Mine Surveying
Mine Surveying
Mine Surveying
Ha allZAUUCKOM!l3blKe
Preface 9
compiles (together with geologists) the graph- mining operations; reclamation of land;
ical documentation representing the shape planning of the preparatory and stoping
and bedding conditions of a deposit. Mine- mining work; development of quarterly,
surveying plans and sections plotted by the annual and perspective plans of the mining
results of geological prospecting are used for work; and calculations of the balanced and
the calculations of mineral reserves and industrial reserves, losses, and dilution of
design of mining plants. minerals.
Design and construction of mining plants. When a mine is to be abandoned, the mine
At the stage of mining plant design, the mine surveyor has to determine whether the
surveyor participates in construction sur- mineral has been extracted completely, to
veying: the determination of the boundaries survey underground workings, and to pre-
of mine fields according to the current pare complementary mining plans. He also
regulations on land allotment; design of arranges the field books of underground
working systems and surface structures; surveys and mine orientations and prepares
development of measures for the protection the main plans of the mining work for
of surface and underground structures storage.
against harmful influence of underground
workings; compilation of the graphs of work 1.2. Brief Notes on History
organization and plans of mining work for of Mine Surveying
the periods of construction and exploitation
of a mining plant; and the calculations of the Mine surveying actually appeared as soon
losses and industrial reserves of minerals. as Man learned to do the underground
At the stage of mining plant construction, mining work. Historical manuscripts, archeo-
the mine surveyor is engaged in a wide circle logical findings, and other materials have
of problems associated with transferring the given evidence that people of the antiquity
design data into nature (levelling of a pay-out were quite familiar with the art of construc-
area, layout of the centres and axes of shafts tion of fairly intricate mines and other
and mining complexes, location of roads, underground objects. It may be referred, for
etc.). He performs control on the construction instance, to a 3500-years old Egyptian
of hoisting complexes, sinking and equipment parchment showing a mine, which has been
of shafts, driving of permanent workings, etc. found in Italy. It is also known that Romans
Exploitation of deposits. The role of the drove an adit about 6 km long to drain water
mine surveyor at the stage of exploitation is from a lake. More than 100 vertical and
extremely important and includes the fol- inclined shafts were sunk for driving the adit,
lowing operations: surveying of workings; some of them being to a depth more than
assigning of directions to workings; compila- 100 m. This is a clear evidence that Romans
tion of plans by the results of surveys; control were experienced well in mine surveying.
of the mining work in accordance with the The first description of methods of under-
design specifications and safety regulations; ground surveying that has survived to our
surveys for the connection of surface and times belongs to Heron of Alexandria (lst
underground reference nets; continuous cont- century B. C.). These methods included va-
rol of the completeness of mineral extraction; rious measurements, plumbing, and construc-
observations on rock displacements and rock tion of chains of regular geometrical figures
pressure; development of measures for the (for instance, similar triangles) on the surface
protection of structures, natural objects and and underground, by means of which it was
mining workings against the harmful effect of possible to orient underground workings.
1.2. Brief Notes on History of Mine Surveying 13
In the 16th century A. D. when the magne- instruments and are sometimes used in
tic needle compass came into use, mine modem mine-surveying practice. With the
surveying became more efficient and accur- suspension compass and suspension semi-
ate. At that time, Agricola (Georg Bauer, circle, it was easier to construct underground
1494-1555),a famous German scientist, pub- surveying nets; instead of a number of
lished the book De re metallica libri XII triangles, it was now sufficient to layout a
where Chapter V was devoted to the surveys broken line in an underground working by
of mining workings by means of a compass means of a cord.
with the circle divided into 12 sectors and by Practical mine surveying was given a
other methods. In particular, he described the strong impetus in the 1840's when work was
method of measuring the depth of a mine or undertaken to drive long adits near Freiberg
the length of an adit by means of an inclined and Harz in Germany. Prof. Weissbach and
cord and plumb bobs. mine surveyor H. Borchers, who participated
Mine surveyors of those times still could in the work, proved the applicability of
not calculate the coordinates of the angular theodolites and level instruments for mine
points of surveys. Initially, there were no surveying. These adits had a large length,
survey plans, and the mine surveyor conten- intersected many mines, and were driven
ted himself with making the same survey on from many points by meeting faces. To
the surface as underground (in a mine) and perform this work, a detailed triangulation
could decide on the development of the was carried out on the surface, which
mining work relative to the boundaries of provided a single coordination network for
allotment by the positions of survey points all the mines involved. Levelling surveys
on the surface. The plans of the mining work carried out together with triangulation made
came into common use in Germany at a it possible to relate all points to a single
substantially later time, in the 17th century. elevation system.
At the end of that century, two kinds of the Roughly at the same time, the methods of
mining work plans were employed: those precise orientation of underground surveys
plotted in the plane of a seam or vein and were developed.
those made as projections onto a vertical In the 19th century, theodolites and
plane. levelling instruments came into wide use in
The mining work plans of that period were mine-surveying practice in Germany. New
however oriented by a magnetic meridian. mine-surveyor's instruments appeared, such
Only from the mid of the 18th century when as box compass, mirror compass, projecting
the phenomenon of magnetic declination was plates, and large-Iength tapes for measuring
discovered (August Beyer, Von Bergbau the depths of mine shafts.
Grundlicher Unterricht, 1749),mine surveyors In the second half of the 19th and the
were obliged to abandon the use of the beginning of the 2Oth century, well equipped
magnetic meridian and change to the orienta- works for ~aking mine-surveyor's instru-
tion of mine surveys by an astronomic ments were put into operation in Germany
meridian. (Hildebrandt, Fennel, Zeiss). New methods of
In Germany, the compass with sight vanes mine surveying and estimation of observed
was designed in the 16th century and the results were developed, in particular, the
suspension compass, in the 17th century. method of connection surveys with connec-
These instruments (the latter in combination tion triangles, method of symmetrical junc-
with a suspension semicircle) were for many tion, and the method of range lines with the
centuries the most common mine-surveyor's use of the Weiss sleigh. Studies were carried
14 Ch Subject-Matter of Mine Surveyin
out on the effect of air currents on the rock displacements in underground and
positions of plumb bobs in the orientation of open-cast mining. The movements of the
deep shafts (Wilski's hypothesis). Earth's surface under the effect of under-
In the first half of the 2Oth century, ground workings were noticed already in the
gyroscopic instruments came into use for the 15th and 16th centuries, but attracted a keen
orientation of underground surveying nets. interest of mine surveyors in the 18th century
The first attempts for mine orientation by and especially in the 19th century in Belgium
gyroscopes were undertaken in 1913-14 in where the mining work began to endanger
Poland and Germany. At the beginning of surface buildings and water-supply system in
the 192O's,a mine-surveying gyroscope was Liege. In the second half of the 19th century,
designed and manufactured in Germany, but the investigations of the laws of rock subsi-
turned out to be inefficient. Wide application dence and caving were started, which resulted
of gyroscopic orientation dates to 1947 (Ger- in the hypothesis of normals proposed by
many). The earlier makes of mine-surveying Toilliez in 1838. Another hypothesis was
gyroscopes had certain drawbacks (large suggested by Gonot in 1858, according to
mass and dimensions, uncertain readings, which the displacement of a worked-up rock
etc.). In recent years, successful work on the layer proceeded along the normals to the
design of gyrocompasses, gyrotheodolites seam. In 1885, H. Fayol proposed the hypo-
and gyroscopic attachments has been comp- thesis of cupola based on the idea that the
leted in a number of countries. Gyrotheodo- zone of rock subsidence was confined by a
lites have been employed efficiently for the cupola (dome-shaped) space.
orientation of underground surveying nets. At the end of the last century, J. Jicinsky
In the post-war years, many mine-sur- marked in his works that the process of rock
veying instruments were improved, and new displacement should be influenced by the
instruments based on utterly nowel operating thickness of a seam, dipping angle, depth of
principles were developed, such as high- the mining work, and properties of overlying
precision theodolites, self-adjusting levels, rock. Of large significance for understanding
coded theodolites, optical and radio range properly the process of rock subsidence was
finders, and laser instruments. Much work the hypothesis suggested by R. Hausse (the
has been done on the development of end of the 19th century), which considered
instruments for stereophotogrammetric sur- two zones of rock subsidence: the cave-in
veys which are finding wide use in many zone and bend zone. In the first quarter of
countries for underground surveying. this century, the problem of rock displace-
In recent time, the mine-surveying office ments was investigated by a number of
work has been largely mechanized by the researchers. 0. Donahue determined a num-
application of desk calculators, electronic ber of subsidenceangles. A. Goldreich discov-
computers, etc. Programs for solving mine- ered certain differences in the subsidence of
surveying problems in powerful electronic bed rock and detrital deposits. H. Briggs
computers have been worked out. found the correlations between the angles of
Mine surveying is essentially an informa- rupture and the compression and rupture
tion science,and accordingly it has started to resistance of rocks and established that
widely employ various automatic systems for subsidence angles in hard and brittle rocks
data collection, storage, processing and are steeper than in those having a lower
transmission. strength.
In modern mine surveying, there is a In recent time, much attention has been
strong trend to increase the observations on given to the methods of prediction of rock
1.2. Brief Notes on History of Mine Surveying 15
deformations. One of the first methods was the methods and techniques of underground
proposed by Keinhorst and Bals and based surveys.
on the assumption that a portion of work- Another important stage in the develop-
ed-out area confined by subsidence angles ment of mine surveying is associated with the
acted by a definite law on each point of the name of Prof. V. Bauman (1867-1923),author
Earth's surface. of a number of fundamental works, such as A
The progress of mine surveying owes much Course in the Art of Mine Surveying (in three
to the contributions of Russian and Soviet volumes), On the Problem of Faults. Shifts and
scientists. The first in Russia mining regula- Other Types of Displacement of Veins and
tions were issued by v. Tatishchev in Seams. On the Problem of Evaluation of
1734. M ineral and Ore Deposits, etc.
In 1763, M. Lomonosov published his An exceptionally great contribution to the
book On M easurements of M ines, the first mine-surveying science was done by I. Ba-
publication in the country which dealt khurin (1880-1940).He worked out a number
thoroughly with all aspects of mine surveying of issues in the theory of errors and the
of that time and was a part of the funda- method of least squares and their applica-
mental work Principles of M etallurgy or tions for the estimation of accuracy and
Mining. Lomonosov gave the descriptions of equation of mine surveys. Bakhurin was
the suspension compass and suspension concerned with practically all aspects of mine
semi-circle, measuring rod, instruments for surveying: survey control of workings driven
plotting mine-surveying drawings, etc. and by meeting faces;theory of cumulative errors
solutions of various mine-surveying prob- in underground polygons; theory of random
lems, in particular, the method of location of errors and method of least squares; theory of
the surface of a vertical shaft to be connected physical (in particular magnetic) and geomet-
to a system of horizontal underground ric orientation of mines; errors of orientation
workings. via one or two vertical shafts; mine-surveying
In 1773, a mining school was founded in instrumentation; rock displacements; etc. The
St. Petersburg (now the Leningrad Mining results of his studies were~ummarized in the
Institute). It had a mine-surveying class book A Course of Mine-Surveying Art (1932).
where students obtained profound training in The progress of mine surveying in this
the subject. country is also associated with the name of
A major event in the history of mine Prof. P. Sobolevsky (1868-1949) who is
surveying in this country was the publication, responsible for a new branch of mine sur-
in 1847, of the book The Art of Mine veying which has later formed into an
Surveying written by P. Olyshev, professor of individual discipline, mining geometry.
the St. Petersburg mining school (1817-1896). The development of mine surveying in
The author gave the description of a theodo- recent time, and especially in the last two or
lite with an eccentric telescope and of a three decades of the total scientific and
geodetic level, proposed the procedure for the engineering progress, has been associated
calculation of the coordinates of theodolite with the improvement of existing and design
traverses, and solved the problem of driving of principally novel instruments, systems and
an underground working by meeting faces. techniques of field and office work. The
The introduction of theodolite surveys into scientific and applied aspects of mine sur-
the mine-surveying practice and the prepara- veying are being developed intensively. Mine-
tion of mine plans by point coordinates were surveying problems are solved with wide use of
of extreme importance for further progress in electronic computers and automatic devices.
Chapter Two
General Figure of the Earth, Systems of Coordinates,
Control and Survey Underground Nets
and Surface Surveys
2.1. General Figure of the Earth the Earth, this point is usually related to the
general figure of the Earth which is under-
The physical surface of the Earth is far stood in geodesy and mine surveying as the
from having a simple shape. Of the total area figure obtained by mental continuation of the
of the Earth's surface equal to 510 mln kIn2, still water surface of the Ocean. The surface
71 per cent fall on the bottom of seas and obtained in this way is called the level
oceans and 29 per cent, on the land. Both the surface. Its principal property consists in that
oceanic bottom and the continents have an the potential of the force of gravity on that
intricate relief, especially the former. As has surface is the same in all points, i. e. the
been found by investigations, the Ocean in surface is always perpendicular to an upright
some places has depths more than 10 kIn. (vertical) line, and therefore, is horizontal
Some regions of the land reach altitudes up everywhere. In the general case, it is possible
to 7-8 km. The analysis of the depth of the to draw an infinite number of level surfaces at
Ocean and altitudes of the land on the basis different distances from the Earth's centre,
of l-kIn height intervals has demonstrated but one of these surfaces, i. e. that coinciding
that their distribution has two distinct peaks: with the mean level of the Ocean and conti-
one at altitudes of loo m above the level of nued at that level under the continents, forms
the Ocean and the other at roughly 4.5 kIn a figure that is taken as the general figure of
below that level. It has been concluded on the Earth and called the geoid.
that basis that the surface of the Earth Since the direction of an upright line may
consists of two sharply distinct morpholo- depend on a number of factors, the geoid has
gical elements: continents and oceans, the a complicated structure. The principal among
natural boundary between these elements these factors is that the force of terrestrial
being at a depth around 1.5 km below the attraction is variable, since the Earth's radius
level of the ocean. diminishes at the poles and since the rocks of
Further, the local irregularities of the the Earth's mantle have different density. The
surface relief make the shape of the Earth's variations in the force of gravity are mainly
surface extremely complicated so that the due to the former reason (smaller radii of the
figure of the Earth can hardly be described Earth at the poles), though the latter reason
mathematically. may have an essential effect in some cases.
Noting that the surface of water of the The geoid has flattened portions (obla-
Ocean has a rather simple shape and occu- teness) near the poles, and its shape is too
pies almost 3/4 of the Earth's surface, it complicated for mathematical description.
would be reasonable to assume the figure of The results of satellite observations have
the Earth as the body confined by the water shown that the oblateness, expressed as the
surface of the Ocean. When determining the difference between the lengths of an equa-
position of a point on the physical surface of torial and polar diameter. attains 42 km
2.2. Geographic System of Coordinates 17
by the formula:
a=(a-b)/a
When plotting the portions of the Earth's
surface on maps and plans, an important
matter is to choose the proper dimensions for
the ellipsoid which will approximate the
geoid and onto whose surface the physical
surface of the Earth with all its natural and
pI
artificial details will be projected. Many
Fig. 2.1 Ellipsoid of revolution of spheroid attempts have been made to determine the
dimensions of an ellipsoid to approximate
most closely the geoid (the first in 1800 by
770 m. It has also been established by satel- J.-B.J. Delambre, a French mathematician).
lite observations that the Earth has a An ellipsoid of particular dimensions and
pyriform (pear-Iike) shape: the South pole has oriented uniquely in the Earth's body, onto
turned out to be nearer by 45 km to the whose surface the results of topographic,
Earth's centre than the North pole. In geodetic and mine surveying work are trans-
addition, the South pole is located 25 m ferred in a country, is called a reference
80 cm below the surface of oblated sphere, ellipsoid (local ellipsoid).
whereas the North pole protrudes by 18 m
90 cm above that surface. Measurements 2.2. Geographic System
have also demonstrated that the Earth has of Coordinates
'recesses'and 'ridges' which are traced clearly
against the profile of the complicated figure The positions of points on the surface of
of the geoid. The largest 'recesses'are located the Earth or spheroid are determined by
to the south-west of India (depth 59 m) and means of geographic coordinates, i. e. geo-
near the Antarctic continent (30 m). The graphic latitude <pand geographic longitude
highest ridges are located near New Guinea A. Geographic coordinates are reckoned
(57 m) and in France (35 m). It has also been respectively from the equatorial plane and
established that the Earth's equator is not Greenwich meridian (Fig. 2.2).
circular, but elliptical with one of its 'dia-
meters' being larger by 200 m than the other.
In view of these circumstances, the idea of
using the geoid as the basis for geodetic
calculations has been renounced. Among
regular mathematical surfaces, the one that
can approximate most closely the geoid
surface is an ellipsoid of revolution obtained
by the rotation of an ellipse on its minor axis.
This figure is called the Earth's ellipsoid, or
spheroid.
The dimensions of the Earth's ellipsoid
(Fig. 2.1) can be characterized by the lengths
of its major and minor half-axes, a and b, and
by the oblateness a which can be deteri:nined Fig. 2.2 Geographic system of coordinates
2-1270
18 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys
The longitude is the dihedral angle be- In the general case, when the deviations of
tween the plane of Greenwich (zero) meridian upright lines are neglected, geodetic and
and the meridional plane of a point p and the astronomic coordinates are replaced by the
latitude is the angle made by a vertical line in generalized concept of geographic coordi-
a point p to the plane of equator. nates.
The plane passing through the centre of In geographic coordinates, longitudes can
the Earth and perpendicular to the axis of be reckoned: (I) eastward and westward of
rotation is called the equatorial plane. The the Greenwich meridian, from 00 to 180°, and
plane passing through a vertical line and the are called respectively easterly and westerly
axis of rotation of the Earth (or parallel to longitudes; easterly longitudes are considered
the latter) is the plane of a geographic to be positive and westerly ones, negative or
( astronomic) meridian. The lines of inter- (2) only eastward of the Greenwich meridian,
section of the planes of geographic meridians from 0° to 360°, and are always called
with the Earth's surface are called meridians. easterly longitudes.
The lines formed by the intersection of planes Latitudes may vary from 0° to 90° and are
drawn perpendicular to the axis of rotation of reckoned north and south of the equator.
the Earth with the Earth's surface are called The former are considered positive and the
parallels of latitudes, or simply parallels. latter, negative.
The network of meridians and parallels
applied on the surface of the Earth ellipsoid 2.3. System of Plane Rectangular
represents the coordinate axes of the geo- Coordinates
graphic system of coordinates.
