K.

Sathya Prakash
[email protected]

Issue # EE 02

Not necessarily a speed variation is must for such an application, If

the speed is other than top rated speed, it is going to give cost
benefits. Lower the speed more the benefits.

Nevertheless, Simpler less expensive solutions such as changing pulleys,

modifications of the fan blades or a new fan, may be more effective in
some cases, where Variable Speed is not required to be adjusted.
Ie . If a fan of 1000 RPM, has to be made to run at 500 RPM Constantly, then in that case , one
can adopt the cost effective methods.

But, if a fan of 1000 RPM, is require to run at any speed set-point between 10% to 100% speed,
one has to go for VSD’s Only. The following topics illustrate the Energy Saving Phenomenon,
while using the VSD’s.

Concept of variable speed drives

DC motors & AC induction motors
Any variable speed electrical drive system comprises of the following components:

• An electronic actuator - the controller.

• A driving electrical machines - motor.

• A driven machine (load) - pump, fan, blower, compressor…

The task of a variable speed electrical drive is to convert the electrical power supplied by the mains into mechanical
power with a minimum loss. To achieve an optimum technological process, the drive must be variable in speed. This
will steplessly adjust the speed of the driven machine. This is ensured by the low loss control using solid state
Technology in electronic controllers. The controllers are connected to mains supply and the electrical machine as
shown in figure

The solid - state devices, which convert the AC supply to DC supply were first used as variable speed devices, in DC
technology. Using these devices the armature voltage of a DC motor and therefore the speed can be adjusted,
almost without losses and over a wide range of speed . Using these features the drive can be designed which start
smoothly and jerk-free. This helps to maintain the desired selected speed, independently of the load and operate with
good dynamic response

The DC drive needs special consideration in some applications. For example in hazardous
atmosphere, vibrations and higher speeds the usage of AC motor with squirrel-Cage rotor is
advantageous. The use of frequency inverters (VFD's) to supply to AC Motors resulted in a new
orientation of electrical power for handling variable speeds operation is shown in figure

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Every standard AC motor can be fitted with a variable speed drive using a frequency inverter.
Frequency and voltage of the single - phase or three - phase mains are varied by the frequency
inverter, such that the motor can be operated with varying speeds over large range settings. The
operating mode of any motor connected to these variable speed drives can be classified in Four
Quadrants, depending upon the Torque and Speed of the drive in figure above

Four –Quadrant Operation :

A Four-quadrant diagram can represent mode of operation of variable speed drive. In Quadrant 1 the speed and
torque can be represented positive or forward direction. This is consistent with a motor driving a load taking power
from the mains. Similarly in Quadrant 3, both speed and torque are in negative or reverse direction.

This Corresponds to a motor turning in the reverse direction, driving a load and again taking
power from the mains. In Quadrants 2 and 4, the speed and torque are in mutually - opposed
directions, that is to say, the torque of the motor is opposing its rotation, giving a braking effect.
It follows,then, that mechanical and kinetic energy of the load is being converted into electrical
energy. The motor is behaving as a generator and the system as a whole is delivering power into
the mains.

This behavior is known as Regeneration. After going, through the mode of operation of VSDs, let us briefly discuss
about the various loading patterns. The characteristics of the load are particularly important in the trouble -Free
operation of VSDs. Load refers essentially to the torque output and the corresponding speed required. Loads can be
broadly classified as follows

• Constant torque

• Variable torque

• Constant power

CONSTANT TORQUE LOAD

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Constant torque load are those for which the output power requirement may vary with speed of operation, but the
torque does not vary. Conveyors, rotary kilns and constant - displacement pumps are typical examples of constant
torque loads.

VARIABLE TORQUE LOAD

Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with speed of operation. Centrifugal pumps and
fans are typical examples of variable torque loads ( torque varies as the square of the speeds ).

CONSTANT POWER LOAD

Constant power loads are those for which the torque requirements are typically changed inversely with speed.
Winders, coilers are typically the examples of constant power loads.

The largest potential for energy savings with variable speeds drive are generally in variable
torque applications. For example, centrifugal pumps and fans, where the power requirements
changes as the cubes of speed. Constant torque loads are suitable for VSD application.

The latest industrial trend is to use AC drives for variable speed application. As already discussed, to vary the speed
of an AC motor and at the same time retain its torque producing capability a power source is required. This power
source has to provide variable voltage and frequency output in such a way that, in most of the operating area the V / f
ratio is maintained constant. This can be achieved through an AC drive which gives variable frequency and variable
voltage as out put by taking fixed voltage as input.

