Beside and Besides: Just Can Mean 'Only', 'Scarcely', 'Nothing More Than'
Beside and Besides: Just Can Mean 'Only', 'Scarcely', 'Nothing More Than'
Beside and Besides: Just Can Mean 'Only', 'Scarcely', 'Nothing More Than'
Beside is a preposition meaning 'at the side of', 'by' or 'next to'
Why is the cat sitting beside the chair?
Besides can also be used as a discourse marker meaning 'also', 'in any case',and
'as well'. It is often used to add a stronger, more conclusive argument to what has
gone before. In this case, besides usually goes at the beginning of the clause.
It's too late to go out now. Besides, it's starting to rain.
I don't like this dress; besides,it's too expensive.
After no, nobody, nothing and similar negative words, the three expressions
(besides, except, apart from) can all have the same meaning.
He has nothing except/besides/apart from his house. (= He only has his house.)
Just
time
'Just' often emphasizes the idea of 'at this moment' or 'close to the present'.
I'll be down in a minute-I am just completing my lunch.
Harry has just phoned.
In expressions such as 'just after', 'just before', and 'just when', just suggests
closeness to the time in question.
I saw him just after dinner. (=very soon after dinner.)
'Only', 'scarcely'
Just can mean 'only', 'scarcely', 'nothing more than'.
Complete dinner set for just $100.
I just want somebody to be with me.
The meaning can be emphasized by only.
There was only just enough light to read by.
Exactly
Just often means 'exactly'.
What is the time by your watch?--It's just 3 o'clock.
Thanks. That's just what I wanted.
Emphasizer
Just can emphasize other words and expressions, with the sense of 'simply',
'there's no other word for it'.
You are just amazing.
I just love your pen.
Reflexive Pronouns
Used in apposition for emphasis . They may also be placed after a verb.I
can’t come myself, but I’ll send someone to help you.
The paintings themselves are magnificent, but what ugly frames?
Whether and if
Indirect questions
After verbs that are more common in formal style, whether is preferred.We
discussed whether we should close the shop.
Prepositions
After prepositions, only whether is possible.
I haven’t settled the question of whether I’ll go back home.
There was a big argument about whether we should move to a new office.
Infinitives
Whether, but not if, is used before to-infinitives.
They can’t decide whether to get married now or wait. ( NOT they can’t decide if).
Little= not much (hardly any). The adjective little has a negative
meaning.
He has little appreciation of good poetry.
A little = some though not much. 'A little' has a positive meaning.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
Distance
We use both farther and further to talk about distance. They both mean
the same.
Delhi is farther/further away from Chennai.
Additional
Further (not farther) can mean additional. extra, more advanced.
College of Further Education.
For further information, turn to page 5
Each and Every : the difference
The business makes less money each/every year. (NOT ... each/every years)
She had a toy holding on to each hand. (NOT....every hand)
Exception
Every (frequency)
Every (which is normally used with singular nouns) can be used before plural expressions in
measurements of frequency.
I go to Canada every six weeks.
2. Meaning
Each and every can often be used without much difference of meaning.
You look more beautiful each/every time I see you.
But we prefer each when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. And every is
more common when we are thinking of people or things together, in a group. (every is closer to all).
So we are more likely to say:
3. Structures
We do not use each with word expressions like almost, nearly, practically, or without exception.
These words stress the idea of the whole group.
She's lost nearly every friend she had. (NOT...nearly each friend)
Like can be a preposition. We use like, not as, before a noun or a pronoun to talk
about similarity.
We can use very, quite and other adverb of degree before like.
He is very like his father.
She looks a bit like Julia Roberts.
2. as (similarity): as I do
as + clause
as + preposition phrase
3. like I do (informal)
Some expressions beginning with as are used to introduce facts which are
common ground- known to both speaker/writer and listener/reader.
Examples are as you know, as we agreed, as you suggested.
As you know, next Mondays meeting has been cancelled.
I am sending you the bill for repairs, as we agreed.
There are some passive expressions of this kind- for example as is well
known, as was agreed.. Note that there is no subject it after as in these
expressions.
As is well known, more people get cold in winter. (NOT as its well known).
I am sending you the bill, as we agreed. (NOT as it was agreed)
We use neither before a singular noun to mean 'not one and not the other (of
two)'.
Can you come on Wednesday or Thursday? - I'm afraid neither day is possible.
2. neither of + plural
We use neither of before a determiner (for example he, my, these), and before a
pronoun. The noun or pronoun is plural.
Neither of my brothers can sing. (NOT: Neither my brothers can sing.)
Neither of us saw it happen.
1.for
We use for for duration- to say how long something lasts.
for + period of time
I studied the piano for three years at school.
That house has been empty for six months.
We can often leave out for in an informal style, especially with How long?
And for is not usually used before all.
How long have you been waiting (for)?
We’ve been here (for) six weeks.
For and since can both be used with perfect tense to talk about duration
upto the present. They are not the same.
Compare:
for + period
I have known him for three years. ( NOT since three years.)
Its been raining for weeks.
With a past perfect, for and since refer to duration up to a particular past
moment.
She’d been working there for a long time. (NOT since a long time)
She’d been working there since 2000.
From and since give the starting point of actions, events or states: they
say when things begin/began.
I’ve been working since six o’ clock, and I am getting tired. (NOT I’ve
been working from six o’ clock, and I am getting tired)
I had been working since six o’ clock, and I was getting tired.
The shop was open from eight in the morning, but the boss didn’t arrive
till ten. (NOT The shop was open since eight in the morning)
I’ll be home from Sunday morning (on). (NOT since Sunday morning)
I prefer something to
something else.
