Cyclic Magnetic Universe

M. Novello, Aline N. Araujo and J. M. Salim

Institute of Cosmology, Relativity and Astrophysics (ICRA/CBPF)
Rua Dr. Xavier Sigaud, 150, CEP 22290-180, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(Dated: February 13, 2008)

Recent works have shown the important role Nonlinear Electrodynamics (NLED) can have in two
crucial questions of Cosmology, concerning particular moments of its evolution for very large and for
low-curvature regimes, that is for very condensed phase and at the present period of acceleration.
We present here a toy model of a complete cosmological scenario in which the main factor responsible
for the geometry is a nonlinear magnetic field which produces a FRW homogeneous and isotropic
arXiv:0802.1875v1 [astro-ph] 13 Feb 2008

geometry. In this scenario we distinguish four distinct phases: a bouncing period, a radiation era,
an acceleration era and a re-bouncing. It has already been shown that in NLED a strong magnetic
field can overcome the inevitability of a singular region typical of linear Maxwell theory; on the
other extreme situation, that is for very weak magnetic field it can accelerate the expansion. The
present model goes one step further: after the acceleration phase the universe re-bounces and enter
in a collapse era. This behavior is a manifestation of the invariance under the dual map of the scale
factor a(t) → 1/a(t), a consequence of the corresponding inverse symmetry of the electromagnetic
field (F → 1/F, where F ≡ F µν Fµν ) of the NLED theory presented here. Such sequence collapse-
bouncing-expansion-acceleration-re-bouncing-collapse constitutes a basic unitary element for the
structure of the universe that can be repeated indefinitely yielding what we call a Cyclic Magnetic
Universe.

I. INTRODUCTION the cosmic geometry for large values of the scale factor,
inducing the phenomenon of acceleration of the universe.
In the last years there has been increasing of interest The arguments presented in [4] make it worth considering
on the cosmological effects induced by Nonlinear Elec- that only the averaged magnetic field survives in a FRW
trodynamics (NLED) [1]. The main reason for this is re- spatially homogeneous and isotropic geometry. Such con-
lated to the drastic modification NLED provokes in the figuration of pure averaged magnetic field combined with
behavior of the cosmological geometry in respect to two the dynamic equations of General Relativity received the
of the most important questions of standard cosmology, generic name of Magnetic Universe [3].
that is, the initial singularity and the acceleration of the The most remarkable property of a Magnetic Universe
scale factor. Indeed, NLED provides worthwhile alterna- configuration is the fact that from the energy conserva-
tives to solve these two problems in a unified way, that tion law it follows that the dependence on time of the
is without invoking different mechanisms for each one of magnetic field H(t) is the same irrespective of the spe-
them separately. Such economy of hypotheses is certainly cific form of the Lagrangian. This property allows us
welcome. The partial analysis of each one of these prob- to obtain the dependence of the magnetic field on the
lems was initiated in [1, 2]. Here we will present a new scale factor a(t), without knowing the particular form of
cosmological model, that unifies both descriptions. the Lagrangian L(F ). Indeed, as we will show later on,
The general form for the dynamics of the electro- from the energy-momentum conservation law it follows
magnetic field, compatible with covariance and gauge that H = H0 a−2 . This dependence is responsible for the
conservation principles reduces to L = L(F ), where property which states that strong magnetic fields dom-
F ≡ F µν Fµν . We do not consider here the other invari- inates the geometry for small values of the scale factor;
ant G ≡ F µν Fµν ∗
constructed with the dual, since its on the other hand, weak fields determines the evolution
practical importance disappears in cosmological frame- of the geometry for latter eras when the radius is big
work once in our scenario the average of the electric field enough to excite these terms.
vanishes in a magnetic universe as we shall see in the In order to combine both effects, here we will analyze a
next sections. Thus, the Lagrangian appears as a regular toy model. The symmetric behavior of the magnetic field
function that can be developed as positive or negative in both extremes – that is for very strong and very weak
powers of the invariant F. Positive powers dominate the regimes – allows the appearance of a repetitive configu-
dynamics of the gravitational field in the neighborhood ration of the kind exhibited by an eternal cyclic universe.
of its moment of extremely high curvatures [1]. Negative Negative power of the field in the Lagrangian of the
powers control the other extreme, that is, in the case of gravitational field was used in [5] attempting to explain
very weak electromagnetic fields [2]. In this case as it the acceleration of the scale factor of the universe by
was pointed out previously it modifies the evolution of modification of the dynamics of the gravitational field
 2

by adding to the Einstein-Hilbert action a term that de- models are based on deep modifications on conventional
pends on negative power of the curvature, that is physics, that are extremely difficult to be observed, the
model we present here relies instead on the electromag-
2 Z √
α4
 