If the geographic coordinates are determi- Geographic coordinates are expressed in
ned by astronomic observations (indepen- angular values. They are inconvenient for
dently in any point on the Earth's surface), engineering calculations in geodesy and mine
they are conventionally called astronomic surveying. Besides, the linear measurements
geographic coordinates «p, /I.).The positions of of angular values turn out to be different in
points on the Earth's surface can also be various portions of the Earth's surface. For
determined by means of geographic coordi- these reasons, a system of plane rectangular
nates obtained by geodetic observations and coordinates seemsto be more convenient for
related to a normal to the ellipsoid surface; land and mine surveying and solving various
tt.ese are termed geodetic geographic coordi- engineering problems when their results
nates and denoted as B (latitude) and L should be plotted on maps and plans. Such a
(longitude). system can largely simplify topographic and
Since the surface of the geoid does not mine surveying, adjustment of reference nets,
coincide with that of the ellipsoid, normals calculations of coordinates of reference
drawn to the surface of the latter turn out to points, processing of the results of surveys,
deviate from the directions of upright lines. etc. The plane system of coordinates also
The magnitude of deviation may be equal to ensures precise coincidence of plans of
3-4" on the average. Noting that the differe- adjacent areas, etc.
nce of latitudes of 1" on the Earth's surface The initial lines in a system of plane
corresponds to a linear distance of 31 m, the rectangular coordinates (Fig. 2.3) are two
positions of points on the Earth's surface, mutually perpendicular lines xx-yy lying in a
when given in astronomic and geodetic horizontal plane and called respectively the
geographic Foordinates, may differ by 100 m axis of abscissae (x-axis) and the axis of
on the average. ordinates (y-axis}. In contrast to mathe-
2.4. National System of Rectangular Coordinates 19
matics, the axis of abscissaein land and mine In land and mine surveying, the portions of
surveying plans is arranged vertically and the Earth's surface measuring up to 10 km in
coincides with the direction of a meridian. radius are considered to be flat (distortions
The intersection of these axes is the origin of along the length are not more than 1 cm and
coordinates (point 0). The coordinate axes angular distortions, not more than 0.1"). The
divide the plane of a drawing into four larger areas of the Earth's surface are
quadrants which are numbered clockwise depicted, to minimize distortions, in special
beginning from the guadrant in the north-east projections in which the Earth ellipsoid is
section (see Fig. 2.3). conventionally developed on a plane. In
The abscissax and ordinate y of points are addition, the projection on a plane is done in
the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from such a way as to provide the coincidence of
these points onto the coordinate axes. The both geographic and rectangular coordi-
signs of coordinates depend on the quadrant nates.
in which the points are located. The abscissae
of the points located in the first and fourth
2.4. National System
quadrant are positive and of those in the
of Rectangular Coordinates
second and third quadrant are negative. The
ordinates of the points in the first and second When the territories of a substantial area
quadrant are positive and of those in the are to be represented in topographic maps,
third and fourth quadrant are negative. the surface of the reference ellipsoid must be
,.
20 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys
developed in a plane. This procedure cannot gular coordinates of points on a plane and
however be done without cutting and folding the geographical coordinates on the reference
the spherical surface being developed. The ellipsoid.
problem is solved by using an auxiliary
surface which can be easily developed in a 2.4.1. Gauss Conformal Projection
plane, such as a cylinder or cone. The
portions of the reference ellipsoid are projec- Among many requirements set forth to
ted onto an auxiliary, geometrically regular cartographic projections for topographic
surface (cylinder or cone) and this is then maps, the principal one is that projection
developed without folds and cuts. For more distortions should not exceed the errors of
convenience, the auxiliary body is supposed corresponding geodetic measurements. This
to be tangent to the reference ellipsoid, and condition is approached most closely in the
the network of meridians and parallels of the conformal projection proposed in 1820 by
reference ellipsoid is transferred (projected} C. F. Gauss of Germany. It is based on the
onto the surface of the body to form a theory of plane conformal coordinates, which
cartographic grid on the map. Mter the makes It possible to obtain almost undistor-
cartographic grid has been transformed onto ted images of the terrestrial ellipsoid on a
the auxiliary tangent figure, the latter is cut plane.
and developed in a plane. The method by The essence of the Gauss conformal
which the image of the Earth's surface is projection consists in that the terrestrial
transferred from the sphere onto the plane is ellipsoid is enveloped by a tangent cylinder
called a cartographic projection. whose axis is perpendicular to the minor axis
Cartographic projections involve certain of the ellipsoid. With this arrangement of the
distortions of geographic objects relative to cylinder, it touches the ellipsoid along a
their shape on the reference ellipsoid. By the meridian which is a common line of both
nature of distortion, modern cartographic figures (Fig. 2.4). Other meridians, when
projections can be divided into equiangular transferred (projected) onto the cylinder, will
(equal-angle), equivalent (equal-area) and be increased in length. With moving father
their derivatives. In equiangular projections, from the tangent (central) meridian, i. e. from
angles are not distorted, and therefore, the centre of zone, lengths will be distorted
projected figures retain their similarity to the more and more, and their distortions can be
original ones. In equivalent projections, the determined by the formula:
areas remain equal, but the angles are , y2
distorted, and therefore, the outlines of L\l=l
2R2
figures are distorted too. In derivative projec-
tions, both angles and areas are distorted, but where 1is the length of a section on the Earth
only moderately. ~phere; y is the length of an arc from the
Cartographic projections are studied by central meridian to the given section; and R
mathematical cartography where they are is the Earth's radius.
considered on a formalized basis as certain With the use of the Gauss conformal
analytical relationships between the coordi- projection, the surface of the terrestrial
nates of points on tM.esurface of a reference ellipsoid is represented on a sheet of paper in
ellipsoid and the coordinates of their projec- the form of individual figures as those shown
tions on a plane. In the general form, these in Fig. 2.5, which are called zones. As has
relationships can be written as x = f1 «p, 1..) been established, the optimal zone for trans-
and y = f2 «p, 1..);they correlate the rectan- ferring onto a tangent cylinder is a spheroidal
2.4. National System of Rectangular Coordinates 21
dihedron included between two meridians of a zone (see Fig. 2.6). Ordinates calculated
with the longitude difference 6°. Thus, the from this new origin are called reduced
surface of the Earth is divided into 60 zones, ordinates. If, for instance, the ordinates of
a tangent cylinder being drawn to the central two points of the eighth zone relative to the
(axial) meridian of each zone. The surface of central meridian are Yl = 23730.00 m and
the spheroid within the limits of a particular Y2 = -102280.00 m, the reduced ordinates
zone is projected conformally onto the will be:
surface of the cylinder. Yl = 23730.00 + 500000.00 = 523730.00 m
Y2 = -102280.00 + 500000.00= 397720.00m
2.4.2. Zonal System
of Rectangular Coordinates Since the same numerical coordinates may
exist in all 60 zones, it has been agreed to
The origin of coordinates in each zone is
relate the coordinates to a particular zone by
taken at the intersection of the central
meridian of that zone with the equator
(Fig. 2.6). The central meridian is the x-axis,
and the image of the terrestrial equator
perpendicular to the central meridian is the
y-axis. The x-coordinates of points to the
north of the equator are considered positive
and of those to the south, negative. The
y-coordinates of points to the east of the
central meridian are positive and of those to
the west, negative.
The longitude of the central meridian is
found by the formula: Lo = 6N -3°, where
N is the zone number. The western boundary
meridian of the. first zone coincides with the
Greenwich meridian.
In order to eliminate negative ordinates,
the origin of coordinates is transferred by
500 km to the west from the central meridian Fig. 2.6 Zonal system of rectangular coordinates
22 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys
writing the number of a zone before a In some cases, however, the x-axis can be
coordinate. temporarily oriented relative to the magnetic
In the cases considered above, the ordi- or astronomic meridian. In exceptional cases
nates of points located, say, in a zone No.8, when the survey work is carried out in an
should be written as follows: uninhabited region, is not large in scope, and
Yl = 8523730.00 m and Y2 = 8397720.00 m there are no triangulation points, the x-axis
can be oriented by the direction of a
An important problem in mine surveying is magnetic needle, though orientation by the
how to choose properly the directions of astronomic meridian is more preferable in
coordinate axes. In the Cartesian rectangular such cases. Mine survey plans obtained with
system, the Z-axis is always vertical and this orientation can be used for many years.
directed upward, whereas the axes Ox and Oy In contrast to magnetic declination, meri-
are perpendicular to each other and lie in the dian convergence remains constant in time. In
horizontal plane. The orientation of these some kinds of mine surveying work, a condi-
two axes must not be arbitrary. If the tional system of coordinates can be adopted,
direction of one of these axes is specified, this with the Ox-axis directed arbitrarily, for
will uniquely determine the direction of the instance, along a line fixed by survey points.
other axis. In land and mine surveying, the The conditional systems of coordinates are
Ox-direction is usually chosen (oriented in used in the mine survey servicing of construc-
the horizontal plane) so as to satisfy the tion of shafts and hoisting complexes, orien-
following conditions: tation of mines via two shafts, and in a
(a) the direction of Ox-axis must be easily number of other cases.
and precisely reproducible and
(b) the direction of Ox-axis at various
2.5. Geodetic Reference Nets
mining enterprises must permit the coinci-
dence of plans of individual mines and larger The mine survey servicing of mining
enterprises. enterprises is unfeasible without a network of
The following cases of orientation of the reference points whose positions on the land
Ox-axis for mine surveying plans are pos- are determined with a high precision.
sible: The measurements on the surface and
(a) orientation by a magnetic meridian; underground involve errors which are accu-
and(b) orientation . by an astronomic meridian; mulated if surveys are being done on indivi-
dual areas not associated with one another.
(c) orientation by the central meridian When represented on general mine survey
within each zone of the national system of plans or topographic maps, these areas will
coordinates. then be distorted to such an extent that the
Orientation by (a) and (b) cannot satisfy results of surveys become useless. In that
the requirements given above, since the connection, mine surveying is carried out by
magnetic azimuth is not constant in time and the principle 'from the general to particular',
space, and the astronomic azimuth is not i. e. by providing first a general geodetic net
constant in space. On the contrary, the on the territory of a country and then
central meridian retains its orientation and reference survey nets for surveying of indivi-
position within the limits of a zone. Thus, the dual small isolated areas.
orientation of the x-axis should be preferably Points established on the surface and
done relative to the central meridian of a having precisely fixed coordinates are called
zone. reference (control) points. or base stations.
2.6. National Geodetic Nets
Points ensuring the correct horizontal repre- mining linear dimensions, the length of one
sentation of the land surface are called plan side of a triangle is measured (taped) and the
(planimetric) control points, or horizontal lengths of the other two sides are calculated.
control points. Those which can characterize The triangles of a net are arranged in a
the vertical relief of the land surface are called certain order, and their shape should be close
elevation (height) control points. A system of to equilateral where possible.
reference (control) points established on the The vertexes of triangles are fixed on the
territory of a country makes up a geodetic land by special station markers fastened in
net. the ground. A metallic or wooden beacon
Geodetic nets can be divided into national (tower) is constructed above a station mar-
nets, bridging (densification) nets, and survey ker. It carries a cylinder at the top whose axis
nets. Mine survey nets on the territory of should be coincident with that of the marker.
economic interests of mining enterprises The cylinder serves as the sighting target
consist of the P9ints of the national geodetic when making observations from other points.
net and geodetic nets of mine surveying and The triangulation method makes it pos-
topographic surveying carried out for servi- sible to determine the horizontal (plan) coor-
cing of mineral prospecting and construction dinates for the vertexes of triangles. Triangu-
and exploitation of mining enterprises. lation rows which consist of triangles with an
Some kinds of geodetic work on the land average side length of 20-25 km form first-
surface are carried out by mine surveyors. class triangulation chains up to 200.km long
They include: the development of the existing (Fig. 2.7). Triangulation chains are laid off in
mine survey reference nets as required for the submeridional and sublateral directions so as
surveys of mines and quarries; surveys of the to form the closed polygons of a peripheral
pay-ore areas of mining enterprises; perio- length up to 1000 km. The side lying at the
dical layout, survey and levelling during the intersection of several chains (ab in Fig. 2.7)
construction of minIng enterprises and exp- is a common of these chains and called the
loitation of deposits in order to reflect initial side. Initial sides must be measured
current variations on mine survey plans; with a high accuracy. Since it is practically
surveys of rock dumps and stocks of mineral; impossible to measure lines 20-25 km in
surveys for determining the volume of length on the land surface, it is common
earth-moving work, for the reconstruction of practice to measure not an initial side, but a
railway tracks and other structures; surveys transverse side around 6 km long (ed in
for observing rock displacements, stability of Fig. 2.7), which is called the triangulation
structures, etc. base. In the base figure adbe, all interior
angles are measured, and the length of the
2.6. National Geodetic Nets initial side is calculated by the known angles
and the known length of the base line. In
A national geodetic net may consist of first-class triangulation, the latitude and lon-
triangulation, trilateration, polygonometric gitude of the points at the ends of the initial
and levelling nets. side and the astronomic azimuth of that side
A plan (horizontal) geodetic reference net is are additionally determined by astronomic
mainly constructed by the method of trian- observations.
gulation, i. e. by laying out triangles on the The territory within polygons of first-class
land surface. In each triangle, all three angles triangulation chains is filled in with a con-
are measured, which ensures a reliable con- tinuous network of second-class triangula-
trol of angular field measurements. For deter- tion triangles with the lengths of sides ran-
24 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys
Class 1 chain
(i
.~ /\
,
.0= 11
"
:
la
u
~1 ~2 C!J3 ~4
Table 2.1
1
2
3
Table 2.4
Triangulation
Side length of triangles, km 0.5-5.0 0.25-3.0
Maximum relative error for base side 1/500000 1/20000
Maximum misclosure of triangle ::!:20" :1:40"
Mean measuring error from triangle misclosures ::!:5" :1:10"
Maximum length of chain of triangles, km 5 3
Trilateration
Side length of triangles, km 0.5-5.0 0.25-3.0
Maximum relative error of side measurement 1/20000 1/10000
Minimum angle of triangles 20° 20°
Maximum length of chain of triangles, km 5 3
Polygonometry
Maximum length of traverses, km 3
Maximum perimeter of polygonometric traverses in free
networks, km 15 9
Length of side of traverse, km 0.12-0.60 0.80-0.30
Maximum length of traverse from nodal point to highest-class
or highest-order point, km 3 2
scales 1/5000 to 1/500 and for performing of triangles should be not smaller than 30°,
various kinds of mine survey work. and the number of triangles in a chain should
Planimetric geodetic bridging nets can be be not more than 10.
constructed as analytical nets or polygono- If the territory to be surveyed has no
metric nets of the first or second order. available points of geodetic plan control
Their main characteristics are given in Table (of any class), it is permissible to develop the
2.4. independent survey nets of the first or
Analytical nets can be formed by triangu- second order for land and mine surveying. In
lation as a continuous network or chains of that case, it is required to measure at least
triangles or intersections (bearings). Analy- two base sides separated from each other by
tical bridging nets of the first order can be at least 10 triangles.
developed on the basis of geodetic reference The polygonometry of the first and second
nets of classes I, 2, 3 and 4; those of the order can be developed in the form of indi-
second order can be developed on the basis vidual traverses or a system of traverses with
of reference nets of all classes and a first- junction points belonging to the national
order analytical net. The analytical nets of geodetic referencenet or first-order analytical
the first order may have the sides from net.
0.5 km to 5 km long and those of the second Of special significance are approach mine
order, from 0.25 km to 3 km long. The angles surveying points in reference nets. The ap-
28 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates. Nets and Surface Surveys
2.9. General Data on Surveys Land surveys must be car:ried out with
The results of survey work on the surface such an accuracy that the mean error of
are used for plotting maps and plans re- positions of clearcut objects and land
quired for mineral prospecting, solution of contours on maps and plans is not more than
problems of design and construction of mi- :1:0.5 mm or, for mountainous regions,
ning enterprises, and for safe and efficient :1:0.7 mm. The mean errors of surveying
exploitation of deposits. These plans and should not exceed 1/4 of the height of
maps, drawn on a scale 1/5000-1/500, should contour interval for flat-relief areas (with
show all objects specified by the rules of angles of dip up to 2°) or 1/3 for a rugged
compilation of topographic maps, as well as relief. The mouths of shafts, pits, adits and
the specific objects of a mining enterprise, other mining workings should be shown on
such as fall-throughs and cones of influence plans and maps with an error of location not
formed owing to mineral extraction; rock more than 1 m in plan and 0.3 m in elevation
outcrops on the surface; boundaries of mi- irrespective of the survey scale.
Ding allotments, etc. Survey nets serve as the basis for terrestrial
The scale of surveying is chosen depending surveys which can be carried out by various
on the kind of mining work to be carried out methods and instruments.
in the area. For instance, for detailed pro- Aerophotogrammetric survey (aerial sur-
specting and exploitation of large-sized de- veying) is a progressive method for making
posits, the surveys of the land surface should topographic maps and plans. It is carried out
be made on a scale of 1/5000 for a simple by making large-sized photographs by means
relief with vertical contour intervals of 1 m or of a special aerial photographic camera
2 m or 1/2000 for an intricate (mountainous) mounted on board an aircraft. Recently,
relief with 2-m contour intervals. For the special survey aircraft have been employed
deposits of small size and for the large for the purpose, which are equipped with
deposits of an intricate geological structure, perfect photographic cameras, navigation
the recommended scale of surveying is instruments, and an on-board computer
1/2000. The surface of small-sized deposits which controls automatically the photographic
and of moderate-sized ore bodies of an process, i. e. the frequency of taking pho-
irregular shape should be surveyed on a scale tographs and the exposure. The variations of
of 1/1000 or 1/2000 with vertical contour the terrain relief are detected by a radar
intervals of 0.5 m or 1 m. system.
The land surveys for making construction When taking aerial photographs, the air-
projects and for the construction of mining craft flies forth and back along straight
enterprises should be carried out on the courses (flight lines or strips) so that each
following scales: next photograph overlaps the preceding one
(a) 1/5000 with I-m or 2-m vertical contour (forward overlap) by 60 per cent and the
intervals, for the development of engineering photographs of adjacent flight lines (side
projects; overlap) by 40 per cent. Aerial photographs
(b) 1/1000 with 0.5-m vertical contour obtained in this way are processed by office
intervals (or in exceptional cases, 1/500), for analysis for compiling topographic plans and
making working drawings; and maps. To ensure the specified accuracy of
(c) 1/1000 or 1/2000 with vertical contour topographic plans, aerial surveying must be
intervals of 0.5 m or 1 m, for the design and carried out to meet the following require-
construction of mining enterprises and ments:
settlements. 1. The optical axis of a camera must not
30 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys
5
6
4
"--2
3
Fig. 2.11 Plane-table metallic base: 1- base plate;
2-tangent screw; 3-foot screws; 4-clamp;
5 -plane-table clamp screws; 6 -plane-table
Fig. 2.10 Plane table with ruler: I-table; 2-
housing
ruler; 3- plane-table base;4- tripod; 5- attachment
screw; 6-additional ruler; 7-circular level; 8-
cylindrical level; 9-vertical tangent screw;
10-clamp; ll-cylindrical level of vertical circle; sheds, basins, etc. and all points where the
l2-telescope level; 13-telescope; 14-telescope steepnessof slope changes. The elevations of
sighting device; 15-stand
the characteristic points of precipices,
caverns, dip pits, etc. should be indicated
rections on the plane table and measuring rounded-off to 0.1 m. In addition to the
distances and inclination angle in particular horizontal lines of the relief, each square
directions. decimetre of a plan on a scale 1/5000 should
At present time, nomogram rulers are also give the elevations of at least five cha-
employed, which make it possible to cal- racteristic points of the topography (summits
culate elevations and horizontal distances of hills, road crossings, rock outcrops, etc.).
upon sighting the device (telescope) at a ver- The elevation marks of each plan sheet
tical staff. should be copied on tracing paper; if a plan is
In plane-table surveying, it is essential to plotted in the office, its contour lines
determine the elevations of summits, water should also be copied on tracing paper.
