drive
Fig 3.39 Effect of the yaw drive
The yaw rotates the nacelle through a total angle of
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3.7 CONTROL AND SAFETY SYSTEMS
In constructing wind turbine control and safety systems one is expected to be aware of a
couple of rather important problems. These problems pose special demands on the systems,
because they have to function in the complex environment of a wind turbine.
The first problem is common to all control and safety systems: A wind turbine is without
constant supervision, apart from the supervision of the control system itself. The periods between
normal qualified maintenance schedules is about every 6 months, and in the intervening 4,000
hours or so the control system must function trouble-free, whether the wind turbine is in an
operational condition or not. In almost every other branch of industry there is a much higher
degree of supervision by trained and qualified staff. For example, in power stations the system is
constantly supervised from a central control room. Should a fault or breakdown occur, rapid
intervention is possible and, as a rule, one has always some sort of good impression of what has
actually happened in any unforeseen occurrence. However a wind turbine must be able to look
after itself and in addition have the ability to register faults and retrieve this stored information
concerning any special occurrence, should things possibly not go exactly quite as expected. The
high demands on reliability require systems that are simple enough to be robust, but at the same
time give the possibility for necessary supervision. The number of sensors and other active
components need to be limited as far as possible; however the necessary components must be of
the highest possible quality. The control system has to be constructed so that there is a high degree
of internal control and to a certain degree the system must be able to carry out its own fault
finding. The other problem most of all relates to the safety systems.
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3.8 THE CONTROLLER
In one way or another controller is involved in almost all decision-making processes in the
safety systems in a wind turbine. At the same time it must oversee the normal operation of the
wind turbine and carry out measurements for statistical use. An Anemometer present on the wind
turbine is to measure the wind speed and transmit wind speed data to the controller.
The controller is to measure the following parameters as analogue signals (where measurements
give readings of varying values) :
¥ Voltage on all three phases
¥ Current on all three phases
¥ Frequency on one phase
¥ Temperature inside the nacelle
¥ Generator temperature
¥ Gear oil temperature
¥ Gear bearing temperature
¥ Wind speed
¥ The direction of yawing
¥ Low-speed shaft rotational speed
¥ High-speed shaft rotational speed
Other parameters that are obviously interesting are not to be measured, electrical power for
example. The reason being that these parameters can be calculated from those that are in fact
measured. Power can thus be calculated from the measured voltage and current The controller also
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measures the following parameters as digital signals (where the measurements do not give readings
of varying values, but a mere an on/off signal) :
¥ Wind direction
¥ Over-heating of the generator
¥ Hydraulic pressure level
¥ Correct valve function
¥ Vibration level
¥ Twisting of the power cable
¥ Emergency brake circuit
¥ Overheating of small electric motors for the yawing, hydraulic pumps, etc.
¥ Brake-caliper adjustment
¥ Centrifugal-release activation
A wind turbine, if not controlled, will spontaneously over speed during high wind periods.
Without prior control it can then be almost impossible to bring it to a stop. During high wind
speed, a wind turbine can produce a much higher yield than its rated power. The wind turbine
blade rotational speed is therefore restricted, and the wind turbine maintained at the rated power,
by the grid-connected generator. If the grid connection is lost, by reason of a power line failure or
if the generator for some other reason is disconnected, while the wind turbine is in operation, the
wind turbine would immediately start to rapidly accelerate. The faster the speed, the more power it
is able to produce. The wind turbine is in a run-away condition.
Here it is advocated that in the design of wind turbine, it is to be incorporated with the use
of aerodynamic braking and the mechanical brake. It is essential that wind turbines stop
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automatically in case of malfunction of a critical component. E.g. if the generator overheats or is
disconnected from the electrical grid it will stop braking the rotation of the rotor, and the rotor will
start accelerating rapidly within a matter of seconds
Aerodynamic Braking System: Tip Brakes
As it is in the case for most modern wind turbines, where the primary braking system is the
aerodynamic braking system, which essentially consists in turning the rotor blades about 90
degrees along their longitudinal axis or in turning the rotor blade tips 90 degrees, it is also
recommended for the 1.8KW wind turbine being designed in this project.
These systems are usually spring operated, in order to work even in case of electrical power
failure, and they are automatically activated if the hydraulic system in the turbine loses pressure.
The hydraulic system in the turbine is used turn the blades or blade tips back in place once the
dangerous situation is over. The aerodynamic braking systems are extremely safe. They will stop
the turbine in a matter of a couple of rotations, at the most. In addition, they offer a very gentle
way of braking the turbine without any major stress, tear and wear on the tower and the machinery.
Mechanical Braking System
The mechanical brake is used as a backup system for the aerodynamic braking system, and
as a parking brake, once the turbine is stopped. The Mechanical brake is a disc brake placed on the
gearbox high-speed shaft. The brake disc, made of steel, is fixed to the shaft. The component that
does the actual braking is called the brake caliper. Likewise this is also a fail-safe system,
hydraulic oil pressure is necessary to prevent the brake unit from braking. Should oil pressure be
lacking, a powerful spring presses the brake blocks in against the brake disc. Braking is a result of
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friction between the brake block and the disc. Wind turbine brakes experience large stress forces,
therefore it is necessary to use special materials for brake blocks on large wind turbines. These are
made of a special metal alloy, able to function under high temperatures of up to 700 degrees
Centigrade. By comparison, the temperature of the brakes on a car rarely exceeds 300 degrees. The
mechanical brake function is to prevent the rotational speed of the blades from increasing above
the rated rotational speed.
As part of the function of the controller, it is able to communicate to the brake in other for
necessary adjustments to be made. The applied torque to stop the rotating mass can be obtained
from the formula below
T= (0.039 W K2N) / t
Where T = Torque (Ib-in)
W = Weight of the rotating mass ( disc and rotating shaft(Ib))
K = Radius of gyration of the rotating members (ft)
N = revolution per minute
t = Stopping time required (sec)
where 1Netwon = 0.2248Ib
1 torque (Ib-in) = 1.356 torque N-m
1ft = 0.3047m
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A brief explanation of the disc brake is done below
Fig 3.40 Disc brake for a wind turbine
When hydraulic pressure is applied to the caliper piston, it forces the inside pad to contact
the disc. As pressure increase the caliper moves to the right and causes the outside pad to contact
the disc. Braking force is generated by friction between the disc pads as they are squeezed against
the disc rotor. Generally, the rotor is made of gray cast iron, and is either solid or ventilated.
Proper cooling prevents fading and ensures longer pad life.
Other activities the controller carries out that allow for efficient performance are described below.
(a) THE ELECTRONIC WIND TURBINE CONTROLLER
The wind turbine controller consists of a number of computers which continuously monitor
the condition of the wind turbine and collect statistics on its operation. As the name implies, the
controller also controls a large number of switches, hydraulic pumps, valves, and motors within the
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wind turbine. As wind turbine sizes increase to megawatt machines, it becomes even more
important that they have a high availability rate, i.e. that they function reliably all the time.
(b) COMMUNICATING WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD
The controller communicates with the owner or operator of the wind turbine via a
communications link, e.g. sending alarms or requests for service over the telephone or a radio link.
It is also possible to call the wind turbine to collect statistics, and check its present status. In wind
parks one of the turbines will usually be equipped with a Computer from which it is possible to
control and collect data from the rest of the wind turbines in the park. This computer can be called
over a telephone line or a radio link.
(c) INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
There is usually a controller both at the bottom of the tower and in the nacelle. On recent
wind turbine models, the communication between the controllers is usually done using fibre optics.
On some recent models, there is a third controller placed in the hub of the rotor. That unit usually
communicates with the nacelle unit using serial communications through a cable connected with
slip rings and brushes on the main shaft.
(d) FAIL SAFE MECHANISMS AND REDUNDANCY
Computers and sensors are usually duplicated (redundant) in all safety or operation
sensitive areas of newer, large machines. The controller continuously compares the readings from
measurements throughout the wind turbine to ensure that both the sensors and the computers
themselves are in good working conditions.
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CHAPTER FOUR
WIND TURBINE DESIGN OPTIMIZATION AND MODELING: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
4.0 OPTMIZATION OF THE WIND TURBINE
For the optimal performance of the wind turbine, it is essential to note that the type of