MPl netic field. The new ingredient that we introduce con-
S= −g R − d4 x,
2 R cerns the dynamics that is rather different from that of
Maxwell in distinct regimes. Specifically, the Lagrangian
This modification introduced an idea that is worth to be we will work with is given by
generalized: the dynamics should be invariant with re-
spect to the inverse symmetry transformation. In other 1 µ2 β2
words,if X represents the invariant used to construct a LT = α2 F 2 − F− + 2. (2)
4 F F
Lagrangian for a given field, the Action should be invari-
ant under the map X → 1/X. Since the Electrodynamics The dimensional constants α, β and µ are to be deter-
is the paradigm of field theory, one should start the exam mined by observation. Thus the complete dynamics of
of such a principle into the realm of this theory. In other electromagnetic and gravitational fields are governed by
words we will deal here with a new symmetry between Einstein equations plus LT .
strong and weak electromagnetic field. In [2], a model We shall see that in Friedmann-Robertson-Walker
assuming this idea was presented and its cosmological (FRW) geometry we can distinguish four typical eras
consequences analyzed. In this model, the action for the which generate a basic unity of the cosmos (BUC) that
electromagnetic field was modified by the addition of a repeat indefinitely.
new term, namely The whole cosmological scenario is controlled by the
energy density ρ and the pressure p of the magnetic field.
√
 
F γ
Z
Each era of the BUC is associated with a specific term
S= −g − + d4 x. (1)
4 F of the Lagrangian. As we shall see the conservation of
the energy-momentum tensor implies that the field de-
This action yields an accelerated expansion phase for the pendence on the scale factor yields that the invariant F
evolution of the universe, and correctly describes the elec- is proportional to a− 4 . This dependence is responsible by
tric field of an isolated charge for a sufficiently small value the different dominance of each term of the Lagrangian in
of parameter γ. The acceleration becomes a consequence different phases. The first term α2 F 2 dominates in very
of the properties of this dynamics for the situation in early epochs allowing a bouncing to avoid the presence
which the field is weak. of a singularity. Let us call this the bouncing era. The
In another cosmological context, in the strong regime, second term is the Maxwell linear action which dominates
it has been pointed out in the literature [1] that NLED in the radiation era. The inverse term µ2 /F dominates
can produces a bouncing, altering another important is- in the acceleration era. Finally the last term β 2 /F 2 is
sue in Cosmology: the singularity problem. In this arti- responsible for a re-bouncing. Thus each BUC can be
cle we would like to combine both effects improving the described in the following way:
action given in Eqn.(1) to discuss the consequences of
NLED for both, weak and strong fields. • The bouncing era: There exists a collapsing phase
It is a well-known fact that under certain assumptions, that attains a minimum value for the scale factor
the standard cosmological model unavoidably leads to a aB (t);
singular behavior of the curvature invariants in what has
been termed the Big Bang. This is a highly distressing • The radiation era: after the bouncing, ρ + 3p
state of affairs, because in the presence of a singularity we changes the sign; the universe stops its acceleration
are obliged to abandon the rational description of Nature. and start expanding with ä < 0;
It is possible that a complete quantum cosmology could • The acceleration era: when the 1/F factor domi-
describe the state of affairs in a very different and more nates the universe enters an accelerated regime;
complete way. For the time being, while such complete
quantum theory is not yet known, one should attempt • The re-bouncing era: when the term 1/F 2 domi-
to explore alternatives that are allowed and that provide nates, the acceleration changes the sign and starts
some sort of phenomenological consequences of a more a phase in which ä < 0 once more; the scale factor
profound theory. attains a maximum and re-bounces
It is tempting then to investigate how NLED can give
origin to an unified scenario that not only accelerates The universe starts a collapsing phase entering a new
the universe for weak fields (latter cosmological era) but bouncing era. This unity of four stages, the BUC, con-
that is also capable of avoiding an initial singularity as a stitutes an eternal cyclic configuration that repeats itself
consequence of its properties in the strong regime. indefinitely.
Scenarios that avoid an initial singularity have been The plan of the article is as follows. In section II we re-
intensely studied over the years. As an example of some view the Tolman process of average in order to conciliate
latest realizations we can mention the pre-big-bang uni- the energy distribution of the electromagnetic field with
verse [7] and the ekpyrotic universe [6]. While these a spatially isotropic geometry. Section III presents the
 3

notion of the Magnetic Universe and its generic features With these conditions, the energy-momentum tensor of
concerning the dynamics of electromagnetic field gener- the EM field associated to L = L(F ) can be written as
ated by a Lagrangian L = L(F ). Section IV presents that of a perfect fluid,
the conditions of bouncing and acceleration of a FRW
universe in terms of properties to be satisfied by L. In Tµν = (ρ + p)vµ vν − p gµν , (8)
section V we introduce the notion of inverse symme-
where
try of the electromagnetic field in a cosmological con-
text. This principle is used to complete the form of ρ = −L − 4LF E 2 ,
the Lagrangian that guides the combined dynamics of 4
the unique long-range fields yielding a spatially homoge- p = L − (2H 2 − E 2 ) LF , (9)
3
neous and isotropic nonsingular universe. In sections VI
and VII we present a complete scenario consisting of the and LF ≡ dL/dF.
four eras: a bouncing, an expansion with negative ac-
celeration, an accelerated phase and a re-bouncing. We
end with some comments on the form of the scale factor III. MAGNETIC UNIVERSE
and future developments. In appendix we present the
compatibility of our Lagrangian with standard Coulomb A particularly interesting case occurs when only the
law and the modifications induced on causal properties average of the magnetic part does not vanishes and
of nonlinear electrodynamics. E 2 = 0. Such situation has been investigated in the cos-
mological framework yielding what has been called mag-
netic universe. This should be a real possibility in the
II. THE AVERAGE PROCEDURE AND THE case of cosmology, since in the early universe the electric
FLUID REPRESENTATION field is screened by the charged primordial plasma, while
the magnetic field lines are frozen [4]. In spite of this fact,
The effects of a nonlinear electromagnetic theory in a in [2] some attention was devoted to the mathematically
cosmological setting have been studied in several articles interesting case in which E 2 = σ 2 H 2 6= 0.
[9]. An interesting feature of such magnetic universe comes
Given a generic gauge-independent Lagrangian L = from the fact that it can be associated with a four-
L(F ), written in terms of the invariant F ≡ Fµν F µν component non-interacting perfect fluid. Let us give a
it follows that the associated energy-momentum tensor, brief proof of the statement that in the cosmological con-
defined by text the energy-content that follows from this theory can
√ be described in terms of a perfect fluid. We work with
2 δL −γ the standard form of the FLRW geometry in Gaussian
Tµν = √ , (3)
−γ δγ µν coordinates provided by (we limit the present analysis to
the Euclidean section)
reduces to
ds2 = dt2 − a(t)2 dr2 + r2 dΩ2 .