Chapter Three
vertical planes each of them being arranged simple fractions, for example, 1/500, 1/1000,
parallel to the strike of individual portions of 1/2000, 1/10000, etc. Thus, if a numerical
a deposit. scale 1/1000 has been adopted for a plan, this
In some cases, projections onto the plane means that horizontal distances on the ter-
of a seam are employed. rain will be diminished on the plan to one-
Sections are the representation of the de- thousandth. It is distinguished between large
tails of an object, which are located in a and small scales: the larger the denominator,
certain section plane. In mine-surveying the smaller the scale. A plan drawn on a
practice, the most common types of sections larger scale can depict more details of the
are geological sections and sections of mi- locality. The scale of a plan or map is chosen
ning workings which depict the enclosing according to specifications and depending on
rock, some details of a working, supports, where the plan will be used.
and other objects. Using numerical scales, horizontal distan-
In sections, objects and details may be ces on the terrain can be transformed into
projected onto vertical, horizontal or inclined lines on a plan and vice versa. For instance,
planes. if the horizontal distance of a line on the
Vertical geological sections are most often terrain is equal to 174.30 ill and the scale of
confined to the lines of exploratory or mi- plan is 1/2000, the length of the correspon-
ning-production workings. ding line on the plan will be 174.3: 20 =
Profiles are graphs depicting, in a vertical = 8.71 cm; if a line on a plan made on a scale
section, only the contour or part of the 1/5000 is equal to 10.2 cm, the horizontal
contour of an object considered, for instance, distance on the terrain corresponding to that
the terrain relief, rocks in the roof or foot of a line will be 10.2 x 50 = 510 ill.
working, haulage tracks, etc. Distances on plans can be measured with
Sketches are rough drawings of objects an accuracy permitted by the resolving power
which are made by hand, i. e. without the use of man's eye, which is usually taken equal to
of rules and other drawing instruments. For 0.1 mm (with the critical angle of vision 60"
instance, a mine surveyor makes sketches in and the distance of best vision to an object
the field book when carrying out instru- 250 mm, the resolution is equal to 0.073 mm,
mental surveys or taping of mining workings, or roughly 0.1 mm). The corresponding ho-
measuring the reserves of a mineral in store, rizontal distance in nature (on the terrain) is
etc. called the accuracy of scale. For the scales
Scales. Objects are depicted in mine-sur- 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/5000, and 1/10000,
veying plans by diminishing the results of the accuracy is respectively equal to 0.05 ill,
natural (field) measurements. The degree of 0.1 ill, 0.2 ill, 1 ill, and 2.5 ill.
diminution of a line in a plan is determined The scale of a plan is chosen according to
by the scale, i. e. a dimensionless fractional the dimensions of an object in nature and by
number in which the numerator is unity and considering the accuracy of the scale so that
the denominator shows how many times a the finest details on the plan can be by a
line depicted in the plan Can be laid off along factor of 5-10 larger than 0.1 mill. For in-
the corresponding horizontal distance in the stance, if individual derails of construction
terrain. This is what is called the numerical objects on the site of a mining enterprise have
scale of lengths, or simply numerical scale. sizes of an order to 1 ill, the mOSt suitable
Consequently, s/S = I/M, where M is the scale for their depiction will be 1/2000 or
denominator of the numerical scale. 1/1000.
In plans, numerical scales are written as
3.2. Classification of Drawings and Rules of Mapping 35
As has been shown by experience, decals pying; microfilm copies can also be made
can be used both in specialized and non- when needed.
specialized production of graphical docu- All used templets and substrates can be
ments. They can be manufactured in any restored. Templets are detached from the film
design institution or enterprise provided with base and the latter is cleaned from the traces
photoprocessing laboratory equipment. of a pencil and ink, and from decals. Re-
Templets, i. e. applications of standard stored materials can be used anew.
elements, conventional signs, inscriptions, etc.
have also found wide use in modern drawing
3.5. Processes and Materials
practice. The method of templets has many
for Reproduction of Mining
advantages and largely accelerates the draw-
Graphical Documentation
ing process, since drawings are compiled
from individual standard elements. Templets The principal processes for the repro-
are produced in a number of varieties duction of drawings of mining graphical
differing from one another in the type of documentation are diazo type copying, elec-
substrate (paper, thin cardboard, film, foil, trophotography, and offset printing.
etc.), the method of application of the image, Diazotype copying is the most popular
and the principle of fixation of templets on a processfor the reproduction of original draw-
substrate. Adhesive templets are the most ings made on transparent materials. The
popular; they have an adhesive layer on the originals are reproduced on diazo-paper and
back side, which is protected by non-sticking diazo-film. Light-sensitive diazotype mate-
paper. The latter must be removed before rials are manufactured industrially in a wide
applying a templet into its place in a draw- range and differ from one another in the kind
ing. Such templets have however certain of a light-sensitive layer and base and me-
drawbacks: they can be used only 4-5 times; it thods of development. Diazotype copying is
is difficult to move a templet on the sub- performed in rotary copying machines and
strate in the case of variation design; templets copying frames.
taken off from the substrate are liable to Electrophotography is among the most
twisting; etc. advanced modern processes of reproduction
These drawbacks have been eliminated in a of graphical images. It is distinguished
new method of templet mounting which uses favourably by high productivity, facsimile
templets prepared on a polyethylene tere- reproduction of images, simple technolo-
phthalate film base with the working gy, and possibility of copying of opaque
(contact) layer made of a material fusible at originals.
80-120°C. As the fused layer solidifies, it fixes Electrophotographic process is based on
firmly the templet on a substrate (paper or the use of certain semiconductors whose
film). Templets are mounted by means of a conduction changes under the effect of light.
thermal handle. For temporary fixation of a When a layer of photosemiconductive ma-
templet on a drawing, it suffices to touch the terial is exposed to light, there forms a latent
templet with the handle in a single point. For electrostatic image in it, which is developed
final fixation of a templet, the handle is by a powder material whose particles are
applied in four or more points. Mter mounting attracted to the portions of the selenium
the templets, the required textual and gra- layer, that carry induced electrostatic char-
phical additions are made in the drawing by ges.
using decals. The final original drawing is Offset printing is the most efficient and
checked and reproduced by diazotype co- simple process of the reproduction of docu-
38 Ch. 3. Graphical Documentation in Mine Surveying
ments and has been for a long time in use in elements of a large area should be filled with
cartographic engineering. Offset printing en- ink at least three times and checked on an
sures a higher quality of printed graphical illuminated screen so that their optical den-
documentation than is possible in diazotype sity is sufficiently high; and
copying on map paper and is well suitable for (d) linear dimensions in colour-separated
making multicolour prints. In addition, it drawings should not differ from the originals
requires much less labour for manual pain- by more than :to.15 mm at sides and
ting and offers the possibility for making :to.20 mm along diagonals; the arrangement
multicolour composite prints, for printing in of the whole situation in a plan should satisfy
or eliminating some graphical elements, etc. the same accuracy standards.
Offset printing of maps at map-making The process of preparation of colour-se-
agencies is carried out from colour-separated parated originals by illumination drawings
originals (separation drawings or simply se- consumes much time and labour and is
parations) which are prepared directly at insufficiently accurate. In a novel process,
mining enterprises. Colour separations, as the colour-separated originals are prepared by
name implies, describe the graphical situation diazotype copying of contour images made
in a single colour, for instance, red, black, etc. on tracing paper, synthetic drawing films, etc.
and are used for making corresponding Synthetic drawing materials are finding
colour-separated printing plates. ever wider use and accordingly, in various
Colour-separated drawings should meet novel technological schemes and processes.
very high requirements: For instance, transparent materials with
(a) they are drawn on synthetic transparent thermo-adhesive properties have largely
materials 70-100 ~m thick; thinner films are simplified the process of preparation of ge-
preferable, since they diminish the parallactic neral charts at mining enterprises. Transpa-
effect during copying onto printing plates; rent plats of the original documentation are
(b) the films must be without dents, folds, diazo-copied on the film and mounted by the
scratches, etc. and have no spots, marks, thermotemplet method on a base as frag-
pencil lines, etc.; ments of a general chart. The latter is diazo-
(c) line elements, especially inscriptions and copied on cartographic paper or diazo-film.
shadings, should be well filled with ink, Later, the obsolete fragments of the general
without clearances and breaks; the shaded chart can be replaced by new ones.
Chapter Four
Connection Surveys
(carried out twice), will be: If a mine is entered by two adits, the
theodolite traverse must be run to closure.
M= x 2000 m= 0.4 m In mines opened by inclines with the
fi x 3438'
dipping angle of more than 70°, direction
angles must be transferred only by using
4.2. Orientation of Underground gyroscopic orientation.
Survey via Horizontal
or Inclined Adit
4.3. Geometric Orientation
If a deposit is opened by a horizontal entry
(adit) or an inclined entry (incline), the under- Connection survey with the use of plum-
ground survey can be oriented by running a mets can be performed via one, two or more
polygonometric traverse from the surface vertical shafts. In any case it has to handle
into the mine (Fig. 4.2). two problems: the problem of projection and
If only one adit or incline is available, the that of connection (junction).
traverse is run from an approach station on The procedure of projection consists essen-
the surface, say, B, to the first side of the tially in that a straight-Iine segment is tran-
underground survey net. A back traverse line sferred by means of two plumb bobs from the
is run usually through other, temporarily surface onto the mine level to be oriented.
established points. The polygonometric tra- The projection procedure should be carried
verse run to a side CD in the figure makes it out so that the line segments on the surface
possible to calculate the direction angle aCD and in the mine lie in the same vertical plane.
of the side and the coordinates of a point C: The junction procedure includes two steps:
aCD= a AB+ 131+ 132+ ...+ 13n:!: 180°.n connection on the surface and connection in
the mine. The former determines the coor-
Xc = xB + /1 cos aB1
dinates of the plummets and the direction
+ 12cosa12 + ...+ IncosanC angle of the line that is projected from the
Yc = YB + /1 sin aB1 surface, and the latter is done to transfer the
+ 4sina12 + ...+Insinanc direction angle and plumb-line coordinates
to the first (fixed) side of an underground
where 131'132'..., 13nare the measured angles; theodolite traverse.
n is the number of measured angles; aB1' ..., There are several methods of junction
anCare the direction angles of sides; and /1, 4. which differ from one another in the shape of
In are the measured lengths of sides. junction figures at plumb-bob lines. With all
:~ //I D
ri %,
ri ?:1
~
""~ ~2~~,(/////////////
B 11
~~---0-- 1 ' 2 13 3 ---0--- ~n-~ n In C
~ ~.
~ //j
methods of junction, however, the matter of nection survey via a vertical shaft. This
projection is tackled essentially in the same method is the most labour-consuming and
way. requires certain special techniques, but the
instruments and appliances employed in it, as
4.4. Orientation well as some of the operations described
down One Vertical Shaft below, are typical for all kinds of geometric
This kind of orientation is carried out by orientation, in particular, for connection
means of two plummets hung from the sur- surveys via two or more vertical shafts.
face through the shaft onto the mine level to The preparatopy stageincludes the following
be oriented. The procedure requires careful operations.
preparatory work, long-term outage of hoi- I. Approach points are established on the
sting vessels in the shaft, and certain special surface at a distance not more than 300 m
safety measures. The procedure must be per- from the shaft collar. Existing stations of a
formed in a clearly correlated sequence and geodetic net of class I to 4 in the vicinity of
with coordinated actions of all the specialists the shaft can be used as approach points. The
engaged in it. For that reason, the chief coordinates and direction angles of approach
mining surveyor has to work out a detailed points must be determined with an accuracy
plan of the organization and methods of corresponding to analytical or polygonomet-
surveying work which specifies, in particular, ric nets of the first order. The approach
the required outage time of hoisting means in points should be established so that the
the shaft and the essential safety measures; hanging polygonometric traverse of the se-
the plan is to be approved by the chief cond order to be run immediately to the shaft
engineer of the mining enterprise. Before collar between the initial point for direct
starting the work, all members of the survey connection of plumb lines and an approach
team are instructed by the chief mining point contains not more than three sides.
surveyor in their duties and in details of the This traverse should be run twice or be
closed or else be tied to higher-order station
plan.
The survey work of orientation down one points.
vertical shaft can be divided into two stages: 2. A number of (at least four) permanent
(I) the preparatory stage which includes station points (marks) are established in the
the operations and steps that should be workings of the mine level to be oriented, so
performed before stopping the hoist in the that the coordinates x, y and direction angle
shaft and transferred into the mine can be fixed to
(2) the main stage which covers the ope- them.
rations of centring and orientation to be 3. A set of instruments, appliances and
carried out when the shaft hoist is stopped. fixtures is prepared for accomplishment of
As a rule, the main fan of the mine is switched connection survey work with the specified
off for the time when observations of plum- accuracy. The survey instruments and ap-
met oscillations are to be carried out. pliances must be tested and adjusted before
starting the work. The mass of plummets and
4.5. Sequence and Organization the type and diameter of wire are chosen
of Work for Orientation depending on the depth of the shaft and the
down One Vertical Shaft speed of air in it.
4. The points are chosen for hanging the
This section will describe in detail the plumb bob lines in the shaft so as to obtain
sequence and organization of work for con- the largest distance between the plummets
4.5. Sequence and Organization of Work 43
and the most favourable figures for solving 3. Small plumb bobs (of a mass of 3-5 kg)
the connection problem. Places are assigned on wires are passed through the holes in the
for the construction of platforms for winches, top platform along the shaft to the level to be
scales, guide pulleys, projection and centring oriented so as to avoid large swings. Practi-
plates, plummet dampers (dash-pots), etc. so cally both plumb bobs are sunk simultaneous-
as to ensure the stability of plummets during ly with a speed of 1 mjs. It should be checked
the entire time of observations. If there is that the wires have no -knots, bends, etc. along
enough place in the underground workings the entire length.
near the shaft and the mining operations in 4. Upon sinking the plumb bobs, the team
the shaft will not be interfered, some of these underground replaces them by the main
procedures (construction of platforms for larger plummets and places these into dash-
winches, arrangement of winches and guide pots.
pulleys, closure of the sump, etc.) can be 5. Centring plates with scales, mirrors and
carried out at an earlier stage. other devices are placed on the platforms on
5. Building materials are prepared for the the underground level to observe the oscilla-
closure of the shaft, construction of plat- tions of plummets. If the strings of freely
forms, attachment of fixtures in the shaft and hanging plummets are stable (their oscilla-
on the mine level to be oriented. Vessels with tions do not exceed 0.4 mm), the centring
viscous liquid for plummet damping and plates can be aligned immediately with the
other devices are prepare,d for the work. plummets.
6. Auxiliary workers (shaft fitters, carpen- 6. It is checked that the plummet strings
ters, hoist operators) to be engaged in the do not touch the shaft walls. This can be
connection survey work are instructed in the done by two methods: (a) a light ring cut out
job, and a reliable telephone service is estab- of cardboard or another available material is
lished between the working teams on the 'mailed down' along the wire, i. e. is let to
surface and in the mine. slide down to the bottom or (b) the distances
At the beginning of the main stage of between the plummets as measured on the
survey work, the performers and the auxiliary surface and in the mine are compared; the
personnel in the shaft and at the hoist are discrepancy between them must not exceed
placed under the authority of the survey 2mm.
work supervisor, usually the chief surveyor of 7. Observations of plummet oscillations
the mine. Persons not engaged in survey are carried out to determine the central
work are strongly prohibited to be present in positions of the plummets, after which the
the underground workings and shaft building plummets are fixed in the centring plates and
and on the platforms. The performers are the free positions of the plummet wires are
divided into two teams or groups: one for checked again by comparing the distances
work on the surface and the other, on the between the plummets as measured on the
level to be oriented. surface and in the mine.
The operations at the main stage are 8. All linear and angular parameters of the
carried out roughly in the following sequence. connection triangles are measured on the
I. Wood platforms are constructed on the surface and in the mine.
shaft collar and in the shaft proper. Small 9. Upon finishing the cycle of observa-
holes are provided in the platforms for pas- tions, a check measurement of the distance
sing through plummets. between the plummets on the surface and in
2. Winches, guide pulleys, centring plates, the mine is made again. If the discrepancy is
etc. are fastened on the platforms. within the permissible value, it is now pos-
44 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
5. ".I ~
~" linear scales, a centring plate (Fig. 4.5.), eye-
piece scales, and other devices.
.4 Irrespective of the type of instrument used
for the purpose, the problem consists essen-
'5 tially in observing the motions of oscillating
~
plummets in two vertical planes and deter-
::;:::
mining their mean positions in each plane.
2 These points are then fiXed. Figure 4.6 shows
-3 the scheme of observation of a plummet 01
4.
by using two theodolites. The extreme points
of positions of plummets are fixed by reading
off on the scales at the exterior or interior
5. edge of the plummet wire. The number of
A readings to fix the extreme position of the
wire shou)d be not less than 11-13. The
7 4 '5 reading on the scale N 1 corresponding to the
Fig. 4.5 Centring plate with scales: 1- body; mean position of the plummet is calculated
2-mirror socket; 3-pyramid; 4-clamp screws; by the formula:
5- pyramid-adjusting screws; 6- slit for plumb bob N 1mean = 0.5 (I;IN./n + I;rN./n) (4.3)
string; 7- plate-fastening sockets; 8 -plumb bob; I I
9-plug; M, N -scales where IN. is an extreme left reading on the
scale N; for the first plummet; rN. is an
extreme right reading on the scale N ;; and n
is the number of observations of extreme
positions of the plummet 01 on the scale N 1.
Similar observations and calculations are
done on the scale M l' Observations of the
mean position of the second plummet O2 are
carried out simultaneously by using two
other theodolites. The plumb line points are
fixed according to the calculated data on
their mean positions, the distance between
them is measured as accurately as possible
and compared with the distance between the
plumb line points as measured on the surface.
The observers should try to place the inst-
ruments and scales so that the angle y will be
close to 90°, The accuracy in the determina-
tion of the mean position of a plummet will
not be worsened if the angle y ranges between
45° and 135°. If the space available is too
restricted, it is recommended to observe the
oscillations of a plummet by means of a
Fig. 4.6 Observation of pl~mmet oscillations on mirror and theodolite.
scales by means of two theodolites This method is more intricate and time-
46 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
~
4.7. Connection to Plumb Line Points
Table 4.1. Solution of Connection Triangle with Angles a < 20° and p > 160'
Survey place
m
2
= (tana )
-m 2 +
tan ap"
m
--.!!.