material to be used in its construction and the economic considerations are among the important
parameters to be considered.
4.0.1 MATERIAL SELECTION
The weight and cost of the turbine is the key to making wind energy competitive with other
power sources, because research programs have significantly improved the efficiency of the rotor
and maximized the energy capture of the machine. The real opportunity today is better through low
cost materials and through high volume production, while ensuring that the reliability is
maintained.
The components of turbines are changing as the technology improves and evolves. There is
a trend toward lighter weight systems. Light weight, low cost materials are especially important in
blades and towers for several reasons. First, the weight of the blades and rotor is multiplied
through out the machine. The tower weight is important because it is typically 60% [Princeton
energy resources international, 2001] of the weight of the turbine above the foundation, due to the
fact that sophisticated light-weight, high-strength materials are often too costly to justify their use.
Another technology shift is occurring in the drive train. In some cases the gearbox is being
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eliminated by employing variable speed generators and solid state electronic converters that
produce utility quality alternating current (AC) power.
A number of factors affect material selection. They are properties of materials,
performance requirements, material’s reliability, safety, physical attributes, environmental
conditions, availability, disposability and recyclability, and finally, economic factors. These
properties are also essential to be known when designing and installing a wind turbine. In these
properties,
1) One of the most important factors affecting selection of materials for engineering design is the
properties of the materials. The important properties of the materials are mechanical, thermal,
chemical properties.
2) The material of which a part is composed must be capable of performing a part’s function
(always it must be possible or not) with out failure.
3) A material in a given application must also be reliable.
4) A material must safely perform its function.
5) Physical attributes such as configuration, size, weight, and appearance, sometimes also serve
functional requirements and can be used.
6) The environment in which a product operates strongly influences service performance.
7) A material must be readily available, and available in large enough quantity, for the intended
application.
8) The cost of the materials and the cost of processing the materials into the product or part. The
development and manufacture of satisfactory products at minimum cost is to make a sound,
economic choice of materials.
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The material selection process involves the following major operations:
1 Analysis of the materials application problem.
2 Translation of the materials application requirements to materials property values.
3. Selection of candidate materials.
4. Evaluation of the candidate materials.
And in any material selection, the following requirements are focused. They are
1) High material stiffness is needed to maintain optimal shape of performance.
2) Low density is needed to reduce gravity forces,
3) Long-fatigue life is needed to reduce material degradation.
The optimal design of the rotor blades is today a complex and multifaceted task and
requires optimization of properties, performance, and economy [Babu et al, 2006].
A wide range of materials are used in wind turbines. There are substantial differences
between small and large machines and there are projected changes in designs that will
accommodate the introduction of new material technologies and manufacturing methods. The
trends in design and manufacturing differ between small and large turbines. Small machines tend
to use lighter weight castings in an effort to reduce costs. Many parts are die cast aluminum in
small turbines. Material fatigue properties are an important consideration in wind turbine design
and materials selection.
The most important component of the wind turbine is the blade and a well designed blade
in terms of construction and material choice is a contributory factor to the efficient performance of
the wind turbine.
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Materials For Rotor Blade
Wind energy is captured by the rotation of the wind turbine's rotor blades. Rotor blades
have historically been made of wood, but because of its sensitivity to moisture and processing
costs, modern materials such as glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), carbon fiber reinforced
plastic (CFRP), steel and aluminum are replacing the traditional wooden units. Wood is a natural
material and thus environmentally attractive, but at the same time difficult to obtain in
reproducible and high quality, which is a requirement for stable and economical manufacturing of
rotor blades and thus economically attractive wind energy.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Older style wind turbines were designed with heavier
steel blades or nickel alloy steels which have higher inertia, and rotated at speeds governed by the
AC frequency of the power lines. Alloy steel was once thought to be an optimum choice for blade
fabrication, but was soon abandoned because of its high weight and low fatigue level. Aluminum is
a silvery white metal with a density about a third that of steel. Aluminum was only implemented in
testing situations because it was found to have a lower fatigue level than steel. Aluminum is ductile
and good heat conductor. Aluminum is a low price metal but it has good reliability and has a low
tensile strength.
Aluminum is lightweight, but weaker and less stiff than steel. The fibers and the matrix
materials like polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies etc., are combined into the composites. These
composites have good properties like mechanical, thermal and chemical properties. Firstly, the
glass fibers are amorphous with isotropic properties. Most glass-reinforced products are made with
E-glass (electrical glass), which has good electrical and mechanical properties and high heat
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resistance. Carbon fibers for composites have an excellent combination of very high stiffness, high
strength, light weight and low density.
Hub
The hub is cast in a special type of strong iron alloy, called “SG (Spheroidial Graphite) cast
iron”. Because of the complicated hub shape which is difficult to make in any other way, it is
convenient to use cast iron. In addition the hub must be highly resistant to metal fatigue, and this is
difficult to achieve in a welded construction. In contrast to cast iron of the SG type, normal cast
iron has the disadvantage of being rather fragile and often can fracture under blows. This
unfortunate quality is due to the high carbon content of cast iron. High carbon content enables the
cast iron to melt easily and thus easily flow out into the casting form.
Nacelles
The nacelle contains an array of complex machinery including, yaw drives, blade pitch
change mechanisms, drive brakes, shafts, bearings, oil pumps and coolers, controllers and more.
There are areas where simplification and innovation can pay off in the use of materials for the
nacelle. The innovative aspect of the nacelle in terms of choice of material, is achieved by the
substitution of Glass-fiber reinforced plastic, GRP with the usage of aluminum shate material for
the wind turbine nacelles, through which several advantages can be achieved:
a) Maximum material recyclability,
b) The fire risk is reduced to a minimum,
c) Lightning protection is improved as the nacelle has the function of a Faraday cage and
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d) The nacelle surface helps cool the nacelle components –and extend their operational life span.
Towers
Low cost materials are especially important in towers, since towers can represent as much as
65% of the weight of the turbine. Pre-stressed concrete is a material that is starting to be used in
greater amounts in European turbines, especially in off-shore or near-shore applications. Concrete
in towers has the potential to lower cost, but may involve nearly as much steel in the reinforcing
bars as a conventional steel tower.
4.0.2 DRIVE TRAIN EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION
Once the mechanical power of the rotor is known, it must be determined how much of this
power makes it to the electrical grid. A simplified overview of the energy transfer from wind to
electrical grid is shown in Figure below.
Fig 4.1 Energy Transfer from Wind to Electrical Grid
The rotor absorbs energy from the wind as described above. This energy is transferred
through a gearbox to increase the shaft speed. This is done so that a smaller generator can be used
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for the same output. The energy is then converted from mechanical to electrical energy with an AC
generator. Due to the variable speed operation of the turbine, the electricity has a variable
frequency. Power electronics are necessary to first rectify the electricity to DC current and then
invert the electricity to 50 - 60 Hz so that it is at the frequency of the electrical grid. The electrical
energy is then passed to the electrical grid.
Each transfer of energy has an associated energy loss. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate
the efficiency of the drive train. The drive train efficiency model includes the efficiencies of the
gearbox, generator, and power electronics. The drive train efficiency is a function of the power
being generated relative to the generator capacity. The efficiency ranges from approximately 80%
at low power to 95% at rated power.
4.1 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
In order for a wind turbine to operate effectively such that it maximizes the utilization of the
energy of the wind it is necessary to optimize the performance of the wind turbine. The following
properties could be optimized for a better performance of the wind turbine.
• Sound
• Aesthetics
• Safety
4.1.1 SOUND
4.1.1.1 Designing For Low Aerodynamic Noise From Wind Turbines
1. Aerodynamic Sources of Sound Emission: When the wind hits different objects at a
certain speed, it will generally start making a sound. If it hits the leaves of trees and bushes, or a
water surface it will create a random mixture of high frequencies, often called white noise. The