The principle involved in this technique is first to convert the fixed frequency, fixed voltage AC supply into a variable
or constant DC voltage. This is then into the AC supply of desired frequency & amplitude. The criteria for the
selection of AC inverter drive are essentially the same as for a DC variable speed drive. The latest developments in
technology and successful development of electronic drives (AC drives) for cage motors have resulted in the
following benefits:
1) Availability of full load torque from standstill
2) Absence of torque fluctuations at low speed.
3) Ability to hold a set speed, regardless of load torque variation
4) Ability to control the rate of increase & decrease of speed
5) Dynamic response.

Induction Motor :
An AC induction motor essentially consists of two parts namely a stationary part called the "stator" and a rotating part
called "rotor". The rotor is placed inside the stator and is supported on both sides. Energy is supplied to the windings
placed in the stator slots. Energy is transferred to the rotor windings through electromagnetic induction and hence
such motors are called "induction motors". Three Phase Induction Motor Construction: The stator consists of
three-phase winding which are placed in the slots of a laminated stator core. The rotor core is a laminated steel
cylinder, having slots in which conductors are cast or wound. The rotor bars are shortened at the both ends by rotor
end-rings.

Principle:

When a three-phase supply is connected across the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field, constant in magnitude
but rotating at synchronous speed, Ns, is produced. The speed of the rotating field so produced depends upon the
supply frequency and the number of poles for which the winding is made. The direction of the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator depends upon the supply phase sequence. This field induces an electromotive force (emf) in
the rotor conductors which in turn produces the current flow. Thus magnetizing the rotor. Due to the tendency of the
rotor magnetic field to be aligned with the stator field, the rotor develops the torque in the same direction and it starts

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rotating. The speed of the rotor however is less than synchronous speed Ns (the speed of rotating magnetic field
developed by the stator). If the rotor runs exactly at the synchronous speed induced emf in the rotor will be zero.
Hence there will be no rotor current and rotor torque.

The synchronous speed is a function of the no of poles of the motor and supply frequency. This is given by:

Ns = 120 * frequency (f) / number of poles (P)

Hence the speed of an AC motor is a function of frequency and the number of motor poles. The speed of the rotor
relative to that of the stator-rotating field is called as "SLIP". This slip is the difference between the synchronous
speed, Ns and actual speed N and is denoted by S. This is generally expressed as a fraction of the synchronous
speed. Thus slip is S = (Ns-N) / Ns where N- is actual rotor speed, Ns - Synchronous speed The primary function of
the motor is to provide torque, which makes the shaft / loads to rotate at the required speed.

1) The "torque" of an induction motor depends upon the flux in the air gap.

2) Further, flux is directly proportional to V / f.... where V is supply voltage and f is the supply frequency. It can
therefore be said that, the torque T is directly proportional to flux & flux is directly proportional to V / f.

3) Thus the torque producing capability of the motor at the rated / required speeds can be retained constant, by
maintaining the voltage v/s frequency ratio constant.

4) Conclusively one can say that to vary the speed of an induction motor the frequency of the supply going to
the motor should be varied. In order to maintain the torque producing capability the voltage applied to the
motor needs to changed in the same proportion as that of frequency.

Variable Frequency Drives :

The primary functions of a variable speed AC drive, is to convert electrical power to the usable form for controlling
speed, torque and direction of rotation of AC motor

The AC drive system basically splits into two sections:

Power electronics: In the power circuit the three phase incoming AC power is rectified to DC and then inverted to
AC of desired frequency & voltage. This consists of surge suppresser circuit, line communicated converter (controlled
or uncontrolled rectifier), pre-charging unit, DC link capacitor unit with bleeder resistor inverter, etc.

Control circuitry: The control circuitry monitors &controls the whole working of the drive. It regulates the output
voltage, process the feedback, the fault and interlocks the inverter by tripping it in case of any fault. The mode of
operation of AC drives are mainly classified into two types: Constant V / f and Vector control.

