Information systems Definition

I.S is a set of interrelated components work together to collect,

retrieve, process, store and disseminate information for the purpose
of facilitating planning , control , analysis ,coordination and
decision making in business and other organizations .

Organization
People
IS

Technology

IS Components

External Environment

Organization

Input Process Output

Feedback

IS activities
Overview of information systems
There are many types of information systems in the real world.
All of them use hardware, software, network, and people resources
to transform data resource into information products. Some are

1) Manual information systems, where people use simple

tools such as pencils and paper, or even machines such as
calculators and typewriters.

2) Computer-based information systems that rely on a variety

of computer systems to accomplish their information
processing activities.

Types of information systems

Conceptually, information systems in the real world can be
classified several different ways. For example, several types of
information systems can be classified as either operations or
management information systems. Figure bellow illustrates this
conceptual classification of information systems.
 Information systems

Operations Management
support systems support systems

Transactions Process Office Management Decision Executive

processing control automation information support information
systems systems systems systems systems systems

Operation and management classification of Information

systems

1) Operations support systems

Information systems have always been needed to process data
generated by and used in business operations. Such operations
support systems produce a variety of information product for
internal and external use. However they do not emphasize
producing the specific information product that can best used by
manager. Further processing by management information systems
is usually required. The role of a business firm’s operations
support systems is to efficiently process business transactions,
control industrial process, support office communications and
productivity, and update corporate databases.

a) Transactions processing systems are an important example of

operations support systems that record and process data resulting
from business transactions. They process transactions in two
ways:-
1) Batch processing, transactions data is accumulated
over a period of time and processed periodically.
2) Real-time (or online) processing, data is processed
immediately after a transaction occurs.

b) Process control systems monitor and control physical process.

For example, a petroleum refinery uses electronic sensors linked to
computers to continually monitor chemical processes and make
instant (real-time) adjustments that control the refinery process.

c) Office automation systems enhance office communications and

productivity. For example, a corporation may use word processing
for office correspondence, and electronic mail to send and receive
electronic messages.
2) Management support systems
When information systems focus on providing information and
support for effective decision making by managers, they called
management support systems .Providing information and support
for decision making by all levels of management (from top
executives to middle manager to supervisors) is a complex task.
Conceptually, several major types of information systems support
a variety of managerial end user responsibilities:-

a) Management information systems provide information in the

form of reports and displays to manager. For example, sales
managers may use their computer workstations to get
instantaneous displays about the sales results of their products and
to access weekly sales analysis reports that evaluate sales made by
each salesperson.

b) Decision support systems give direct computer support to

mangers during the decision-making process.

c) Executive information systems provide critical information in

easy to use displays to top and middle management. For example,
top executives may use touch screen terminals to instantly view
text and graphics displays that highlight key areas of
organizational and competitive performance.

Difference between Management information systems(MIS) and

Decision support systems(DSS)
MIS DSS
Decision support Provide information Provide information
about the performance and decision support
of the organization. technique to analyze
specific problem.
Information processing Information produced Information produced
methodology by extraction and by analytical model of
manipulation of business data.
business data.
Types of decision Structured for Semistructured,
supported operational and tactical unstructured for tactical
planning and control. strategic planning and
control.
Types of decision Prespecified, fixed Flexible, adaptable
maker format format
Information System Resources
Our basic IS model shows that an information system consists of
five major resources:-

1) People Resources:-people are required for the operation of

all information systems. These people resources include

a) End users (also called users or clients) are people who

use an information system or the information it produces.
They can be sales persons, engineers or managers.

b) IS specialists are people who develop and operate

information systems. They include systems analysts, or
programmers.

2) Hardware Resources :-the concept of hardware resources

includes all physical devices and materials used in
information processing Examples of hardware resources in
computer based information system are

a) Computer systems, which consists of central processing

units (CPUs) and a variety of interconnected peripheral
devices. Examples are large mainframe computer
systems and microcomputer systems.
 b) Computer peripherals, which are devices such as a
keyboard or electronic mouse for input of data and
commands, a video screen or printer for output of
information, and magnetic or optical disks for storage
of data resource.