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wind may also set surfaces in vibration, as sometimes happens with parts of a building, a car or
even an (engineless) glider aeroplane. These surfaces in turn emit their own sound. If the wind hits
a sharp edge, it may produce a pure tone that can be heard from musical wind instruments.
2. Rotor Blade Sound Emission and the Fifth Power Law: Rotor blades make a slight
swishing sound which one might hear if close to a wind turbine at relatively low wind speeds.
Rotor blades must break the wind to transfer energy to the rotor. In the process they cause some
emission of white noise. If the surfaces of the rotor blades are very smooth (which indeed they
must be for aerodynamic reasons), the surfaces will emit a minor part of the noise. Most of the
noise will originate from the trailing (back) edge of the blades. Careful design of trailing edges and
very careful handling of rotor blades while they are mounted will ensure that this swishing sound
is minimized. Other things being equal, sound pressure will increase with the fifth power of the
speed of the blade relative to the surrounding air. Therefore, it is noticeable that wind turbines with
large rotor diameters have very low rotational speed [24].
3. Rotor Blade Tip Design: The tip of the blade moves substantially faster than the root of
the blade and as such, great care is taken about the design of the rotor tip. Changes occur in the
rotor blade geometry over time and such changes have to be studied carefully. It is necessary to do
this for performance reasons, since most of the torque (rotational moment) of the rotor comes from
the outer part of the blades.
4.1.1.2 Designing For Low Mechanical Noise From Wind Turbines
1. Mechanical Sources of Sound Emission: Mechanical noise, i.e. metal components
moving or knocking against each other may originate in the gearbox, in the drive train (the shafts),
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and in the generator of a wind turbine. A survey on research and development priorities of Danish
wind turbine manufacturers conducted in 1995, however, showed that no manufacturer considered
mechanical noise as a problem any longer, and therefore no further research in the area was
considered necessary. The reason was, that within three years noise emissions had dropped to half
their previous level due to better engineering practices [24].
2. Quieting Wind Turbine Gearboxes: Gearboxes for wind turbines are no longer standard
industrial gearboxes, but they have been adapted specifically for quiet operation of wind turbines.
One way of doing this is to ensure that the steel wheels of the gearbox have a semi-soft, flexible
core, but a hard surface to ensure strength and long time wear. This is a tribological method used
also referred to as surface treatment. The way this is done is basically to heat the gear wheels after
their teeth have been ground, and then let them cool off slowly while they are packed in a special
high carbon-content powder. The carbon will then migrate into the surface of the metal. This
ensures a high carbon content and high durability in the surface of the metal, while the steel alloy
in the interior remains softer and more flexible.
3. Structural Dynamics Analysis: An important consideration, which enters into the turbine
design process today, is the fact that the rotor blades may act as membranes that may retransmit
noise vibrations from the nacelle and tower. A close look at the chassis frame of the nacelle on
some of the large wind turbines today, one may discover some odd holes which were drilled into
the chassis frame for no apparent reason. These holes were precisely made to ensure that the frame
would not vibrate in step with the other components in the turbine.
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4.1.2 AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
These are design features that make the wind turbine more attractive and preferable to other
conventional energy sources. This design features do not necessarily provide better performance
but adds to the acceptance level of the wind turbine in our environment.
Generally wind turbines should have:
• Slowly rotating blades
• 3 blades better than 2
• Smooth round towers
• Not too much noise
4.1.3 SAFETY
The components of a wind turbine are designed to last 20 years. This means that they will
have to endure more than 120,000 operating hours, often under stormy weather conditions. Large
wind turbines are equipped with a number of safety devices to ensure safe operation during their
lifetime.
1. Sensors: One of the classical and most simple safety devices in a wind turbine is the
vibration sensor. It simply consists of a ball resting on a ring. The ball is connected to a
switch through a chain. If the turbine starts shaking, the ball will fall off the ring and switch
the turbine off. There are many other sensors in the nacelle, e.g. electronic thermometers
which check the oil temperature in the gearbox and the temperature of the generator.
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2. Rotor Blades: Safety regulations for wind turbines vary between countries. Denmark is the
only country in which the law requires that all new rotor blades are tested both statically,
i.e. applying weights to bend the blade, and dynamically, i.e. testing the blade's ability to
withstand fatigue from repeated bending more than five million times.
3. Over speeds Protection: It is essential that wind turbines stop automatically in case of
malfunction of a critical component. For example, if the generator overheats or is
disconnected from the electrical grid, it will stop braking the rotation of the rotor, and the
rotor will start accelerating rapidly within a matter of seconds. In such a case it is essential
to have an over speed protection system. The wind turbine would have fail safe brake
mechanisms to stop the turbine.
4.2 WIND TURBINE CONSTRUCTION: BASIC LOAD CONSIDERATIONS
For the successful construction of the wind turbine machine, the strength, the dynamic
behaviour, and the fatigue properties of the materials and the entire assembly are to be taken into
consideration.
1. Extreme Loads (Forces): Wind turbines are built to catch the wind's kinetic (motion)
energy. Turbines with many blades or very wide blades, i.e. turbines with a very solid
rotor, however, will be subject to very large forces, when the wind blows at a hurricane
speed. To limit the influence of the extreme winds it is therefore generally suggested to
build turbines with a few, long, narrow blades. In order to make up for the narrowness
of the blades facing the wind, it is preferable to let the turbines rotate relatively quickly.
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2. Fatigue Loads (Forces): Wind turbines are subject to fluctuating winds, and hence
fluctuating forces. This is particularly the case if they are located in a very turbulent
wind climate. Components which are subject to repeated bending, such as rotor blades,
may eventually develop cracks which ultimately may make the component break. Metal
fatigue is a well known problem in many industries. Metal is therefore generally not
favoured as a material for rotor blades.
3. Structural Dynamics: A 50 metre tall wind turbine tower will have a tendency to
swing back and forth, say, every three seconds. The frequency with which the tower
oscillates back and forth is also known as the eigenfrequency of the tower. The
eigenfrequency depends on both the height of the tower, the thickness of its walls, the
type of steel, and the weight of the nacelle and rotor. Now, each time a rotor blade passes
the wind shade of the tower, the rotor will push slightly less against the tower. If the
rotor turns with a rotational speed such that a rotor blade passes the tower each time the
tower is in one of its extreme positions, then the rotor blade may either dampen or
amplify (reinforce) the oscillations of the tower. The rotor blades themselves are also
flexible, and may have a tendency to vibrate, say, once per second. It is therefore very
important to know the eigenfreqencies of each component in order to design a safe
turbine that does not oscillate out of control.
4.3 WIND TURBINE INSTALLATION
The long term safety of the wind turbine depends on a number of issues that both designer
and installer must address. Potential hazards need to be identified and systematically eliminated or
minimized. This does not just include those which may be present during installation but also any
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that may develop over time. Many of these will have an impact on the installation process. These
deal in particular with safety aspects of the installation.
1. System design: long term safety cannot be achieved unless both the system as a whole and
each component individually are correctly designed and specified. The design process must
include a consideration of normal and faulted operating conditions.
2. Safe working: poor installation can compromise the long term safety of the system.
Equally, unsafe site and working conditions can put installation engineers at risk. Correct
design of the system as well as thorough planning of the installation phase will help to
ensure the quality of the installation as well as the safety of the work team.
3. Commissioning and testing: A comprehensive post-installation system inspection and
testing regime will also be required if long term performance and system safety are to be
guaranteed. A number of design-related issues, including the siting of the turbine and its
size, will impact on its performance and are also likely to affect the installation process.
4.3.1 Planning permission
The height and location of the wind turbine will affect whether planning permission is
needed; in general, those with rotor diameters of more than two metres should require consent. If it
is to be used purely for agricultural purposes on agricultural land, there may be a farming general
consent covering the installation; however, a local planning office should still be contacted. The
planning authority may impose restrictions on the siting of a wind turbine. These are normally for
two reasons:
• expected noise output
• visual impact on the landscape
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Anyone who wishes to use a wind turbine should be aware of any restrictions that might
occur. In assembling information for the local planning authority, the latest planning guidance and
recommendations should be taken into account.
