LECTURE 1

Introduction. External forces acting on an aircraft.

Flight dynamics is the science of the aircraft motion in airspace by the action of
external forces applied to it.
Flight dynamics is, on the whole, a combination of three classical branches of
science, such as solid mechanics, fluid and gas mechanics and mathematics.
Being a theoretical subject, flight dynamics finds an important practical
application for aircraft design at the same time. The tasks of the aircraft design can be
classified into three main groups, which come to ensuring: general characteristics,
structural strength and flight performance. By studying flight dynamics we determine
the aircraft flight performance and loads acting on its structure during the flight in
disturbed atmosphere or during manoeuvring. The importance of this subject is defined
even by the fact that studying the flight dynamics issues is an integral part of all
programmers of preliminary design work preceding all flight tests.
Handling the flight dynamics problems is possible from two positions.
1. It is possible to set up exact general equations the solution of which can be
obtained only by computers. However using the computers can never substitute
for mathematical and physical researches.
Analytical solutions are of special importance for engineers when the application
field of these solutions is known, that is the application field of simplified
assumptions used for solving a problem is known.
However it is necessary to keep it mind that the analytical model does not always
reflect a real phenomenon exactly and there are processes when using numerical
methods is difficult or impossible, e.g., in connection with necessity of finding a
solution near a peculiar point.
2. In the case when neither analytical nor numerical methods of the engineering
analysis give the grounds sufficient for an exact quantitative characteristic of
motion process, an experiment should be used. The experiment is made both in the
process of designing and at the end of it.

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 Basic laws of dynamics. Dynamical problems. Fundamentals and definitions

Basic laws of dynamics were suggested by Newton in his work «Mathematical

principles of natural philosophy».
1. The law of inertia (the first Newton’s law):
Every body remains state of rest or uniform motion in a straight unless some
force to change that state.
The reference system in respect to which the first Newton’s law is acting is called
the inertial one.
2. Basic law of dynamics (the second Newton’s law):
 
F =m j . Any change of a body motion is proportional to the applied force and
acts in the same direction.
3. The third Newton’s law:
Actions of two bodies on each other are always equal in quantity and opposite in
 
direction: F1 = −F2 .
Having stated this law Newton first formulated the principles of jet propulsion.
Knowing these laws on the whole, it is possible to turn directly to the
problems of flight dynamics which can be stated in such a way:
1. knowing the laws of the aircraft motion (path), determine the forces acting on it,
which ensure the action of this law of motion.
2. knowing the forces acting on the aircraft determine the law of the aircraft motion.
If the forces and moments or the law of the aircraft motion are completely
specified, such problems are called definite or related ones. As shown further, the
behaviour of the aircraft in space is described by the system in which there are fewer
equations than unknown quantities. Therefore there appears the necessity of specifying
one of the parameters of motion in the function of any other parameter (including the
time) for closing the system.
Since there are fewer unknown quantities in the equations than the equations
themselves, one or several parameters can arbitrarily vary. Thus, the problems on

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determining extreme values of this or that parameter of motion reached during the flight
are of special importance in flight dynamics.
In this case the path type, the law of varying the forces and moments acting
on the aircraft in the course of time are unknown beforehand. Only the so-called
boundary and edge conditions, initial values of the motion parameters, as well as
extreme conditions (min time, min fuel consumption, etc.) are prescribed.
The motion of the aircraft can be straight-line, curvilinear, steady and unsteady
motion.
To assess the possibility of handling the problem stated for the aircraft it is
necessary to know its performance and stability, controllability characteristics. The
performance of the aircraft under consideration is defined by possible speed range
(absolute ceiling, zoom altitude and service ceiling), range ( Ltech , Lmax , Lreal ), time in
flight, manoeuvrability, etc.
Minimum flight speed (Vmin ) is the lowest flight speed, at which the aircraft is
still in a horizontal uniform flight.
Maximum speed (Vmax ) is the speed of steady horizontal flight, which can be
provided at the completely open engine throttle (maximum engine power setting).
The static ceiling ( H static ) is a maximum altitude, at which the aircraft of the
predetermined mass can fulfil the level flight at a constant speed, when the throttle is
completely open.
Technical range ( Ltech ) is the range that can be reached at the complete fuel
utilization.
Maximum range ( Lmax ) is the distance that can be covered by the aircraft at the
complete fuel utilization and under optimum flight condition.
Service range ( Lreal ) is the distance covered by the aircraft keeping abroad some
fuel reserve that amounts to 5-10% of the initial fuel capacity.
The aircraft endurance is the time in flight under conditions when the min. fuel
consumption (kg/hr) is realised.