3) Software Resources
The concept of software resources includes all sets of
information processing instructions. The following are
examples of software resources:
a) System software, such as an operating system program ,
which controls and supports the operations of a computer
system

b) Application software, which are programs that direct

processing for a particular use of computers by end
users. Example is a word processing program.

c) Procedures, which are operating instructions for the

people who will use an information system. Example is
using a software package.
4) Data resources
The concept of data resources has been broadened by
managers and information systems professionals. They realize
that data constitutes a valuable organizational resource. Thus,
you should view data ad data resources that must be managed
effectively to benefit all end users in an organization.
The data resources of information systems are typically
organized into:
a) Databases that hold processed and organized data.

b) Knowledge bases that hold knowledge in a variety of forms

such as facts and rules of inference about various subjects.
5) Network Resources
Telecommunication network have become essential to the
successful operations of modern organizations and their
computer based information systems. Telecommunication
network consists of computers, end user terminals,
communications processors and other devices interconnected by
communications media and controlled by communications
software.Net work resources include:-
a) Communication media: examples include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, microwave
systems, and communications satellite systems.
 b) Network support: this generic category includes all of
the people, hardware, software, and data resources that
directly support the operation and use of a
communication network.

Information System Hardware

-Computer categories
Computer systems are typically classified as
1) Microcomputers
2) Midrange computers
3) Mainframe computers
Figure bellow illustrates computer classification

Mainframes

Midrange

Microcomputer

1) Microcomputer systems:-
Microcomputers are the smallest but most important
category of computer systems for end users. However,
microcomputer have become much more than small computers
used by individual persons. Their computing power now
 exceeds that of mainframe at a fraction of their cost. For this
reason, they have become powerful professional workstations
for use by end users in business and other organizations.
Most microcomputers are single user computers designed to
support the work activities of a variety of end users.

2) Midrange computers
Also called minicomputers are larger and more powerful than
most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most
large mainframes computer systems. In addition, midrange systems
cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers. They can
function in ordinary operating environment and do not need special
air conditioning.
Midrange computers are being used for many business and
scientific applications such as
a) They become popular as minicomputers for scientific
research, instrumentation system, engineering
analysis and industrial process monitoring and
control.
b) They become popular as powerful network servers to
help manage large interconnected local area networks
that tie together many end user microcomputer
workstations and other computer devices in
departments, offices and other work sites.
 3) Mainframe computer systems
They are large, powerful computers that are physically larger
than micros and minis and usually have one or more central
processors with faster instruction processing speeds. For
example, they typically process hundreds of millions instruction
per second (MIPS).They have large primary storage capacities.
Many mainframes models have the ability to service hundreds
of users at once, For example, a single large mainframe can
process hundreds of different programs and handle hundreds of
different peripheral devices (disk, printers) of hundreds of
different users at the same time.

-Central processing unit (CPU)

The CPU is the most important hardware component of a
computer system. It is also known as the central processor or
instruction processor, and the main microprocessor in a
microcomputer. Conceptually, the CPU can be subdividing in to
two major subunits: the arithmetic logic unit and the control unit.
The CPU also includes specialized circuitry and devices such as
registers for high speed.
1) The control unit (CU) obtains instruction from those
stored in the primary storage unit and interprets them .Then
it transmits directions to the other components of the
 computer system, ordering them to perform required
operation.

2) The Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs required

arithmetic and comparison operations. A computer can
make logical changes from one set of program instruction
to another based on the results of comparisons made in the
ALU during processing.

Multiple processors
Many current computers use multiple processors for their
processing functions. Instead of having one CPU with single
control unit and arithmetic logic unit, the CPUs of these computers
contain several types of processing unit as illustrated:-

1) A support processor design relies on specialized

microprocessors to help the main CPU perform a variety of
functions. These microprocessors may be used for
input/output, memory management and arithmetic
computations, thus freeing the main processor to do the
primary job of executing program instructions.
 2) A coupled processor design uses multiple CPUs or main
microprocessors to do multiprocessing, that is, executing
more than one instruction at the same time. Some
configurations provide a fault tolerant capability in which
multiple CPUs provide a built in back up to each other should
one of them fail.