(10)
Tµν = −4 LF Fµ α Fαν − L gµν . (4)
The expansion factor, θ defined as the divergence of the
In the standard cosmological scenario the metric struc- fluid velocity reduces, in the present case, to the deriva-
ture of space-time is provided by the FLRW geometry. tive of logarithm of the scale factor
For compatibility with the cosmological framework, that
is, in order that an electromagnetic field can generates µ ȧ
θ ≡ v;µ =3 (11)
a homogeneous and isotropic geometry an average pro- a
cedure must be used. We define the volumetric spatial The conservation of the energy-momentum tensor pro-
average of a quantity X at the time t by jected in the direction of the co-moving velocity v µ = δ0µ
1
Z
√ yields
X ≡ lim X −g d3 x, (5)
V →V0 V ρ̇ + (ρ + p)θ = 0 (12)
R√
where V = −g d3 x and V0 is a sufficiently large time- Using Lagrangian LT in the case of the magnetic universe
dependent three-volume. In this notation, for the elec- yields for the density of energy and pressure given in
tromagnetic field to act as a source for the FLRW model equations (9):
we need to impose that
1 µ2 β2
E i = 0, H i = 0, Ei Hj = 0, (6) ρ = − α2 F 2 + F+ − 2 (13)
4 F F

1 1 5α2 2 1 7µ2 1 11β 2 1

Ei Ej = − E 2 gij , Hi Hj = − H 2 gij . (7) p=− F + F− + (14)
3 3 3 12 3 F 3 F2
 4

where Let us point out a remarkable property of the combined

system of this NLED generated by LT and Friedman
F = 2H 2 (15) equations of cosmological evolution. A simple look into
Substituting these values in the conservation law, it fol- the above expressions for the values of the density of en-
lows ergy exhibits what could be a possible difficulty of this
  system in two extreme situations, that is, when F 2 and
ȧ 1/F 2 terms dominate, since if the radius of the universe
LF (H 2 )˙+ 4 H 2 = 0. (16)
a can attain arbitrary small and/or arbitrary big values,
then one should face the question regarding the positiv-
where LF ≡ ∂L/∂F.
ity of its energy content. However, as we shall show in
The important result that follows from this equation
the next sections, the combined system of equations of
is that the dependence on the specific form of the La-
the cosmic metric and the magnetic field described by
grangian appears as a multiplicative factor. This prop-
General Relativity and NLED, are such that a beautiful
erty shows that any Lagrangian L(F ) yields the same
conspiracy occurs in such a way that the negative con-
dependence of the field on the scale factor irrespective of
tributions for the energy density that came from terms
the particular form of the Lagrangian. Indeed, equation
L1 and L4 never overcomes the positive terms that come
(16) yields
from L2 and L3 . Before arriving at the undesirable values
H = H0 a−2 . (17) where the density of energy could attain negative values,
the universe bounces ( for very large values of the field)
This property implies that for each power F k it is possi- and re-bounces (in the other extreme, that is, for very
ble to associate a specific fluid configuration with density small values) to precisely avoid this difficulty. This oc-
of energy ρk and pressure pk in such a way that the cor- curs at the limit value ρB = ρRB = 0, as follows from
responding equation of state is given by equation
 
4k θ2
pk = − 1 ρk . (18) ρ= . (22)
3 3
We restrict our analysis in the present paper to the theory We emphasize that this is not an extra condition im-
provided by a toy-model described by the Lagrangian posed by hand but a direct consequence of the dynamics
described by LT . Indeed, at early stages of the expansion
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 phase the dynamics is controlled by the approximation
1 µ2 β2 Lagrangian LT ≈ L1,2 = L1 + L2 . Then
= α2 F 2 − F − + 2 (19)
4 F F
F
where α, β, µ are parameters characterizing a concrete ρ= (1 − 4α2 F ).
4
specific model. For latter use we present the correspond-
ing many-fluid component associated to Lagrangian
P LT . Using the conservation law (12) we conclude that the
We setPfor the total density and pressure ρT = ρi and density of energy will be always positive since there
pT = pi where exists a minimum value of the scale factor given by
a4mim = 8α2 Ho2 . A similar conspiracy occurs in the other
5
ρ1 = −α2 F 2 , p1 = ρ1 extreme where we approximate LT ≈ L2,3 = L2 + L3 ,
3 which shows that the density remains positive definite,
1 1 since a(t) remains bounded, attaining a maximum in the
ρ2 = F , p 2 = ρ2
4 3 moment the universe makes a re-bounce. These extrema
µ2 7 occurs precisely at the points where the total density van-
ρ3 = , p 3 = − ρ3
F 3 ishes. Let us now turn to the generic conditions needed
β2 11 for the universe to have a bounce and a phase of acceler-
ρ4 = − 2 , p4 = − ρ4 . (20) ated expansion.
F 3
Or, using the dependence of the field on the scale factor
equation (17), IV. CONDITIONS FOR BOUNCING AND
1 ACCELERATION
ρ1 = − 4α2 H04 8
a
H0 1 1. Acceleration
ρ2 =
2 a4
µ2 4 From Einstein’s equations, the acceleration of the uni-
ρ3 = a
2H02 verse is related to its matter content by
β2 8 ä 1
ρ4 = − a . (21) 3 = − (ρ + 3p). (23)
4H04 a 2
 5