I prefer doing something to
doing something else.
But I prefer to do something rather than
(do) something else.
Shall we go by train? Well, I’d prefer to go by car. (NOT I’d prefer going
by car.) .
I’d prefer to stay at home tonight rather than go by cinema.
Would rather (do) = would prefer (to do) After would rather we use
infinitive without to.
Compare:
Shall we go by train? I’d prefer to go by car.
I’m tired. I’d rather not go out this evening, if you don’t mind.
Do you want to go out this evening? I’d rather not.
When you want somebody to do something, you can say I’d rather did
something :
Shall I stay here? I’d rather you come with us.
Shall I tell them the news? No, I’d rather they didn’t know.
Shall I tell them or would you rather they didn’t know?
In this structure we use the past (came, did etc.), but the meaning is
present or future, not past.
Compare:
I’d rather cook the dinner now.
I’d rather you cooked the dinner now. (not I’d rather you cook)
plenty of
Plenty of is usually rather informal. It is used mostly befor singular
uncountables and plurals. It suggests enough and more.
majority of
The majority of (= most or most of) is mostly used with plural nouns
or verbs.
The majority of criminals are non violent.
measurement nouns
These expressions are not generally used before words for units of
measure, like pounds, years or miles. Other words have to be used.
It costs several pounds. ( NOT It cost a lot of ponds.)
They lived many miles from the town. (NOT they lived plenty of miles
from the town)
used as adverbs
A lot and a great deal can be used as adverbs
On holiday, we walk and swim a lot. (NOT we walk plenty OR swim
lots)
A) the difference
Less of and fewer of are used before determiners (like the, my or this)
and pronouns.
I’d like to spend less of my time answering letters.
At the college reunions, there are fewer of us each year.
Nouns can be dropped after less and fewer if the meaning is clear.
Some people go to church, but less/fewer than 20 years ago.
Less can be used as an adverb (the opposite of the adverb more)
I worry less than I used to.
D) lesser
Grateful is the normal word for people's reaction to kindness, favours etc.
I'm very grateful for my teacher's help. (NOT I'm very thankful..)
She wasn't grateful to me for repairing her watch.
These words have similar meanings and uses. Permit is more formal. Both
words can be flowed by object+infinitive
We do not allow/permit people to smoke in the kitchen.
Passive structures are common; personal subjects and gerund (-ing form)
both are possible.
People are not allowed/permitted to smoke in the kitchen.
Smoking is not allowed/permitted in the kitchen.
let
Let is the least formal of these three words, and is followed by
object+infinitive without to.
Compare:
Please allow me to buy you a drink. (polite and formal)
Let me buy you a drink. (friendly and informal)
Let can be used with adverb particles; passives are possible in this case.
She wouldn’t let me in.
I’ve been let down.
Enjoy
Eitheror
One of
After one of, a noun phrase must have a determiner (eg. the, my, those)
One of the/my/those dogs. ( NOT one of dogs)
Of cannot be dropped.
One of my friends. (NOT one my friend or one my friends)
In : Place
In is used for a position inside large areas, and in three dimensional space
when something is surrounded on all sides.
In: Time
Note he difference between ˜in the night (mostly used to mean during
one particular night)’ and ˜at the night’(= during any night)
Compare:
In + longer period
He died in 1989.
Other uses of in
It can also be used to say how soon something will happen, and to say
how long something takes to happen.Ask me again in three or four
days.
The expression in .’s time is used to say how soon something will happen,
not how long something takes. Compare:
Likely
Meaning
Certain/sure of + ing are used to refer to the feelings of the person one
is talking about.
Before the game she felt certain of winning, but after the few minutes she
realized that it wasn’t going to be easy.
You seem very sure of cracking the CAT, I hope you are right.
The repairs are certain to cost more than you think. (NOT the repairs are
certain of costing)
Kimi is sure to win- the other boy hasn’t got a chance.
Note that he is sure to succeed means’ I’m sure that he will succeed’.
[a] bit
Use
A bit of a
Note: a bit and a little are used with non comparative adjective, the
meaning is usually negative or critical.
A bit tired
A bit expensive
A little (too) old
(NOT a bit kind, a little interesting)
Not a bit
Lay
Lay is a regular verb except for its spelling. Its forms are:
Infinitive: (to) lay past: laid
-ing form: laying past participle: laid
Lay means ˜put down carefully’ or ˜put down flat’. It has an object.
Lay the tent down on the grass and I’ll see how to put it
up.
Note the expression lay a table (= put plates, knives etc. on a table) and
lay an egg ( a bird’s way of having a baby).
Lie (irregular)
The regular verb lie (lied) ˜say things that are not true’.
You lied to me when you said you loved me.
Dialect forms
In many British and American dialects, different forms of lay and irregular
lie are used. Lay is often used in cases where Standard English has lie.
I am going to lay down for a few minutes. (Standard Englishlie down)
Notice that we can also talk about the refusal of a thing t work in the way
it should:
Compare:
Whenever I had to go to town, Charlie would give me a lift.(= repeated)
I was late, so Charlie gave me a lift to town (not Charlie would give me
..)(=particular situation)
However, we can use would not either when we talk about unwillingness
in general or about a particular occasion.
Compare:
We thought that people wouldn’t / would buy the book (=general)
She wouldn’t say what was wrong with her when I asked. (not ..would
say..)( = particular situation)
The standard spelling is all right. Alright is common, but some people
consider it wrong.
There are some verbs (eg. know, want, believe) that are not normally
used in the continuous.
We were good friends. We knew each other well. (not ˜we were knowing’)
I was enjoying the party but Kim wanted to go home.( not ‘was wanting’)
(=he’d playing
etc.)
working
etc.