3) A parallel processor design uses a group of instruction

processors to execute several program instructions at the
same time .Sometimes, hardware or thousands of processors
are organized in clusters or network in Massively Parallel
Processor (MPP) computers. Other parallel processor designs
arte based on simple models of the human brain called neural
networks. All of these systems can execute many instructions
at a time in parallel.

Data bus
Is a system of wires, or strings of conductive material, etched
on the surface of a computer board. It is a communications channel
that allows the transmission of a whole byte or more in one pass.
Multiprocessing
The mode in which a computer uses more than one processing
unit simultaneously to process data.
Memory characteristic and functions
No step in the machine cycle can be taken without a place for
the CPU to store the instructions and data needed for a particular
process. Primary memory is that place. Because primary memory
must exist in a computer for the CPU to do its job, many consider
it to be another part of the CPU.

External storage consists of media that allow permanent storage

of programs and data. Such media include magnetic disks,
magnetic tapes, and optical disks.

Primary memory is used in the actual processing of data inside

the computer all data and instructions must be copied to RAM for
the CPU to execute them two types of storage space compose a
computer’s primary memory:-

1) Random Access Memory (RAM) is where instructions and data

are stored before the CPU fetches them for processing. The CPU
does not deal directly with external storage devices, only with
RAM. So, for a program to run, all instructions and data first must
be entered into RAM, either from a keyboard or other input device,
or from an external storage device , such as a magnetic disk or CD.
Every RAM location has a unique address called a memory
address; that is how the CPU fiends instructions and data. As soon
as an instruction is copied into RAM, it is placed in a location with
its memory address where it stays until other instructions or data
replace it. Replacement occurs if the program sends another
instruction to that address, or if the computer finishes executing an
entire program and loads another.

2) Cache Memory virtually all new microcomputer models offer

cache memory as a part of RAM. Cache memory is made up of fast
memory semiconductor chips. The CPU can access cache memory
faster than the rest of RAM. Cache memory stores the most
frequently used instructions of the programs the computer runs,
allowing faster retrieval and execution.

3) Read Only Memory A small part of primary memory consists of

chips called read-only memory or (ROM).These chips hold
instructions that let you communicate with the computer until
operating system program, such as windows take control .ROM
also holds ASCII codes for a character set: the 26 capital and
lowercase letters, the digits 0 through 9, punctuation marks and
other symbols such as $ and.
Information System Software
System software consists of programs that manage and support a
computer system and its information processing activities. These
programs serve as a vital software interface between computer
system hardware and the application programs of end users. See
figure bellow. We can group such programs into three major
functional categories:-

1) System management programs:-programs that manage

the hardware, software, and data resources of the computer
system during its execution of the various information
process jobs of users. The most important system
management programs are operating systems and operating
environments.

2) System support programs:-programs that support the

operation and management of a computer system by
providing a variety of support services. Major support
programs are system utilities, performance monitors, and
security monitors.
 3) System development programs:-programs that help users
develop information system programs and procedures and
prepare user programs for computer processing .major
development programs are language translators and
programming tools.