In support of a planning application, installers of wind turbine should:
• advise customers to make contact with the local planning authority themselves
• urge customers to communicate with neighbours and the local community about the project at an
early stage
• provide information to the authority on similar installations (location, equipment type, etc)
• provide appropriate drawings
• provide information on noise levels
4.3.2 Performance and output
The power available from the wind is related to the cube of the speed. In practice, this means that a
20% increase in wind strength will almost double the power available. It is therefore very
important to maximize the incident wind on the turbine blades. Wind speed increases with height
and even small increases in turbine height can produce significant improvements in performance.
The power available is also related to the square of the turbine rotor diameter. Available power is
proportional to the density of the air. Weather conditions and height above sea level will therefore
affect output. This effect is, however, very small in comparison with the other two.
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Other considerations are;
Wind direction: a turbine should be exposed to prevailing winds, i.e. the direction with the best
overall combination of frequency and strength.
Obstacles: wind speed increases with height as the ground and objects close to it disrupt air flow.
The 'roughness' of the ground is a measure of the way obstacles such as trees, buildings and the
surface topography act to effectively slow down the wind.
Turbulence: the flow of the wind is disrupted when it passes over or around objects, so a turbine
should be sited to minimize the influence of obstacles (ideally from all directions). Excessive
turbulence may also cause fatigue and shorten a turbine's life.
Tower height: while greater height will increase energy output (higher wind speed and less
turbulence, especially at sites of greater roughness), practical considerations such as cost and ease
of lowering (for maintenance) also need to be taken into account.
4.3.3 Practical Issues Concerning Wind Turbine Installation
The ideal site for a wind turbine is on a smooth, rounded and exposed hill-top or rise; one clear of
any cliff faces and many metres from obstructions such as trees and buildings. In practice this very
rarely happens. A wind turbine must be reasonably close to the point of energy use, or to an
electricity connection. Otherwise the cost of underground cabling may prove excessive. Location
may also be limited by factors such as land ownership. The key point is to keep the turbine clear of
large obstacles, particularly in the path of the prevailing wind. This should take account of possible
future obstructions such as tree growth. Small wind turbines are sometimes mounted on buildings.
In such situations, factors such as local turbulence, wind turbine type and structural issues need to
consideration. In addition, the associated noise and vibration levels will need to be taken into
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account, especially with regard to potential resonance that could be induced within the structure of
the building.
4.3.3.1 Safe siting and working
The wind turbine should ideally be placed well clear of any buildings, obstructions and places
where the public may gather. It is clearly not always possible to achieve the ideal location. So the
additional risks and Health & Safety considerations must be carefully weighed. Regarding safe
siting, anchors and guy cables for towers should be well away from roads, tracks, footpaths, etc.
General issues
• Due regard should be given to any public rights of way close to the installation site
• The local situation should be taken into account, e.g. the likely presence of children
• Existing site services (e.g. overhead or underground electric cables) should be identified and
exclusion zones defined
• Temporary signs, notices and barriers should be erected
• The local weather conditions should be considered
• Turbines should be maintained according to the manufacturer's requirements in order to minimise
risk. It is recommended that maintenance is carried out by a suitably trained individual or
individuals. Where turbines are located in public places, the customer should be encouraged to
place the maintenance with representatives of the manufacturer.
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4.3.3.2 Wind turbine, tower and foundations
The requirements of this part apply to all installations, whether grid-connected, battery or direct-
connected systems.
(A) Mechanical and structural requirements
1. Wind loading
The turbine and tower must not become a health and safety risk due to mechanical failure caused
by high winds. The wind turbine and tower should at least be rated to withstand wind speeds that
average 35m/s (78mph) over a 10 minute period without any damage to its operation. The wind
turbine and its support structure should be designed to survive a gust of at least 50m/s (112mph)
without suffering any damage that might result in any or all parts of the turbine or tower falling to
the ground. Gusts of 50m/s are rare, but they must not result in catastrophic mechanical or
structural damage; although it is accepted that systems may not function correctly afterwards.
Some particularly exposed sites, or installations in public areas, may need to meet more stringent
design requirements.
2. Turbine support structures
(a) General considerations:
• The support structure should be suitable for the particular turbine and should be designed to
prevent detrimental effects arising from movement or vibration
• All parts of the tower should be corrosion resistant (e.g. made from galvanised or
stainless steel)
• Fixings must not loosen with vibration
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• Dissimilar materials must be isolated from each other to prevent electrolytic corrosion
• The design must ensure that any exposed moving parts are at least three metres from any point
where persons or livestock may stand. It should also prevent unauthorized access
• Towers should be designed in such a way as to prevent climbing by unauthorized persons.
(b) Foundations and anchor points:
Key considerations include:
• The appropriate type and strength of concrete must be specified to suit site conditions and
foundation requirements. These specifications are to be provided to the installer in the foundation
instructions
• Foundations and anchor points should be proportioned to suit local ground conditions
• Foundations and anchor points should be designed in such as a way as to prevent water pooling
around the tower base or the anchors
(B) Electrical requirements
Conventional electrical installation practices apply also to the installation of wind turbine systems.
The following comments highlight ways to mitigate the particular hazards associated with the
installation of a wind turbine system.
1. Voltage and current - maximum values
In order to specify any part of the turbine electrical system, it is essential to know the maximum
voltage and current output that can be expected - under normal or faulted operating conditions, and
across the range of wind speeds it may encounter. Different turbine designs vary in their response
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to normal and faulted operating conditions. Some designs may stall when the turbine is short-
circuited, but not all. Factors such as generator design, magnet type, furling mechanism, etc, will
all have an influence on the output current and voltage at different wind speeds and under different
operating conditions.
The following information should therefore be clearly stated in the turbine documentation supplied
by the manufacturer or supplier:
V(max) - the maximum open circuit voltage that would be generated by the wind turbine at wind
speeds between 0-50m/s.
I(max) - the worst case, maximum steady-state current (either during normal operation or into a short
circuit) that would be generated by the turbine at wind speeds between 0-50m/s.
2. Direct-connected systems
In a direct-connected system, the turbine output is connected directly to the load. An example
would be a wind heating system, where heater(s) run directly from the turbine as and when wind
energy is available. However, a typical direct-connected system will not usually supply the 240V,
50Hz sinusoidal AC for which most common electrical equipment is designed. All parts of such
systems therefore need to be specified to the voltage and current maxima (as well as frequency)
that can be expected.
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4.4 MODEL PRESENTATION
The models to be presented in this project are the dynamic model of the 1.8KW wind
turbine as a case study and the computer model using the Visual Basic programming language,
which would provide necessary information and analysis of wind turbines of other capacities.
4.4.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A mathematical model of a dynamic system, such as a wind turbine, is defined as a set of
equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately or, at least fairly well. The
dynamics of many systems whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economical,
biological and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations. Such differential
equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system, for example,
Newton’s law for Mechanical system and Kirchhoff’s law for electrical system. A more complete
mathematical model may then be built and used for a more accurate analysis.
For the wind turbine of 1.8KW output, the mathematical model can be generated for the
dynamic system and a transfer function can be presented.
1. The transfer function is a mathematical model in that it is an operational method off
expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the input.
2. The transfer function is a property of the system itself and is independent on the
magnitude of the input or driving function
3. The transfer function includes all units necessary to relate the input to the output.
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The wind turbine has different systems, Mechanical, Electrical and electronics (Controller) but
the first two would be discussed.
The model derived in this project is presented under that assumption that the system is
frictionless and that there are no losses in energy.
Mechanical system
Illustration of the shaft and Gears
LOW SPEED SHAFT