You can say that something had been happening for a period of time
before something else happened.
Our game of cricket was interrupted. We had been playing for half an
hour when it started to rain heavily.
Amy gave up smoking last year. She had been smoking for 10 years.
Compare had been doing (past perfect continuous) and was doing (past
continuous) :
I wasn’t raining when we were out. The sun was shining. But it had been
raining since morning, so the ground was wet.
Rohan was sitting in an armchair watching television. He was tired
because he had been working very hard.
1. requests
Have you got a pen I could use?~ Yes here you are. (NOTPlease)
Thank you very much indeed. (But NOT usually Thank you indeed.)
Thank you for coming.~ Not at all. Thank you for having me.
We often use Thank you/ Thanks like Yes, please, to accept offers.
Yes, thanks is most often used to confirm that things are all right.
1) The milkman’s already been. (He has come and gone away again)
Jack’ come, so we can start preparing for CAT 2008. (He has come and
is still here)
If I were you
Advice
I should/ would
Sometimes we leave out If I were you, and just use I should.or I would to
give advice.
I shouldn’t worry.
I would have started preparing for CAT 2008 already.
Plural forms are common when the group is seen as the collection of
people doing personal things like deciding, hoping or wanting. Singular
forms rae more commom when the group is seen as an impersonal unit.
Compare:
We prefer who as a relative pronoun with plural forms, and which with
singular forms.
Compare:
Compare:
The group gave its first concert in January and they are now planning a
tour.
Examples of group nouns, which can be used with both singular and
plural verbs in British English.
In American English, singular verbs are normal with most of these nouns
in all cases. Plural pronouns can be used.
The team has started preparing for CAT 2008. They expect to crack it.
Many singular quantifying verbs can be used with plural nouns and
pronouns; lural verbs are normally used in this case.
A number of people have tried to find the treasure, but they have all
failed.
(more natural than A number of people has)
A group of us are going to run the Marathon this year.
A majority of criminals are non- violent
Relative Clauses
We usually say:
You are taller than I am. but You are taller than me.
They have more money than we have. but They have more money than
us.
I can’t run as fast as he can. but I can’t run as fast as him.
Verb +-ing/ verb + to
When one verb follows another verb, the structure is usually verb + ing or
verb + to
Compare:
They denied stealing the money. They decided to steal the money.
Some verbs are followed by a to-infinitive but not “ing : agree, aim, ask,
decline, demand, fail, hesitate, hope, hurry, manage, offer, plan,
prepare, refuse, want, wish.
Some verbs are followed by “ing but not a “to infinitive: admit, avoid,
consider, delay, deny, detest, dread, envisage, feel like, finish, imagine,
miss, recall, resent, risk, suggest.
The verbs begin, cease, start, and continue can be followed by either a
“to infinitive or an “ing form with little difference in meaning.
Even though it was raining, they continued to play/ playing.
However, with these verbs we normally avoid using two “ing forms
together, as a repeated pattern may sound awkward:
I am starting to learn French. ( rather than I am starting learning
French.)
The verbs advise and encourage are followed by “ing when there is no
object and “to infinitive when there is one. Compare:
I’d advise taking more exercise.
And
I’d advise you to take more exercise.
Other verbs can be followed by either a “to infinitive or an “ing form, but
there can be a difference in meaning. These include: come, go on,
regret, remember, try, stop, mean.
+ to infinitive + -ing
Come To talk about a gradual change. To say that someone moves in a
way that is described.
After a few years, they came to
accept him as an equal. He came hurrying up the path.
Regret To say that we are about to do To say that we have already done
something we are not happy about. something we are not happy
about.
I regret to inform you that you have
not passed the exam. It’s too late now, I’ll always regret
asking Ama to do the work.
go on To mean something is done after To say that someone moves in a
something else is finished. way that is described.
After the class, Ali went on to do his Although she asked him to stop,
evening prayer. he went on tapping his pen on the
table.
try To say that we attempt to do To say if we test something to see
something. if it improves the situation.
I tried to bring the table through I tried taking aspirin, but the pain
the door, but it was too big. didn’t go away.
Compare:
Passive structures:
Smoking is forbidden.
Students are forbidden to smoke.
After these verbs, the difference between verb +-ing and object+
infinitive is like the difference between progressive and simple tenses.
With “ing forms the verb suggest that one pays attention to events or
actions that are already going on; infinitives usually refer to complete
events/ actions which are seen/heard from beginning to end.
Compare:
I looked out of the window and saw Mary crossing the road.
I saw Mary cross the road and disappear in the post office.
These verbs (and other with similar meanings) are followed by “ing forms
mostly when we are referring to lessons or subjects of study.
Infinitives are preferred when we talk about the result of the study- about
successfully learning a skill.
After these four verbs, both infinitive and “ing forms can often be used
without a great difference of meaning.
Compare:-
After would like, would prefer, would hate, and would love , infinitives are
most often used.
I’d like to tell you something. (NOT I’d like telling you something)
Do you like dancing? (=Do you enjoy dancing)
Would you like to dance? (= Do you want to dance now?)
Contd.
Afraid
To talk about fear of things that happened accidentally, we prefer afraid
of +ing
Why are you so scared? I’m afraid to walking in dark.
Sorry
Sorry for/about +ing is used to refer the past things that one regrets.
(That-clauses are also used in informal form.)
Interested
To talk about reaction to things one learns , interested + infinitive is
commonly used.
I’m interested to see that Hema and Rahul are going out together.
To talk about a wish to find out something, both interested +ing and
interested +infinitive are common.