End users

Application software

System software

Computer
hardware

System management support and

development

General purpose *Application specific

End users

The system and application software interface between end users

and computer hardware

Operating system
The most important system software packages for any computer
its operating system. An operating system is an integrated system
of programs that manages the operational of the CPU, control the
input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer
system, and provides various support services as the computer
executes the application programs of users.
Operating system functions
An operating system performs five basic functions in the
operation of a computer system as
1) User interface
The user interface is the part of the operating system that
allows you to communicate with it so you can load programs,
access files, and accomplish other tasks. The trend is toward
in easy to use graphical user interface (GUI) that uses icons,
bars, buttons, boxes, and other images .GUI rely on pointing
devices like the electronic mouse to make selections that help
you get things done.
2) Resource management
An operating system uses a variety of resources
management programs to manage the hardware resources of a
computer system, including its CPU, memory, secondary storage
devices, and input/output peripherals. For example, memory
management programs keep track of where data and programs
are stored. They may also subdivide memory in to a number of
sections and swap parts of programs and data between memory
and magnetic disks or other secondary storage devices.
3) File management
An operating system contains file management programs that
control the creation, deletion, and access of files of data and
programs. File management also involves keeping track of the
physical location of files on magnetic disks and other secondary
storage devices.
4) Task management
The task management programs of an operating system
manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end
users. They give each task a slice of a CPU’s time and
interrupt the CPU operation to substitute other tasks.
5) System support programs
System support programs are a category of software that
performs routine support functions for the users of a computer
system. Utility programs, or utilities, are an important example
.The programs perform miscellaneous housekeeping and file
conversion functions .For example, sort programs are important
utility programs that perform the sorting operations on data
required in many information processing applications. Utility
programs also clear primary storage , load programs, record the
contents of primary storage, and convert files of data from one
storage medium to another.
Other system support programs include performance monitor
and security monitors.
 Performance monitors are programs that monitor the
performance and usage of computer systems to help its efficient
use.
Security monitors are packages that monitor and control the
use of computer systems and provide warning messages and
record evidence of unauthorized use of computer resources.
Applications software
Application software consists of programs that direct computers
to perform specific information processing activities for end users.
These programs are called application packages because they
direct the processing required for a particular use, or application,
that end users want accomplished. Application software can be
classified as:-

1) General purpose programs

General purpose application programs are programs that
perform common information processing jobs for end users and
GPP can divide into
a) Word processing packages are programs that
computerize the creation, editing, and printing of
documents (such as letters, and reports) by
electronically processing text data (words, phrases,
sentences, and paragraphs).
 b) Database management packages such as access by
Microsoft allow end users to setup databases of files
and records on their personal computer systems and
quickly store data and retrieve information .Most
DBMS packages can perform four primary tasks
c) Graphics packages. Convert numeric data into graphics
displays such as line charts and bar graph. Many other
types of presentation graphics displays are possible
.Draw and paint graphics packages support freehand
drawing.
2) Application specific programs
Thousands of application software package are available to
support specific applications of end users. Major categories of
such application specific programs are:-

a) Business application programs. Programs that

accomplish the information processing tasks of
important business functions or industry
requirements.
b) Scientific application programs. Programs that
perform information processing tasks for the
natural, physical, and behavioral sciences, and for
mathematics, engineering, and all other areas
 involved in scientific research, scientific analysis,
engineering design, and monitoring of experiments.
c) Other application programs. There are so many
other application areas of computers that we lump
them all into this category. Thus, we can talk of
computer applications in education, music, art ,law,
medicine, and so on.
Programming languages
A programming language allows a programmer or end user to
develop the sets of instruction that constitute a computer program.
Many different programming languages have been developed, each
with its own unique vocabulary, grammar, and users. Programming
languages can be grouped into the five categories as:-
1) Machine languages (or first generation languages) are the
most basic level of programming languages. In the early stages of
computer development, all program instructions had to be written
using binary codes unique to each computer. This type of
programming involves the difficult task of writing instruction in
the form of strings of binary digits (ones and zeros) or other
number systems. Programmers must have a detailed knowledge of
the internal operations of the specific type of CPU they are using
.They must write long series of detailed instructions to accomplish
even simple processing tasks.
2) Assembler languages (or second generation languages) are the
next level of programming languages. They were developed to
reduce the difficulties in writing machine language programs. The
use of assembler language requires language translator program
called assembler that allows a computer to convert the instructions
of such languages into machine instructions. Assembler languages
are frequently called symbolic languages because symbols are used
to represent operation codes and storage locations
3) High level language (or third generation languages) uses
instructions, which are called statements, that closely resemble
language or standard notation of mathematics. Individual high
level language statement are actually macroinstructions, that is
,each individual statement generates several machine instructions
when translated into machine language by high level language
translator.
4) Forth generation languages most forth generation languages
are non procedural languages that encourage users and
programmers to specify the result they want, while the computer
determines the sequence if instructions that will accomplish those
result. Users and programmers no longer have to spend a lot of
time developing the sequence of instructions the computer must
follow to achieve a result. Thus, 4GLs have helped simplify the
programming process. Natural languages are 4GLs that are very
close to English or other human languages.
Example
Machine language High level language