Advantages of variable frequency drives:

Feature Benefits
Soft starting
Reduced impact on electrical network means no
penalties from utility

Reduced stress on motor, coupling and load, giving

extended life time

Unlimited number of starts per hour

Precise speed and torque control

Better product quality

improved cost of ownership

Better protection of motor (e.g. stall protection and

load)

Consistent product quality, despite input power

variations and sudden load changes

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 Wide speed control range
Improved efficiency compared to traditional flow
control methods e.g. damper control, throttling

lower maintenance
High reliability and availability
Reduced downtime

Improved process availability

Low audible noise
Improved working environment for
operators
Capability for speed reversal / regenerative braking
Desired torque during braking,
therefore better product quality

improved braking characteristics

Higher efficiency
Flux optimisation (motor flux automatically adapted to load)
Improved motor efficiency

Reduced motor noise

Power loss ride through

Reduced number of drive trips

Better process availability

Automatic start (drive can catch a spinning load)

Reduced waiting time

Reduced downtime

Energy saving AC drives can be retroffied to

standard induction motors, to
provide substantial energy savings

Speed control of Induction Motor :

The power supply to the induction motor is through the stator winding terminal. The speed control of the induction
motor is possible at the stator winding terminal, by appropriately changing the electrical supply voltage, frequency or
the internal winding. The rotor circuit windings available in a slipring induction motor, allows an additional means to
control the speed. This method of varying the motor speed by adding resistance in the rotor circuit is known as rotor
resistance control ( RRC ). The operating principle of RRC is explained as follows:

In the rotor resistance control method, the speed variation in a motor can be achieved by altering the slip the motor
can operate. This method is applicable for slipring induction motors, as it involves addition of the external resistance
in the rotor circuit of the motor (as shown in fig ).The principle employed in the rotor resistance control is changing the
internal motor circuit parameters, by adding external rotor resistance. This in turn changes the torque-speed
characteristics of the motor.

Figure- Slipring induction motor - with external rotor resistors

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With increasing resistance, the slope of the motor curve decreases, shifting the stable operating
point for the given load curve to a point with higher slip. Thus the speed control is achieved in
the rotor resistance control.( This is represented in the fig. below)

Figure- Slipring induction motor - with external rotor resistors

The above graph shows the variations of the torque with slip, the other factors remaining constant. The change in slip
is attained by changing the value of rotor resistances. In the graph, the curves A, B, C & D have rotor resistances Ra,
Rb, Rc & Rd respectively. The relative values of resistance's is as follows: Rd>Rc>Rb>Ra. It is observed that a
significant amount of input power has to be dissipated in the external resistors. This power lost due to the increase in
slip is called as slip power. The ratio of slip power to total power input changes with speed.

Rotor Resistance Controller (RRC) : Rotor Resistance Controller (RRC) is a method of speed control applicable to
the slip-ring induction motor only.

Advantages of RRC:
No harmonic generation: Unlike AC drives & SPRS, RRC has no adverse effect, such as harmonics generation
which affects the distribution network.

Ambient conditions: RRC has no electronic components like that of other electronic variable speed drives. Hence,
they can be installed in even adverse environments.

Disadvantages of RRC:
External cooling: A portion of the input power has to be dissipated in the external rotor
resistors. These resistors require cooling fans to dissipate the heat generated by them. The
cooling fans form an additional load.

Speed adjustment: In this methods the speed adjustment is in steps or with very poor
regulations

Maintenance: This method of control has lot of contractors & orther moving parts, which
requires regular maintenance.

Energy saving concept & fan curves

We all know that lot of energy is wasted in fan/pump/blower applications if not properly
designed. When we use conventional motor control system, in which AC motor is run at full
speed, the flow of gases/air /liquid is regulated using the damper /throttle control. In this

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process , substantial energy is lost in the damper/throttle. This waste of energy can be as high as
25 to 30 % of motor rating. Always go for reliable v/f , variable speed drives to control the speed
of fan/pump/blower, which in turn will automatically control the flow. Hence you can eliminate
the need of damper/throttle. Your pay back period can be even less than one year.

Effect of harmonic Distortion on an induction motor :

Harmonic Distortion is a kind of pollution in electrical supply. The distortion is caused by different "Non Linear Load"
connected to electrical supply.

The harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the fundamental supply frequency.

Typically the harmonics which are generated by3 phase 6-pulse rectifiers in the common AC or DC drives just include
the harmonics numbers 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 & 25 etc.

Harmonic currents affect the circuit components which are direct on the line supplying the drive, such as
transformers, cables and circuit breakers.

