Electronic engineering

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Electronic components
Electronics engineering,[1] also referred to as electronic
engineering[2][3] is an engineering discipline which uses the scientific
knowledge of the behavior and effects of electrons to develop
components, devices, systems, or equipment (as in electron
tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, and printed circuit boards) that
uses electricity as part of its driving force. Both terms denote a broad
engineering field that encompasses many subfields including those
that deal with power, instrumentation
engineering, telecommunications, semiconductor circuit design, and
many others.[4]
The term also covers a large part of electrical engineering degree
courses as studied at most European universities. In the U.S.,
however, electrical engineering encompasses all electrical disciplines
including electronics. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers is one of the most important and influential organizations
for electronics engineers.
Contents
 [hide]

 1 Terminology
 2 History of electronic engineering
o 2.1 Early electronics
o 2.2 Tubes or valves
  2.2.1 The vacuum tube detector
o 2.3 Television
o 2.4 Radar and radio location
o 2.5 Computers
o 2.6 Transistors
o 2.7 Microprocessors
 3 Electronics
 4 Typical electronic engineering undergraduate
syllabus
o 4.1 Electromagnetics
o 4.2 Network analysis
o 4.3 Electronic devices and circuits
o 4.4 Signals and systems
o 4.5 Control systems
o 4.6 Communications
 5 Education and training
 6 Professional bodies
 7 Modern electronic engineering
 8 Subfields
o 8.1 Overview of electronic engineering
o 8.2 Project engineering
 9 See also
 10 References
 11 External links
[edit]Terminology
The name electrical engineering is still used to cover electronic
engineering amongst some of the older (notably American and
Australian) universities and graduates there are called electrical
engineers.[5] Some people believe the term 'electrical engineer' should
be reserved for those having specialized in power and heavy current
or high voltage engineering, while others believe that power is just one
subset of electrical engineering (and indeed the term 'power
engineering' is used in that industry) as well as 'electrical distribution
engineering'. Again, in recent years there has been a growth of new
separate-entry degree courses such as 'information engineering' and
'communication systems engineering', often followed by academic
departments of similar name.[6][7]
Most European universities now refer to electrical engineering as
power engineers and make a distinction between Electrical and
Electronics Engineering. Beginning in the 1980s, the term computer
engineer was often used to refer to electronic or information
engineers. However, Computer Engineering is now considered a
subset of Electronics Engineering and the term is now becoming
archaic. [8]
[edit]History of electronic engineering
Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological
improvements in the telegraph industry in the late 1800s and
the radio and the telephone industries in the early 1900s. People were
attracted to radio by the technical fascination it inspired, first in
receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into broadcasting in
the 1920s were only 'amateurs' in the period before World War I.[9]
The modern discipline of electronic engineering was to a large extent
born out of telephone, radio, and television equipment development
and the large amount of electronic systems development duringWorld
War II of radar, sonar, communication systems, and advanced
munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the subject was
known as radio engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the
term electronic engineering started to emerge.[10]
The electronic laboratories (Bell Labs in the United States for
instance) created and subsidized by large corporations in the
industries of radio, television, and telephone equipment began
churning out a series of electronic advances. In 1948, came the
transistor and in 1960, the IC to revolutionize the electronic industry. [11]
[12]
 In the UK, the subject of electronic engineering became distinct
fromelectrical engineering as a university degree subject around 1960.
Before this time, students of electronics and related subjects like radio
and telecommunications had to enroll in the electrical
engineering department of the university as no university had
departments of electronics. Electrical engineering was the nearest
subject with which electronic engineering could be aligned, although
the similarities in subjects covered (except mathematics and
electromagnetism) lasted only for the first year of the three-year
course.
[edit]Early electronics

1896 Marconi patent

In 1893, Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of radio
communication. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and
the National Electric Light Association, he described and
demonstrated in detail the principles of radio communication. [13] In
1896, Guglielmo Marconi went on to develop a practical and widely
used radio system.[14][15][16] In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming, the first
professor of electrical Engineering at University College London,
invented the first radio tube, the diode. One year later, in 1906, Robert
von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier
tube, called thetriode.