1010 11001 Basic

1011 11010 Z=5 , Y=3
1100 11011 X=Y+Z
Assembler languages Forth generation languages
LOD Y Sum the following numbers
ADD Z Z AND Y
STR X put the result in X

5) Object oriented languages

Object-oriented programming languages are among the newest

types of programming languages. Instead of separating variables,
procedures, and data, as in traditional programming languages,
object-oriented programs group all pieces together into “objects.”
An example of an object might be employee identification and
payroll information and a set of corresponding rules for calculating
monthly payroll for a variety of job classifications and tax rules.
This process of grouping the data and instructions together into a
single object is called encapsulation. By encapsulating the
instructions and data together, programs are easier to maintain
because the things that are grouped together are protected or
isolated from other parts of the program.
A second characteristic of object-oriented languages is
inheritance, which means that all lower-level, or children, nodes in
an inheritance hierarchy inherit the characteristics of the parent
node. In addition to being object-oriented, programs and
programming languages can also be event-driven. Unlike programs
written in procedural programming languages, programs written
with the event-driven approach do not follow a sequential logic.
The programmer does not determine the sequence of execution for
the program. The user can press certain keys and click on various
buttons and boxes presented to her.

6) Visual Programming Languages

Visual programming languages make programming easier and

more intuitive. They allow the programmer to create the graphics-
intensive applications that today’s business user’s demand. For
example, to make a button appear for the user on a particular
screen at a particular point in time, a programmer using a visual
programming language only needs to bring up the screen where the
button is to appear, choose the button from a palette of choices,
drag and drop the button to the proper location, size and style the
but ton with a few mouse clicks, and click on the button’s pop-up
menu to set the properties that will control its behavior (see Figure
bellow

Programming languages translator (PLT)

PLT are programs that translate other programs into machine

language instruction codes that computers can execute and can be
divided into the following:-
1) An assembler translates the symbolic instructions codes of
program written in an assembler language into machine
language instructions.
2) A compiler program that translate a high level
programming language into machine language program.
3) An interpreter program that translates and executes each
source language statement before translating and executing
the next one.
Data management module
Data management module is a database that allows a decision
maker to conduct the intelligence phase of decision making .For
example, an investment consultant always need access to
current stock prices and those from at least the preceding few
year. A data management module accesses the data and
provides a mean for decision system to select data according to
certain criteria: type of stock, range of years, and so on.
Traditional approach for data management
A data file is a collection of logically related records.
Therefore, in a file management environment, each application
has a specific data file related to it, containing all data records
needed by the application. Over time, organizations developed
numerous applications, each with associated, application
specific data file. For example, a university has many computer
based applications involving students. These applications
include course registration, fee payment, and grades among
others. In a file management environment, each of these
applications would have its own student data file. This approach
to data management, where the organization has multiple
applications with related data files, is considered the traditional
approach.
Problems with traditional file approach
The traditional file approach led to many problems:-
1) Corporate applications typically share some common core
functions, such as input, report generation, querying, and data
browsing. However, these common functions typically were
designed, coded, documented, and tested, at great expense, for
each application.

2) Data redundancy: As applications and their data files were

created by different programmers over a period of time, the
same piece of information could be duplicated in several places.
In the university example, each data file will contain records
about students, many of whom will be represented in other data
files. Therefore, student file in the aggregate will contain some
amount of duplicate data.

3) Data inconsistency: Data inconsistency means that the

various copies of the data no longer agree. For example, if a
student changes his or her address, the new address must be
changed across all applications in the university that require the
address.
4) Data isolation: With applications uniquely designed and
implemented, data files are likely to be organized differently,
stored in different formats and often physically inaccessible to
other applications. In the university example, an administrator
who wanted to know which students taking advanced courses
were also starting players on the football team would most
likely not be able to get the answer from the computer based file
system.