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 The aircraft manoeuvrability is the ability of the aircraft to change its position in
n-dimensional parameters space in a definite time interval (velocity, altitude and flight
direction change).
The aircraft manoeuvrability is characterised by the load factor vector, because it
takes into account the forces magnitude and direction, the change of which makes it
possible to control the flight.
G-Load is the ratio of thrust vector sum and the total aerodynamic force to the
gravity value:
  
 P + RA R
n= =
mg G
By projecting the load factor vector on the coordinate axis we obtain load
factor components along the axes. Thus, the load factor vector projections on the axis of
the rate coordinate system are as follows:
R xa
n xa = - tangential,
G
R ya
n ya = - normal (in wind coordinate system),
G
Rz a
nz a = - lateral.
G
In body axes projections the load factor vector may be presented by n x , n y , nz

components called longitudinal, normal and lateral load factor, respectively.

Load factor sign in the body axes are introduced in such a way:
n x > 0 , if the pilot is pressed to the seat back, acceleration;

n x < 0 , if the pilot is detached from the seat forward, deceleration;

ny > 0 , if the pilot is pressed down to the seat;
ny < 0 , if the pilot is detached upwards from the seat;
nz > 0 , if the pilot is pressed to the left hand side and vice versa.
The aircraft controllability is its capability to respond to the force applied to
control levers by the pilot with a corresponding movement in space.
The aircraft stability is its capability to return to its initial flight condition after the
cause of deviation from the initial condition ceased to act.

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 The aircraft moves in space by Newton’s laws of motion.
According to these laws the aircraft is the body of a variable mass, for the aircraft
mass decreases in flight in the course of time. In the general case the aircraft is also the
body of a variable shape, because it is subjected to deformations caused by the
aerodynamic load; besides, the controls deflections are necessary for the flight control.
It follows that the aircraft should be considered as the body with a great number of
degrees of freedom. In this case setting up the equation systems is extraordinarily
difficult, and solving the equation systems is also difficult. Therefore a number of
simplifying assumptions are taken for solving the problem. The most important of them
are:
1. The environment in which the flying aircraft is considered to be invariable in
time, the characteristics of this environment are uniquely considered the known
flight altitude functions.
2. We shall consider the aircraft as the body of variable composition (mass) with a
stiff fixed external shell. In other words, we shall neglect structural elastic
deformations connected with external loads and the aircraft surface kinetic
heating.
3. The no stationary of processes which occur inside the shell confining the variable
composition body will be neglected. Thus, we shall not take into account, e.g.,
the rapid fuel movement inside the aircraft.
4. We shall take into account gravity forces, acting on the aircraft, caused only by
the Earth neglecting the gravity of other celestial bodies.
Since in the general case the aircraft motion can be represented in the form of
forward motions of the centre of mass and the system rotation relative to the centre of
mass, the flight dynamics problems can be divided into two classes:
- Problems of determining the path of the centre of mass.
- Problems of determining the aircraft necessary or possible angular
positions relative to the path of the centre of mass.
The first class of problems is described by force equations and moment equations
in projections on the coordinate axis, moment equations and some constraint equations.

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 The second class of problems is described by force equations in projections on the
coordinate axis and some constraint equations.
The first class of problems is solved in the first part of the flight dynamics course,
the aircraft being considered as a material point having a variable mass in the general
case.
The second class of problems is solved in the second part of the course, the
aircraft being considered as a system of material points.
In the first part of the course, considering only the equations for forces in the
projections on the coordinate axis, we assume that a quite definite angular position
corresponding to specified or necessary forces is given to the aircraft at any moment
with the help of controls deflection performed by the autopilot or the pilot.
The amount of the controls deflection and the possibility of performing
these deflections are defined in the second part of the flight dynamics course, in which
stability and controllability characteristics are determined.