1
K1 ,T1, Tb, J1, f1, 1
HIGH SPEED SHAFT

2
K2 , Tg, T2, J2, f2, 2
Fig 4.2 Gears and shaft for mathematical model
J1, J2 = moment of inertia (subscript 1 and 2 represents shaft 1 and 2 respectively)
F1, F2 = vicious force (subscript 1 and 2 represents shaft 1 and 2 respectively)
K1, K2 = stiffness (subscript 1 and 2 represents shaft 1 and 2 respectively)
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= Angular displacement,
’ = Angular Velocity (First Order differential)
’’ = Angular acceleration (Second Order differential)
Tb = torque due to rotation of the blade
T2 = torque due to rotation of the high (small) speed gear
Tg = torque due to rotation of the low (Big) speed gear
The basic elements of a mechanical system are
Mass, Spring and Dashpot.
For system contain rotating elements, the differential equation which expresses the torque
J ’’ + f ’ + k = torque
For shaft 1 J1 1’’ + f1 1’ + k1 1 = Tb
k1 1 T1
J1 1’’ + f1 1’ + T 1 = Tb
Shaft 2
J2 2’’ + f2 2’ + k2 2 = T2
Where T2 is torque due to rotation of the high speed gear
k2 2 = Tg
Work done T1 1 = T2 2
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’’1/ ’’2 = ’1/ ’2 = 1/ 2 = N2/ N1
= T2 / T 1
Where N = number of teeths of the Gears
T1 = T2(N1/ N2)
T1 = (N1/ N2) (J2 ’’ + f2 ’ + Tg)
J1 1’’ + f1 1’ + T 1 = Tb
Tb = J1 ’’1 + f1 ’1 + (N1/ N2) (J2 ’’2 + f2 ’2 + Tg)
But ’’1/ ’’2 = ’1/ ’2 = N2/ N1
Therefore
’’2 = ’’1 (N1/ N2)
’2 = ’1 (N1/ N2)
Tb = J1 ’’1 + f1 ’1 +(N1/ N2) (J2 ( ’’1(N1/ N2)) + f2 ( ’1(N1/ N2))+ Tg
Collecting like terms the equation yields
Tb = (J1+ J2 (N1/ N2)) ’’1+ (f1 + f2 (N1/ N2)) ’1+(N1/ N2) Tg
Where,
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J1+ J2  1 =
N
Jeq = equivalent Moment of inertia
 N 2 
f1 + f2  1 
N
feq = = equivalent viscous force
 N 2 
Gr = Gear ratio =
Tb = Jeq ’’+ feq ’+ GrTg
The Laplace transform of the above equation under the assumption that the initial condition is
zero
Tb(S) =
Transfer function for the mechanical system, where the input is the torque and the output is the
angular displacement of the equivalent system
For the electrical system
This system consist of the high speed shaft rotating in a magnetic field. Thus the following
are defined for the generator in terms of the armature and field windings
Armature
Ia = Armature current
Ra = Armature Resistance
La = Armature Inductance
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Field
If = Field current
= Magnetic flux
Torque x Ia
If
= KfIf
Kf = Constant of proportionality
Therefore
Torque = KfIfIa
Let Kt = KfIf
Therefore
Torque = KtIa
Also, torque due to rotation of the high speed shaft in the magnetic field, from the mechanical
system into the electrical system;
T = J2 ’’+ f2 ’+ K2
T = J2 ’’+ f2 ’+ K2 = KtIa
Taking Laplace transform of J2 ’’+ f2 ’+ K2 = KtIa
J2S2 (S) + f2 (S) + K2 (S) = KtIa(S)
Therefore,
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The EMF,
E = L a dI a/dt + I aR a + Eb
E = L a I a‘ + I aR a + Eb
Eb = -N ’ = -Kb ’
Because, the EMF generated in the armature is proportional to the rate of change of flux
Taking the Laplace transform of
E = L a I a‘ + I aR a + Eb
Gives;
E(S) = L a SI a(S) + I aR a(S) + Eb(S)
E(S) - Eb(S) = L a SI a(S) + I aR a(S)
E(S) - Eb(S) = I a(S) (L a S +R a)
Taking the Laplace transform of
Eb = -N ’ = -Kb ’
Gives;
Eb = Kb S (S)
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Putting the above equation in
E(S) - Eb(S) = I a(S) (L a S +R a)
We have,
E(S) - Kb S (S) = I a(S) (L a S +R a)
But
I a(S) = (J2S2 (S) + f2 (S) + K2 (S)) / Kt
I a(S) = (S) (J2S2 + f2S + K2) / Kt
Putting the above equation in
E(S) - Kb S (S) = I a(S) (L a S +R a)
We have,
E(S) - Kb S (S) = (S) (J2S2 + f2S + K2) (L a S +R a) / Kt
E(S) = (S) (J2S2 + f2S + K2) (L a S +R a) / Kt + Kb S (S)
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Therefore the transfer function for the electrical system is given as
E(S) represents the output of the generator, which an angular change, input , (S), is
imposed on the system by the rotation of the high speed shaft.
But, by combing the transfer function from the mechanical system with the electrical
system. The transfer function for the complete system is given as
E(S) represents the output of the generator, which a change in torque, the input, Tb(S), is
imposed on the system by the rotation of the blades.
The block diagram for the system is shown below
Tb(S) TRANSFER E(S)

FUNCTION
The figure illustrates a simplified block diagram for the wind turbine as an open system
without considering the effect of the controller. The importance of the controller and other
electronic devices incorporated in the wind turbine design allows for the effective performance of
the wind turbine by acting as a feedback mechanism and thus, a closed loop system is obtained.
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This is so, because the controller measures the following parameters as analogue signals (where
measurements give readings of varying values) :Voltage on all three phases, Current on all three
phases, Frequency on one phase, Temperature inside the nacelle, Generator temperature, Gear oil
temperature, Gear bearing temperature, Wind speed, The direction of yawing, Low-speed shaft
rotational speed and High-speed shaft rotational speed.
The controller also measures the following parameters as digital signals (where the
measurements do not give readings of varying values, but a mere an on/off signal) : Wind
direction, Over-heating of the generator, Hydraulic pressure level, Correct valve function,
Vibration level, Twisting of the power cable, Emergency brake circuit, Overheating of small
electric motors for the yawing, hydraulic pumps, etc., Brake-caliper adjustment and Centrifugal-
release activation
4.4.2 COMPUTER MODEL USING VISUAL BASIC
The computer program written as a model using the visual basic programming language is
to perform three main functions and can be used for wind turbines of other capacities apart from
the 1.8KW specified in this project.
The Functions to be performed by the program are;
1. Height variation with wind speed and the consequent power available in the wind
at the varying height. This is applicable for the generation of the necessary
information for any site where the wind turbine is proposed to be installed.
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2. Blade calculator; since the blade is an important component of the wind turbine, the
program would generate values necessary for the blade construction i.e the blade
profile. The user would be expected to specify the Diameter of blade required for a
specific hub height and power output.
3. Cost Model; which would give information on the expected amount the wind turbine
would cost. That is the market price as at 2008.
The program recognizes two categories of users. Some users lack the basic knowledge of the
operations and embodiments of the turbine and as such, the design of the model is such that it
would guide the user with simplicity, thereby providing the essential information covered by the
scope of this study. The other category of users recognized are those who have knowledge of the
operations of the wind turbine and by inputting required data, results are generated corresponding
to the desired and designed output parameters. For both categories of users, the three mentioned
functions are to be carried out. The various Graphic User Interface(GUI) of the computer model
are discussed below. Some of the codes used to write the program are displayed in the appendix.
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Fig 4.4 GUI showing basic user input requirements
Fig 4.5 GUI showing Advanced user interface
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4.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.5.1 Height variation with wind speed and power available in the wind at the varying
height
For a particular user, (for the purpose of this project, the advanced user interface is used)
the results obtainable from the computer model is presented below
Fig4.6 GUI showing input requirements and wind parameter results
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For the three different regions: Grassland, forest and city, the table below can be obtained
from the computer model. The wind speed at test height is taken as 2.45m/s and the hub height,
rotor diameter for the three regions is taken as the same values for the table below
GRASSLAND
WIND SPEED AT HUB HEIGHT (M) ROTOR WIND SPEED AT WIND POWER
TEST HEIGHT DIAMETER (M) HUB HEIGHT AVAILABLE AT
(NIMET) (M/S) (M/S) HUB HEIGHT
(KW)
2.45 10 5 16.924 58.3203
2.45 30 10 19.6156 363.2249
2.45 50 15 20.86712 983.8774
2.45 70 20 21.69148 1964.709
2.45 90 25 22.3072 3338.766
2.45 110 30 22.79884 5132.769
Table 4.1 Wind parameters for grassland
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GRAPH OF HUB HEIGHT AGAINST WIND SPEED

AT HUB HEIGHT
120
100
Hub Height(m)
80
60
40
20
0
16.924 19.6156 20.86712 21.69148 22.3072 22.79884
Wind Speed at Hub Height (m/s)
Fig 4.7 Graph of hub height against wind speed at hub height for Grassland
GRAPH OF WIND POWER AGAINST HUB