Electronics is often considered to have begun when Lee De
Forest invented the vacuum tube in 1907. Within 10 years, his device
was used in radiotransmitters and receivers as well as systems for
long distance telephone calls. In 1912, Edwin H. Armstrong invented
the regenerative feedback amplifier andoscillator; he also invented
the superheterodyne radio receiver and could be considered the father
of modern radio.[17] Vacuum tubes remained the preferred amplifying
device for 40 years, until researchers working for William
Shockley at Bell Labs invented the transistor in 1947. In the following
years, transistors made small portable radios, or transistor radios,
possible as well as allowing more powerful mainframe computers to
be built. Transistors were smaller and required lower voltages than
vacuum tubes to work. In the interwar years the subject of electronics
was dominated by the worldwide interest in radio and to some extent
telephone and telegraph communications. The terms 'wireless' and
'radio' were then used to refer to anything electronic. There were
indeed few non-military applications of electronics beyond radio at that
time until the advent of television. The subject was not even offered as
a separate university degree subject until about 1960. [18]
Prior to World War II, the subject was commonly known as 'radio
engineering' and basically was restricted to aspects of
communications and RADAR, commercial radio and early television.
At this time, study of radio engineering at universities could only be
undertaken as part of a physics degree. Later, in post war years, as
consumer devices began to be developed, the field broadened to
include modern TV, audio systems, Hi-Fi and latterly computers
and microprocessors. In the mid to late 1950s, the term radio
engineering gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering,
which then became a stand alone university degree subject, usually
taught alongside electrical engineering with which it had become
associated due to some similarities.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits
were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated
by hand. These non-integrated circuits consumed much space
and power, were prone to failure and were limited in speed although
they are still common in simple applications. By contrast, integrated
circuits packed a large number — often millions — of tiny electrical
components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of
a coin.[19]
[edit]Tubes or valves
[edit]The vacuum tube detector
The invention of the triode amplifier, generator, and detector made
audio communication by radio practical. (Reginald Fessenden's 1906
transmissions used an electro-mechanical alternator.) The first known
radio news program was broadcast 31 August 1920 by station 8MK,
the unlicensed predecessor of WWJ (AM) in Detroit, Michigan.
Regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922
from the Marconi Research Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford,
England.
While some early radios used some type of amplification through
electric current or battery, through the mid 1920s the most common
type of receiver was the crystal set. In the 1920s, amplifying vacuum
tubes revolutionized both radio receivers and transmitters.
[edit]Television
In 1928 Philo Farnsworth made the first public demonstration of a
purely electronic television. During the 1930s several countries began
broadcasting, and after World War II it spread to millions of receivers,
eventually worldwide. Ever since then, electronics have been fully
present in television devices.
Modern televisions and video displays have evolved from bulky
electron tube technology to use more compact devices, such
as plasma and LCD displays. The trend is for even lower power
devices such as the organic light-emitting diode displays, and it is
most likely to replace the LCD and plasma technologies. [20]
[edit]Radar and radio location
During World War II many efforts were expended in the electronic
location of enemy targets and aircraft. These included radio beam
guidance of bombers, electronic counter measures, early radar
systems etc. During this time very little if any effort was expended on
consumer electronics developments.[21]
[edit]Computers
Main article: History of computing hardware
In 1941, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first
functional computer. After the Colossus computer in 1943,
the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John
Presper Eckertand John Mauchly followed in 1946, beginning the
computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed
engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new
objectives. Early examples include the Apollo missions and
the NASA moon landing.[22]
[edit]Transistors
The invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley, John
Bardeen and Walter Brattain opened the door for more compact
devices and led to the development of the integrated circuit in 1959
by Jack Kilby.[23]
[edit]Microprocessors
In 1969, Ted Hoff conceived the
commercial microprocessor at Intel and thus ignited the development
of the personal computer. Hoff's invention was part of an order by a
Japanese company for a desktop programmable electronic calculator,
which Hoff wanted to build as cheaply as possible. The first realization
of the microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor, in 1969,
but only in 1973 did the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, make the
building of the first personal computer, the MITS Altair 8800, possible.
The first PC was announced to the general public on the cover of the
January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics. Mechatronics would have
a good fortune in the near future.[24]
Many electronics engineers today specialize in the development of
programs for microprocessor based electronic systems, known
as embedded systems. Due to the detailed knowledge of the
hardware that is required for doing this, it is normally done by
electronics engineers and not software engineers. Software engineers
typically know and use microprocessors only at a conceptual level.