In order to have an accelerated universe, matter must • The inverse symmetry principle:
satisfy the constraint (ρ + 3p) < 0. In terms of the quan-
tities defined in Eqn. (9),
The NLED theory should be invariant under the
ρ + 3p = 2(L − 4H 2 LF ). (24) inverse map

Hence the constraint (ρ + 3p) < 0 translates into cte

F → F̃ = .
F
L
LF > . (25)
4H 2
It follows that any nonlinear electromagnetic theory that For the Lagrangian (19), we have chosen the constant
satisfies this inequality yields accelerated expansion. In to be 4µ2 . This restricts the number of free parameters
our present model it follows that terms L2 and L4 pro- from three to two, once a direct application of this prin-
duce negative acceleration and L1 and L3 yield inflation- ciple implies that β 2 = 16α2 µ4 . This symmetry induces a
ary regimes (ä > 0). corresponding one for the geometry. Indeed, the cosmo-
logical dynamics is invariant under the associated dual
For latter uses we write the value of ρ + 3p for the case
map
of Lagrangian LT :
H0 1
F 6µ2 10β 2 a(t) → ã(t) = √ (27)
ρ + 3p = −6α2 F 2 + − + . µ a
2 F F2
It is precisely this invariance that is at the origin of the
cyclic property of this cosmological scenario.
2. Bouncing
Let us point out that the above map is nothing but
a conformal transformation. Indeed, in conformal time,
In order to analyze the conditions for a bouncing it the geometry takes the form
is convenient to re-write the equation of acceleration us-
ing explicitly the expansion factor θ, which is called the
Raychaudhuri equation: ds2 = a(η)2 dη 2 − dr2 − r2 dΩ2 .


(28)
1 2 1 Thus making the conformal map
θ̇ + θ = − (ρ + 3p) (26)
3 2
g̃µν = ω 2 gµν
Thus besides condition (25) for the existence of an accel-
eration a bounce needs further restrictions on a(t). In- √
where ω = λ/a2 , and λ ≡ H0 / µ. Note that although
deed, the existence of a minimum (or a maximum) for the the Lagrangian LT is not invariant under a conformal
scale factor implies that at the bouncing point B the in- transformation, the average procedure used to make com-
equality (ρB +3pB ) < 0 (or, respectively, (ρB +3pB ) > 0) patible the dynamical system of the electomagnetic field
must be satisfied. Note that at any extremum (maximum and the Friedman equation is invariant. Indeed, we have
or minimum) of the scale factor the density of energy van-
ishes. This is a direct consequence of the first integral of 4µ2
Friedman equation which, in the Euclidean case, reduces F̃ = g̃ µν g̃ αβ Fαµ Fβν = .
F
to equation (22).

VI. A COMPLETE SCENARIO

V. DUALITY ON THE MAGNETIC UNIVERSE
AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE INVERSE Electromagnetic radiation described by a maxwellian
SYMMETRY distribution has driven the geometry of the universe for
a period. Let us now analyze the modifications intro-
duced by the non linear terms in the cosmic scenario.
The cosmological scenario that is presented here deals
The simplest way to do this is to combine the previous
with a cyclic FRW geometry which has a symmetric be-
lagrangian with the dependence of the magnetic field on
havior for small and big values of the scale factor. This
the scale factor. We set
scenario is possible because the behavior of its energy
content at high energy is the same as it has in its weak 1 µ2 β2
regime. This is precisely the case of the magnetic uni- LT = α2 F 2 − F− + 2 (29)
4 F F
verse that we are dealing with here. To obtain a perfect
symmetric configuration for our model we will impose a where β is related to the other parameters α and µ by
new dynamical principle: the inverse symmetry principle, as displayed above.
 6

A. Potential Using the dependence H = Ho /a2 , on equation (30)

leads to
It will be more direct to examine the effects of the
kHo2 8α2 Ho2
 
2
magnetic universe controlled by the above lagrangian if ȧ = 1− − ǫ. (33)
we undertake a qualitative analysis using an analogy with 6 a2 a4
classical mechanics. Friedman’s equation reduces to the
We remind the reader that we limit our analysis here to
set
the Euclidean section (ǫ = 0). As long as the right-hand
side of equation (33) must not be negative it follows that,
the scale-factor a(t) cannot be arbitrarily small. Indeed,
ȧ2 + V (a) = 0 (30)
a solution of (33) is given as
where r
2 2 2
A B a = Ho (t + 12 α2 ). (34)
V (a) = 6 − 2 − Ca6 + Da10 (31) 3
a a
The radiation period can be achieved from the above
is a potential that restricts the motion of the localization equation by setting α = 0. As a consequence the av-
a(t) of the “particle”. The constants in V are given by erage strength of the magnetic field H evolves in time
as
4α2 H04 H02 µ2 4α2 µ4
A= , B= , C= , D= , 3 1
3 6 6H02 3H04 H2 = . (35)
2 t + 12 α2
2

and are positive.