5) Security: security is difficult to enforce in the file

environment, because new applications may be added to the
system.

6) Data integrity: Data values must often meet integrity

constraints that are; they must be accurate and fit for their
intended use. For example, the students Social Security data
field should contain no alphabetic characters, and the
students’ grade point average field should not be negative. It
is difficult to place data integrity constraints across multiple
data files.

7) Data independence: In the file environment, the applications

and their data files are dependent on each other. Storing data
 in files that were tightly linked to their applications
eventually led to organizations having hundreds of
applications and data files, with no one knowing what the
applications did or what data they required.

Database approach for data management

A database, which is a logical group of related files, can
eliminate many of the problems associated with a traditional file
environment. With the database approach, all the data are
typically contained in the same storage location, rather than
residing in many different files across the organization. Unlike
the traditional approach, in which different programs access the
different data files, the database is arranged so that one set of
software programs the database management system provides
access to all the data. Therefore, data redundancy, data isolation,
and data inconsistency are minimized, and data can be shared
among all users of the data. In addition, security and data
integrity are increased, and applications and data are
independent of one another.
Database definition
A database is a collection of several related files, the program
used to build database, populate them with data, and manipulate
the data.

Database approach versus traditional file approach

If you wanted to access data from files that were stored in a
traditional file approach, the records would have to be organized
in a very specific way, and you would have to know exactly
how many characters were designed for each type of data.
If you are using a database, you want to be able to move
rapidly from one record to another, sort by different criteria,
create different types of reports, and analyze the data in
different ways.

Database advantages
Database systems provide many advantages to the organization:
1) Improved strategic use of corporate data
2) Reduced complexity of the organization’s information
systems environment
3) Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency
4) Enhanced data integrity
5) Application data independence
6) Improved security
7) Reduced application development and maintenance costs
8) Improved flexibility of information systems
9) Increased access and availability of data and information

Logical and Physical organization of data

The physical organization deals with the actual, physical
arrangement and location of data in direct access storage
devices (DASD).Database specialists use the physical
organization to make efficient use of storage and processing
resources. Users, however, may wish to see differently from
how they are stored, and they do not know all the technical
details of physical storage.

The logical organization a database represents data in a format

that is meaningful to a user and to the software programs that
process that data. That is, the logical organization tells the user
what is in the database.
Keys and attributes
To retrieve records from a database, or to sort them, you must
use a key. A key is a field whose values identify records either
for display or for processing. You may use any field as a key.
For example, you could ask the database for record of pupil Ali
from the student table by using the L.Nme field as a key. That
is, you enter a query, a condition that instructs the database to
retrieve a record with the value of L.Name as “Ali”. A key is
unique if the value (content) in that field appears only in one
record. Sometimes a key is composed of several fields so that
their combination provides a unique key.

Figure 1 Attributes of Student object

Stud ID
Stud Last Name
Stud First Name
Stud Dept
Stud Office Address
Stud Telephone
Data structure of database
A database model is the general logical structure in which
records are stored within a database and the method used to
establish relationships among the records. There are several
database structures:-
1) Hierarchical data structure
To understand the various models, consider a database for storing
university data: there are records about colleges, departments,
proffers, and students. Logically, these four types of university
records are hierarchical, meaning that each category is a
subcategory of the next level. The highest level is college; each
college has several departments; each department consists of
several professors; and each professor has several students. The
hierarchical structure follows the pattern of upside-down tree and
is sometimes referred to as the tree model. Therefore, if the
university chose to follow a hierarchical model, the records would
be stored as indicated in figure bellow.
The advantage of hierarchical database is their suitability for
maintaining data on hierarchical environments. But hierarchical
databases also have several disadvantages. To retrieve a certain
record, uses must start the search at the root, which is the set of
records at the very top level, and then navigate the hierarchy until
they find the desired record. If for some reason, a link is broken,
the entire branch that was connected through that pointer to the
other records is lost. And because child records can have only one
parent, hierarchical database require considerable data redundancy.