The most sensitive are transformers, because the losses in windings and cores are higher with
higher amount of harmonic currents. If the non-linear load percentage of the total transformer
load is going to be more than 50%, it is important to check the transformers loadability.

Distorted wave composed by the superposition of a 60 Hz fundamental and small third harmonic
and fifth harmonics.

Harmonic voltage affect all equipment which are connected to the supply. Ways to reduce harmonic distortion
Use PWM AC drive
Choose drive with effective DC Line Filtering
If possible use 12-pulse Rectifier in the Drive

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Install the cabling and earthing properly
Install Shunt Filters or Harmonic Traps

Formula for calculating Motor Capacity

Rotary motion
Linear motion (Horizontal motion)

2 π • Tl • N µ • W • Vl
• Po = x 10-3 [kW] • Po = [kW]
60 • π 6120 • η

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 4Jl • (Nl)2 W • (Vl)2
• Pa = [kW] • Pa = [kW]
365 X 103 • ta 3600 X 103 • ta

Nl 9.8 m • W • Vl
• TL = • Tl [N• M] • TL = [N• M]
NM• η 2π • NM • p

Nl 1 Vl
• JL= •Jl [kg • m2] • JL = [kg • m2]
Nm 4 π • NM

2π (JM + JL) • NM 2p (JM + JL ) •NM

• ta = [sec] • ta = [sec]
60 • (TM • a - TL) 60 • (TM • α - TL)

2π (JM + JL) • NM 2p (JM + JL) • NM

• td = [sec] • td = [sec]
60 • (TM • β + TL) 60 • (TM • β + TL)

Legend
Po : Running power [kW] Tl : Load torque [N • m]
Pa : Required power for accel [kW] TL : Load torque [N • m]
Nl : Load speed [r/m] (Reflected to motor shaft)
NM : Motor shaft speed [r/m] TM : Motor rated torque[N.m]
Vl : Load velocity of load [m/min.] ta : Acceleration time [sec]
η : Machine efficiency td : Decceleration tiem [sec]
µ : Friction factor α : 0.8 - 1.2
0.1 - 0.2 (200V class)
W : Weight of load [kg] β : 0.05 - 0.1 (400 V class)
JM : Motor inertia [kg • m2]
Jl : Load inertia [kg • m2]
Load inertia [kg • m2]
JL : (Reflected to motor shaft)
Downsizing

With the expansion of the field of application of drives, the demands for making drives more compact and lower in
cost are becoming stronger.

Among the above, the issue of cooling is especially important in counteracting the increase of heating density
accompanying downsizing and is becoming difficult to accommodate by normal conventional methods. With regard to

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this issue, we will describe the building-in of quality and the the prior verification activities which are performed at the
initial stages of development by the effective utilization of CAD/CAE tools.

When an induction motor is driven by a PWM AC drive, a surge voltage may occur at the motor
terminals due to the characteristics of the drives output voltage (dv/dt). Large surge voltages can
break down the motor insulation and cause premature motor failure. The article attempts to
discuss this phenomenon in both a theoretical and practical way.

1. What is VVVF AC drive ?

VVVF AC drive is the power electronic controller used to control the speed of 3ph AC motors
(synchronous or inducution) by varying the frequency and the voltage applied to the motor terminals.
Voltage and frequency relationship is decided based on the motor name plate data and the load
characteristics.

2. What is the typical power circuit configuration of VVVF AC drive?

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Typical power circuit configuration involves 3Ph. diode rectifier at the input, which converts the AC input
to DC voltage. LC or C filter reduces the ripple in the DC voltage. 3Ph IGBT AC drive stage converts this
DC voltage into variable voltage variable frequency output as per the desired pattern

3. What are the different types of VVVF AC drive?

VVVF AC drive are generally classified into three types based on the type of control philosophy adopted
for motor control:
Scalar control/PWM control.
Sensorless vector control.
Vector control (with sensor) or Flux vector control.

4. What is scalar control?

In scalar control, relationship between voltage and frequency of the AC voltage applied to the motor
terminals is predetermined by the user. This relationship is marginally altered in scalar drives sometimes,
to improve the performance of the drive. Scalar controlled inverters can have only speed control and
these are ideal for group/multi motor drives.

5. What is vector control or flux vector control?

What are the typical applications?