HEIGHT
6000
Wind Power(KW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
10 30 50 70 90 110
Hub He ight(m)
Fig 4.8 Graph of wind power against hub height for Grassland
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GRAPH OF WIND POWER AGAINST WIND

SPEED
6000
Wind Power (KW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
16.924 19.6156 20.86712 21.69148 22.3072 22.79884
Wind Speed (m/s)
Fig 4.9 Graph of wind power against wind speed for Grassland
FOREST
WIND SPEED AT HUB HEIGHT ROTOR WIND SPEED WIND POWER
TEST HEIGHT (M) DIAMETER (M) AT HUB AVAILABLE AT
(NIMET) (M/S) HEIGHT (M/S) HUB HEIGHT (KW)
2.45 10 5 7.339544 4.756835
2.45 30 10 10.03114 48.57605
2.45 50 15 11.28267 155.5208
2.45 70 20 12.10702 341.6198
2.45 90 25 12.72274 619.4313
2.45 110 30 13.21439 999.4346
Table 4.2 Wind parameters for forest
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AT HUB HEIGHT
120
100
Hub Height(m)
80
60
40
20
0
7.339544 10.03114 11.28267 12.10702 12.72274 13.21439
Fig 4.10 Graph of hub height against wind speed at hub height for forest

HEIGHT
1200
Wind Power(KW)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
10 30 50 70 90 110
Hub He ight(m)
Fig 4.11 Graph of wind power against hub height for forest
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SPEED
1200
Wind Power (KW)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
7.339544 10.03114 11.28267 12.10702 12.72274 13.21439
Wind Speed (m/s)
Fig 4.12 Graph of wind power against wind speed for forest
CITY
WIND SPEED AT HUB HEIGHT ROTOR WIND SPEED AT HUB WIND POWER
TEST HEIGHT (M) DIAMETER HEIGHT (M/S) AVAILABLE AT
(NIMET) (M/S) (M) HUB HEIGHT
(KW)
2.45 10 5 2.949733 0.308787
2.45 30 10 5.64334 8.640047
2.45 50 15 6.892856 35.46099
2.45 70 20 7.717213 88.4733
2.45 90 25 8.332933 174.0382
2.45 110 30 8.824576 297.6429
Table 4.3 Wind parameters for city
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AT HUB HEIGHT
120
100
Hub Height(m)
80
60
40
20
0
2.949733 5.64334 6.892856 7.717213 8.332933 8.824576
Fig 4.13 Graph of hub height against wind speed at hub height for city

HEIGHT
350
Wind Power(KW)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
10 30 50 70 90 110
Hub He ight(m)
Fig 4.14 Graph of wind power against hub height for city
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SPEED
350
Wind Power (KW)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2.949733 5.64334 6.892856 7.717213 8.332933 8.824576
Wind Speed (m/s)
Fig 4.15 Graph of wind power against wind speed for city
The above graphs (fig 4.6, 4.9, 4.12) shows a linear variation of hub height as against wind
speed. Thus, it is apparent that as the height of the tower is increased, the wind speed available at
the varying heights increases and as such it favours the availability of wind power at the varying
height. Fig 4.7, 4.10, 4.13 shows an exponential variation of wind power and hub height And fig
4.8, fig 4.11 and fig 4.14 shows an exponential variation of wind power and wind speed.
The rotor diameter also influences the wind power available since there is a linear variation
between the swept area covered by the rotor and the wind power available. Compared to the other
two regions, that is, forest and city, the wind speed available in the grassland region is higher than
the other two. The wind power available for the varying heights is higher in the Grassland region
compared to that obtainable in the forest and City. The reason is because of obstructions in terms
of trees, mountains, buildings and high rising structures present in either the forest or city. The
need to be aware of the presence of such obstruction becomes prominent so as to have an
effectively working system.
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2. Blade Calculator
The blade calculator calculates the blade profile and the mechanical parameters needed
based on the inputs by the user
Fig 4.16 GUI for Blade profile
The blade profile along a fixed section of the blade is displayed for a single blade and is
applicable to the other blades of the wind turbine. A decrease in value for the chord width, Blade
angle and pitch is observed. This in effect shows that the blade profile is to be like those displayed
earlier in this project work. The same is applicable for various diameters and section provided by
the user of the program.
The GUI below displays the various blade parameters described above.
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Fig 4.17 GUI showing the blade parameters
In other to generate the mechanical parameters, hub heights 10, 30, 50, 70, 90 and 110m for
forest region and constant interval of blade section of 0.5m is used and the table below depicts the
results
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DIAMETER (M) WIND SPEED AT HUB SHAFT RPM MECHANICAL MAXIMUM
HEIGHT (m/s)) POWER(KW) TORQUE(NM)
5 7.339544 140.1186 1.902734 129.6221
10 10.03114 95.75179 19.43039 1937.008
15 11.28267 71.79881 62.20838 8270.434
20 12.10702 57.7836 136.6478 22573.31
25 12.72274 48.57774 247.7723 48686.89
30 13.21439 42.04579 399.7741 90758.8
Table 4.4 Mechanical parameters
GRAPH OF SHAFT RPM AGAINST ROTOR