I’m interested in finding out/ to find out how she is studying for CAT
2008.
There are four methods of fixing the comma splices, run on sentences,
and fused sentences.
1) By separating the two clauses into two sentences, and replacing the
comma with a full stop.
Rohan came to Tathagat. He wanted to prepare for CAT 2008.
Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. Some adjectives end in -ly too,
for example: friendly, lively, elderly, lonely, silly, lovely
Adjective or adverb?
We also use adverbs before adjectives and other adverbs. For example:
Reasonably cheap (adverb +adjective)
Terribly sorry (adverb +adjective)
Incredibly quickly ((adverb +adjective)
Like vs As
Like= similar to, the same as. Note that you cannot use as in the same
way.
What a beautiful house! It's like a palace.(not as a palace)
What does Rima do? She is a teacher, like me. (not as me)
Be careful! The floor has been polished. It's like walking on ice.
As can also be used a preposition but the meaning is different from like.
Compare :
As Like
Sonal is the manger of the Smita ia the assistant manger.
company. As the manger, she Like the manger (Sonal), she
has to make many important also has t make important
decisions. ( As the manger= in decisions. (Like the manager=
her positions as manager) similar to the manager)
During the war this hotel was used Everyone is ill at home. Our
as a hospital. (so it really was a house is like a hospital. (it isn't
hospital) really the hospital)
In case and If
Let's get some more muffins in case Vendy comes. ( Let's get some
muffins now because Vendy might come later)
Let's get some more muffins if Vendy comes. (Perhaps Vendy might
come; if she come we'll get some more muffins, if she doesn't we won't)
I or me?
Be careful to use the pronouns I and me, he and him, she and her, we
and us, and they and them in the right place. Use I, we, etc. when you
are talking about someone who has done something (i.e. who is the
subject of the sentence), and use me, us, etc. when you are talking about
someone who has had something done to them (i.e. who is the object of
the sentence). People most often make mistakes over this when they are
talking about more than one person:
'Me and Annie had a dog once'; 'Adrian and me were going out'. In
these sentences you should use I, not me, because the two people
are the subject in both. 'Annie and I had a dog once'; 'Adrian and I
were going out'.
'Watch Helen and I while we show you'. You need me here, as the
object of watch.
'Everything depends on you and I'. Use me, us, etc. after
prepositions.
A good guide in cases like these is to see whether the sentence sounds
right with only the pronoun. If 'Me had a dog' is wrong, then so is 'Annie
and me had a dog'; if you wouldn't say 'Watch I while I show you', you
shouldn't say 'Watch Helen and I'.
It's right to say 'between you and me', and wrong to say 'between you
and I'. This is because a preposition such as 'between' should be followed
by an object pronoun such as 'me', 'him', 'her', and 'us' rather than a
subject pronoun such as 'I', 'he', 'she', and 'we'.
PREPOSITIONS
DEFINITION
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
in order to, inspite of, along with, in front of, according to, owing to,
because of, away
EXAMPLES:-
3) Owing to his laid back attitude, he was fired from the organization.
9) Instead of reading the comics, you should read your course books.
21) Swahili could not attend Rasul's marriage because of her illness.
26) India won the match by the virtue of Sehwag's stoke play.
30) In accordance with the rules and regulations, you are not allowed
to attend the class.
USAGE OF ˜AT’
b) I wake up at 6 a.m.
2) With Places
a) At bus stop
a) at party
4) Specific addresses
a) At lunch
b) At dinner
USAGE OF ˜ON’
2) For bicycle,plane,ship,train,foot
a) I go to office on foot.
4) With islands
5) With directions
a) on the left
b) on the right
a) Hey! i am on television.
ARTICLES
1) Definite
2) Indefinite
Indefinite :- Indefinite articles are a, an, some and any. They are
used for non specific things.
EXAMPLES:-
a) A boy was playing with the ball.The boy was wearing a black shirt.
b) A book is kept on the table.the book contains the names of the
countries of the world.
c) I went to a hotel.the hotel was beautiful.
6) With water bodies eg. sea, ocean, lake etc. and continents.
EXAMPLES:-
a) Asia is a continent.
b) Cactus is grown in a desert.
c) Sharks live in an ocean.
EXAMPLES:-
a) He knows how to play the guitar.
b) Zakir Hussain plays the tabla.
c) Amjad Ali Khan is the santoor player.
4) With Superlatives:-
EXAMPLES:-
6) With Ordinals
EXAMPLES:-
a) Chocolates are kept in the box. (In place of ˜the chocolates are
kept in the box’)
b) Girls are wearing pretty dresses. (In place of ˜the girls are
wearing pretty dresses’ or
˜some girls are wearing
pretty dresses’)
c) Scissors are kept in the cupboard. (In place of the scissors are kept
in the cupboard)
d) Men are considered to be better cooks than women.
e) Children like to hear stories.
EXAMPLES:-
a) Rhyna speaks French at home.
b) He is learning German at MaxMueller?.
c) We are taught Italian at school.
d) Japanese ambassador would be visiting India next week.
Idioms to Remember
6) To try to fix is the right idiom (to try and fix is incorrect)
7) Just as So too
8) X is different from Y (different than Y is incorrect)
9) Same as X..as to Y
12) Believe X to be Y
24) x forbids y to do z
x prohibits y from doing z.
31) No sooner-than
32) X expected to Y
35) Persuaded X to do Y
38) As a result of
41) So X that Y (So illiterate are people that they cant even write)
42) Intent on
48) X is to what? Y is to
53) When rates means prices charged it should be followed with 'for'
Some color blind people cannot distinguish between red and green
Auxiliary Verbs
Be, Do and Have are auxiliary verbs, they are irregular verbs and
can be used as main verbs. The verbs 'to be' and 'to have' are the
most commonly used auxiliary verbs and work alongside the main
verbs in any statement.