) 2
Ot .tany y
a b
{3~
A
/1 b
+
a
sin a ~ -siny 13 ~ 180000'00"
c
t2.4"
25 ( ~m ):
tany y 14.44
ma :to.29 mm
26 tan ap'
b m.
sin 13 = -siny 18 0.000060
a
27
tanap"~ 0.38
a
siny m"
tan ap" -=-
m
0.006229 19 0.000040 29
c b C
8 sinn 0.031341 17 mc :!: 0.23 mm 30
( tan ap"~)2 0.41
9 sin 13 0.050150 20 mc
0.00010 31 m; 14.99
c
10 131 2°52'29" 21 tany 0,019 32 m, :1::3.8"
4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 49
.;.,c = a2 + b2 -2abcosy
1 y 1°04'00" 8 02 25.3140
2 cosy 0.999827 9 b2 64.8186
3 a 5.0313 10 2
Ccalc 9.1326
4 b 8.0510 II 3.0220
Ccalc
5 ab 40.5070
6 2ab 81.0140 12 Cmeas 3.0220
7 2ab cos y 81.0000 13 0.0000
Ccals--Cmeas
The permissible discrepancy is not more as the arithmetic mean of two connection
than 3 mm for the surface triangle and 5 mm surveys.
for the underground triangle. The calculations for connection triangles
The direction angle of an underground side are made in table sheets. A table sheet for a
(see Fig. 4.8) is calculated by two polygons case when the angles a are smaller than 200
(one through plummet 01 and the other, and 13are larger than 160° is shown in Table
plummet O2) using the following formulae: 4.1.
aCD= aBA + I: + (a + aJ + 1:1-3 x 180° The method of connection triangle is simp-
ler in measurements and calculations than
(4.10)
aCD= aBA + 0 -(P + PJ + 01 -3 x 180° the other methods available, ensures a high
accuracy if the triangles are stretched, and for
(4.11) these reasons has found wide practical appli-
The coordinates of the initial point C in cation.
the shaft are calculated by two polygons (see Other methods of connection through a
Fig. 4.8): single shaft, for instance, the method of
x'c=xA+hcosaAO 1 +h1cosao 1c (4.12) connection rectangle with two- or single-sided
connection schemes,the method of symmet-
Yc=YA+hsinaAo
1
+hlsinao.c
1
(4.13)
rical connection, etc., will not be discussed
Xc = xA + acosaAo + a1cosao c (4.14)
2 2 here, since they are substantially more la-
Yc=YA+asinaAo
2
+a1sinaoc
2
(4.15)
bour-consuming and therefore came out of
use a few decades ago.
The direction angles of the initial under-
ground side CD, as transferred by two poly-
gons, should be fully coincident, and the 4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey
coordinates of a point C may have discre- via Two Vertical Shafts
pancies within the accuracy of side measu- The analysis of the total error of connec-
rement, i. e. up to 2 or 3 mm. If it is impos- tion survey, including the projection and
sible to make a check by a different connec- connection errors, shows that with the con-
tion survey, orientation through one vertical nection through a single vertical shaft the
shaft is repeated upon placing the plummets projection error, which is the principal error
into new positions. The final result is found in this kind of survey and depends mainly on
4-127(!
50 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
the distance between the plummets, cannot derground survey nets is effected by means of
always be diminished to the permissible va- the plummets hung in two shafts.
lue. In the orientation via two vertical shafts, Connection survey via two vertical shafts
however, the angular error of projection is contains the following main stages:
not as critical, since the distance between the (I) projection of plumb line points 01 and
plummets is substantially greater. For that O2 from the surface onto the mine level to be
reason, the connection survey via two vertical oriented. The main instruments and applian-
shafts is the most accurate and reliable among ces, the order to plummet hanging in shafts,
all kinds of geometric orientation. For in- etc. are essentially the same as in the orien-
stance, with the distance between the plum- tation via a single vertical shaft;
mets of 50 mm and a linear error of projec- (2) connection to the plummets on the
tion of 2 mm, the angular error, according to surface and in the mine. The connection on
formula (4.2), will be: the surface can be performed by one of the
l1a" = p".: = 2 x 206265 = 8" two schemes as follows:
(a) if the distance between the shafts is not
c 50000
large, theodolite traverses with the number of
i. e. is substantially smaller than the errors sides not more than three (A-I-01 and A-
caused by other factors. 11-02) are run from one and the same point
In view of this circumstance, with the (A) to the plummets;
distance between the plummets of 50 m or (b) if the shafts are at a large distance from
more, it is permissible to perform connection each other, an approach point is established
on an underground level to freely hanging at each of them, so that theodolite traverses
plummets. with the number of sides not more than three
In the scheme of orientation via two ver- can be run from these points to the plum-
tical shafts, as shown in Fig. 4.9, the geomet- mets.
ric connection between the sui:face and un- The connection to the plummets in the
4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 51
(b)
Fig. 4.10 Preliminary estimation of accuracy of survey work: (a) for direction angle of plumb-colJnecting
line on surface; (b) for direction angle of side of underground survey net
52 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
752+ 752
\I
-+-
2 x 102 = 25" 2. The root-mean square errors M~ of the
direction angles of traverse sides incu;red by
errors in linear measurements of side lengths
4.8.2. Estimating the Accuracy are found by the formula:
of Connection
by Connecting Polygon Ms = (J.1/c)
p" j;;"Sj;;;-;p-; (4.18)
Suppose that a polygonometric traverse where Si are the lengths of traverse sides and
has been run through points I, II, III, IJ-: J-: <Piare the angles between the sides and the
n, nI, and nII (see Fig.4.10b). It is re- line 0102.
quired to find the error of direction angles of The values of Sisin2 <Piare found by double
the first, last, and middle side of the traverse graphical projection of individual sides of the
4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 53
Table 4.3
plane of Gauss projection. The last two the conventinnal system in the mine (c'). The
corrections are found by the formulae: discrepancy A c = c' -c must not exceed the
ASel= (y/2R)s, Aspr = -(H/R)s permissible value A Cpermwhich can be found
by the formula:
where y is the mean ordinate of the connec-
tion survey region; R is the mean radius of Acperm
the Earth; H is the absolute elevation; and s is = 2 (mi/p2/[R~;J + ~2(SiCOS2<pJ
+ 1..2c2
the measured length of the traverse side. (4.24)
The calculated coordinates are used for
where Rx. are the distances from the points of
determining the direction angle of a plumb- ,
connecting line, Qo 0 and the distance be- the underground polygon to the plumb-
l 2 connecting line 0102; I.. = 5 x 10-5 is the
tween the plummets, c, by the formulae:
coefficient of influence of systematic errors of
tanaOlO2 = (Y°2 -YOl)/(XO2 -XOl) (4.20)
linear measurements; and mfJ is the root-
c = (XO2 -XOl)/COS UOlO:
mean square error of angular measurements.
Other terms are the same as in the preceding
= (yO -Yo )/sin Uo O
2 1 1 2 formulae. The values of R x. are determined
on the surveying plan. ,
or (4.21)
1,
(X X ),22 +.,--(y y--'2 )2 If the discrepancy is within the permissible
02 -01 02 -01 value, all lengths of the underground con-
nection polygon are corrected according to
In calculations by formula (4.20), the value the formula:
of c obtained for the larger increase of
Asi = -(AC/C)Si (4.25)
coordinates is taken as the final value,
whereas that calculated for the smaller Then, corrections are determined for the
increase is used as a check value. direction angles of the underground connec-
Then the coordinates of points of the tion polygon in order to recalculate this
underground connection polygon are calcu- polygon into the coordinate system on the
lated in the conventional system of coordi- surface. These corrections are found by the
nates. As a rule, the point 01 is taken as the formula:
origin of the conventional coordinate system
and the axis of abscissaeis directed.along the Aa = ao
1
o
2
-a' o
1
o
2
(4.26)
a b c
y' ,
tana' = 02- Y01 dy'
.ix' + .iy'= (Y~2 + X~2)
x '° -X , A ,
, 0, uX cosa'
-(y' + x' )
01 01
Ax' + Ay'
tan(a' + 45°) = ., .-,
25
YO2
2.224 33 YO2 + XO2 -112.291 42 Ay' 2.224
26
YO1
0.000 34 YO1 + XOl 0.000 44 sina' 0.019416
50 a' 178°53'15"
51 da 83°32'24"
..
B
9
"'
~
.J::
u
..,
~
M on ""'
"' O 0'\
M ~ "'")
>< 00
N
M
- N
., '-0 -0 '0
e. """
'"
c
~ ~ '0
'E
o N N N
o N O
u ~ O
~
... a-
N
""'
N ~
t'"I M N
t'"I M ...,
- -
00 r'") \0 '-0
00 00 V) ~ r- ~
00 ~ \0 M r- -
N ,..; .r; r-.: ...;
" ::!: N .." ..,.
-"'
I +
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.:"'
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.-'"
""",
'"'"
g~ Ir) ~ - ""' ~
u.- o
o
M
-
$ ""' 0\ M
'<: ..t N
~ t"';
-
0;
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~
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I I + +
"'1' r- O ..,. M 00
"' \0 -
.:= tj 8 \0 r-
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r-.
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00
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.. 00 0\ ~ 00 N
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CI1
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tj ~ 1/")
"'00 r-- ~ N O 0\ ~
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~ ~ .: ';J o Ir) ~ ""' M 00 (:7\
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" 0= " - 0\ - 00 0\ 00
~ .5 "" O M ~ ~ v ; 01")
.=.9"01,
a. Q-o= "'
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CI1 ;:; 00 0\ ~ 00 1- 1- ~ \Q
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~ .". ID
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tri"E. '; N
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E- CI1 U
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=
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01)
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u =
'2T
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I 0,;
-1i1i
00
~O)O)
...;. ;.
° "' "'
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.,., ""' o- - O ""' \C N ~o
Ir\ 0
.,.,
N N "" \Q ""' .,., Ir\ 00-
.,., 00 O N Ir\ -~
Ir\ ~ '"")
M ...; N 0 r..: O 000
-0 "' ~ ""' .,., 00\
:!: E ::0 '0 Ir) "' Ir) .,., .,., -0 \O1r)
v
~ :z ~ ~ $ ~ ~ \C :1; :76:76
~
>,
"'
~ N 'I" ~ N 0 00 ""' 'Ooo
M ..,. II") M - ~ r-'O
~ "'
= ~. N 5: 1- ~ ~ N ""' r-oo
N ...; '-0 r.: r-.:...:
.-.,., "'
"i "tj N 'I" ~ O Ir) ~ ""' M-
N ...r'"I
M M , r'"\ N N N MM
O r'"I M M , r'"\ M ""' ""' """'"'
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(,)
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1'- 0- t' NN a- "' r-- 0\0\
0 ~ O $ - "' 00- - ""' 00
:i 0 ;3 N N N ~ 0;
r--:
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..:: + I
I + +
t
"'
~
M \Q IC -'rl 1- ~ 00
~ N ~ r-
0- 1"-- ~ 1"-- N §; -N aI
~
""'
Ir)
O ~~
Ir)Ir)
N -5 0-,.." 0\
"'! 8! ~ ~ 16 0; 0\ I,) ...;...;
a- o .5 -
+ I ~ ~c;i
--
--
+ ~
+ I
~
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0 0 "'" 00 ~~ 0 ""
0\ ~ ~ ~ 0 01 ~r- - ""
"'" ~
(,)
:;:; N M Nr- r'"\ ~ ~
tr) ~ N
-
0- ~ O 0- -0 "' ~~
tr) ~ .t: -
00 00 "' ""~ 00 ~
tr)
1-
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0 0
0 0 O 0 00 ci O 0
§
=
0
~ 0- N '00 ""'- "'" r- o-
M 1- "' ~ - N O M
0\ 00 0 '-0 ." '00 ~= 0\ ~ 00
O -0
0, M ~ I- 00 00'1") r- M
." 0- "'" ." 00 00'1") ~ r- 0-
." bi) 0- - 0\0(")
8 ~ C7) ~ ~
~
0 o .5 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0
'g
=
=
0 1- '0 ~ 00 r-a- 00 ~ 0-
~ r- (,) M '0 - 00 Nr- ~ 0
~ O ~ !"'j I- ~ ~a- 0 0
0: O '- M
C!
0 1- ...; M ""\0 -c
~ -0 - IJ") "1" ~- ~ :!:
"'
=
.0 ~ N '0 o -.1--.1- O 00
~ ~ 0, N ~ '"'"' 0 NOJ") M ""'
N -.1-
"tj N "'
= -\0 O -0 00
~
Ir\
0
"' M ""' N N- M t') ..,
"' M - 1"-- ..,
-\0 O N
0\ O v QO 1- 0 1.0 \ON "' N 'C
""' ~ N N N,,", M N N
E
E
00 ;3
~ '"5.
'-
-0 0
O O "'
~
N
"' N -0;
N =
:0
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"
...
0 - ::: >
-
-
>
-
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o C
> =
>
c U
> =0
>
~
58 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
can be used for checking. The discrepancy cannot be transferred underground with a
between them must be within the accuracy of sufficiently high accuracy. A practical merit
calculations. of gyroscopic orientation is that the direction
If other methods have not been used for angle of one or several sides of an under-
orientation, connection survey via two verti- ground survey net can be determined with a
cal shafts must be carried out twice. The final high accuracy in any place of the mine field
result is taken as the arithmetic mean of two and at any distance from the shafts. These
procedures. It is recommended to make the circumstances have predetermined wide po-
connection survey via two vertical shafts in pularity of the connection survey method in
combination with gyroscopic orientation of which the coordinates x. y of an initial point
the sides adjoining the plummets. An exam- of an underground polygon are determined
ple of calculation for orientation via two by means of a plummet sunk into the shaft,
vertical shafts is given in Tables 4.4 and 4.5. (the problem of projection), and direction
If a mine field is opened by three or more angles are then measured by the gyroscopic
vertical shafts connected by underground method.
workings, it is recommended to make con- Under production conditions, the prob-
nection survey through the shafts with the lems of centring and projection are tackled
use of redundant measurements. separately and in the following sequence.
The projection problem is solved by means
4.9. Horizontal Connection of a plummet hung in the vertical shaft. The
method and equipment in this case are essen-
Survey
with Use of Gyrocompasses tially the same as in orientation via a single
shaft by means of two plummets. It should be
The wire of a plummet hanging in a shaft is noted, however, that, since the direction
subject to the action of a number of factors angle of the initial traverse side will then be
which tend to deviate it from the vertical determined by the gyroscopic method, the
position. The most important among these projection can be carried out in a simplified
factors are air currents in the shaft and way without spending time for the stabiliza-
underground workings, and abundant water tion of a plummet, determination of its
drip (downpour). These factors have been central positions on scales,etc. on the surface
investigated and can be accounted for by and in the mine.
special formulae. A polygonometric traverse of an accuracy
These factors have however become less of not less than second-order is run on the
important with the appearance of gyroscopic surface from the initial side 31-32 to the
instruments which can determine the direc- centring point, i. e. the plummet point °
tion angles of any traverse side in a mine with (Fig. 4.12). The angle ~A at a point A and the
an accuracy to 10-20". In that connection, distance from that point to the plumb line 0,
geometric methods of orientation now have IAO' are measured in the shaft; the direction
only a limited application, mainly in the angle of a side A-B (IlAB) is then determined
construction of new mines. Repeated orienta- by the gyroscopic method.
tions in exploited mines are mostly carried The direction angle of a side O-A is
out by means of gyrocompasses. Further, the calculated by the formula:
essential disadvantage of geometric orienta- IlAO = IlAB -~A :J: 180° (4.28)
tion via a single shaft by means of two
plummets is that the distance between the and the coordinates of the first point (A) of an
plummets is too short and a direction angle underground side, by the formulae:
4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 59
(a)
force (guide moment of gyrocompass): external force, M ex' and the maximum guide
Mg = H 0) cos <psin a (4.33) moment Mg (at a = 900) and can be found
m~x
by the formula:
In all station points of a gyrocompass, the
E = Mex/ M
guide moment M 9 overcomes the forces of g
max
(4.36)
inertia and friction in the gimbal supports The correction E is introduced with a
and tends to turn the principal axis towards proper sign when calculating the gyroscopic
the meridian. The gyrocompass axis moves azimuth of a side being oriented.
relative to the meridian with the total angular
velocity of two oscillations in space: with a 4.9.2. Mine Surveying Gyrocompasses
constant angular velocity 0)2 in the meri-
dional plane and with a variable angular There are several types of gyrocompasses
velocity of precession of the axis under the which can be divided into three groups by the
action of the gravity force, O)p.., which
depends on the pendulum moment M of a
gyrocompass and the angle of inclination e of
its axis to the horizon (see Fig. 4.13):
O)p..= (M//l) sine (4.34)
4
4~ 59 ~1 5.2
5
I
~.y
II /9
c-I0
!
.11
~
--12
:~
---13
~
45- 1-14
-15
43-
42-
41- -18
40- ---19
39
-20
-21
38-
37- -22
36
-23
24
35 -25
34- -26
-27
33- -28
32- -29
-30
-31 ---
Fig. 4.17 Gyrocompass type MVT4: 1-explo-
sion-proof glass;2- illuminating lamp; 3- illumina-
ting mirror; 4 -illuminating prism (upper); 5 -il-
luminating prism (lower); 6-eyepiece; 7-hair
cross; 8-upper rectangular prism; 9-lower rectan-
gular prism; 10- objective; 11- worm screw;
Fig. 4.16 Gyrocompass type MVT2: 1- autocol- 12-rhombic prism; 13-protective glass; 14-sensi-
limator; 2-illuminating unit; 3-illuminating lamp; tive element; 15-torsion suspension; 16-locking
4-illuminating prism; 5-eyepiece; 6-upper rec- device; 17-lower clamp of torsion suspension;
tangular prism; 7- objective; 8 -lower rectangular 18-locking clamp pin; 19-top of locking device;
prism; 9-rectangular prism; 10-upper clamp of 20-current lead; 21-transducer; 22-damper;
torsion suspension; 11- connector assembly; 12 - 23-top cover of gyro unit; 24-operating mode
fixed mirror; 13-SE mirror; 14-protective glass; switch; 25-switch cam; 26-lock; 27-gyro unit;
15-torsion suspension; 16-cable; 17-brushes; 28-storage battery; 29-battery fastening; 30-ba-
18-collector; 19-cable coupler; 20-1ocking de- lance weights; 31-lower damper; 32- magnetic
vice; 21- gyro attachment fastening; 22- band-type screen; 33- bottom cover of gyro unit housing;
current lead; 23-sensitive element; 24-magnetic 34- gyro unit housing; 35- button spring;
screen; 25- gyromotor; 26 ~ gyro unit casing; 36, 37 -connecting ring of gyro unit housing;
27~arrester head; 28-base; 29-base-tuming mech- 38 -lower nut of arrester; 39- SE rod; 40- upper
anism; 30-fixed bisector; 31-central hair line; cover of gyro unit; 41- tripod leg; 42, 43- tripod
32-scale; 33-movable bisector; 34-theodolite head; 44-locking device sleeve; 45-SE mirror;
46, 47-fixed casing of base; 48-control device and
upper clamp of suspension; 49- scale; 50- fixed
bisector
4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 63
design, method of centring, and suspension of the SE mirror. The sensitive element can be
a sensitive element. fixed in the non-working state by an arrester.
I. Gyrocompasses with liquid suspension The observations of forced oscillations
and electromagnetic centring. consist essentially in taking readings on the
2. Gyrocompasses with liquid suspension circle in the points of reversion and determi-
and electromagnetic centring on needle, in ning the actual position of equilibrium.
explosion-proof or common embodiment. The design of a gyrocompass type MVT2
3. Gyrocompasses with torsion suspension, may be seen in Fig. 4.16.
such as types MVT2, MVT4, and MVB4M The gyrocompass MVT 4 (Fig. 4.17) has
developed in this country, which are small- been developed on the basis of type MVT2
sized, reliable and high-precision instruments and has principally the same design.
relatively simple in manufacture and In recent time, a mine surveying gyrocom-
operation. pass type MVB4M (Figs. 4.18 and 4.19) has
The gyrocompass type MVT2 (Fig. 4.15) is been developed in this country. The designers
intended for the orientation of underground have managed to reduce the mass and dimen-
sides in connection surveys and especially for
measuring the direction angles of traverse
sides in the construction of mine survey
reference nets. It belongs to the best instru-
ments in the world designed for mine sur-
veying. The mass of the instrument together
with the power supply unit and tripod is
33 kg. The time of start is 30 minutes and the
accuracy of measurement of direction angles
is 20-30". The gyrocompass is positioned by
means of a base 3 having a housing 2 which
can be rotated around the vertical axis by
means of an endless micrometer screw 9. The
rotatable housing carries at the top an
angle-measuring unit 1 which is essentially an
optical theodolite, and at the bottom a gyro
attachment 8 in which a sensitive element
with gyromotor is suspended from a torsion.