DIAMETER
160
140
120
Shaft RPM
100
80
60
40
20
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Rotor Diameter (m)
Fig 4.18 Graph of Shaft RPM against rotor diameter
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Fig 4.19 Graph of rotor diameter against Maximum torque
Fig 4.20 Graph of rotor diameter against mechanical power
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From the above graph, Fig 4.16, it is obvious that the as the rotor diameter increases, the
shaft RPM (main shaft) experiences an exponential decline in value. Thus, smaller rotor diameter
produces a larger shaft RPM but a lower value of maximum torque Fig. 4.17 and invariably a
smaller value for mechanical power available Fig 4.18. In other to obtain more mechanical power,
the need arises for effective design of a rotor that would be large enough to drive the generator of
the wind turbine. It should be noted that mechanical losses, electrical losses and other losses that
will militate against an optimal performance during the energy conversion process should be
reduced to a bearest minimum.
3. Cost Analysis: Economic Optimization Of Wind Turbine Design
There appear to be several areas where technological progress and cost reduction are
needed. Turbine subsystem costs are generally evenly split between rotor, nacelle, drive-train
power systems[Dan et al ,2001], and the tower. There is no single component that dominates
turbine cost. The rotor is the highest cost item on most machines and must be the most reliable.
Towers are normally the heaviest component and could benefit from weight reduction, but
lightening the rotor or tower-top weight has a multiplier effect throughout the system including the
foundation.
Increasing the rotor diameter increases the power delivered to the generator at all wind
speeds up to the limit of generator capacity. Increasing the generator capacity raises the limit on
maximum power output. Increasing the hub height of a wind turbine increases power output due to
the higher wind speeds at increased heights. However, all of these design changes involve an
increase in capital cost.
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The cost model was developed based on current market values of wind turbines around the
world. It should be noted that these cost values are not precise as it varies across manufacturing
company and the accessories attached to the wind turbine pack. The values are as recorded at
2008. However, a theoretical cost model as developed by Schmidt Michael Georgia Institute of
Technology December 2007, enables a direct calculation of the wind turbine cost taking into
considering every single possible part known that can be attached to the wind turbine. This model
was however, not considered for this project as it is based on very large wind turbine engines
which is out of range of the design analysis done in the project.
From the computer program, the cost analysis was used to generated the graphs below by
entering varying values of power output in watts. For example, the cost for a 1.8W wind turbine is
shown below
Fig 4.21 Interface for cost analysis
When applied to wind turbine of varying outputs, the graph below can be plotted
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Fig 4.22 Graph showing the relationship between cost and power output.
Clearly it is observed from the graphs above that the cost of wind turbine has a direct linear
relationship with the power required output. As a result investors into wind turbine energy can
easily identify the energy available for use from their capital expenditure.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION
In view of the erratic supply of electricity in Nigeria, the need for alternative energy source
cannot be neglected and as such, wind turbine technology plays a vital role in contributing to the
search as an alternative source. The wind turbine is a machine that converts the power in the wind
into mechanical power in order to drive a generator for the production of Electricity. Various
researches have taken place, all with the aim of achieving an effective operating system for this
energy converting machine.
Based on the findings of previous researchers and available resource materials, this project
has described to an extent, the components, design procedures and considerations required for a
wind turbine. The analysis of the design shows a comprehensive and complex approach to
effectively designing a wind turbine. For the purpose of simplicity, a 1.8KW wind turbine was
chosen for study and through a compromise between various aspects of engineering, scientific and
mathematical applications, a design was arrived at and presented in this project. This was achieved
by making relevant assumptions and incorporating the need for safety in the overall design. In
order to ensure an efficient and safe operation of the wind turbine, the need for safety control
systems (which includes the electronic devices that work in harmony with the mechanical and
electrical parts of the wind turbine), was also presented in this project.
While recognizing the need for an optimal design, material for the parts of the wind turbine
and properties which could be optimized for a better performance of the wind turbine such as
sound, aesthetics and safety by reason of research, was presented in this project. Installation
procedures and considerations were also presented. A model which includes the Mathematical
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modeling of a dynamic system, cost model and computer model using a Visual basic program
language to simulate crucial parameters of the wind turbine design and the former models was
prepared. The computer model recognizes the fact that some users lack the basic knowledge of the
operations and embodiments of the turbine and as such, the design of the model is such that it
would guide the user with simplicity, thereby providing the essential information covered by the
scope of this study. The other category of users recognized are those who have knowledge of the
operations of the wind turbine and by inputting required data, results are generated corresponding
to the desired and designed output parameters.
However, the success of this project can be viewed as a stepping stone for further research
into the wind turbine technology. It forms the basis for future research into large-scale installations
of wind turbine which would facilitate energy production using Wind, the inexhaustible source of
energy, thereby reducing the emission of greenhouse gas and also combat global warming. Nigeria
can benefit from the use of this alternative source of energy production as is the case with that
obtainable in Denmark.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Wind energy can be regarded as an inexhaustible source of energy which is clean, harmless
and exists free in nature. But the development of industries in this part of the world has been
retarded by a number of factors, some of which have been mentioned earlier. During the process of
executing this project work, numerous challenges were encountered. A limiting factor to the
development of a realistic model for physical demonstration was handicapped by the non-
availability of materials. Such materials which are lacking include the materials for the blade
construction and the unavailability of equipments to effectively transform the parameters generated
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in the model to the construction of the blade. The materials for the blades as described above are
expensive. Though, locally available materials, such as wood can be used, but the issue of
equipments or machines to produce the parts to precision, renders its use inefficient.
During the construction of the wind turbine, it should be ensured that the blades are drawn
to the calculated angle as specified in this project, the pitch angle, blade setting angle and the chord
has to be precise to follow achieve the required aerodynamic fluid flow through air in motion. The
hub should be designed with a conical shape to ensure streamlining of the air through it. The shaft
should be a hollow shaft to reduce weight and its axis of rotation should be at the centre point. It
should however not fall below which it can cause shear deformation to the shaft due to the
dynamic motion of the blades. The axis of rotation of the gears should conform to the major and
minor shaft. This is to prevent rotodynamic vibrations. Then nacelle housing the internal parts
should also exhibit aerodynamic streamline properties. The caliper disk brakes on the minor shaft
should be work with too much wear. This is achieved by use of proper surface finishing of the
interacting surfaces. The coupling should be fitted with rubber packing to ensure smooth
transmission of rotational energy. The selection of electric motor should be such that it does not
get over-run and burnout at high wind speeds with high rotation of the blades. It should also not be
too high rated that the available torque in the shaft would not be able to rotate it. Small yaw drive
should be fitted in as a safety measure and also to drive the turbine towards the predominant wind
direction.
Government of developed countries, where wind turbine technology is available has
provided the needed environment for the development and research into this technology. This was
achieved through the provision of funds for the researches which in turn boosts the economy. The
Nigerian government needs to look into research activities by paying attention to indigenous
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technology and motivating innovative concepts and designs aimed at solving the power problems
of Nigeria. This is essential, so as enhance the production of such machines by the indigenous
manufacturing industries using locally available materials while incorporating the much needed
safety precaution to enhance smooth operations.
Considerable time should be spent planning before venturing into a project like this. The
project in this respect is the acquisition and installation of the wind turbine in various locations in
Nigeria. This can be improved by adequate and precise information of the variation of wind energy
availability in various geographical locations in Nigeria. In addition to this before venturing into
the execution, it is necessary to be fully aware of where and how to obtain the component parts and
the materials. Consideration also has to be given for storing energy produced as the wind blows
intermittently because the energy stored at high wind speed is better stored for periods of low wind
speed.
It is recommended that the material which is to be used for the production of the blades of
the turbine should be light in weight in order to achieve a better movement of the wind turbine
blades with the rotor. Also, the design consideration of the blades should meet aerodynamic
requirements. A central governing body should be established and saddled with the responsibility
of verifying and standardizing designs, procurement of materials and installation of wind turbines.
This governing body also should be capable of coordinating the activities of various tertiary and
research institutions so as to promote development of devices and/or plants which would serve to
solve Nigeria’s power problems.
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APPENDIX
(VISUAL BASIC CODES)
An extract of the visual basic program for some of three graphic user interfaces(GUI) is displayed
below
Bladeheightspeedpower(Code)
Private Sub Command1_Click()

If Option1.Value = False And Option2.Value = False And Option3.Value = False Then
MsgBox "Please specify an area", , "Required information"
Else
If Option1.Value = True Then
grassland
Label4.Caption = grass
Label5.Caption = powergrass
ElseIf Option2.Value = True Then
forest
Label4.Caption = fores
Label5.Caption = powerforest
ElseIf Option3.Value = True Then
city
Label4.Caption = cit
Label5.Caption = powercity
End If
End If
End Sub
Private Sub grassland()
grass = Val(Text1.Text) * Log((Val(Text2.Text)) / 0.01)
powergrass = ((1 / 2) * density * (grass ^ 3) * (((Val(Text3.Text)) ^ 2) * (22 / 28))) / 1000
End Sub
Private Sub forest()
fores = Val(Text1.Text) * Log((Val(Text2.Text)) / 0.5)
powerforest = ((1 / 2) * density * (fores ^ 3) * (((Val(Text3.Text)) ^ 2) * (22 / 28))) / 1000
End Sub
Private Sub city()
cit = Val(Text1.Text) * Log((Val(Text2.Text)) / 3)
powercity = ((1 / 2) * density * (cit ^ 3) * (((Val(Text3.Text)) ^ 2) * (22 / 28))) / 1000
End Sub

difficultyinterface.Show
bladeheightspeedpower.Hide
End Sub

Text1.Text = "0"
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Text2.Text = "0"
Text3.Text = "0"
Label4.Caption = ""
Label5.Caption = ""
Option1.Value = False
End Sub

Text6.Text = ""
Text5.Text = ""
Label23.Caption = ""
p=0
For num = 1 To 5
List1.RemoveItem sec(num)
List2.RemoveItem cw(num)
List3.RemoveItem pitch(num)
List4.RemoveItem bw(num)
If sec(num) = 1 Then
GoTo 50
End If
Next
50 bladeheightspeedpower.Show
End Sub

bladeheightspeedpower.Hide
End Sub

Dim SHAFTRPM As Single, POWERWIND As Single, mechpower As Single, maxtorque As Single
SHAFTRPM = (60 * tipspeedratio * Val(Text5.Text)) / (Val(Text6.Text) * PI)
Label23.Caption = SHAFTRPM
POWERWIND = (1 / 2) * (density) * (((Val(Text6.Text)) ^ 2) * (22 / 28)) * (Val(Text5.Text) ^ 3)
Label21.Caption = POWERWIND
mechpower = cp * POWERWIND
Label19.Caption = mechpower
maxtorque = mechpower / ((2 * PI * SHAFTRPM) / 60)
Label17.Caption = maxtorque
Interval = Val(Text4.Text)
N = Val(Text4.Text)
If N >= (Val(Text6.Text) / 2) Then
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MsgBox ("value should be less than half the diameter!")
End If
Dim sec(100) As Single, cw(100) As Single, pitch(100) As Single, bw(100) As Single, RADUIS As Single
Dim num As Integer, p As Integer
For num = 1 To 100
RADUIS = Val(Text6.Text) / 2
sec(num) = N / RADUIS
List1.AddItem sec(num)
cw(num) = (16 * PI * RADUIS * (1 / sec(num))) / (9 * (tipspeedratio ^ 2) * numberofblades)
List2.AddItem cw(num)
pitch(num) = (Atn(2 / (3 * sec(num) * tipspeedratio))) * (360 / (2 * PI))
List3.AddItem (pitch(num))
bw(num) = (pitch(num)) - 5
List4.AddItem bw(num)
N = Interval + N
If sec(num) = 1 Then
GoTo 50
End If
If N > RADUIS Then
sec(num) = 1
List1.AddItem sec(num)
cw(num) = (16 * PI * RADUIS * sec(num)) / (9 * (tipspeedratio ^ 2) * numberofblades)
List2.AddItem cw(num)
pitch(num) = Atn(2 / (3 * sec(num) * tipspeedratio))
List3.AddItem pitch(num)
bw(num) = pitch(num) - 5
List4.AddItem bw(num)
GoTo 50
End If
Next
50 bladeheightspeedpower.Show
End Sub
Private Sub Form_Load()