Every tense takes an auxiliary form of the verb. There are three
exceptions to this rule:
There are also a number of short forms that take ONLY the
auxiliary form of the verb:
Question tags:
They enjoy learning English, don't they?
He won't agree with me, will he?
So did I.
DO / DOES
Used simple present question and negative forms:
What time does he get up?
They don't drive to work. They take the bus.
DID
Used in simple past question and negative forms:
When did they arrive yesterday?
He didn't finish his homework last week.
IS / ARE / AM
Used in present continuous and for the future with 'going to':
They are working hard at the moment.
She is going to study medicine at university.
WAS / WERE
Past continuous:
I was watching TV when you arrived.
What were they doing while you were cooking dinner?
HAVE / HAS
Present perfect and present perfect continuous:
How long have you lived here?
I've been working since seven this morning.
HAD
Past perfect and past perfect continuous:
He had eaten by the time I arrived.
She had been studying for two hours when he finally telephoned.
WILL / WON'T
Future with 'will':
What will the weather be like tomorrow?
He won't understand.
Adding endings
Rules:
The 1-1-1 rule
drop + ed = dropped
flat + est = flattest
win + ing = winning
sun + *y = sunny
Don’t double final w and x. They would look very odd and so
we have correctly:
When you add an ending beginning with a vowel, drop the -e:
(iii) -y rule
This rule applies to all words ending in -y. Look at the letter
before the -y in the base word. It doesn't matter at all what kind of
ending you are adding. When you add an ending to a word ending
in a vowel + y, keep the y:
portray + ed = portrayed
employ + ment = employment
This rule applies to: words of TWO syllables ending with ONE
consonant preceded by ONE vowel. With this rule, it all
depends on which syllable of the word is stressed.
The 2-1-1 words below are stressed on the first syllable, and both
vowel and consonant endings are added without any complications:
gossip gossiping
target targeted
limit limitless
eager eagerness
Kidnap
Outfit
Worship
always double their final letter:
Kidnapped
Outfitter
Worshipping
Take care with 2-1-1 words which are stressed on the second
syllable. There is no change when you add a consonant
ending:
" 2-1-1 words ending in -l seem to have a rule all of their own.
Whether the stress is on the first or the second syllable,
there is no change when a consonant ending is added:
" Notice how the change of stress in these words affects the spelling:
When we use will, we decide to do something at that very moment. The speaker has
not decided before.
Again, present continuous is used when the speaker has already arranged to do
something.
Hello All, I found the below written article from a very reliable source:
Allergic, penicillin - these must be medical people. But what was that
other word, contraindicate? It is not a word you have ever heard before.
Why not have a go at working out its meaning?
What about contra-? There are a number of common words that begin
with contra:- contradict, contraception, contravene. All these words
suggest being against something - against what someone else has said,
against pregnancy, against a rule or law. So the chances are that
contraindicate means something like 'suggest against'.. The whole
sentence would appear to mean that 'Allergic reactions seem to show that
penicillin should not be used'. Which is precisely what it does mean.
lists
It is necessary to use comma before 'and' because the last two items may glom into
one if a serial comma is not used.
Direct Speech
A comma is used between the reporting expression and a piece of direct speech.
Indirect Speech
Comma is not used before that, where, what etc. in indirect speech.
I didn't know where I should sit. (NOT : I didn't know, where I should sit.)
Clauses connected with and, but or or are usually separated by commas unless they
are very short.
Compare:
I decided to try the thin crust Garden Pizza, and TG ordered pan minis with five
sauces.
Subordinate Clauses
When subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often followed by commas.
Compare:
You are sorry about something, sorry for doing something, and sorry for
someone.
I am sorry about the noise yesterday.
I am sorry for yelling at you last night.
I feel sorry for him.
Disinterested: impartial.
Example: a disinterested decision by a king.
To write is to become disinterested. There is a certain renunciation in art.
A collective noun takes a singular verb when it refers to the collection considered
as a whole.
Eg. The family was united on this question.
The committee has issued its reports.
It takes a plural verb when it refers to the members of the group considered as
individuals.
My family are always fighting among themselves.
The committee have not announced a new policy.
The common collective nouns are committee, company, public, enemy, group, family, flock,
firm,team, clergy etc.
When the pronoun acts as the object of the clause, use whom.
Jack wanted to know on who/whom the prank was pulled. (Whom is the object of
the clause whom the prank was pulled or The prank was pulled on him.)
2. Introduction of a question:
When the answer to the question begins with a subjective personal pronoun
(e.g.he/she/they), use who.
Who is the knocking at the door? He is knocking at the door. (He is subjective;
therefore, who is correct.)
he = who/whoever
him = whom/whomever
Conventions:
(n) = noun
(v)= verb
(adj)= adjective
(pn)= pronoun
(Syn)=synonyms
(adv)= adverb
(opp)= antonyms/opposite
Meanings are short enough to not make reading boring and long enough to be able to spot
1.
· Vocation - (n)--(a principal occupation ) a type of work or way of life that you believe is
especially suitable for you
· Avocation -(n)-- Something a person does in addition to a principal occupation, esp. for
pleasure
2.
Accessary -(adj)-- aiding and abetting in a crime
· Accessory - (n)-- an extra piece of equipment that is useful but not essential or that can
be added to sth else as a decoration
3.