2) Network data structure

The reverse of the last disadvantage of the hierarchical structure is
the greatest advantage of the network structure: the ability to store
a record only once in the entire database while creating links that
establish relationships with several records of another type of
entity. Remember that in the hierarchical structure there was data
redundancy because separate repetitive records for student had to
be maintained in two different student files.
The network structure on the other hand, would allow the same
record to be linked to more than one parent as illustrated in figure
bellow

Network database create significantly less data redundancy than

hierarchical databases, but they are complicated to build and
difficult to maintain. While the user does not have to start a search
at the root, it is difficult to navigate in the database. The complex
network of relationships creates a “spaghetti” that is hard to
follow. For this reasons, the network structure is least popular
mode.

3) Relational structure
A relational model database has all the advantages of a network
database without the complications. The relational model consists
of table. Its roots are in relational algebra, although you do not
have to know relational algebra to build and use relational
databases. In relational database, a record is called a tuple, a
column of fields is called an attribute, and a table is called a
relation. Relational databases are easier to conceptualize and
maintain than hierarchical and network models. To build a
relational database, you only need to have a clear idea of the
different entities and how they relate. In our example, the entities
are college, department, professor, and student. A single table is
built for each object. Remember that entity in our context refers to
a record structure of all the occurrence of a subject. Thus, when
database designers think of “professor,” they know the professor
table may include records of many professors.
Retrieving a desired record is easy. To find a record of a certain
professor, you need to access the professor table and make an
inquiry. Maintenance is easy because the user does not have to
recall any relationships. Each table stands alone. To add a student
record, the user accesses the student table. Similar actions take
place to change or delete a record figure bellow illustrated.
A manger’s view of telecommunications networks
Why telecommunications is important?
End users need to communicate electronically to succeed in
today’s global information society.
Telecommunications is the sending of information in any form
(e.g., voice, data, text, and images) from one place to another using
electronic or light emitting media.

Application of telecommunications
Telecommunications networks provide valuable capabilities to
an organization and its end users. For example, some networks
enable work groups to communicate electronically and share
hardware, software, and data resources. Other networks let a
company process sales transaction immediately from many remote
locations, exchange business documents electronically with its
customers and suppliers, or remotely monitor and control
production processes. Telecommunications networks can also
interconnect the computer system of business so their computing
power can be shared by end users throughout an enterprise. And,
of course, telecommunications networks enhance collaboration and
communications among individuals both inside and outside an
organization. Figure bellow shows the application of
telecommunications.

Business
Telecommunications

1) Centralized
Telecommunications 2) Distributed
Architecture

Electronic Electronic Business

Communication Meeting Systems Process Systems
Systems
1) Decision Room 1) Online transaction
1) Electronic Mail
conferencing processing
2) Voice Mail 2) Computer conferencing 2) Process control
Tools for telecommunication
Tools for telecommunication are:-
1) Telephone related communication services
Telephone is the process that occurs when two people who
wish to contact each other by telephone repeatedly miss each other
phone calls. Telephone can be divided in to four types
 a) Fax messages
Dedicated fax machine are specialized devices that do nothing
except send and receive copies of document over transmission
lines to and from other fax machines.
b) Fax modems
Which is installed as circuit board inside a computer’s system
cabinet, is a modem with fax capability? It enables you to send
and receive signals directly between your computer and some one
else fax machine or fax modem.
c) Voice mail
A variation of electronic mail where digitized voice messages
rather than electronic text are accepted, stored, and transmitted.
d) Electronic mail
Electronic mail likes computers by wired or wireless connection
and allows users, through their keyboard to post and read
responses on their display screen.

2) Video/Voice communication
Video/Voice communication can be divided in to
a) Video conferencing also called teleconferencing is the use
television video and sound technology as well as computers to
enables people in different locations to see, hear, and talk with one
another.
 b) Picture phone: - this device is a telephone with a TV like
screen and built in a camera.