The dependence of the field as H = H0 /a2 implies the Note that at t = 0 the radius of the universe attains a
existence of four distinct epochs, which we will analyze minimum value at the bounce:
now. √
a2B = Ho 8 α2 . (36)
The derivative dL/dF has three zeros, in which ρ + p
vanishes. In the case of pure magnetic universe the value
Therefore, the actual value of aB depends on Ho , which
of F is always positive. We distinguish four eras.
- for given α, µ turns out to be the sole free parameter
of the model. The energy density ρ reaches its maximum
for the value ρB = 1/64α2 at the instant t = tB , where
B. The four eras of the Magnetic Universe
√
tB = 12 α2 . (37)
The dynamics of the universe with matter density
given by Eqn.(29) can be obtained qualitatively from the For smaller values of t the energy density decreases, van-
analysis of Einstein’s equations. We distinguish four dis- ishing at t = 0, while the pressure
p becomes negative.
tinct periods according to the dominance of each term Only for very small times t < 4α2 /k the non-linear
of the energy density. The early regime (driven by the effects are relevant for cosmological solution of the nor-
F 2 term); the radiation era (where the equation of state malized scale-factor. Indeed, solution (34) fits the stan-
p = 1/3ρ controls the expansion); the third accelerated dard expression of the Maxwell case at the limit of large
evolution (where the 1/F term is the most important one) times.
and finally the last era where the 1/F 2 dominates and in
which the expansion stops, the universe re-bounces and
enters in a collapse era. 2. Radiation era

The standard Maxwellian term dominates in the inter-

1. Bouncing era mediary regime. Due to the dependence on a−2 of the
field, this phase is defined by H 2 >> H 4 yielding the
In the strong field limit the value of the scalar of cur- approximation
vature is small and the volume of the universe attains
its minimum, the density of energy and the pressure are H2
ρ ≈
dominated by the terms coming from the quadratic la- 2
grangian F 2 and is approximated by the forms H2
p ≈ (38)
6
H2
ρ ≈ (1 − 8α2 H 2 )
2 This is the phase dominated by the linear regime of the
H2 electromagnetic field. Its properties are the same as de-
p ≈ (1 − 40α2 H 2 ) (32) scribed in the standard cosmological model.
6
 7

3. The accelerated era: weak field drives the cosmological and we pass from an accelerated regime to a phase in
geometry which the acceleration is negative. When the field at-
tains the value FRB = 16α2 µ2 the universe changes its
When the universe becomes larger, negative powers expansion to a collapse. The scale factor attains its max-
of F dominates and the distribution of energy becomes imum value
typical of an accelerated universe, that is: H02
a4max ≈ .
1 µ2 8α2 µ2
ρ ≈
2 H2
−7 µ2 VII. POSITIVITY OF THE DENSITY OF
p ≈ (39)
6 H2 ENERGY
In the intermediate regime between the radiation and
the acceleration regime the energy content is described The total density of energy of the BUC is always pos-
by the combined form itive definite (see equation 22). In the bouncing and in
the re-bouncing eras it takes the value ρB = ρRB = 0. At
H2 µ2 1 these points the density is an extremum. Actually, both
ρ= + , points are minimum of the density. This is a direct con-
2 2 H2
sequence of equations (12) and (22). Indeed, derivative
or, in terms of the scale factor, of (12) at the bouncing and at the re-bouncing yields
H02 1 µ2 4 3 2
ρ= + a . (40) ρ̈B = p > 0.
2 a 4 2H02 2 B

For small a it is the ordinary radiation term that Thus there must exists another extremum of ρ which
√ dom- should be a maximum. This is indeed the case since
inates. The 1/F term takes over only after a = H0 /µ,
and would grows without bound afterwards. In fact, the there exists a value on the domain of the evolution of the
curvature scalar is universe between the two minima such that

4µ2 4 ρc + pc = 0.
R = T µµ = ρ − 3p = a ,
H02
At this point we have
showing that one could expect a curvature singularity in
the future of the universe for which a → ∞. We shall see,
ρ̈ + ṗc θc = 0
however that the presence of the term 1/F 2 changes this
behavior. showing that at this point c the density takes its maxi-
Using this matter density in Eqn.(23) gives mum value.
ä H 2 1 3 µ2 4
3 + 0 4− a = 0.
a 2 a 2 H02 VIII. THE BEHAVIOR OF THE SCALE
To get a regime of accelerated expansion, we must have FACTOR

H02 µ2 Let us pause for a while and describe the form of the
− 3 2 a4 < 0,
a 4 H0 scale factor as function of time in the four regimes. To
simplify such description let us separate in three parts:
which implies that the universe will accelerate for a > ac ,
with Phase A: Bouncing-Radiation
 4 1/8 Phase B: Radiation-Acceleration
H0
ac = .
3µ2 Phase C: Acceleration-Re-bouncing
characterized respectively by the dynamics controlled by:
4. Re-Bouncing LA = L1 +L2 ; LB = L2 +L3 ; LC = L3 +L4 . It is straight-
forward to obtain an analytical expression for each one
For very big values of the scale factor the density of of these periods, which can be analytically continued
energy can be approximated by through distinct eras. We obtain for phase A :

2 2h i1/4
µ2 β2 aBR (t) = 2
H (t − t1 ) + 12α2
(42)
ρ≈ − 2 (41) 3 0
F F
 8

The inverse symmetric phase C is given by no Big Rip. It describes correctly the radiation era and
allows for an accelerated phase without introducing any
2 µ2 h i−1/4 extra source.