The instrument is power supplied from an
electric storage battery arranged in an
explosion-proof casing.
The torsion is made of three strips connec-
ted together at flat sides, which makes it
possible to obtain a low specific torque. The
oscillations of the axis with the sensitive
element (SE) about the meridional plane are
observed by means of a mirror mounted in
the top portion of SE and rigidly fixed to the
axis.
The standards of the theodolite carry an Fig. 4.18 General view of gyrocompass type
autocollimator to observe the oscillations of MVB4M
64 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
In the modern mining practice where mine side; Go is the gyroscopic azimuth of the
fields and dangerous zones are continuously initial side; and Yo is the meridian conver-
increasing and it is impossible to ensure gence in the station point of the gyrocompass
permanent planimetric positions of points of on Earth's surface.
a reference net, an efficient method for The gyroscopic azimuths of sides on the
decreasing the influence of angular errors in surface and in the mine must be measured
nets and increasing the reliability of sur- twice. The difference between the two obser-
veying is the introduction of reference nets vations must not exceed 2'. Their arithmetic
with gyroscopic polygons in which the direc- mean is taken as the final result. The formula
tion angles of all sides are determined by the for determining a gyroscopic azimuth is as
gyroscopic method, i. e. by means of gyro- follows:
compasses. G = (N -N 0) + E (4.38)
,
c 'g
IT
"io
si
c
..,..0
Ili
1 -1
o
1--
c' 'Y c; r
~;I y
Fig. 4.20 Determination of direction angles of sides by gyroscopic method: BC and DE-respectively
initial and oriented sides; B and D-station points of gyrocompass on surface and in mine; Ao and
A -astronomical azimuths of initial and oriented sides; no and n-direction angles of initial ~nd oriented
sides; Cg and C;:-directions of gyroscopic meridians; Go and G-gyroscopic azimuths of initial and
oriented sides; L" and C'-directions of astronomical azimuth in points B and D; o-gyrocompass
correction; 't-measuring unit constant; Yo and y-meridian convergences in points B and D; x and
y -rectangular plane coordinates
4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 67
Fig. 4.21 Determination of gyroscopic azimuth of a side: DE-oriented side; A1. A2, A3' A4 -amplitudes
of gyroscopic wobbling of sensitive element; Cg-djrection of gyroscopic meridian; N 1. N 2. N 3' N 4 -circle
readings corresponding to reversion points of gyrocompass axis; No-circle reading at equilibrium
position of gyrocompass axis; G-gyroscopic azimuth of side DE; E-twisting angle of suspension
Rever-
sion
points readings mean inter- readings mean inter.
mediate mediate
values values
h divisions divisioru
10 30 30 9 22 38 10 23 28 19.4
2 35 00 II 24 18 10 23 28 63.8 41.6
3 39 30 9 22 42 23 35 20.5 41.9
4 44 00 II 24 28 63.4
N o = 10 23 31 no = 41.7
Junction direction
10 36 9 57
8 10 30 8 10 0.2
41.7 N 10 24 15 "', -0 02 52
45.0 N~ 10 44 07 'Vc +0 20 40
52" Ho 10 23 31 D 20.2
Table 4.9. Calculation or Gyroscopic Azimuth Table 4.11. Calculation of Meridian Convergence
N 8 10 16
No 10 23 31 +99.1 +99.3
E +0 00 53
~ 36.5 36.5
G 357 47 38
0. -0'50" .0'55"
(4.50)
If the discrepancy between the obser-
vations is within permissible value, the
arithmetic mean of hmeas is calculated and the
following corrections are determined:
(a) for wire diameter fj.ll = 0.0017tdl, m,
where d is the wire diameter, mm;
(b) for standardization of the disc fj.12 =
= (k --'-1) I, m, where k is the actual length of
the circumference of the measuring disc as
given in the certificate;
(c) for thermal expansion of wire caused by
the temperature difference in the shaft fj.13 =
Fig. 4.24 Transferring height mark into mine by
means of measuring winch =0.5all(tm-tsur)' m, where al is the
temperature coefficient of linear expansion of
wire and t surand t m are the temperatures on
the surface and in the mine; and
The weight-staff is then lowered onto the (d) for thermal expansion of the measuring
pit bottom level to take similar readings: N m disc considering the difference in temperatures
on the counter and scale of the measuring during standardization and measurements,
disc; t m on the thermometer in the pit fj.14 = a21(tsur-to), m, where a2 is the
bottom; Amon the scale of the weight-staff by temperature coefficient of linear expansion of
means of the surveyor's level set up in the pit the disc and to is the temperature of disc
bottom; and am on the staff placed on the standardization.
bench mark to be controlled by means of the The elevation of the bench mark in the
surveyor's level in the underground station mine (Rm) is calculated by the formula:
point. As on the surface, these measurements Hm = Hsur + hmeas+ fj.4 + fj.12
are repeated on the check staff. + fj.13 + fj.14 (4.51)
Chapter Five
Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
and side lengths in polygonometric traverses control. By these features, theodolite tra-
can be characterized by the data given in verses may be divided into free and non-free.
Table 5.1. Free theodolite traverses are referenced to
only one point with fixed coordinates and
5.2. Horizontal Underground one fixed direction angle; they may be
Surveys subdivided into open (hanging) and closed.
The line of an open theodolite traverse may
The principal kind of horizontal survey in be stretched (Fig. 5.la) or broken (zig-zag)
underground workings is theodolite sur- (Fig. 5.lb). Such traverses are controlled by a
veying which consists of angular and linear repeated theodolite survey. Closed traverses
measurements and subsequent calculation of (Fig. 5.1c) are controlled by comparing the
the rectangular coordinates x, y of survey sum of the measured angles and the sum of
points. The straight lines laid between the coordinate increases with their analytical
mine survey points in underground workings values.
form closed or open polygons, or theodolite Non-free theodolite traverses have redun-
traverses. Each theodolite traverse is orien- dant initial data. They can be run:
ted, i. e. tied to the points of an earlier (initial) (a) between the fixed points and fixed
survey. direction angles: in that case complete cont-
Several types of underground theodolite rol is ensured in terms of direction angles and
traverses and methods of their connection are coordinates (Fig. 5.1d);
employed most often in Soviet mine sur., (b) between the fixed direction angles with
veying practice, which can be classified by the initial coordinates of one point, i. e. with
the redundant initial data and the type of control in terms of direction angles (Fig. 5.le);
(dl (el
(Xn+1
~I cr-
'L~
(bl
(f)
Fig. 5.1 Types of theodolite traverses: (a), (b), (c) free traverses; (d), (e), (/), (g) non-free traverses
76 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
(c) between two points with fixed coordi- optimum accuracy sufficient for the purpose.
nates and with an initial direction angle, i. e. An insufficient accuracy can spoil the survey
with control by the coordinates of the fixed work and require unjustified expenditures on
points (Fig. 5.1.f);and its amendment; in some cases, inaccurate
(d) between two points with fixed coordi- survey work can have serious consequences
nates, with the initial direction angle being endangering the safety of mining workers. On
unknown; in that case, control is possible by the other hand, an excessive accuracy invol-
the length of the closing line of the traverse ves a large loss of labour and time of
(Fig. 5.1g). surveyors on unproductive and uselesswork.
In cases under (b), (c), and (d), a complete That is why the mine surveyor must be
control of whether a theodolite traverse has able to select pro~rly the suitable method of
been run properly is not ensured, because of surveying and the required accuracy.
which a repeated traverse is run or the lines 3. Mine surveying must be carried out
and angles are measured repeatedly. under an appropriate and timely control
Horizontal surveys in underground wor- both in the field (in underground workings)
kings may involve certain difficulties which and in the office analysis of the results of
increase labour consumption, reduce the surveys. First of all, it is essential to make a
accuracy of measurements, and increase the check, or control, before starting a surveyor
error accumulation. Among the principal continuing a theodolite traverse, i. e. to
factors causing such difficulties are: conti- measure the horizontal angle of an earlier
nuous mobility of the underground objects survey in the junction points. The difference
being surveyed and rock displacement between the initial value (known from the
around workings resulting in uncertain spa- earlier survey) and the measured value of a
tial position of permanent survey points control angle must not exceed I' for the
underground; certain limitations in selecting theodolite traverses of a reference net or 2' for
the most favourable shapes (schemes) of the traverses of a survey net. With a larger
theodolite traverses and the best lengths of difference in the measured control angle, it
traverse sides (some sides may turn out to be should be supposed that the points of the
too short); constricted conditions for earlier survey have been displaced and the
surveying in underground workings; poor projected theodolite traverse must be tied to
illumination of working places; dust-Iaden other points which are known to be stable.
atmosphere in mines; etc. The elements of a survey (side lengths,
In order to minimize the influence of the angles, height differences) must be checked in
factors indicated on the accuracy of surveys the course of survey measurements so that
and to avoid unproductive labour expen- probable errors can be revealed and cor-
ditures, it is essential to adhere to the rected in situ.
following main principles in surveying work: For instance, when measuring distances,
I. Mine surveying should proceed from the control can be ensured by measuring forward
more general and more precise procedures to and back; in angular measurements, a check
more particular and less accurate work, i. e. it reading on the circle can be taken, etc.
should start from constructing reference nets, The measured angles of a closed polygon
after which survey nets are plotted, and (traverse) can be checked by comparing the
finally, the surveys of particular mining sum of angles with their analytical sum. The
objects and other details are performed. measured lengths can be checked by the
2. In any kind of surveying work, all discrepancies in coordinate increases and by
measurements must be done with the other methods of control.
5.3. Underground Reference Nets of Plan Control
For reliable and efficient performance of workings parallel and perpendicular to them.
mine surveying, it is essential, before starting 2. In working of single gently dipping and
the work, to study carefully the conditions of inclined seams where the deposit is opened
the field work, to draft the plan of construc- by inclined shafts and ventilation shafts are
tion of survey traverses by the results of driven at the flanks of the mining field, it can
reconnaissance and consider in it the existing be distinguished between two versions of a
peculiarities, narrow places, etc., to deter- reference net depending on the working
mine the set of surveying instruments and system employed:
equipment, to test and adjust the instru- (a) with a continuous working system,
ments, to assign performers for the survey theodolite traverses are run twice in level
work and acquaint them with the survey drifts (Fig. 5.2b);
work plan, and, when required, to make (b) with the system of longwall retreating
preliminary calculation of the accuracy of on strike, survey traverses form closed
surveys. polygons adjoining one another (Fig. 5.2c).
With advancement of mining work in the
5.3. Underground Reference Nets systems indicated, theodolite traverses are
of Plan Control connected to the initial fixed points on the
surface.
Underground reference nets of plan (hori- 3. In mining a suite of gently dipping or
zontal) control are the principal geometric inclined seams where the deposit is opened
basis for all horizontal angle-measuring by vertical central doubled shafts with a main
surveys. They are created in the principal crosscut and ventilation shafts are driven at
opening and advance workings (adits, incli- the flanks of the mining field, two versions of
ned shafts, crosscuts, inclines, brake inclines, a reference net are possible:
fringe, group and haulage drifts) by running (a) theodolite traverses form a system with
the theodolite traverses of a particular junction points (Fig. 5.2d); and
system. (b) if a longwall mining system is emp-
The system of construction of reference loyed, the reference net includes theodolite
nets can be characterized by certain specific traverses with junction points and closed
features, in particular as regards the shape of traverses (Fig. 5.2e).
polygonometric traverses, provision of addi- 4. In mining a suite of steeply dipping
tional ties, lengths of sides, and number of seamswhere the deposit is opened by vertical
fixed direction angles. central doubled shafts with a main crosscut,
Depending on the bedding conditions of the construction of a net depends on the
deposits and methods of opening, there are location of mine workings on the main levels:
six principal systems of construction of (a) a system of closed-traverses adjoining
underground reference nets which are emp- one another; such nets can be formed in
loyed in Soviet mine surveying practice mining a suite of seams where the fringe or
(Fig. 5.2). group haulage drifts and auxiliary crosscuts
I. The scheme of construction of a refe- are driven (Fig. 5.2./);
rence net for working a single horizontal (b) a system of polygons with closed
seam is shown in Fig. 5.2a. This scheme is traverses and repeated control traverses. This
typical for deposits opened by vertical central version may appear in mining a suite of thick
doubled shafts and is essentially a system of steep seams liable to self-ignition, which
polygonometric (theodolite) traverses run in requires that fire pillars be left between the
the drifts of main directions and other workings (Fig. 5.2g).
78 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
(b) (c)
(e) (f)
[~I~ 1--
L---
~:=
5. In high-capacity ore deposits where centre of a mining field; further, some sides of
vertical shafts are driven both in the centre theodolite traverses may turn out to be too
and at the flanks, theodolite traverses are run short. These factors lead to substantial error
in crosscuts and fringe drifts and connected accumulation and non-uniform accuracy of a
to the points of plummets hung in vertical net;
workings (Fig. 5.2h). (b) if the reference net points are displaced
6. In underground mining of salt deposits and the number of additional ties (fixed
opened by vertical central doubled shafts, a coordinates and fixed direction angles) is
reference net is Conned as a system of insufficient, then a need arises to run an
adjoining closed polygons (Fig. 5.21). appreciable number of repeated theodolite
The considered systems of construction of traverses.
reference nets have certain essential draw- In existing systems, and the more so, with
backs in view of the specifics of mining ever increasing dimensions of mining fields
conditions: and mining depths, these drawbacks become
(a) redundant fixed direction angles, sides especially sensible. This circumstance has led
and coordinates may be limited in number or to the appearance of more advanced systems
even absent. As a rule, the orientation of of construction of underground reference nets
reference nets is most often carried out in the with autonomous orientation of a net by
5.4. onstruction of Underground Reference Nets 79
1 2 3 I I I I I
-:§)- -;:::)- ---C]- @---6-L-1--b-L- ~ ---{::J- @):::J
(d) ~
(e)
,
@ '0- -J- ..d
r§r ~
Fig. 5.3 Examples of arrangement of sides with reduridant direction angles: l-initial side; 2-traverse;
3- side with redundant direction angle
gyroscopic instruments, i. e. with inclusion of angles, points and methods of junction of the
redundant (fixed) direction angles (Fig. 5.3). constructed net to the reference net on the
The mine surveying practice quite often surface, points for setting up permanent
uses free hanging theodolite traverses run station marks, and the order of net adjust-
twice. In order to avoid the need in running a ment. The work of construction or reconst-
repeated traverse in autonomous determina- ruction of a reference net is carried out in the
tion of direction angles by a gyrocompass, a following order:
polygon is divided into sections (Fig. 5.3a).In (a) reconnaissance is carried out in under-
a similar manner, additional ties can be ground workings and permanent station
included into the theodolite traverses be- marks are revised, located and fixed;
tween two fixed sides (Fig. 5.3c). (b) the sides of a net are oriented by
In adjoining. free closed traverses of large
gyroscopic instruments;
extension, the reference direction angles are (c) angular and linear measurements in
measured in each closed traverse (Fig. 5.3b). theodolite traverses are carried out;
In non-free theodolite traverses controlled (d) the net is centred and the theodolite
by point coordinates, a repeated survey is traverses are connected to the points of the
done by measuring the direction angles of the mine survey reference net on the surface;
sides adjoining the points (plummet points) (e) the results of measurements are proces-
with fixed coordinates or the sides close to sed preliminarily and estimated for accuracy;
them (Fig. 5.3d). A similar construction of (I) the net is adjusted and the point
a reference net with additional ties is possible coordinates are calculated; and
in a version when the net is developed from a (g) the coordinates of permanent station
junction point to points with fixed coor- marks are recorded in a list.
dinates (Fig. 5.3e). The object of reconnaissance is to investi-
gate the underground workings in which the
5.4. Construction of Underground reference net has to be constructed, to specify
Reference Nets the system of the net, and to choose places for
setting up permanent station marks. It is also
Underground reference nets are const- essential to consider the conditions under
ructed according to an engineering design which permanent station marks will be
which should consider the actual positions of preserved longer and will be convenient for
the existing mining workings and their survey work.
expected development and establish the most Permanent station points are set up in
favourable system of the net, the distances groups of three or four. The spacings between
between the sides with reference direction the points in a group are usually equal to
80 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
established in the bottom and robf of Temporary station marks are fixed in the
underground workings so as to ensure their roof of underground workings, top beams of
stability and existence for a long time. In support frames or on steel arcs. If a working
view of this, permanent station marks are is driven in a hard rock without supporting, a
established where possible in the areas station mark (centre) can be fixed directly in
beyond the zones of influence of support the roof rock (Fig. 5.7a) or in a wooden plug
pressure or underworking, weak enclosing driven into a cut hole (Fig. 5.7c). Figure 5.7b
rocks and rocks liable to heaving. shows a station mark to be fixed on wooden
Some types of permanent station mark for supports and Fig. 5.7d, a mark for fastening
establishing in the footwall of workings are on metal lining.
illustrated in Fig. 5.5. A permanent station
mark usually consists of a metallic rod
25-30 mm in diameter and 200-700 mm long
which is concreted in a drill hole (Fig. 5.5a)
or pit (Fig. 5.5b and c). The top face of the
rod is marked by drilling a hole or by
punching a circular (up to 2 mm) or
cross-wise mark. For longer preservation,
some types of permanent station mark have a
pressed-in copper or lead plug at the top,
with a punch mark made in it.