In Vector Control motor, current is controlled with two independent components i.e., torque component
and flux component. These components are computed based on the rotor position, rotor speed and motor
parameters. Motor speed is controlled rather than output frequency. Relationship between voltage and
frequency is decided by operating conditions. Vector controlled inverters invariably use encoders for rotor
speed and position feedback. As flux and torque components of current are decoupled, fast dynamic
response is obtained. It is possible to get more than rated torque at zero speed also. Vector control can
be achieved for single motor only. Vector control inverters are used for applications demanding zero
speed regulation, wide speed control range and excellent dynamic response. Ex. Paper machine drives,
film line drives.

6. What is Sensorless Vector Control?

In sensorless vector control, motor speed is estimated based on the measured motor terminal parameters
and hence speed sensor is avoided. Based on motor parameters and computed rotor speed, flux and
torque component of motor current are computed. As flux and torque component of current are
independently controlled, fast dynamic response is achieved. Speed regulation is better than scalar drives
and typical value is +/0.5%. This speed regulation is typically achieved in the range 1:50. High starting
torque (>150%) is also achieved by this control.
7. What is PWM Control?
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the method of control where variable voltage (AC/DC) is achieved from
a fixed DC voltage using switching devices. DC voltage is applied for sometime in the cycle and in the
remaining period, no voltage is applied to the load. By adjusting the duty ratio, (ratio of on period to cycle
time) output voltage is adjusted between zero and rated voltage

8. What is applied motor rating as specified by inverter specification?

Applied motor rating specifies the maximum rating of the 4-pole motor that can be connected to the
inverter to obtain its rated output power at the rated speed. It is necessary that the rated input voltage of
the inverter and motor are matched or else specified out power may not be achieved.
9. What is rated KVA output capacity?
It is the apparent power that can be delivered continuously by the inverter at the rated frequency. This is
calculated as [SQRT(3) x rated output voltage x rated current]/1000.

10. What is rated output voltage?

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Rated output voltage is the fundamental rms value of the output terminal voltage at rated input and output
conditions.

11. What is the output rated current?

Output rated current is the rms current the inverter can continuously supply irrespective of the output frequency.

12. What is the rated input voltage & frequency?

It is the rated supply voltage and frequency for which invertor delivers its rated output.

13. What is input voltage variation and frequency variation?

Input voltage and frequency variation range specifies the range wherein the inverter can deliver the rated
current without affecting the life of the equipment. Other specifications as output power, voltage etc., may
not be met during the variation.

14. What is the power factor as claimed by manufacturers?

Input power factor can be specified in two ways i.e., displacement power factor and harmonic power
factor. If diode rectifier is used displacement between the fundamental voltage and current is nearly zero
and hence displacement power factor is approximately 1.0. Harmonic power factor in the ratio of input
effective power and input apparent power. This depends on output speed and load conditions. It is
normally specified at rated input and output conditions. Power factor depends on the power circuit
configuration.

15. What is input KVA capacity?

It is the input apparent power drawn by the inverter at the rated output conditions.

16. What is the frequency / speed range?

Frequency/speed range is the ratio of minimum and maximum frequency/speed in the defined operating
condition. Ex.1:10 speed range with constant torque.

17. What is frequency stability?

Frequency stability specifies the variation in output frequency with the defined temperature variation
keeping frequency reference constant. Ex. +/-0.5% of max frequency for 25° C. +/-10° C.

18. What is inverter efficiency?

Inverter efficiency is the ratio of the output power to the input power of inverter at rated output conditions
i.e., with rated voltage, rated current & rated power factor at the output of inverter.

19. What is AC Reactor/Line Choke?

AC Reactor is used when supply line has to be isolated from commutation notches caused by the inverter
and to reduce the rectifier peak current.

20. What is noise filter?

Noise filter is the element involving inductor and noise capacitor to suppress high frequency
voltages, which can cause interference to sensitive electronic equipment.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY VARIATION ON MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Motors are normally designed to operate at a frequency range of

+/-5% from designed frequency.
Running a motor at a low frequency results in reduction of the output

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power.But the effect of low frequency is not very great since there is
no marked change in power factor.
The losses due to frequency variations are mainly due to hysteresis &
eddy current losses.Hysteresis losses are directly proportional to the
frequency & eddy current losses are directly proportional to the square
of the frequency
Copper losses in the motor are unaffected , but friction & windage
losses increase.
As such, efficiency of the motor is reduced slightly.

EFFECT OF VOLTAGE VARIATION ON MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

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