2 2
aARB (t) = (t − t3 ) + 12α (43) The particular form of the dynamics of the magnetic
3 H02
field is dictated by the inverse principle, which states that
and for the intermediary phase B, we have: the behavior of the field is invariant under the mapping
2

  q  1/4 F → F̃ = 4µ F . This reflects on the symmetric √ behavior

of the geometry by the dual map a → ã = H0 / µ a.
 √
2µ 2
 H02 1 − cos Jsn 2 3 (t − t 2 ) , 2  The particular form of NLED is based on the princi-
aRA (t) = 
 µ   q √
 
 ple that shows an intimate relation between strong and
1 − cos Jsn 2 2µ 3 (t − t 2 ) , 2
2
weak field configurations. This inverse-symmetry prin-
(44) ciple reduces the number of arbitrary parameters of the
where Jsn is the inverse of a first kind elliptic function, or theory and allows for the regular properties of the cosmi-
the Jacobi function JacobiSN . In order to express the cal model. The universe is a cyclic one, having its main
analytical continuation of the scalar factor trough the characteristics synthesized in the following steps:
different eras it is convenient to re-write equation (44) in • Step 1: The universe contains a collapsing phase
the inverse form: in which the scalar factor attains a minimum value
"  2  √ # aB (t);
H0 − µa4
r
3 2
t − t2 = EllipticF arccos , . • Step 2: after the bouncing the universe expands
µ H02 + µa4 2
with ä < 0;
(45)
In the limit µa4 ≪ H02 expression (45) becomes • Step 3: when the 1/F factor dominates the universe
enters an accelerated regime;
s
3 • Step 4: when 1/F 2 dominates the acceleration
t − t2 = a2 .
2H02 changes the sign and starts a phase in which ä < 0
once more, the scale factor attains a maximum and
Now, in the limit t − t1 ≫ 12α2 expression aARB (t) re-bounces starting a new collapsing phase;
reduces to • Step 5: the universe repeats the same behavior
 i1/4 passing steps 1, 2, 3 and 4 again and again, in-
2 2h 2
a(t) = H0 (t − t1 ) definitely.
3

corresponding to the radiation era, which is continued in

Appendix A: Static and spherically symmetric
form aRA (t) above by identifying t1 = t2 .
electromagnetic solution and the asymptotic regime
On the opposite case µa4 ≫ H02 expression (45) goes
to
We have made an analysis of the modification of
r   electrodynamics in a cosmological context. We are
3 1 not arguing that these effects are more than the re-
q
t − t2 = π − H02 µ 2 ,
2µ a sponse of the universe to local electrodynamics proper-
ties. Some decades ago Wheeler and Feynman made a
that is conjecture that local properties of electrodynamics (e.g.
the Lienard-Wiechert potential) may just be a conse-
i−1/4 quence of such cosmic response inducing the elimination
2 µ2 h

a(t) = (t − t ) 2 of advanced fields. However, if one takes these modifica-
2
3 H02 tions as local change of electrodynamics, we should check
consistency of the theory with conventional electromag-
which is continued analytically
q to the phase C by the netism. We shall restrict ourselves here to the case of the
3
identification t3 = t1 + π 2µ . static electric field generated by a point charged particle.
For a general nonlinear Lagrangian L = L(F ), the EOM
for the point charge reduces to
IX. CONCLUSION r2 LF E(r) = const.
In the case of the Lagrangian given in Eqn.(2) we get
The simplified toy model presented here displays many
regular properties that should be worth of further investi- 1 q
16α2 E(r)8 + E(r)6 − µ2 E(r)2 − β 2 = 2 .


− 5
gation. In particular, it provides a spatially homogeneous 4E (r) r
and isotropic FRW geometry which has no Big Bang and (46)
 9

The polynomial in E that follows from this equation In the asymptotic regime, we can set E = E∞ = X and,
cannot be solved exactly, but to study the dependence of for the energy-momentum tensor one obtains
E with r we can plot from (46) the function r = r(E).
1
T00 = T11 = T22 = T33 = − X 3 + 3µ2 X + 2β 2