Permanent station marks established in the
roof of workings should be convenient for
plumbing a theodolite under them. For this
purpose, they have a drilled hole around
2 mm in diameter for passing the line of a
plumb bob (Fig. 5.6). Permanent station
marks and special bench marks can also be
established in the side walls of underground
Fig. 5.6 Pennanent station marks for setting in
workings. They are usually fixed by con- roof of underground workings: (a) in concrete;
creting. (b) in wooden plug; (c) hole for plummet line
84 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
t++~
~
-g-
Fig. 5.7 Temporary station marks
~
Station marks in underground workings Mining theodolites differ from those emp-
are fixed so that a plumb bob can be hung loyed for surface survey work in certain
quickly and conveniently and the plumb line design features associated with the specific
be always in the same position. conditions of surveying in underground
For quick identification of permanent and workings.
temporary station marks, metal plates (mar- The principal parts of a mining theodolite
kers) with their numbers are fastened on should not corrode under the action of
support props or on the opposite side walls of chemically aggressive water. They should
a working. In underground workings without have small dimensions and low mass and be
supporting or with concrete lining, the provided with illuminating devices. The
numbers of station marks are marked on the optical systems should be hermetically sealed
side walls by an oil paint using a template. to prevent mechanical damage and penetra-
Upon establishing of permanent and tem- tion of dust and moisture inside. The possi-
porary station marks in underground wor- bility should be provided for automatic
kings, their positions are marked on sketches centring and for mounting of a theodolite
in the surveyor's field book and in coordinate and signals on tripods and console holders.
calculation book. The established permanent The telescope of a mining theodolite usually
station marks are transferred onto the mining has an upper centre (thorn) for centring the
working plans. Each kind of permanent instrument under a station point by means of
station marks is provided with a certificate. a suspended plumb bob. It should permit
All permanent points must be numbered. focussing onto objects beginning from a
distance of lor 2 m. Mining theodolites
should allow the measurement of inclination
5.7. Theodolites angles up to 90°, because of which some
models are provided with an eccentric tele-
Theodolites are the principal type of an scope in addition to the central one.
instrument for making underground angular Theodolite, type T2 (USSR), is a precise
surveys. instrument with a rotating limb and two-
5.7. Theodolites 85
ments). To change from one section to measuring the horizontal and vertical angles
another, the handle should be turned and at in theodolite and tacheometric traverses, for
the same time pressed down along its axis. the construction of plan and elevation survey
The setting of the horizontal circle in a nets on the surface and in underground
particular section is additionally controlled workings, and for measuring distances (by
by indexing in the aperture of horizontal using the stadia hairs of the telescope).
circle finder. These theodolites have a repeating system
The horizontal and vertical circles have for measuring horizontal angles by the
I-degree numbered graduations. The gradua- reiteration method and are convenient for
tion lines and numbers are projected in the assigning directions to mine workings.
plane of reading scales of the microscope. The principal parts and units of the instru-
The image of the vertical circle is tinted blue ments are protected against dust, dirt and
and that of the horizontal circle, yellowish- moisture. The telescope can be plunged
green. The illumination of the field of view (transited) at both ends. It is of the internal-
can be controlled by a hinged mirror. The focussing type and is focussed by rotating the
scales are focussed for distinct vision by
eyepiece ring. Optical sighting devices arran-
rotating the diopter ring of the microscope ged at both sides of the telescope serve for
eyepiece. rough aiming at objects. Precise aiming is
The field of view of the microscope of done by means of a micrometer screw and
theodolite 2T5K is illustrated in Fig. 5.10b. tangent screws when the corresponding
The images of the reading scale and the clamp screw is locked. The eyepiece of the
vertical and horizontal limb are projected microscope for reading off on the horizontal
respectively in the upper and lower apertures and vertical circles is located near the tele-
of the field of view. Each division of the scope eyepiece.
reading scale corresponds to one minute of The vertical axis of the theodolite is set
the arc. The fractions of minutes can be truly vertical by means of bubble level which
estimated by eye with an accuracy to 0.1 of a is centred by adjusting screws.
division. The reading index is the hair of the Theodolites of these types have a hollow
limb. Th~ reading error is equal to 0.05-0.1 of vertical axis for centring over a station point
a scale division, or 3-6". The readjng scale of by means of telescope. The eyepieces of the
the vertical circle has two rows of numbers. telescope and reading microscope are provi-
The lower row (with the minus sign) is used ded with zenith attachments which permit
for reading off when the vertical limb hair the observations of objects at angles above
with the same sign is seenin the reading scale 45° to the horizon and theodolite centring
aperture. over a point. A diagonal eyepiece (optional)
The certified accuracy of angle measure- can also be used for zenith and nadir sighting
ment ( :1:5") is ensured in measurements by and centring over a point.
the method of full sets (with the instrument Theodolites, types T30 and 2T30, are
positioned 'face left' and 'face right'). In order mainly designed for surface surveying, but
to eliminate the division error of the horizon- are often employed for surveys in under-
tal circle, the latter should be reset after each
ground workings.
full set by 180°: n (where n is the number of Theodolite type T30M (USSR) shown in
full sets). Fig. 5.lla is a mining theodolite. It has a
Theodolites T30, 2T30, and T30M (USSR) specially designed vertical axis (spindle) and a
are angle-measuring instruments of technical reversible bubble level for the operation of
precision ( :1:30"). They can be employed for the instrument in both upright and inverted
5.7. Theodolites 89
(b)
(a) .
/1
46""
,10
5
.3
lb)
TheoO1O theodolite is shown in Fig. 5.l3b. axes and a more perfect reading system
These instruments are intended for triangu- (Fig. 5.14b).
lation and polygonometry on the land These instruments are intended for the
surface. construction of survey nets in mines and on
Theodolite TheoO20 (GDR) is a repeating the surface and of reference nets in under-
theodolite of technical precision. It has an ground workings.
optico-mechanical compensator on the ver- Theodolite TheoO80 (GDR) is a compact
tical circle (instead of a bubble level), an optical repeating theodolite with a detachable
optical centring device, and a detachable base for three-stand scheme surveys; it can
tribrach which allows the instrument to be also be mounted on console holders. Limb
used in surveys by a three-stand scheme. graduations have double numbering: one of
Improved models, TheoO20A (Fig.5.l4a) them being read off when the instrument is
and TheoO20B, have a new unique system of mounted in the common upright position
coaxial tangent and clamp screws for simul- and the other when the theodolite is mounted
taneous locking of the vertical and horizontal on a console holder in an inverted Dosition.
92 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
(FLJ and 'face right' (FRJ. Then the clamp by moving the graticule vertically by means
screw of the tribrach is loosened, the theo- of the adjusting screws. The test is repeated if
dolite is rotated through 180° and locked required.
again by the clamp screw. The telescope is When testing and adjusting the zero point,
aimed at the same object and two new it is essential to observe the position of the
readings are taken at two positions of the level bubble on the horizontal circle alidade;
circle: FL2 and FR2. The collimation error if the bubble is moved aside, it must be
can then be calculated by the formula: centralized by means of the foot screws of
tribrach.
(FLl -FRl :t 1800) + (FL2 -FR2 :t 180°)
c= 6. The compensator is tested. This test is
4 carried out to check whether the vertical
For correcting the collimation error, the circle reads the same when the vertical axis of
eyepiececap is taken off to open an accessto the instrument deviates within ::t:3'. For this
the adjusting screws of the cross hairs, and test, a distinct point is chosen and the
the horizontal circle is set at a reading that is theodolite is mounted on the tripod so that-
determined by the formula: one of the foot screws is oriented in the
direction of that point. The bubble of the
FR = FR2 -c adjusted cylindrical bubble level is brought
into the central position so that the main axis
The graticule (cross hairs) is moved hori-
of the theodolite is truly vertical. The theo-
zontally by means of the adjusting screws dolite is then tilted by 2-3 " i. e. by 4-5 level
until the cross is aligned with the image of the
divisions, towards the selected point by ope-
object chosen earlier. The check is repeated
rating the foot screw facing that point. After
until the condition is satisfied. The permissible
that the theodolite is levelled by the other
collimation error should not exceed 30".
two foot screws.
5. The zero point (zero offset) is tested and
With a tilted position of the theodolite, the
adjusted. The zero point in the reading on the
telescope is sighted on the selected point, and
vertical circle when the collimation axis of
the reading is taken on the vertical circle. The
the telescope is truly horizontal and the
procedure should be repeated with the instru-
bubble of the bubble level of the vertical
ment tilted by 2-3' in the reverse direction,
circle alidade is in the zero point.
i. e. towards the observer.
The zero point of the vertical circle must be
The difference between the readings taken
known and accounted for in surveys or be
with the instrument tilted in two opposite
excluded. The zero point value is determined
directions should be not more than 0.1.
by sighting on one and the same point,
Otherwise, the theodolite should be sent to
preferably closer to the horizon, at two
the manufacturer for adjustment.
different settings of the circle and in the
general casecan be calculated by the formula:
5.9. Centring of Theodolites
FL + FR + 180°
ZP= and Signals
2
When running a theodolite traverse in
If the reading is less than 90°, add 360°. underground workings, the instrument is set
For the correction of the zero point, the up successively in the traverse points and,
vertical circle is set at the reading FL-ZP before making angular and linear measure-
and the cross of the graticule is aligned with ments, should be prepared for operation, ioeo
the image of the selected point on the object it should be centred and levelled. and its
94 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
and the telescope is set into the horizontal plummet is connected with a string 1 by
position. The string of plummet is passed means of a threaded plug 2 at its top;
through the hole of a survey mark and the (b) a plummet with a retractable point;
height of plummet suspension is controlled so (c) and (d) controllable plummets with
that the plummet point is just to touch the respectively external or internal pulleys on
top centre of the theodolite. After that the which the string is wound; and
instrument is moved on the platform of the (e) a controllable plummet with an internal
tripod or console holder until the point of the reel, which is the most convenient type in
freely hanging plummet is exactly over the operation, since its centring point 6 can be
top centre of the instrument. quickly set at the desirable height. On pres-
Upon making these operations, the con- sing the top portion of a sleeve 1, the
tinuation of the vertical axis of the theo- plummet string can be freely unwound to the
dolite will pass through the centre of the required length. In order to raise or lower the
survey mark if only the top centre of the plummet, the operator holds the plummet
instrument (with the telescope arranged body 4 by one hand and rotates the sleeve by
strictly horizontally) lies in the vertical axis of the other. Depending on the direction of
rotation of the telescope and the plummet rotation, the string will be either wound onto
point lies in the same vertical line with the the reel or unwound from it. To fasten the
plummet string. string to the plummet, the sleeve is taken out
When plummets are used as signals, the upon removing a nut 2, and one end of the
sighting axis of the telescope is aimed at their string is passed through the slot in the rim of
strings. a reel 3 and got made into a knot. The other
The following types of mechanical (string) end of the string should be passed through
plummets are used in the modern mine two side holes and one central hole in the
surveying practice (Fig. 5.17): (a) a simple sleeve, after which the plummet can be as-
centring plummet which has a massive metal sembled. At the end of plumbing, the plum-
body 3 sharpened at the bottom; the sharp- met point should be retracted by turning a
ened portion ends with a steel point 4; the sleeve 5.
Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
Fig. 5.19 Set of attachments to theodolite T30M for surveying by three-stand scheme
the theodolite in the point B. Then the A similar survey with lost points and
theodolite and forward signal are interchan- automatic centring of theodolite and signals
ged on their bases and the rear signal is set can also be performed by using console
up on a tripod (or console holder) in a point holders instead of tripod stands. This method
7
is usually resorted to in steeply dipping
The signal in the point 1 is set into the workings or where the mine traffic is inten-
upright position by means of a level tube on a sive. The set of attachments for this method
bracket and, then the angle BCl and the
length of a side Cl are measured. The 4
theodolite and forward signal are then
interchanged on their bases and the rear
signal on the tripod is reset onto a next point
to run the traverse to the second group of
fixed points D, E, and F where, as in the
points A, B and C, the bases are set up by
means of an optical plummet or a theodo-
lite.
This order of survey is characterized by
that the theodolite and signals can be
interchanged without intermediate centring,
the traverse vertexes between the fixed points
are not fixed, and the survey is done by using
three stands. For that reason this method is
also called the survey with lost points, or Fig. 5.20 Scheme of theodolite traverse between
survey by a three-stand scheme. two groups of reference points
7-1270
98 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
of survey (see Fig. 5.19) contains console 2. The alidade is unlocked and, by rotating
holders with adapters (e), centring plates with the instrument clockwise, the telescope is
spherical level tube (a), a clamp (b) for sighted on the forward signal in a point C to
fastening a console holder to wooden or take the reading a2(a2 = 58°23'.5).
metallic mine supports, pin (1), prism attach- 3. The telescope is reversed, the limb is
ment (h) for an objective, and a level tube (g). unlocked and turned together with the ali-
As has been found by experiments, the dade to sight the telescope on the rear signal;
errors of centring of theodolites and sig- no reading is taken.
nal~ by various methods are as follows: 4. The alidade is unlocked and rotated
1.2-1.5 mm in single centring with string counter-clockwise to sight the telescope on
plummets, 0.8-1.0 mm in optical centring, the forward signal and take the reading
and 0.3-0.8 mm in automatic centring. a3 (a3 = 116°47'.7).
5. The left-forward angle ~ and its check
value ~chare calculated by the formulae:
5.10. Measurements
of Horizontal Angles ~ = (a3 -aJ/2 (5.3)
alidade around the limb can be determined 1. The zero divisions of the limb and
by considering the measured check angle and alidade are roughly aligned, and the alidade
the number of performed repetitions: is locked. With the limb unlocked, the te-
R = (2n 13ch
+ a1 -a4)/360° (5.6) lescope is sighted on the initial signal (for
instance, point B, Table 5.6) set in the centre
of a bench mark, and the reading at is taken
5.10.2. Method of Sets and recorded in the book (at = 00003'.0).
The measurement of an angle (for instance, 2. The alidade is freed (with the limb being
CDE, Table 5.5) by the method of sets is fixed) and the telescope is sighted on the
carried out in the following sequence. signal set in the centre of a bench mark D. In
1. The limb is locked in a position when it this case,the theodolite is rotated clockwise.
roughly reads 00, the telescope is sighted on The reading a2 is taken and recorded in the
the rear signal (point C), and the reading a 1 is book (a2 = 28°08'.1). .
taken on the horizontal circle and recorded 3. The alidade is rota-ted clockwise in the
in the field book (01 = 10°07'.5). same sequenceand the telescope is sighted on
2. The alidade is unlocked and the tele- the signal in a point C to take the reading a3
scope is sighted on the forward signal (point (a3 = 58°26'.7).
E) to take the reading 02 (02 = 68°31'.0). The 4. The observations of the first half-round
measured angle in one position of the circle, are finished by sighting the telescope on the
i. e. in the first half-set, is 13'= 02 -01 (13'= signal set in the initial direction B and taking
= 58°23'.5). a check reading. This makes it possible to
3. The limb is turned through 60-90° and prove that the limb was fixed during the
locked. The telescope is reversed and sighted observation of the point (a4 = 00°03'.1).
again on the rear signal; the reading 03 is In order to eliminate the instrument error
recorded in the book (03 = 190°07'.5). of the theodolite, the same angles between the
4. The telescope is sighted again on the given directions are then measured at a
forward signal to take the reading 04 (04 = different setting of the circle (FR). In the
= 248°30'.9), and the angle measured in the second half-round, observations are made in
second position of the circle is calculated: the reverse direction and the alidade is rota-
1311 = 04 -03 (1311 = 58°23'.4). The mean angle ted counter-clockwise.
calculated by the two half-sets The second round is performed in the same
13m = (13'+ 1311)/2 sequence, but the limb is initially set at a
reading close to 90°.
is taken as the final value (13m= 58°23'.45). Upon completing the measurements at the
In angle measurements by the method of second setting of the circle, the collimation
two sets, the sequence of operations is error is calculated by the formula: 2c =
essentially the same, but the limb for the = FR -FL ::!: 180°; its magnitude is indi-
second set is turned initially at a reading cative of the accuracy of measurements. After
close to 90°. that the mean values of the directions obtai-
ned by two measurements are calculated. by
5.10.3. Angle Measurements by the formula: (FL + FR ::!: 180°)/2. The pro-
Method of Rounds cedure is finished by calculating the corrected
directions, i. e. by calculating the mean initial
The procedure of angle measurement by direction from the mean directions found; in
the method of rounds consists essentially in our case, the corrected direction is
the following. (00°02'..80+ 00°02'.90)/2 = 00~02'.85.
"5
~
00
o
~ o
"' ~
"E:
.c N
8';<
000
.J=-
~ 00 ~
O
..., ~
" ~
0) " 1:1. I =
~
O 00
"' I ~
0
0\
O
1 0
\Q
.
E-- 8 a§ o 0 ~ s " O
""'
-'" "0 +"' "'
...t.s
= = "'-
.-"' = =
~ ... Q.5 0
8 o .=: s ~ ""'
~
...~
>,
00 ~ e ~ 00
] 0
...> ~ +"' > G)
"' 1-. ...
"' ...+"'
= ~ t.s = =' "'
-rnO -000 Ir)
., r--v
=' '0 -0
Nr'"\
oN
~ -o
r'"\OO
I: Ir)
::;- ~
Q
.: ~
01 1'"10- ~
8 i' r-.:o ""'
0... N
= ~
Q
..c
~
= 000 00
.. O\~ Ir)
~ -<""1
~ =
-=
." ~ ..
Q;
.:, Ino Ir\
e r..:...; ..;
'-'
!fJ 0 N
=
01 'tJ
=
8 Q;
000 ~
~ e --0 'r\
=
"' ~
~ ..1 =
01 ~ "'
~
~ Q; 00 00
.. ~ N 00
~ on o
01 ..
= ~
Q;
~ =
or\
~ ~ ~ or\
= -
~ ~
=
.. ~
~
~ 8 ; 8 "0
= 0 = 0 ~ ~ OOID
IDN I r--
ID
< 0 ~ "' ",,~
","0 "'J ~
~
= r-- '".~ 0: .
..."' ,"].,-5 '00
., e < I ~~ ~
Q I ~""'",,, -
~ ~.~ ] "'- ...,..., ...,
~ u = ";)
Q ;. ~ >
Q 01
= - = .£
~ .
. ~ ~
..i::' .. ~ ..,
Q
~ ..~ ~ .. \,) ~
~ 1~.5 -~
Q; ..Q; "' .~.a
.-Q;
~
.~
B =
.~ ~ ~ u ~ =
~ .-
~.
--~ o. 8 ~ .0 .-~ .0
I£)
;..
.
.
~ .: ~ P.8 ~
01 Q).d . O II") >. , ~
" 0
'.:
'"
Q;
->
Q; ..:
.. ~ ..,
~
3C;~8
~ =' 0 ~ ~ .c ..~
~ ~ o
E--r/JZJ!:.- E- VJVJ
-13
..,
~
~
O ..
M 8"
Ir\
-1-
~ 011 "g ~ o.r;M
~ 0
OON
-= ~ .;;;
=
"8 o I: ~
O .!=
U"O 00000
~ ..
ON"'
e
-"
"' -
= = 011
-VJO
0"'00
~~\0~
Nr.:IQN
ooNo
;1 N
000000
'(ij' ONIr)O
-=
=
=
e
'Q ~
'X> """'N~
-g +1
0000
.c .-1
~ ""
,§, I
"' ~
.. "" 0000
=
.. II 0000
e " I I I I
.. N
..
=
"'
"
.. 10 00"' r--
~ Nr-:IQN
OONO
..
~ ~
= ~ 000000
< 000...'00
-~~-
';
= o-r--
=
N '.;00,cj'.;
.~ i OONO
= ci)
= I::
~ 000000
ONIr)O
~ .,s
= ;:I
= 0
'- "' ~~v~
-=
"Q) ..0 e "' ~.5
~ u>-o c
"' ..\r\
'5
~ 0. I:: ~ ~
Ir) >-~ I
o c
..~~- ~.,g
~
.c
->-~ ...~ >
" ;:I .-"
Eo-(/J~-
102 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
III
(b)
III
,
"'
/
/
--
/
Fig. 5.21 Measurement of horizontal angle by eccentric telescope
The measurements of horizontal angles in is shown in Fig. 5.210 and with the circle at
underground workings with the angles of dip left, in Fig. 5.21b. In order to measure the
more than 300 are made only by the method angle between the directions II-I and 1I-111,
of sets under the provision of the following for instance, with the circle at right, the
additional conditions: telescope is sighted successively on signals I
I. If a repeating theodolite is employed, its and III. In that case, the horizontal axis of
limb must be locked for the entire time of rotation of the telescope moves from posi-
measurements. tion II-I into 1I-2, i.e. its setting is changed
2. The theodolite for measuring hori- by an angle 13" and therefore, the angle 13,will
zontal angles must be provided with a stri- be measured instead of 13.Similarly, with the
ding level and permit plumbing of its vertical circle at left, the angle 13! will be measured
axis of rotation before each set. instead of 13.