Electronics engineers who exclusively carry out the role of
programming embedded systems or microprocessors are referred to
as "embedded systems engineers", or "firmware engineers".
[edit]Electronics
In the field of electronic engineering, engineers design and
test circuits that use the electromagnetic properties of electrical
components such
as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistorsto achieve a
particular functionality. The tuner circuit, which allows the user of
a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such
a circuit.
In designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers first construct
circuit schematics that specify the electrical components and describe
the interconnections between them. When completed,VLSI engineers
convert the schematics into actual layouts, which map the layers of
various conductor and semiconductor materials needed to construct
the circuit. The conversion from schematics to layouts can be done
by software (see electronic design automation) but very often requires
human fine-tuning to decrease space and power consumption. Once
the layout is complete, it can be sent to a fabrication plant for
manufacturing.
Integrated circuits and other electrical components can then be
assembled on printed circuit boards to form more complicated circuits.
Today, printed circuit boards are found in most electronic devices
including televisions, computers and audio players.[25]
[edit]Typical electronic engineering undergraduate syllabus
Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other items in the
syllabus are particular to electronics engineering
course. Electrical engineering courses have other specialisms such
as machines,power generation and distribution. Note that the following
list does not include the extensive engineering mathematics
curriculum that is a prerequisite to a degree. [26][27]
[edit]Electromagnetics
Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss' and Stokes'
theorems, Maxwell's equations: differential and integral forms. Wave
equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various
media; reflection and refraction; phase and group velocity; skin
depth. Transmission lines: characteristic impedance; impedance
transformation; Smith chart; impedance matching; pulse
excitation. Waveguides: modes in rectangular waveguides; boundary
conditions; cut-off frequencies; dispersion relations. Antennas: Dipole
antennas; antenna arrays; radiation pattern; reciprocity
theorem, antenna gain.[28][29]
[edit]Network analysis
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence,
fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit matrices. Solution
methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition,
Thevenin and Norton's maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta
transformation.[30] Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors.
Linear constant coefficient differential equations; time domain analysis
of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network equations using Laplace
transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network
parameters: driving point and transfer functions. State equations for
networks.[31]
[edit]Electronic devices and circuits
Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic
silicon. Carrier transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current,
mobility, resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n
junction diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode, BJT, JFET, MOS
capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-i-n and avalanche photo diode, LASERs.
Device technology: integrated circuit fabrication process, oxidation,
diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub
CMOS process.[32][33]
Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and small-signal) of diodes,
BJTs, JFETs, and MOSFETs. Simple diode circuits, clipping,
clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability of transistor and FET
amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential, operational,
feedback and power. Analysis of amplifiers; frequency response of
amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters. Sinusoidal oscillators;
criterion for oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations.
Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, Power supplies. [34]
Digital circuits: of Boolean functions; logic gates digital IC families
(DTL, TTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinational circuits: arithmetic
circuits, code converters, multiplexers and decoders. Sequential
circuits: latches and flip-flops, counters and shift-registers. Sample
and hold circuits, ADCs, DACs. Semiconductor
memories. Microprocessor 8086: architecture, programming, memory
and I/O interfacing.[35] [36]
[edit]Signals and systems
Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-time and
discrete-time Fourier series, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier
Transform, z-transform. Sampling theorems. Linear Time-Invariant
(LTI) Systems: definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse
response, convolution, poles and zeros frequency response, group
delay, phase delay. Signal transmission through LTI systems.
Random signals and noise: probability, random variables, probability
density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density, function
analogy between vectors & functions.[37][38]
[edit]Control systems
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description,
reduction of block diagrams — Mason's rule. Open loop and closed
loop (negative unity feedback) systems and stability analysis of these
systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in determining transfer
functions of systems; transient and steady state analysis of LTI control
systems and frequency response. Analysis of steady-state
disturbance rejection and noise sensitivity.
Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis and design: root
loci, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots. Control
system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation,
elements of Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID).
Discretization of continuous time systems using Zero-order
hold (ZOH) and ADCs for digital controller implementation. Limitations
of digital controllers: aliasing. State variable representation and
solution of state equation of LTI control systems. Linearization of
Nonlinear dynamical systems with state-space realizations in both
frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts of controllability
and observability for MIMO LTI systems. State space realizations:
observable and controllable canonical form. Ackermann's formula for
state-feedback pole placement. Design of full order and reduced order
estimators. [39][40]
[edit]Communications
Analog communication systems: amplitude and angle
modulation and demodulation systems, spectral analysis of these
operations, superheterodyne noise conditions.
Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation
(PCM), Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM), Delta
modulation (DM), digital modulation schemes-amplitude, phase and
frequency shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched filter
receivers, bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations
for these schemes, GSM, TDMA.[41][42]
[edit]Education and training
Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a
major in electronic engineering. The length of study for such a degree
is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be
designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science,
Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology depending
upon the university. Many UK universities also offer Master of
Engineering (MEng) degrees at undergraduate level.
The degree generally includes units
covering physics, chemistry, mathematics, project management and
specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover
most, if not all, of the subfields of electronic engineering. Students
then choose to specialize in one or more subfields towards the end of
the degree.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue
a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Science (MSc), Doctor of
Philosophy in Engineering (PhD), or an Engineering Doctorate
(EngD). The Master degree is being introduced in some European and
American Universities as a first degree and the differentiation of an
engineer with graduate and postgraduate studies is often difficult. In
these cases, experience is taken into account. The Master's degree
may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two.
The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component
and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the
first step towards certification and the degree program itself is certified
by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program
the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work
experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the
engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United
States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer or
Incorporated Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India and
Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia) or
European Engineer (in much of the European Union).
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and
mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative
description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering
work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use
computer-aided design programs when designing electronic systems.
Although most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit
theory, the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon
the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state
physics might be relevant to an engineer working onVLSI but are
largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical
systems.
[edit]Professional bodies
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and
the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) (now renamed the
Institution of Engineering and Technology or IET). The IEEE claims to
produce 30 percent of the world's literature in electrical/electronic
engineering, has over 370,000 members, and holds more than 450
IEEE sponsored or cosponsored conferences worldwide each year.
[edit]Modern electronic engineering
Electronic engineering in Europe is a very broad field that
encompasses many subfields including those that deal with, electronic
devices and circuit design, control
systems, electronics andtelecommunications, computer systems,
embedded software etc. Many European universities now have
departments of electronics that are completely separate from their
respective departments of electrical engineering.
[edit]Subfields
Electronic engineering has many subfields. This section describes
some of the most popular subfields in electronic engineering; although
there are engineers who focus exclusively on one subfield, there are
also many who focus on a combination of subfields.
[edit]Overview of electronic engineering
Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic
circuits that use the electronic properties of components such
as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a
particular functionality.
Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation
of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which case the signal
varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which
case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values
representing the information.
For analog signals, signal processing may involve
the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or
the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications.
For digital signals, signal processing may involve
the compression, error checking and error detection of digital signals.
Telecommunications engineering deals with
the transmission of information across a channel such as a co-axial
cable, optical fiber or free space.
Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in
a carrier wave in order to shift the information to a carrier
frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as modulation.
Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude
modulation and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation
affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors
must be balanced carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined,
telecommunication engineers design
the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two
are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device
known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of
transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to
their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is
insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by noise.
Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight
and propulsion systems of commercial airplanes to the cruise
control present in many modern cars. It also plays an important role
in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control
systems. For example, in a car with cruise control the
vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system
which adjusts the engine's power output accordingly. Where there is
regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the
system responds to such feedback.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to
measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature.
These devices are known as instrumentation.
The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding
of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For
example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of
oncoming vehicles. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck
effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as
the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple
might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains
constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed
as the counterpart of control engineering.
Computer engineering deals with the design
of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of
new hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to control
an industrial plant. Computer engineers may also work on a
system's software. However, the design of complex software systems
is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually
considered a separate discipline.
Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer
engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found
in a range of devices including video game consoles andDVD players.
[edit]Project engineering
For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design
and development, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the
work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing
proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project
schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or
other engineers and for this reason project management skills are
important. Most engineering projects involve some form of
documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore
very important.
The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the
types of work they do. Electronics engineers may be found in the
pristine laboratory environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a
consulting firm or in a research laboratory. During their working life,
electronics engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range
of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers
and other engineers.
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics
engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular
reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are
therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. And these are mostly
used in the field of consumer electronics products. [43