It also follows from the plot that E → constant for 2
r → ∞. 4X
(49)
By taking derivatives of Eqn.(46) it can be shown that which mimics a Λ term.
the function E(r) has no extrema [14]. Hence, the mod- If we add an extra term in the Lagrangian we could
ulus of the electric field decreases monotonically with in- eliminate the residual constant field at infinity. In
creasing r, from an infinite value at the origin to a con- the case of Maxwell Electrodynamics such ambiguity of
stant (nonzero but small) value at infinity. Eqn.(46) then choice does not arise due to its linearity. However, for
shows that E∞ = constant 6= 0. This situation is akin non-linear electromagnetic theory a new possibility oc-
to that in the theory defined by the action curs which concerns the geometrical structure at infinity.
MP2 √ α4 This means that for the non-linear electrodynamics the
Z  
S= −g R − d4 x. fact that at infinity the field is a constant does not im-
2 R
plies that it vanishes. Such property can be translated in
It was shown in [5] that the static and spherically a formal question, that is, what is the asymptotic regime
symmetric solution of this theory does not approach of the geometry of space-time: Minkowski or de Sitter? .
Minkowski asymptotically; it tends instead to (anti)-de In classical linear Electrodynamics the answer to that
Sitter space-time. We shall see that a similar situation question was known and did not pose any ambiguity. No
occurs in the case of NLED. longer so if non-linear electromagnetic field is combined
Regarding the behavior of the field for small values of with the equations of general relativity. The possibility
r, if we compare the term corresponding to Maxwell’s of the de Sitter structure must be considered. In theories
case in Eqn.(46) with the other two, we get that for the in which a solution distinct from zero for the equation
field to be Maxwell-like there are conditions on the value LF = 0 exists, such a question has to be investigated
of the free parameters to be fulfilled, thats is: combined with cosmology. In a recent paper [12] a new
1 look into this question was considered by the exam of
E 2 << . a proposed relation of the apparent mass of the graviton
16α2
and the cosmological constant. We will come back to this
question elsewhere.
µ2 << E 4

β 2 << E 6 . Appendix B: The fundamental state

With the explicit dependence for the field given by A simple look into the equation of motion in NLED
E(r) = q/r2 , it would be possible to set a value for α in shows the existence of a very particular solution such
agreement with the observation by that its energy distribution is the same as the one in
r04 the vacuum fundamental state represented by an effective
α2 << , cosmological constant. Indeed, the eom is given by
16q 2
and analogous expressions for µ and β, where r0 is a (LF F µν );ν = 0. (50)
reference value set by the experiment. In the case we fix Consider the particular solution F = F0 = constant such
the value of β by the inverse symmetry, the condition on that
β reduces to the other two.
F3
2α2 F 4 − + µ2 F − 2β 2 = 0.
4
5. Asymptotic regime This is the condition that satisfies the equation of mo-
tion since LF vanishes at this value F0 . In this state the
Let us make an extra comment on the above case of corresponding energy-momentum takes the form
a point charge particle at spatial infinity. The energy-
momentum tensor has the form: Tµν = Λ gµν ,

Tµν = −Lηµν − 4LF Fµα F α ν (47) where

1 3 3µ2
 
which in the present case F01 = E(r) is 1 2
Λ = −L(F0 ) = 2 F + F0 − 2β .
F0 8 0 2
1
T00 = T11 = 48α2 E 8 + 2E 6 − 6µ2 E 2 − 5β 2


4E 4 This property is typical of NLED since there is no possi-
1 bility of the linear Maxwell theory having such particular
T22 = T33 16α2 E 8 + 2E 6 + 2µ2 E 2 − β 2(48)


= − 4 solution.
4E
 10

Appendix C: Causality where F ≡ F µν Fµν and L is an arbitrary function of

F . Notice that γ is the determinant of the background
Most[15] of our description of the universe is based on metric. which we take in the following to be that of flat
the behavior of light in a gravitational field. In a FLRW spacetime, but the same techniques can be applied when
scenario the existence of a horizon inhibiting the com- the background is curved. Varying this action w.r.t. the
plete interchange of information between arbitrary parts potential Wµ , related to the field by the expression
of the universe associated with the observation of the
Fµν = Wµ;ν − Wν;µ = Wµ,ν − Wν,µ ,
high degree of isotropy of the CBR generated a causal
difficulty: different parts of the universe - in the stan- we obtain the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion
dard FLRW geometry could not have enough time to (EOM)
homogeneize. The inflationary scenario had its appeal
precisely for the solution it brought to this problem. (LF F µν );ν = 0, (53)
Non linear theories of Electrodynamics presented a
completely new look into the causal properties, which where LF is the derivative LF ≡ ∂L/∂F. In the particular
we will now overview very briefly. case of a linear dependence of the Lagrangian with the
invariant F we recover Maxwell’s equations of motion.
As mentioned in the Introduction, we want to study
6. Causal Structure of Nonlinear Electrodynamics the behaviour of perturbations of these EOM around a
fixed background solution. Instead of using the tradi-
The main lesson we can extract from the analysis of tional perturbation method, we shall use a more elegant
the propagation of the wave front in nonlinear theory is method set out by Hadamard. In this method, the prop-
contained in a theorem that can be demonstrated using agation of low-energy photons are studied by following
Hadamard method to deal with the discontinuity of the the evolution of the wave front, through which the field
field and which can be synthesized in a single sentence is continuous but its first derivative is not. To be spe-
dealing with the modification of the geometry, generat- cific, let Σ be the surface of discontinuity defined by the
ing an effective metric that controls the properties of the equation
space. In order to show this let us make a very short Σ(xµ ) = constant.
summary of it.
The discontinuity of a function J through the surface Σ
will be represented by [J]Σ , and its definition is
7. The Effective Metric