· Affection - (n)-- the feeling of liking or loving sb/sth very much and caring about them
· Affectation - (n)-- behaviour or an action that is not natural or sincere and that is often
intended to impress other people
4.
· Agnostic - (n)-- a person who is not sure whether or not God exists or who believes that
we cannot know whether God exists or not
· Atheist - (n)-- a person who believes that God does not exist
5.
· Allude -(v)-- allude to sb/sth - to mention sth in an indirect way
6.
· Amiable -(adj)-- pleasant; friendly and easy to like
· Amicable -(adj)-- done or achieved in a polite or friendly way and without quarrelling
7.
· Apprise -(v)-- apprise sb of sth - to tell or inform sb of sth
· Appraise -(v)-- to make a formal judgement about the value of a person’s work, usually
after a discussion with them about it
8.
· Aught -(pn)-- Anything whatever; any part
9.
· Ament -(n)-- A person whose intellectual capacity remains undeveloped.
· Emend -(v)-- to remove the mistakes in a piece of writing, especially before it is printed
10.
· Attenuate -(v)-- to make sth weaker or less effective
11.
· Brusque -(adj)-- using very few words and sounding rude
· Burlesque -(n)-- a performance or piece of writing which tries to make sth look
ridiculous by representing it in a humorous way
12.
· Bridle -(n)-- a set of leather bands, attached to REINS, which is put around a horse’s
head and used for controlling it
13.
· Broach -(v)-- ~ (sth) (to / with sb) to begin talking about a subject that is difficult to
discuss, especially because it is embarrassing or because people disagree about it
· Brooch -(n)-- a piece of jewellery with a pin on the back of it, that can be fastened to
your clothes
14.
· Cannon -(n)-- an old type of large heavy gun, usually on wheels, that fires solid metal or
stone balls
-(v)-- to hit sb/sth with a lot of force while you are moving
15.
· Censor -(n)-- a person whose job is to examine books, films/movies, etc. and remove
parts which are considered offensive, immoral or politically dangerous
-(v)-- to remove the parts of a book, film/movie, etc. that are considered offensive, immoral
or politically dangerous
-(v)-- ~ sb (for sth) to criticize sb severely, and often publicly, because of sth they have done
· Cynosure -(n)-- something that strongly attracts attention by its brilliance, interest, etc.:
the cynosure of all eyes.
16.
· Climatic -(adj)-- connected with the weather of a particular area
· Climactic -(adj)-- (of an event or a point in time) very exciting, most important
17.
· Complacent -(adj)-- ~ (about sb/sth) too satisfied with yourself or with a situation, so
that you do not feel that any change is necessary; showing or feeling complacency
· Complaisant -(adj)-- ready to accept other people’s actions and opinions and to do what
other people want
18.
· Corporal -(n)-- a member of one of the lower ranks in the army, the MARINES or the
British air force
19.
· Decry -(v)-- ~ sb/sth (as sth) to strongly criticize sb/sth, especially publicly
20.
· Delusion -(n)-- a false belief or opinion about yourself or your situation,
the act of believing or making yourself believe sth that is not true
something that seems to exist but in fact does not, or seems to be sth that it is not
21.
· Deprecate -(v)-- to become less valuable over a period of time
22.
· Disinterested -(adj)-- not influenced by personal feelings, or by the chance of getting
some advantage for yourself
· Uninterested -(adj)-- ~ (in sb/sth) not interested; not wanting to know about sb/sth
23.
· Elicit -(v)-- ~ sth (from sb) to get information or a reaction from sb, often with difficulty
· Illicit -(adj)-- not legally permitted or authorized; unlicensed; unlawful
24.
· Errant -(adj)-- doing sth that is wrong; not behaving in an acceptable way
25.
· Expatiate -(v)-- to write or speak in detail about a subject
· Expiate -(v)-- to accept punishment for sth that you have done wrong in order to show
that you are sorry
26.
· Extant -(adj)-- still in existence
27.
· Equable -(adj)-- calm and not easily upset or annoyed
28.
· Forego -(v)-- to decide not to have or do sth that you would like to have or do
· Forgo -(v)-- to decide not to have or do sth that you would like to have or do
29.
· Fractious -(adj)-- bad-tempered or easily upset, especially by small things
30.
· Farther -(adj)-- at a greater distance in space, direction or time
· Further -(adv)--to a greater degree or extent, in addition to what has just been said
31.
· Gentle -(adj)-- calm and kind; doing things in a quiet and careful way
· Genteel -(adj)-- (of people and their way of life) quiet and polite, often in an exaggerated
way; from, or pretending to be from, a high social class, quiet and old-fashioned and perhaps
slightly boring
32.
· Gourmet -(n)-- a person who knows a lot about good food and wines and who enjoys
choosing, eating and drinking them
· Gourmand -(n)-- a person who enjoys eating and eats large amounts of food
33.
· Immanent -(adj)-- present as a natural part of sth; present everywhere
34.
· Ingenious -(adj)-- (of an object, a plan, an idea, etc.) very suitable for a particular
purpose and resulting from clever new ideas
Syn- Naive
35.
· Knave -(n)-- a dishonest man or boy
· Nave - (n)-- the long central part of a church where most of the seats are
36.
· Martial -(adj)-- connected with fighting or war
· Marital -(adj)-- connected with marriage or with the relationship between a husband and
wife
37.
· Meet -(v)-- to be in the same place as sb by chance and talk to them
38.
· Mendacity -(n)-- the act of not telling the truth
· Mendicity -(n)--
39.
· Mystical -(adj)-- having spiritual powers or qualities that are difficult to understand or to
explain
· Mythical -(adj)-- existing only in ancient myths, that does not exist or is not true
40.