Basic telecommunication signals

Communication is any transfer of data within a computer,
between a computer and another device, or between two
computers.
Modems
(Modulator –Demodulator) a device that converts the digital
signals from input/output devices into appropriate frequencies at a
transmission terminal and convert them back into digital signals at
a receiving terminal.
Data transmission
Data can be transmitted in two basic modes: a whole byte at a
time, which is feasible only over very short distances, or a single
bit at a time, currently the only practical mode for communicating
over long distances. Within the computer and between the
computer and its peripheral equipment (such as its printer and
external hard disk).
Direction of data transmission
The transmission can take the form of:-
1) Parallel transmission, each byte is transmitted in its entirely. The
electrical impulses representing the bits of a byte are transmitted
along a bundle of parallel lines, one bit through each line. These
lines are often called bus.
2) Serial transmission, on the other hand, data is transmitted one bit
at a time through a single line.
Parallel and serial transmission characters 9 and D

D 9
1 1

1 1

0 1

0 1

0 1

1 0

0 0

0 1

D 9

00100011 10011111

Parallel and serial data transmission require different types of

wiring .In the back of a computer are several outlets or ports for
ports for connecting different cables. An outlet that can accepts a
parallel device cable is a parallel port. An outlet that can accepts a
serial device cable is a serial port.
Communication channels
The three modes of communication between devices:-
1) Simplex
In simplex communication, device A can transmit to device
B, but device B cannot transmit to device A. An example of
simplex communication is commercial radio transmission. Your car
radio can receive signals from a radio station, but cannot transmit back to
it.

A B
Only transmits Only receives

2) Half-duplex
In half duplex mode, device A can transmit to device B while
device B receives the signal. Device B can transmit to device A
while device A receives the signal. However, the two devices
cannot transmit to each other at the same time, and one device
can transmit to other only when the other device is in reception
mode. Half duplex may take place when you use a computer
terminal to communicate with a mainframe computer.

A B
Transmits when B receives Transmits when A receives
3) Full-duplex
In full duplex communication, either device can transmit to
the other device while simultaneously receiving signals from the
other device. This is device A can transmit to B and receive
from B at the same time, and vice versa. Telephony is an
example of full-duplex: both parties can talk and listen at once.
Full duplex data communication is often used between
computers.

A B
Transmits and receives while Transmits and receives while
B transmits and receives A transmits and receives

Bandwidth
A communication medium is the physical medium, such as
telephone lines or television cables, through which data can be
communicated. The capacity of the medium is the speed at
which data are communicated, which is also called the
transmission rate (Note that the numbers are approximate .They
are actually power of 2.Thus 1 kbps is actually 1024 bps and 1
Gbps is actually 1,048,576 bps.) It is often called “bandwidth”.
Bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps); the greater the
capacity, the faster transmission.
 Transmission speed measurement units
bps=Bits per second
kbps=Thousand bps
Mbps=Million bps(mega bps)
Gbps=Billion bps(giga bps)
Tbps=Trillion bps(tera bps)

Telecommunication Network topologies

There are several basic types of network topologies, or structure,
in telecommunications networks as:-

1) point to point lines

When point to point lines are used, each terminal is
connected by its own line to a computer system.
Terminals

Central computer
2) Multidrop lines
When multidrop lines are used, several terminals share each
data communications line to a computer.

Terminals

Central computer

Obviously
point to point lines are more expensive than multidrop lines,
all of the communications capacity and equipment of a
communications line is being used by single terminal.
Therefore, point to point lines are used only if there will be
continuous communications between a computer and terminal
or other computer system. A multidrop line decrease
communications costs, because each line is shared by many
terminals. Communications processors such as multiplexers
help many terminals share the same line.
3) star network
A star network ties end user computers to a central
computer.
T1 T2 T3

T7 T9
Central computer

T8 T10

T4 T5 T6

4) ring network
A ring network ties local computer processors together in a
ring on more equal basis.

T1 T2 T3

Central Ring
T7
computer network

T4 T5 T6
5) bus network
A bus network is a network in which local processors share
the same bus, or communications channel. In many cases, star
network take the form of hierarchical networks.

T1 T2 T3
Central
computer

T4 T5 T6