External forces acting on the aircraft

To solve equations describing the aircraft motion it is necessary first of al to

know what external forces act on the aircraft considered as a body of variable
composition.
The aircraft is acted upon by such external forces:
1) mass external forces caused by the sun’s, earth’s, moon’s and other planets
gravity;
2) aerodynamic forces (in the case of flight in sufficiently dense atmospheric
layers);
3) reactive force of engine thrust installed on the aircraft (in the case when the
engine is operating).
1. Mass external forces
During the aircraft flight in the space it is moving in the gravitational field of
different celestial bodies.
Relative position of the aircraft and celestial bodies in space continuously

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changes. Therefore the problem of calculating the flight paths, known as «the problem
of several bodies being attracted» in celestial mechanics, is found to be complicated
enough.
However, if we limit ourselves to the study of the aircraft flight at comparatively
small distances from the Earth’s surface, then as shown by calculations, in consequence
of very great distances from the Earth even to the nearest celestial bodies the attraction
by these bodies is found to be essentially less than the Earth’s attraction.
Thus, e.g. the Sun’s attraction the mass of which is 33200 times that of the Earth,
and the distance from the Earth (the smallest) is about 147 million kilometers, even at
the flight altitude of 1000 kilometers is only about 0,1% of the Earth’s attraction.
The Moon’s attraction at the same flight altitude is approximately equal to
5 ⋅ 10 −6 the Earth’s attraction, because the Moon mass is about 80 times less than that of
the Earth, and the distance from Earth to the Moon ( the smallest) is 363000 kilometers.
In that way, considering low flight altitudes (up to H=1000 – 2000 kilometers),
we may limit the problem taking into account only mass forces of the Earth’s attraction.
Acceleration of gravity «g» on the surface of the Earth, in general, depends on the
geographical location of the point at which «g» is determined. It is explained, on the one
hand, by the fact that masses inside the Earth’s volume are not quite uniformly
distributed; on the other hand, the Earth has not exactly spherical shape. Both these
reasons, however, do not have a great influence on «g». Therefore it is quite permissible
to take some average acceleration of gravity, constant for all points of the Earth’s
surface.
Let us assume, as usual in calculations
g0=9.81 m/sec2 (1.1)
Thus, we shall consider further that the Earth has a spherical shape and the center
of its attraction is a geometrical center of this sphere. In other words, we shall proceed
from Kepler’s gravitational field.
According to Newton’s law acceleration of gravity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the point under consideration:

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 2
 rE 
g = g0   , (1.2)
 rE − H 

where rE =6371 km, Earth’s radius and H – the altitude of the point under consideration
above the Earth’s surface that will be taken as sea level.
At not very high altitudes «g» little differs from «g0» at sea level. E.g., at H=50
kilometers g=9,7 m/sec2.
Therefore for the problems related to the study of aircraft flight at low altitudes,
up to about 50 – 100 kilometers, for the purpose of simplification g is assumed to be
constant, independent on the flight altitude.
Thus, if low flight altitudes are studied, it is possible, to a sufficient degree of
accuracy, to consider the relation between the mass force and the force of weight as a
linear relation:
G = mg ( H ) . (1.3)
We agreed to consider the Earth as a spherical body. When the aircraft moves
along the path equidistant to the Earth’s surface (and also along other paths, except the
flight along the path that is the continuation of the Earth’s radius), we should take into
account a centripetal force caused by the curvature of the Earth’s surface and acting on
the aircraft. Centripetal acceleration depends on the flight speed and increases with its
increase. The centripetal acceleration becomes comparatively not high as well for
comparatively not high flight speed. E.g., during the aircraft flight at the speed of
V=1000 m/sec parallel to the Earth’s surface the centripetal acceleration
V2
jc = = 0.16 m / sec 2 , (1.4)
rE

i.e. about 1.6% of acceleration of gravity.

Therefore when solving the problems related to the aircraft flight at
comparatively low speed, up to about 1000 – 1500 m/sec, it is permitted to neglect the
centripetal acceleration caused by the curvature of the Earth’s surface, i.e. to assume the
Earth as the flat one.
The role of the centripetal acceleration increases with the increase of the flight
speed, and when reaching the escape velocity (the escape velocity at sea level is Vkr=7.9

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km/sec), it becomes determining. When investigating the motion of ballistic missiles or
spaceships, it is not permitted to neglect the centripetal acceleration for setting up the
equations of the aircraft motion, as well as in some cases of winged aircraft flight (the
spaceships intended for reuse and others). In these cases the Earth will be considered to
be spherical, and the centripetal acceleration caused by the curvature of the Earth’s
surface will be taken into account.