3. The alidade of the theodolite should As may be seen in Fig. 5.21, the exterior
always be rotated in one direction only. angles <p and <p' are the sums of the two
interior angles of the triangles which are not
5.10.4. Measurements of Horizontal adjacent to them, i. e.
Angles by Means of <p=13,+'1=13+o (5.7)
Eccentric- Telescope <p' = 13!+ 0 = 13+ '1 (5.8)
Theodolites
Hence:
The horizontal angles in steep workings 13= 13,+ '1 -O (5.9)
are measured by means of the eccentric 13= 131-'1 + O (5.10)
telescope of a theodolite. The scheme of
measurement of a horizontal angle I-II-III by Adding these equations, we get:
the eccentric telescope with the circle at right 213= 13,+ 13! (5.11)
~
5.10. Measurements of Horizontal Angles 103
lites, signals and other instruments and by As follows from formulae (5.12) and (5.13),
using the appropriate methods of angular the total error of angular measurement with n
measurements. repetitions will be:
Random errors mainly appear owing to J 2 2
-(5.17)
I v n n
dolites and signals, and incorrect sighting
and reading. The specific environmental con- The limb reading and sighting errors can
ditions in underground workings, in be calculated by the formulae:
particular, restricted space, water drip, and
dust-laden, atmosphere, and also the spe- t "' .0'
mi = 2"J2 \J..vJ
cifics of fixation of bench marks (in the
ground or roof) set forth additional requi- mf}= 60"/v (5.19)
rements to the instrument setting and tech-
niques of observation in angular measure- where t is the accuracy of horizontal circle
ments. reading and v is the telescope magnification.
In view of these specific conditions and Accuracy of angular measurements by the
difficulties in the performance of survey work, method of sets. In this case, the accuracy of
special care should be given to the centring of measurements depends mainly on the errors
theodolites and signals (especially when tra- of signal sighting and circle reading. There-
verse sides are relatively short) and to fore, the error in establishing each direction
making the observations strictly accordipg to 1S:
the adopted method, since these factors can mIl = ~ (5.20)
influence substantially the accuracy of mea-
sured angles. and the error of a horizontal angle measured
Accuracy of angle measurements by the in a full set is:
reiteration method. As may be seen from the mIl = 0.5J4(mf + m~) (5.21)
description of the reiteration method, the
angle 13 measured by n full repetitions is or
determined by the readings at and a4. The mIl = ~ (5.22)
magnitude of 13is calculated by the formula:
If an angle is measured in n sets, the error
B=a4-a1+R.360-o (5.14) of the mean arithmetic value of that angle is
2n determined by the formula:
The error of the measured angle, mp , J m2 m2
/In n n
5.11. Measurements
of Inclination Angles
In theodolite surveys of underground
workings, the inclination angles are measured
at the same time with horizontal angles.
These are needed for determining the hori-
zontal distances of the sides of theodolite
traverses and the elevations between the
5.11. Measurements of Inclination Angles 105
traverse points. The inclination angle of the 4. The telescope is reversed, and the same
side of a theodolite traverse is essentially the operations are repeated with a different set-
angle between the collimating ray {sighting ting of the circle.
line) and its projection onto the horizontal 5. The magnitude of the measured incli-
plane. Suppose that we have to determine the nation angle is calculated by one of the
inclination angle of a collimating ray 1-2 formulae:
passing through a point 2 fixed on a plumb
line {Fig. 5.22). To do this, the following FL -FR -180°
v= (5.24)
operations should be carried out. 2
Table 5.7
(5.28)
It is known from the experience that the Incli- Error for telescope eccentricity with
error of measurement of inclination angles nation inclined length of traverse side, m
angle
increases with an increase of inclination in
the measured direction and a decrease of the 10 15 20 25
length of traverse sides.
The corrections (in seconds) to the inclina- 40° 214" 96" 35" 9" 4" 2" 1"
tion angles as measured by an eccentric-te- 50 307 137 49 12 5 3 2
60 448 198 72 18 8 5 3
lescope theodolite of an accuracy of 30" are
70 710 315 109 78 12 8 5
given in Table 5.7. As may be seen from the 80 1455 650 234 58 26 15 9
table, when measuring the inclination angles
5.12. Measurements of Traverses Side Lengths 107
are used to compile the certificate of the same way as described earlier, but the devia-
checked tape. tions for each metre of the tape being checked
Two types of comparator, or check base, are determined by means of the scale plates
are employed in the mine surveying practice: on the check base. Upon completion of the
stationary check bases for control of metre check work, the certificate is filed for the
intervals and the whole length of tapes and tested tape.
field check bases to standardize the whole A field check base can be arranged on a
length of tapes. smooth area of ground. Two bench marks
A stationary check base (Fig. 5.25) is a with centre lines are fixed in the ground at a
wooden shelf 3 to 20 m long, which is distance of 100 m or 200 m from each other.
mounted on steel brackets along the wall of a The distance between the bench mark centres
building, underground working, etc. The is measured several times by means of invar
place for a check base should be chosen so or steel wires with a relative accuracy not
that the temperature of air can be constant worse than 1 : 50000. Then the comparator
along its entire length. An axial line is drawn base is measured by the tape to be checked
on the top surface of the check base and and the mean distance is calculated to deter-
scaleplates with 0.5-mm divisions (Fig. 5.25a) mine the standardization correction. In prac-
are attached to it symmetrically in l-m tical measurements by the checked tape, the
intervals. One end of the tape is fastened to standardization correction is introduced pro-
the check base, whereas the other end is portional to the measured length, and con-
passed over a pulley and loaded by a weight sidering the error of length.
that develops the required tension. A field check base can also be constructed
The standardization is done much in the in a mine. In that case, bench marks are
110 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
measured with the common and higher accu- 5.14. Detailed Survey
racy, and the results of more accurate measu- of Underground Workings
rements are considered to be faultless
(true). After that, the difference between the Mine survey plans, profiles and sections
common Li and more accurate measurements should represent all the elements and details
(LTi) is found: essential for the geological and mine-en-
gineering characteristic of a deposit: the
d,=L.-L
, , T
,.
geometrical form and spatial location of
Using this difference, it is possible to cal- underground workings, geological structure
culate a and b: of a section or deposit, mechanisms and
structures in a mine, etc. Surveying of
a= J ~ and b=0 these elements, which is called the survey of
n -[L]
details, or detailed survey, consists in measu-
where di = dj
ring the lines and angles that determine the
bLi
location of the characteristic points of these
details relative to survey traverse lines. De-
tailed survey can be carried out either at the
same time when the survey traverses are
5.13. Distance Measurements
being run or at a different time.
by Light Range Finders The accuracy of location of details
Light range finders are employed in mine depends on the object of surveying and the
surveying mainly in the case of the centra- scale of the survey plan. If the results of
lized construction of reference mine survey survey will be used for analytical calcula-
nets when the majority of sides of theodolite tions, the accuracy of detailed survey must
traverses exceed 50 m in length. correspond to the accuracy of analytical
The measurement of the length of a theo- calculations.
dolite traverse by this method consists essen- Detailed survey for compiling a survey
tially in determining the time 't required for a plan should be done with an accuracy at
light beam to cover the distance between the which all details can be shown properly on
two points being measured in the forward the scale of the survey plan. For instance, if
and back direction. the scale of a plan is 1/5000, the linear
Light range finders have a light source measurements in detailed survey can be made
which emits a narrow light beam onto the with an accuracy of 0.5 m; for a plan scale
reflector placed at the other end of the line to 1/1000, the accuracy of linear measurements
be measured; the reflected light beam enters a to 0.1 m is quite sufficient. The angular
light detector. The signals from the light measurements in detailed surveys do not
source and light detector are fed into a require an especially high accuracy: angular
recording device. Since the light source and values can be read off with an accuracy to
light detector are combined and arranged in 5-10'. Detailed surveys can be carried out by
the same point, the light beam covers twice the method of ordinates, polar method,
the distance being measured. Thus: method of cross bearings, etc. The first of
D = v't/2 them is however most popular in surveys of
permanent and development workings.
where v is the velocity of light in air and 't is When running a theodolite traverse in a
the time during which the light signal covers working, the clear cross section of the wor-
twice the distance being measured. king in each instrument station point is
112 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
x
/
/
,
,~~
O
-.0
measured by a tape. The measured distances dipping angles and capacities of seams
from the theodolite centre to the right, left, (veins), probable tectonic disturbances and
top and bottom are recorded in the field their main parameters, etc.
book.
The positions of the points of details are 5.15. Office Analysis of Results
determined by measuring the distances from
of Underground Theodolite
the beginning of a theodolite traverse side to
Survey and Calculation
the perpendiculars drawn from these points
of Point Coordinates
onto that side and the lengths of the perpen-
diculars proper (ordinates). The office analysis of the results of an
The density of measurements depends on underground theodolite survey includes the
the curvature of workings. In detailed surveys following procedures:
by the method of ordinates, it is recommen- (a) control of mine (field) books and pre-
ded to choose two intervisible theodolite liminary analysis of the measured linear and
points so as to measure the distance between angular values;
them by a tape (such as points 17 and 18 in (b) calculation of horizontal distances;
Fig. 5.26). The zero mark of the tape should (c) determination of the closure error of
be aligned with the projection of one of the angles (angular discrepancy) and direction
final points of the traverse. angles upon the distribution of this error;
The distances 01' 02' etc. are measured (d) calculation of the increase of coordi-
with an accuracy to 10 cm and recorded in nates, determination of the linear discrepan-
the field book as an increasing total from the cy, and distribution of this discrepancy pro-
starting point. The ordinates h1, h2, etc. are portional to side lengths; and
measured with an accuracy to 2-3 cm. The (e) calculation of the corrected increases of
measured values oi, hi, the cross-sectional coordinates and the coordinates of the points
dimensions of the working along the traverse of a theodolite traverse.
and other details are written on the sketch For successful office analysis, the records
(outline) of the working. Using the method of in the field book and the book of calculated
ordinates, detailed survey can be performed coordinates should be made accurately arid
quite quickly, and its results can be trans- carefully. It should be noted that these mine-
ferred easily onto the plan of a mine working. engineering documents also have juridical
Detailed survey should also fix sharp chan- validity. As a rule, as the field books have
ges of the bedding elements of a deposit, been controlled and it has been established
~
5.15. Office Analysis of Results 13
that the results obtained are within the For hanging traverses run twice,
specified allowances, the controller makes
corresponding records in them. All erroneous 1;/1perm=2m /1 v ~nl -1-n2
records are struck out and the corrected The discrepancy f /1 obtained in this way,
values are written instead and signed by the provided that it does not exceed the permis-
controller. sible error, is distributed equally for each
The analysis of linear measurements is measured angle, with an opposite sign. After
started from calculating the arithmetic mean error distribution, the calculated direction
of side lengths. angle of the final side in an open traverse and
The preliminary analysis of angular mea- the initial direction angle in a closed traverse
surements consists in calculating the mean will be true.
values of measured angles. The checked mean If the angular discrepancy exceeds the
values of angles and horizontal distances are specified permissible value f /1 ' the traverse
written in the book of calculated coordinates, angles must be measured anew.
and the angular error {discrepancy) is then The direction angles of sides of a theo-
determined by various formulae, depending dolite traverse with measured left forward
on the kind of theodolite traverse. For angles can be calculated by the formula:
instance, for an open traverse with measured an = an-l + /31::t: 180°
left forward angles, the formula is as follows:
f fJ= l80°n + !:13-{l1f -l1in) -360° R and with measured right forward angles, by
the formula:
where n is the number of measured angles, l1in an = qn-l -/3r ::t: 180°
and 11 I are the direction angles of the initial
The horizontal distances of sides are calcu-
and final side respectively; and R is an integer
lated by the formula:
or zero.
For a closed traverse, the angular error is s = Scosv
determined as the difference between the where S is the inclined length of a side and
actual and theoretical sums of interior angles v is the angle of inclination of that side. With
of a closed polygon: the horizontal distances and direction angles
f fJ= !:13"-!:13th of theodolite traverse sides being known, it is
possible to determine the increases of rectan-
In that case, the discrepancy f fJ must not gular coordinates by the formulae:
exceed the permissible angular error: dx = scosa = scosr
ffJ = 2m
perm Jn fJ dy = ssina = ssinr }
Table 5.8
Measured Quadrant
parameter
II ill IV
a, degrees 0-90°
r, degrees r=a
~x
~y
1270
Table 5.9. Calculation Sheet: Point Coordinates of Theodolite Traverse
Nos. Horizontal angles Direction Tabulated
of angles a' angles a' Natural values
points measured corrected Horizontal
distances
s
cosa' sin a' tan (1' or
cotan (1'
20' 00'00"
-9"
177' 30'43" 177° 30'34"
1780822 149.002
Lf3m=
1058 0925
Lf3perm
=10580822
IIlPnM= 2mp In = 2 x 20" J7 = 1'46"
111=+1'03"
Increases of coordinates, m Coordinates
Nos. of
points
2000.000 2000.000
+5 +I
2022.386 2007.061 2
+5 +I
2043.011 2013.176 3
+5 +I
2045.645 1992.535 4
+6 +1
3.446 26.141 -3.446 3.440 -26.140
2042.205 1966.395 5
+6 +2
2037.271 1937.271 6
+6 +1
2034.233 1910.135
~/1x 1:L\y
+ 34.233 89.865 c
8.
116 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
The quadrantal bearings r and the signs at The linear discrepancy,h, of a traverse line
Ax and Ay can be found in Table 5.8. is found by the formula:
Upon the calculation of coordinate in-
h = ~1y + f1x
creases Ax and Ay. it is recommended to
make check calculations by one of the formu- Permissible linear discrepancies are speci-
lae: fied depending on the purpose of theodolite
Ax = Aycotanr survey, kind and length of traverse line, and
the availability of fixed points.
or If the linear discrepancy is within the
Ay = Ax tan r perIilissible value, the errors in coordinate
increases are distributed with an opposite
The calculation of coordinates for an open
sign proportional to the lengths of sides:
theodolite traverse run between points C and
D (see Fig. 5.20) with the known coordinates 0.-.
Xc, Yc and XD' YD can be done as follows: ayi =&"
[S] ~i
L\ y '.
both columns, we get: 1= L\y ,.+-ayi
0.
whence , 1- -1
the actual positions of these points in space. Since angles are measured independently
As the number of measured angles and the of the side lengths of a traverse, the coordi-
lengths of sides in traverses are increased, nate errors depending on Mx .My and Mx .
these errors are accumulated, i. e. the points My can be determined sepa&tely.fJThen it ;s
which are more distant from the beginning of possible to calculate the total errors of the
a traverse are determined with an ever increa- coordinates of the point N by the following
sing error. The error in the determination of formulae:
the final point of a traverse depends substan-
M x -",
-/~. M~p -.: '.
"- + M;.
tially on the configuration (shape) of a trav-
erse line and mainly on whether the traverse
contains the sides of a short length and My=J~~
angles close to 90°. The total error of the planimetric position
of the point N will depend on the errors of
measured angles, M p .and measured side
5.16.1. Root-Mean Square Errors
lengths, M s:
of the Position of Final Point
M2 = M~ + M; = Mi + M; (5.41)
of Free Theodolite Traverse
smce
Suppose that a free theodolite traverse is
run from the initial fixed point I (Fig. 5.27), in M~ = M~p + M;p and M; = M~s + M;s
which the left forward angles 13iand horizon- The errors Mx and M y can be determined
tal projections of sides Si are measured. It is p p
required to determine the errors of the coor- graphically. Let the angle 131be measured
with the rms error mp (see Fig. 5.27). In that
dinates of the point N of the free traverse
case the polygon 1-2,1..., N will be turned
relative to a point 1. The traverse is run from
a side II-I with fixed values of coordinates through an angle mp about a point 1, so that
and a direction angle (l1I -I. The error of the the point N will oc6upy a new position N'.
coordinates of that point is the sum of the The displacement of the point N can be
errors of measurement of horizontal angles, found from a rectangular triangle 1N N' :
M /1' and of side lengths, M s. NN' = R1 tan mp1 (5.42)
Since at small angles it may be taken that
m
tan 13= 13"/p", we have: NN' = -!!..l-R1. The
p
displacement of the point N along the axes x
and y will then be:
N'N" = (mp /p) R1 and N'N" = (mp /p) R1
1 y 1 x
where R1 and R1 are the projections of the
shortest distance R1 from the polygon vertex
1 to the point N onto the coordinate axes
and p" = 206265".
If all horizontal angles are measured with
the same accuracy mp1 = mp2 = ...= mp; =
= mpn= mp, i. e. if any angle 13;is measured
Fig. 5.27 Detern1ining errors accumulation in with the same error mp;, it can then be
free polygon
written that the displacements of the point N
118 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
along the axes Ox and Oy are respectively traverse is displaced along a straight line £i
m.. m.. connecting that vertex with the initial point 1.
~ R. and --1:1 R. .
p 'y p 'x Then, the errors along the coordinate axes for
the final point N will be:
The total displacement of the point N
Mx = b£N and My = b£N (5.45)
along the axes x and y under the influence of s x s .
sys sys
random errors of measurement of all angles
will be: where LN
x
and LN
y
are the projections of
, ,
can be found by the formulae: (5.48)
n
M; = a2 ~ sj cos2a.
s L.. I
1 j=l
"
(5.44) 02 ~
£...
s.sin2a.
I I
+ b2L2
N
II i= 1
M y2 = a 2
.'
L S.sm
.2 a.
I
r i=l
m2 " "
Under the influence of a systematic error of M2 = --7 L Rf + 02 L Si + b2L~
length measurement, each ith vertex of a p i=l i=l
5.16. Accumulation of Errors 19
5.16.2. Root- Mean Square Error where R; , is the projection of the distance
of the Position of Free between the vertex i and the final point of
Traverse Point in the Known a polygon onto the direction perpendicular
and Perpendicular Directions to that for which the error M x' is determined;
a; is the angle between the line Si and the
In practical surveying, it is often required direction relative to which M x' is determined;
to determine the errors in the positions of and 4' is the projection of the closing line
points of a free polygon relative to a critical L onto the axis x', i. e. onto the direction
direction. For instance, when a working is relative to which M x' is determined.
being driven towards an abandoned section, The terms Ry' and sicos2a'; can be deter-
it is essential to know the error of the mined graphically.
position of the face in the direction of the
working being driven; when driving a work-
ing from both ends, it is essential to know the 5.16.3. Root- Mean Square Error
connection error in the direction perpen- of Direction Angle of Side
dicular to the working axis. Suppose that the of Free Theodolite Traverse
axis x' of a rectangular system of coordinates
The direction angle of the nth side of
coincides with the direction of driving of
a theodolite traverse can be calculated by the
a working, CD (Fig. 5.28a) or is perpendicular
formula:
to the direction AB of a working being driven
from both ends (Fig. 5.28b). Let the chosen a" = ao + ~1 + ~2 + ...+ ~" I 180° x n
system of coordinates be denoted x'y'. where ao is the direction angle of the initial
According to formula (5.48), the rms error side of a traverse and ~1' ~2' ..., ~" are the
of the position of a face relative to the known measured angles of the traverse.
(specified) direction M x' can be expressed by Let us denote: mIl' m Il ' ..., m Il the rms
the following formula: 1 2 "
errors of measured angles; ma the rms error
mf32 n n "
M2, = -~ R~ + a2 ~ s.cos2a' + b2L2, of the direction angle of the nth traverse side;
x 2 £... 'y' £... I I x and ma the rms error of the direction angle
p 1=1 i=l
of the rnitial side.