Text1.Text = "0"
Text2.Text = "0"
Text3.Text = "0"
Text5.Text = "0"
Text6.Text = "0"
End Sub
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Private Sub Text1_Click()

Text1.Text = ""
End Sub

Text2.Text = ""
End Sub

Text3.Text = ""
End Sub

Text5.Text = ""
End Sub
Text6.Text = ""
End Sub
Basicuserresult(code)
physicalproperties.Hide
costanalysiSbasic.Hide
bladeprofilediadrams.Hide
Label1.Caption = ratio1
Label6.Caption = chordwidth1
Label11.Caption = pitch1
Label16.Caption = bladesettingangle1
End Sub

basicuserresult.Hide
End Sub
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Label1.Caption = ""
Label2.Caption = ""
Label3.Caption = ""
Label4.Caption = ""
Label5.Caption = ""
Label6.Caption = ""
Label7.Caption = ""
Label8.Caption = ""
Label9.Caption = ""
End Sub
Private Sub costanalysesmenuitem_Click()

costanalysiSbasic.Show
End Sub
Private Sub physicalpropertiesmenuitem_Click()

physicalproperties.Show
End Sub
Private Sub profilemenuitem_Click()

bladeprofilediadrams.Show
End Sub
phyiscalproperties(code)
Private Sub Label8_Click()
End Sub

Text1.Text = powerec
Text2.Text = powerelectric
Text3.Text = POWERWIND
Text4.Text = SHAFTRPM
Text5.Text = velocityratio
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Text6.Text = torquemax
End Sub
Private Sub powerwind_Click()

End Sub

End Sub

Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
Text4.Text = ""
Text5.Text = ""
Text6.Text = ""
End Sub
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REFERENCES
Accessed 2008, http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/design/quietae.htm
Afolami, 2007, Wind Turbine Optimization And Power Analysis, final year project, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University Of Ilorin.
Babu et al, 2006, “The material selection for typical wind turbine blades Using a MADM
approach& analysis of blades” , [email protected], Srkr Engineering College,
Bhimavaram -534 204 (Ap), India.
Dan et al ,2001Wind Turbine - Materials and Manufacturing Fact Sheet Prepared for the Office of
Industrial Technologies, US Department of Energy By Princeton Energy Resources
International, LLC
Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing, 2004, Guidance for installers and specifiers.
“Installing small wind-powered electricity generating systems”, PDF document,
www.est.org.uk/bestpractice
Fingersh, L., M. Hand, and A. Laxson. “Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model.” National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/40566.pdf (Accessed June
2006)
Hills R.L “Power from wind; a history of Wind Mill Technology”
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Henrik, S. (1999), “The wind turbine”, Bonus Info, Special Issue magazine. www.bonus.dk
Hugh, P, Accessed 2008, http://users.aber.ac.uk/iri/WIND/TECH/WPcourse/page6.html
Jonkman J. M 2003, Modeling of the unsteady aerodynamics experiment wind turbine for
requirement of FAST-AD, Mid west research institute, Battelee.
Khurmi and Gupta, 2005, “Machine Design” Eurasia Publishing House (PVT) ltd, New Delhi.
M. Ragheb, 2008, “Theory Of Wind Machines, Betz equation” (Albert Betz,1926 author of the
book “Wind Energy and its extraction through Wind Mills”)
Malcoun Slesser, 1982, “Macmillan Dictionary Of energy”, Great Britain
Michael Schmidt, 2007 “The Economic Optimization of Wind Turbine Design“ A Thesis, for the
Degree, Master of Science, School of Mechanical Engineering Georgia Institute of
Technology
Ogunleye, I O and Emehelu I, 2007; Potential Of wind Energy for Power Generation In Ekiti
State. Page 61-65. Proceedings, 3rd Engineering Forum.
Paul Gipe, 1995, “Wind Enery Basics; A guide to small and micro wind systems, Chelsee, Green
Publishing.
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Philip D. 2004, “Global warming and renewable energy”, Lecture 4: Wind energy, Warwick, UK
RAM/STAAD Solution Center, 2007, STAAD. PRO Design of Wind Turbine Foundations
Staffan, E (2001), “Soft Yaw Drives for Wind Turbines”, Ägir Konsult AB, DEWI Magazin Nr.
18, February 2001, Sweden.
“Wind Turbine”, 2005, Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia
“Wind Turbine”, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia Online
“Wind Energy”, 2005, Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia
Wind Electricity Generation; Accessed 2008, www.windpower.dk
“Wind Energy”, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia Online
William E. Leithead and Sergio dominguez “Size related performance Limitations on wind
Turbine control performance”
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facilitate an improvement generation of power through the use of wind turbine.

telecommunications power supply and irrigation [www.windpower.dk, accessed 2008].

of the wind turbine systems.

1.0.1 ENERGY PRODUCTION

exist in Nigeria classified into:

1. Non-renewable or conventional energy sources.

2. Non-conventional or renewable energy sources.

in energy consumption vis-à-vis, Industrial/energy, Utilities, transportation, commercial and

their conversion processes.

1.0.1.1 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE

Nuclear energy supplies are strictly non-renewable [Malcoun Slesser, 1982].

resulted in the release of concentrated amounts of CO (Carbon Monoxide) in the atmosphere.

1.0.1.2 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE

has accumulated significant, large-scale, utility-connected experience.

1.1 WIND ENERGY

and is virtually available in every part of the Nation in some amount.

1.2 WIND TURBINE

accomplished using standard utility components and practice.

Turbine, Wind Power Unit (WPU) or Wind Energy converter.

the grid might be too expensive to install.

Therefore, there is no associated risk of environmental degradation or contribution to global

continuing risk associated with the nuclear power station is eliminated.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WIND TURBINE

grouped into the major groups which are

i. Horizontal-Axis Wind turbine(HAWT)

ii. Vertical-Axis Wind turbine(VAWT)

1.3.1 VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE (VAWT)

electricity is lower than Horizontal-Axis Wind turbines.

The basic theoretical advantages of a vertical axis machine are:

for the machine.

2. No need of a yaw mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.

The basic disadvantages are:

2. The overall efficiency of the vertical axis machines is not impressive.

This is only a minor inconvenience for a grid connected turbine).

overcome these problems.

1.3.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE (HAWT)

with smooth air flow and few obstacles.

ground and roughly parallel to the wind stream.

rotational axis of the turbine blades.

1.4 WIND CONVERSION PRINCIPLE

lift and drag are:

• drag is in the direction of air flow

• lift is perpendicular to the direction of air flow

• generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed

• lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices

1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT

(VBASIC) program that would cover the aforementioned simulation details.

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT WORK

supply to ensure development.

purpose of harnessing alternative energy can be improved upon by further research.

1.7 BENEFITS OF THE WIND TURBINE

could be a barrier to future developments [www.wikipedia.com, wind turbine, accessed 2008].

Fig 1. World installed capacity for wind turbines.

COUNTRY CAPACITY (KW)

REST OF THE WORLD 11005

TABLE 1.1 World wind turbine capacity, installed. 2006

1.7.1 ADVANTAGES OF WIND TURBINE OVER CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

would have depleted in the near future.

emissions that can cause environmental degradation or hazard to human health.