[J]Σ ≡ lim J|Σ+δ − J|Σ−δ .
δ→0+
We decided to give a very short review of the propa-
gation of the electromagnetic waves in the NLED, since The discontinuities of the field and its first derivative are
it has very peculiar properties that modify the standard given by
description in the linear Maxwellian case. The reader
interested in more details can consult [13]. [Fµν ]Σ = 0, [Fµν,λ ]Σ = fµν kλ , (54)
Historically, the first example of the idea of effective where the vector kλ is nothing but the normal to the
metric was presented in 1923 by W. Gordon. In modern surface Σ, that is, kλ = Σ,λ , and fµν represents the dis-
language, the wave equation for the propagation of light continuity of the field.
in a moving non-dispersive medium, with slowly varying To set the stage for the nonlinear case, let us first dis-
refractive index n and 4-velocity uµ : cuss the propagation in Maxwell’s electrodynamics, for
∂α ∂ α + (n2 − 1)(uα ∂α )2 Fµν = 0. which LF F = 0. The EOM then reduces to F;νµν = 0,
 
and taking the discontinuity we get
Taking the geometrical optics limit, the Hamilton-Jacobi
equation for light rays can be written as g µν kµ kν = 0 f µν kν = 0. (55)
(see [13] for details), where ∗ ;ν
The other Maxwell equation is given by Fµν = 0 or
g µν = η µν + (n2 − 1)uµ uν (51) equivalently,
is the effective metric for this problem. It must be noted Fµν;λ + Fνλ;µ + Fλµ;ν = 0. (56)
that only photons in the geometric optics approximation
move on geodesics of g µν : the particles that compose the The discontinuity of this equation yields
fluid couple instead to the background Minkowskian met-
ric. Let us now study in detail the example of nonlinear fµν kλ + fνλ kµ + fλµ kν = 0. (57)
electromagnetism. We start with the action
Multiplying this equation by k λ gives
√
Z
S= −γ L(F ) d4 x, (52) fµν k 2 + fνλ k λ kµ + fλµ k λ kν = 0, (58)
 11

where k 2 ≡ kµ kν γ µν . Using the orthogonality condition 8. Causal properties in the fundamental state
from Eqn.(55) it follows that

f µν k 2 = 0 (59) Let us look for the causal structure in the case the elec-
tromagnetic field rests on its fundamental state. From
Since the tensor associated to the discontinuity cannot the calculation made in the previous chapter the pho-
vanish (we are assuming that there is a true discontinu- tons propagate in an effective geometry which is given
ity!) we conclude that the surface of discontinuity is null by equation (65). In the case of the inverse symmetry
w.r.t. the metric γ µν . That is, Lagrangian the effective metric tensor takes the form:

kµ kν γ µν = 0. (60)
µν 1 µ8 8µ8
g(ef f ) = (− + 2 ) g µν + 3 F µα Fα ν . (66)
It follows that kλ;µ k λ = 0, and since the vector of dis- 4 F F
continuity is a gradient,
The fundamental state is the particular solution in which
kµ;λ k λ = 0. (61)

This shows that the propagation of discontinuities of the F 2 = 4µ8 ,

electromagnetic field, in the case of Maxwell’s equations
(which are linear), is along the null geodesics of the
Minkowski background metric. which corresponds to an energy-momentum tensor equiv-
alent to a fluid distribution characterized by the condi-
Let us apply the same technique to the case of a non- tion ρ + p = 0 and generates a deSitter geometry for the
linear Lagrangian for the electromagnetic field, given by background metric gµν as seen by all forms of matter and
L(F ). Taking the discontinuity of the EOM, Eqn.(53), energy content - as far as we neglect the gravitational in-
we get fluence of such remaining matter and energy. However,
from the above calculation, we conclude that the photons
LF f µν kν + 2η LF F F µν kν = 0, (62) do not propagate in such deSitter space but instead in an
effective metric which is provided by the form:
where we defined the quantity η by F αβ fαβ ≡ η. Note
that contrary to the linear case in which the discontinuity 1 µα ν
µν
tensor fµν is orthogonal to the propagation vector k µ , g(ef f) = ± F Fα . (67)
µ4
here there is a complicated relation between the vector
f µν kν and quantities dependent on the background field.
This is the origin of a more involved expression for the This is a very peculiar and interesting situation that can
evolution of the discontinuity vector, as we shall see next. be described by the following sentence:
Multiplying equation (58) by F µν we obtain

η k 2 + F µν fνλ k λ kµ + F µν fλµ k λ kν = 0. (63)

• The fundamental state of the theory de-
Now we substitute in this equation the term f µν
kν from scribed by the inverse symmetric Lagrangian
Eqn.(62), and we arrive at the expression generates a deSitter universe felt by all ex-
isting matter with one exception: the pho-
LF ηk 2 − 2 LF F η(F µλ kµ kλ − F λµ kµ kλ ), (64) tons which follow geodesics in the above
µν
anisotropic geometry g(ef f ).
which can be written as g µν kµ kν = 0, where

g µν = LF γ µν − 4 LF F F µα Fα ν . (65)

We then conclude that the high-energy photons of a non- Acknowledgements

linear theory of electrodynamics with L = L(F ) do not
propagate on the null cones of the background metric but
on the null cones of an effective metric, generated by the JS is supported by CNPq. MN acknowledges support
self-interaction of the electromagnetic field. of FAPERJ and CNPq. ANA is supported by CAPES.

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