· Mote -(n)-- a very small piece of dust
· Moat -(n)-- a deep wide channel that was dug around a castle, etc. and filled with water
to make it more difficult for enemies to attack
41.
· Objurgate -(adj)-- to scold or rebuke sharply; berate.
· Obdurate -(adj)-- refusing to change your mind or your actions in any way
Syn- Stubborn
42.
· Officious -(adj)-- too ready to tell people what to do or to use the power you have to give
orders
43.
· Principle -(n)-- a moral rule or a strong belief that influences your actions
44.
· Panegyric -(n)-- a speech or piece of writing praising sb/sth
45.
· Perspicacity -(adj)-- able to understand sb/sth quickly and accurately; showing this
46.
· Prescribe -(v)-- ~ (sb) sth (for sth) (of a doctor) to tell sb to take a particular medicine or
have a particular treatment; to write a
47.
· Provident -(adj)-- careful in planning for the future, especially by saving money
· Providential -(adj)-- lucky because it happens at the right time, but without being
planned
48.
· Quiet -(adj)-- not disturbed; peaceful
49.
· Reign -(n)-- the period during which a king, queen, EMPEROR, etc. rules
· Rein -(n)-- a long, narrow, leather band that is fastened around a horse’s neck and is held
by the rider in order to control the horse
50.
· Sear -(v)-- to burn the surface of sth in a way that is sudden and powerful
· Seer -(n)-- (in the past) a person who claimed that they could see what was going to
happen in the future
51.
· Simulate -(v)-- to create particular conditions that exist in real life using computers,
models, etc., usually for study or training purposes, to be made to look like sth else
· Dissimulate -(v)-- to hide your real feelings or intentions, often by pretending to have
different ones
52.
· Spacious -(adj)-- (of a room or building) large and with plenty of space for people to
move around in
53.
· Stationary -(adj)-- not moving; not intended to be moved
Opp-Mobile
· Stationery -(n)-- materials for writing and for using in an office, for example paper, pens
and envelopes
54.
· Temperance -(n)-- the practice of not drinking alcohol because of your moral or
religious beliefs, the practice of controlling your behaviour, the amount you eat, etc., so that
it is always reasonable
· Temperament -(n)-- a person’s or an animal’s nature as shown in the way they behave or
react to situations or people
55.
· Unexceptional -(adj)-- not interesting or unusual
syn Unremarkable
· Unexceptionable -(adj)-- not giving any reason for criticism, not very new or exciting
56.
· Urban -(adj)-- connected with a town or city
· Urbane -(adj)-- (especially of a man) good at knowing what to say and how to behave in
social situations; appearing relaxed and confident
57.
· Vain -(adj)-- that does not produce the result you want
· Vein -(adj)-- any of the tubes that carry blood from all parts of the body to the heart
58.
· Venal -(adj)-- prepared to do dishonest or immoral things in return for money
· Venial -(adj)-- (of a SIN or mistake) not very serious and therefore able to be forgiven
59.
· Voracity -(adj)-- eating or wanting large amounts of food, wanting a lot of new
information and knowledge
· Veracity -(n)-- the quality of being true; the habit of telling the truth
syn - Truthfulness
60.
· Whet -(v)-- to increase your desire for or interest in sth
61.
· Wreath -(n)-- an arrangement of flowers and leaves, especially in the shape of a circle,
placed on graves, etc. as a sign of respect for sb who has died
· Wreathe -(v)-- ~ sth (in / with sth) to surround or cover sth, to move slowly and lightly,
especially in circles
Who
Who is going?
Whom
The students, one of whom is graduating this year, failed the test.
The difference between who and whom is exactly the same as the difference between
I and Me, he and him, she and her, etc. Who, like I, he, and she, is a subject - it is the
person performing the action of the verb. Whom, like me, him, and her, is an object -
it is the person to/about/for whom the action is being done. Whom is also the
correct choice after a preposition: with whom, one of whom, not "with who, one of
who."
Sometimes it helps to rewrite the sentence and/or replace who/whom with another
pronoun so that you can see the relationships more clearly.
Ram is the one who wants to go > He wants to go (not "him" wants to go)
This is the man whom I told you about > I told you about him (not about "he")
Sita is the girl with whom I'm driving to Marine > I'm driving to Maine with her (not
with "she")
Different types of adverbs favour different positions and I describe these trends
below. There are sometimes exceptions to the general rule, so please regard this as a
basic guide.
Initial position
Linking adverbs, which join a clause to what was said before, always come here.
Time adverbs can come here when we want to show a contrast with a previous
reference to time. Comment and viewpoint adverbs (e.g. luckily, officially,
presumably) can also come here when we want to highlight what we are about to
say. Compare the following:
Two of the workers were sacked, and, as a result, everybody went on strike.
The weather will stay fine today, but tomorrow it will rain.
Initially, his condition remained stable, but over the last few weeks it
has deteriorated.
Sita ran the office, although, officially, Ravi was the manager.
I haven't made any plans yet, but presumably you'll want to show her
around mumbai
mid position
Focusing adverbs (e.g. just, even), adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. often,
always, never) and adverbs of certainty and degree (e.g probably, obviously,
clearly, completely, quite, almost) all favour this position. Note that when
auxiliary verbs (e.g. is, has, will, was) are used, they normally go between the
auxiliary verb and the main verb:
She's been everywhere - she's even been to Tibet and Nepal.
Ravi won't be back yet, but I'll just see if Sita's home. I'll give her a ring.
My boss often travels to Malaysia and Singapore but I've never been there.
Have you finished yet? I haven't quite finished. I've almost finished.
end position
Adverbs of time and definite frequency (e.g. last week, every year) and
adverbs of manner when we want to focus on how something is done (e.g. well,
slowly, evenly) and adverbs of place (e.g. in the countryside, at the window)
usually go in end position:
I had a tennis lesson last week, but I'm usually travelling in the middle of
the month, so I don't have a lesson every week.
How long have you been here? Not long. We arrived about five minutes
ago.
I chewed the food slowly because it hadn't been cooked very well.
She was standing at her window, looking out at her children who were
playing in the garden.
Note that when more than one of this type of adverb is used, the order in which they
are placed is normally: manner, place, time:
adverb-adjective
When adverbs modify adjectives, they are placed immediately before them:
We had some really interesting news last night. John's been offered a job
in Australia. He's absolutely delighted.
An exception to this rule is enough which is placed after the adjective or adverb
that it modifies:
I got up quite early but not early enough to eat a good breakfast.
In spite of/ despite
Some students prepare sincerely for CAT while/ whereas others are lazy.
I will prepare for CAT 2009 although/ even though my friends are not supporting
my decision.
CAT 2008 was a tough exam. However,/ Nevertheless,/ Even so, I fared well.
1. Know the difference between who and whom. They are both pronouns but who is
used as the subject of a sentence or phrase and whom is used as the object of a verb.
What follows is a quick way to determine which pronoun to use in a particular
question.
4. Ask yourself if the answer to the question would be he or him. If you can answer
the question with him, then use whom. It's easy to remember because they both end
with "m". If you can answer the question with he, then use who.
* Example: A suitable answer to the question, "To [who or whom] did the prize
go?" is, "It went to him." (Almost no one would say "It went to he.") The correct
pronoun for the question is whom.
* Example: A suitable answer to the question, "[Who or Whom] went to the
store?" is, "He went to the store." (Almost no one would say "Him went to the
store.") The correct pronoun for the question who.
The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another
action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific
time in the future.
Examples:
With non - continuous verbs and some non-continuous uses of mixed verbs, we use
the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in
the future.
Examples:
I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave.
By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.
Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with
time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if,
unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.
Examples:
Your
You're
You're is the contraction of "you are" and is often followed by the present participle
(verb form ending in -ing).
The confusion between your and you're occurs because the two words are
pronounced pretty much the same.
The ironclad rule - no exceptions - is that if you're able to replace the word with "you
are," you're saying you're. Otherwise, your only choice is your.
Keep in mind that the word your will never be followed by the words the, a, or an.
Try replacing “your” or “you’re” with “you are” if you are unsure which to use. If the
sentence makes sense, use “you’re.” Remember that only “you’re” is a contraction,
and it omits the letter “a.” The apostrophe in “you’re” signifies the omission of the
letter “a.” If the sentence does not make sense, you will know to use “your
Affect vs Effect
Affect
1. To have an influence on or effect a change in: Inflation affects the buying power
of the dollar.
Effect
1. If you are talking about a result, then use the word "effect."
2. It is appropriate to use the word "effect" if one of these words is used immediately
before the word: into, no, take, the, any, an, or and.
In analyzing a situation, it is important to take the concepts of cause and effect into
consideration.
3. If you want to describe something that was caused or brought about, the right
word to use is effect.
Example: The new manager effected some positive changes in the office.
(This means that the new manager caused some positive changes to take
place in the office.)
5. Affect can also be used as a verb. Use it when trying to describe influencing
someone or something rather than causing it.
How does the crime rate affect hiring levels by local police forces?
Than
Then
2. Next, afterward
Than is used only in comparisons, so if you're comparing something use than. If not,
then you have to use then
There vs Their
There is used as an introductory subject is sentences with "There is" and "There
are". It is also used as an adverb of place meaning "in that place".
Use there when referring to a place, whether concrete ("over there by the building")
or more abstract ("it must be difficult to live there").
Their is the possessive pronoun form. This form is used to express that "they" have
a specific quality, or that something belongs to "them".
1. If you wrote there, will the sentence still make sense if you replace it with here?
If so, you're using it correctly.
2. If you chose their, will the sentence still make sense if you replace it with our? If
so, you've chosen the correct word.
3. there: refer to there as a word for location. their : refer to their as a word for
people.
It's vs Its
It's
Its
1. If you can replace the word with "it is" or "it has," use it's. Otherwise, it's always
its.
2. Its is the neuter version of his and her. Try plugging her into your sentence
where you think its belongs. If the sentence still works grammatically (if not
logically) then your word is indeed its.
There is also a difference in use when these verbs are used to describe present
situations. We can use both needn't and don't need to to give permission to
someone not to do something in the immediate future. We can also use need as a
noun here:
You don't need to water the garden this evening. It's going to rain tonight.
You needn't water the garden this evening. It's going to rain tonight.
There's no need to water the garden this evening. It's going to rain tonight.
You don't need to shout. It's a good line. I can hear you perfectly.
You needn't shout. It's a good line. I can hear you perfectly.
There's no need to shout. It's a good line. I can hear you perfectly.
However, when we are talking about general necessity, we normally use don't need
to:
You don't need to pay for medical care in National Health Service hospitals.
You don't need to be rich to get into this golf club. You just need a handicap.
These two words means the same meaning...i.e. to seek information about something or to
conduct a formal investigation.
3.Especially vs Specially:
They both mean something which was “out of the ordinary” or even “exceptional”. however,
'especial' implies that something less good exists, whereas something 'special' doesn’t need to
be compared against anything.
4.Any vs Either:
5.Farther vs Further:
Farther has a physical connotation and means " to a greater distance" whereas further is
conceptual and means "to a greater degree".