(5.49)
(b)
Fig. 5.28 Driving underground working: (a) in direction of worked-out sections; (b) in working driven
from both ends in direction A-B.
120 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings
6.1. General
foundations of stationary underground in-
stallations and structures. The permanent
Vertical survey, or levelling, is a survey station marks or polygonometric and theo-
procedure in which the height differences dolite traverses can also serve as height
(elevations) of some points over others are control points. The height transfer by geo-
measured in a certain sequence,and then the metric levelling should satisfy the following
required heights of points are calculated from requirements:
the heights of initial points and the height (a) the discrepancies of measured heights
differences measured. of points should not exceed 50 mm Jf
Vertical surveys are carried out in order to in polygonometric traverses or 80 mm JL
determine the height marks of individual in theodolite traverses (where Lis the length
points established in underground workings, of a traverse line, km);
to assign the specified slope (grade) to wor- (b) staff spacings should not exceed 200 m
kings, to plot longitudinal and vertical profi- in length and differ from one another by
les and sections, to determine th~ height more than 10 m;
marks of the characteristic points of deposits (c) levelling lines between the initial bench
(seams);these measurements are essential for marks should be closed or run forward and
the solution of mining geometry and mine back;
geometrization problems. (d) the discrepancies of height differences
Vertical surveys can be made by two at a station, as read off on the black and red
methods: (a) geometric, or direct, levelling face of staffs or at two different settings of the
and (b) trigonometric, or indirect, levelling. level instrument, should not exceed 10 mm;
The former method is employed in under- and
ground workings with small inclination ang- (e) before starting the levelling procedure,
les (up to 5°) and the latter, in steeper the available station points should be
workings. checked for stability.
Levelling reference nets are extended all The discrepancies between the height diffe-
over the mining field and are later used as the rence established earlier and the test one
basis for vertical surveys in underground should not exceed 10 and 20 mm respectively
workings. Additional levelling lines are run in polygonometric and theodolite traver-
upon advancing the main workings through ses.
500 m (for survey scale 1/2000) or 300 m (for When transferring the height marks in
survey scale 1/1000). underground workings. by trigonometric le-
The height control in mines is ensured by veiling, the following accuracy requirements
bench marks set in the solid rock in the foot should be observed:
wall, side walls and roof of workings or in the (a) the permissible discrepancy of a zero
122 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings
(a)
.13
2
instrument are dust- and moisture-protected. coincides fully with the plummet line. If
Rough sighting is done manually and precise otherwise, the eyepiece of telescope should be
sighting, by a sighting device. The level has taken off to allow access to the graticule
no clamp screw. mount which is fastened by three screws. The
When measuring height differences by a top and bottom screws must be slackened by
Ni-BI level, the rms error does not exceed a full turn and the mid one, by a quarter-turn
:!: 3-4 mm per kilometre of a level line. The to shift the cross-hair plate if needed. Then
instrument is provided with a levelling screw. the telescope eyepiece is set in place to
The horizonta position of the level tube is check the position of the vertical hair. Upon
controlled by the method of prismatic align- the adjustment of the cross-hairs, the screws
ment of the ends of level bubble. of the mount must be tightened (first the mid
The instrument is provided with a horizon- screw and then the top and bottom screws),
tal glass limb of 76 mm in diameter and scale after which the telescope eyepiece is fastened
value 1°. The readings are taken by means of in place.
a scale microscope whose eyepiece is arran- T he sighting axis of the telescope must be
ged near the telescope eyepiece. With the parallel to the axis of cylindrical bubble
microscope scale value 10', the accuracy of level. This is the principal condition to be
reading is 1'. satisfied by a level. The test is carried out by
the method of double levelling forward be-
tween points A and B arranged at a distance
6.2.2. Test and Adjustments
of 50-75 m from each other and fixed by
of Dumpy Levels spikes or pegs. A staff is set up on one of the
T he axis of a circular level must be parallel points, say, B, and a level instrument, on the
to the rotating axis of an instrument. The other (A) (Fig. 6.6a). With the horizontal
bubble of circular level is brought into the position of the bubble level axis, the reading
centre by means of foot screws (for level type ai is taken on the staff in the point B and the
N-IOL, by moving the instrument on the height Vi of the level instrument is measured.
ball-and-socket head of tripod). The upper Then the level and staff are interchanged to
portion of the instrument is then turned take the reading a2 on the staff and measure
through 180°. If the bubble does not move the height V2 of the instrument in the new
from the centre, the condition is satisfied. If position (Fig. 6.6b).
otherwise, the bubble is moved by adjusting If the sighting axis is not parallel to the
screws towards the zero point through half bubble level axis, but makes an angle i with
the deviation arc and then brought into the the latter, i. e. the sighting axis is not
centre by operating the foot screws (for level horizontal, then the readings taken on the
type N-IOL, by moving the instrument on the staff will contain an error x and the true
tripod head). The test and adjustment proce- readings will be as follows:
dure is then repeated. a'i = ai + x
T he vertical hair of the graticule must be , } (6.1)
a2 = a2 + x
parallel to the rotating axis of the instrument
and the horizontal hair, perpendicular to that Denoting the height difference of the point
axis. The rotating axis of an instrument is B over A as h, we can find from Fig. 6.6 that:
first arranged truly vertical. The vertical hair h = Vi -a'i = vi -ai + x (6.2)
is sighted on the line of a plummet hung at a
distance of 20-25 m from the level instrument. or
The condition is satisfied if the. vertical hair h = a~ -V2 = a2 + x -v2 (6.3)
126 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings
2s ,--,
-I
(a) (b)
~ 7 8
\
" ) 9 10
"
--tr
-11
Fig. 6.9 Level type N-I0KL (USSR): (a) general view; (b) optical scheme of compensator
sation with rotation of the sighting ray sing. The instrument is provided with a
through an angle EJ. horizontal circle 3 having 1° limb divisions.
3. The sighting line is displaced parallel to Index readings can be taken with an accuracy
itself to pass through the centre of cross hairs to 0.10.The instrument has no azimuth screw
(Fig. 6.8e). and the telescope is sighted onto objects by
According to the compensation schemes turning the instrument body by hand. The
shown in Fig. 6.8c and d, the lever or telescope is focussed by a knob 2.
optical system placed in a point p for the Rough levelling of the instrument is effec-
compensation of an inclination angle must ted by means of a circular bubble level 5 with
satisfy the condition fE = SE'; and for the the scale division 10'. The cross-hair mount is
schemesin Fig. 6.8e, the required condition is provided with adjustment screws to correct
f = ks, where E' is the angle of deviation of the the position of the sighting axis. The devia-
ray by a compensator, s is the distance from tions of the cross hairs from the true vertical
the compensator to the cross hairs or the or true horizontal position can be corrected
length of the path of sighting rays from the by turning the entire eyepiece unit upon
point of incidence onto the optical system slackening the clamping screws.
(prism or mirrors) of the compensator to the The prismatic compensator of the instru-
cross hairs, and k is the compensation factor ment ensures the horizontal position of the
(k = E'IE). The compensators of modern sighting axis at the inclinations of the instru-
automatic levels ensure the compensation of m...n~support up to::!: 15'. The optical scheme
the sighting axis within the angles from:!: 6' of a level is essentially as follows (Fig. 6.9b).
to :!:40'. Upon passing through the objective 6, light
Automatic level type N-1OKL (Fig. 6.9a) is rays fall onto the reflecting faces of a larger
intended for technical levelling with a root- pentaprism 7, change their direction by 90°,
mean square error of 8-10 mm per kilometre and enter the sensitive element (rectangular
of a single run. prism) 11 of the compensator. Upon double
The direct-image telescope (I, 4) of the reflection in the prism 11, light rays enter a
instrument is placed in a heat-insulated ca-, smaller pentaprism 8 where their direction
6.2. Levels 129
is changed again by 90° and finally get into The telescope is focussed by means of a
the lens system 9, 10 of the eyepiece. The focussing knob 2 which moves the rectan-
pentaprisms are fixed and the rectangular gular prism 11 vertically in a slide.
prism is mounted in a tilting frame suspended Level N-3K;Fig. 6.10) is intended for class
on two bearings. The axis of suspension of IV and techJlical levelling. It can transfer
the rectangular prism is chosen so that the heights with a root-mean square error of
distance from the main rear plane of the ::!:3 mm per kilometre of a level line. With
objective to that prism is equal to the optical the distances between the level and staffs up
distance from that prism to the cross hairs. In to 100 mm, height differences can be mea-
that case the coefficient of angular magnifi- sured with an rms error within::!: 3 mm.
cation of the compensator is k = 13/a= 2, The instrument is provided with an optical
where a is the inclination angle of the telesco- (prismatic) compensator having an operating
pe and 13is the deviation angle of the sighting angular range::!: 15'. The collimation line is
ray of the compensator. horizontalized automatically with an accura-
cy to ::!:0.4". A circular bubble level with 10'
scale graduations facilitates rough setting of
the instrument axis into the vertical position.
The instrument has a horizontal circle with
a scale microscope, w,hich makes it possible
to employ the horizontal circle for control
survey and tacheometric survey on flat
terrain.
The optical scheme of the instrument is
illustrated in Fig. 6.10b. The telescope proper
consists of a front lens 1 and focussing lens 3
of the objective, cross hairs 5, and an eyepiece
6. The compensator is arranged between the
focussing lens 3 and cross hairs 5 and com-
prises two prisms 4 and 7, the former being
9-1270
130 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings
(a)
on the instruments. I
Irb
50:!:.0.1 m D 50.:!:.0.lm
a horizontal angle-measuring circle which .1.
makes it possible to assign directions, carry
out station fixing, and survey flat areas by the
polar method.
The optical system of the telescope has a
high illumination power and gives an erect
image of objects. The tripod has an extenda-
ble top portion to quickly change the instru-
ment horizon.
6.3. Levelling Staffs 133
5~
"\
@ 0
"-/
Fig. 6.16 Positions of bubble in circular level when determining compensation error
m from each other, and the level is set up of the distances being levelled, i. e. the dif-
midway between them (in a point D). The ference of arms must be not more than I m.
height difference between A and E is mea- The height differences between the staff
sured at least three times without changing points are measured successively, the level
the horizontal setting (horizon) of the in- axis being perfectly upright and tilted at the
strument. The mean height difference cal- maximum working angle of the compensator
culated by these measurements, hl = a -b, is (v). The latter measurements are made with
free from all instrument errors, since, with the various positions of the circular level bubble
arms AD and DE equal to each other, (I, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in Fig. 6.16). At least five
x' = x". The instrument is then transferred to measurements are done for each staff
a point C (Fig. 6.15b) to make new measu- distance.
rements of the height difference h2 between The systematic error of the compensator
the points A and E. If the discrepancy per minute of deviation of the instrument axis
between the measured height differences is is then calculated by the formula:
more than 2 mm, i.e. hl -h2 > 2 mm, it is
required to adjust the collimation axis upon -(hv -ho)p"
O'c-2sv
determining the corrections by the formulae:
where h" is the mean height difference mea-
x= d dl J.f v=
d2
Jf sured with the instrument axis tilted at the
1 -d2 dl -d2
compensator working angle; ho is the mean
where x is the correction to the reading on height difference obtained with the instru-
the farther staff; y is the correction to the ment axis in upright position; s is the length
reading on the nearer staff; and dl and d2 are of the collimation line, mm; p" = 206 265";
the distances from the instrument to these and v is the angle of inclination of the
staffs. instrument.
To make the adjustment, the level tele- If O"c> 0.5", the instrument must be adjus-
scope is aimed at the farther staff and the ted at the manufacturing works.
horizontal line of cross hairs is aligned with
the true reading on the staff by operating the
6.3. Levelling Staffs
adjusting screws of cross-hair mount.
Determination of the compensation -error. Levelling staffs are made of well-seasoned
This test is carried out in the field by pine or spruce wood. They may have a
measuring the height differences with the different length: 4 m or 3 m for surface work
lengths of instrument arms of 5 m, 25 m, and up to 2 m for underground work. Some
50 m, and 100 m, i. e. with the distances types of staff are made of transparent mate-
between the staffs 10 m, 50 m, lOO m, and rials, which largely facilitates reading-off in
200 m. The level must beset up.in the centre underground workings. Wooden staffs are
134 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings
initially impregnated with a drying oil and mainly associated with the fact that the
painted white, after which patterned gra- existing bench marks for levelling may be set
duations are applied by means of a template in the roof and footwall of a working. In
or special machine. Staffs for technical level- either case (with a bench mark set in the roof
ling have l-cm graduations. For easier rea- or footwall), a staff is set up so that its
ding, centimetre graduations are grouped so starting end is applied to the bench mark. Let
as to form clearly seen decimetres. In novel us consider some probable schemes of geo-
makes of mine survey staffs, graduations are metric levelling in underground workings.
applied on a plastic, reflecting coating or
lavsan film.
Levelling staffs must be checked periodi- (a)
cally to establish their accuracy. A check
must determine the mean length of a metre
interval, errors of decimetre groups, and
fb
prove that graduations are applied correctly. a<
The discrepancy between the actual lengths ~~
1. Levelling is carried out by bench marks I. If the surveyor's level employed is of the
set in the footwall of a working (Fig. 6.170). type with the level tube on the telescope, the
In this case the height difference of a point B instrument is set up roughly over the centre
over a point A will be determined by the of a change (turning) point and prepared for
difference of readings on the staffs set on the observations. The telescope of the instrument
forward and rear points (bench marks): is first sighted on the staff set on the back-
side point, and the reading is taken on the
h=o-b
black face of the staff. The telescope is then
where h is the height difference; a is the pointed to the forward staff, and the reading
reading on the rear staff; and b is the reading is taken on the black face of that staff. Mter
on the forward staff. that, repeated readings are taken on the red
2. Levelling is carried out by bench marks faces of both staffs or with a different position
fixed in the roof of a working (Fig.6.17b). of the telescope. At once a check is done
The height difference of the point B over the whether the readings are taken correctly. For
point A is found as the difference of readings this, the height difference between the change
on the staffs suspended from the forward and points is calculated for the first and second
rear point: h = b -a. pair of staff readings. The results of levelling
3. Levelling is done by two bench marks, are recorded in a field book of a form like
with one of them (rear) fixed in the roof and that given in Table 6.1.
the other (forward), in the footwall (Fig. If the discrepancy between the two height
6.l7c).In this scheme, the height difference is differences thus determined does not exceed
the sum of readings on the two staffs, taken the permissible value, the rear staff is taken
with a 'minus' sign: off from the common turning point and set
h = -(a + b) up successivelyon intermediate points. Upon
completing the survey work on the given
4. Levelling is carried out by two bench station, the levelling instrument is transferred
marks, the rear one being fixed in the foot- onto a next station, and the staff on the point
wall and the forward one, in the roof of a of known elevation is transferred onto the
working (Fig. 6.l7d). The height difference of fore-side common point of a next levelling
the forward bench mark over the rear one interval, while the forward staff remains in
will be determined as the sum of readings on place. The work on the new station is re-
both staffs: h = a + b. peated as described above.
The considered particular casesof determi- 2. If the l~vel instrument employed is of the
nation of height differences with various automatic-aligning type, it is set up roughly
schemes of bench mark arrangement can be in the mid between two common (change)
covered by a common rule: the height dif- points so that one of its foot screws is on the
ference between two bench marks in any sighting line. The instrument is initially sight-
levelling scheme is equal to the forward staff ed on the rear staff, and the reading is taken
reading (foresight) minus the rear staff rea- on the staff black face. The operation of the
ding (backsight); the staff reading on a bench compensator is checked by turning slowly the
mark located in the footwall is taken to be foot screw. The compc:nsator operates pro-
positive and that on a bench mark arranged perly if the staff reading is not changed on
in the roof, to be negative. rotation of the screw. The telescope is then
In geometric levelling in an underground reversed and sighted on the forward staff to
working by the two-staff method, the field take the reading on the black face of that
work consists essentially in the following. staff. The operation of the compensator is
136 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workil
21 1169 242.849
5859 151 52
22 1212 1018 153 242.697
5899 5706 -104 103
23 1350 J316 -102 -241.450 242.800
6039 6001 100 100
1250 99 242.700
5940 2502 L)U4
4 24 -1252 -1152 2506 240.296
-5948 -5841 354 350
-1255 -1606 346 239.946
-5935 -6294 360 362
26 -1556 -1615 364 239.584
-6242 -6299 -2870
1314 -2864
5996 -242.451
I:R = -22188 I:F -22807 1:h 6736 1;h.. = 3368 dh = 398
21528 21351 5940 -2970
Page-to-page
control -680 -1456 796
Checked by Date
checked again. If the compensator operates from a single point is also feasible, provided
properly, the staffs are turned by their red that it is carried out forward and back. The
faces to the instrument and measurements level instrument is set up roughly in the mid
are repeated, but reading-off on the red faces between two change points, and staff rea-
is now started from the forward staff. dings are taken with an accuracy to a mil-
Geometric leyelling can be used for vertical limetre.
survey of haulage tracks in weakly inclined In mine track levelling, the initial bench
and horizontal workings. Levelling is carried mark may be the last change point of a
out by change points arranged in intervals of preceding levelling line, provided that the last
10 m or 20 m by means of a linen tape. The height difference is checked and the dis-
points are marked by chalk on one of the crepancy does not exceed 1 cm. The dis-
track rails and fixed by a suitable method on crepancy of levelling lines must not exceed
the side walls of the working. Track levelling 30 mm JL, where L is the length of a line in
is done in traverses supported by the points hundreds of metres.
of a levelling reference network. Levelling
6.6. Errors in Geometric Levelling 137
At the same time with levelling work, the The corrected height differences are used
height of the working at each change point is for calculating the height marks of the points
measured. by the formula
H., = H,,- 1 + h.,
6.5. Office Analysis of Results
where Hi is the height mark on a subsequent
of Geometric Levelling
point, Hi-l is the height mark on a preceding
The office analysis of mine measurements point, and hi is the height difference between
in geometric levelling includes the control of these points.
the field books, calculation of height dif- The height marks of intermediate points
ferences at stations, page-to-page control, are calculated by means of the instrument
adjustment of calculated height differences, horizon (elevation head), which is determined
and calculation of the heights of reference net by the formula EH = HB + b, where HB is
points and change points in track levelling. the height mark of the rear point and b is the
If levelling is carried out by means of black-face reading on the staff set on that
dumpy levels or levels with self-adjusting point. In this formula, b is taken with a 'plus'
sighting axes, two height differences are mea- sign if the peg is set in the footwall of a
sured on the black and red faces of staffs at working and with -a 'minus' sign if it is set in
each station, after which the mean values of the roof.
height differences are calculated as the arith- The height marks of intermediate points
metic mean of two readings. The calculations (pegs) are calculated by using the elevation
are checked by page-to-page control which in head: Hc = EH ::!: c, where Hc is the height
the case of geometric levelling (see Table 6.1) mark of an intermediate point and c is the
is made by the formula reading on the staff set up on that point. The
}:;R -}:;F = }:;hi -}:;h2 = 2hm staff reading c is taken with a 'minus' sign if
the staff is set up in the footwall and with a
where }:;R is the sum of readings on the staffs 'plus' sign if it is set up in the roof.
set on rear points; }:;F is the sum of readings Upon calculation of the height marks of
on the forward staffs; }:;hi is the sum of height the change and intermediate points, a profile
differences read off on the black face of a of the working is plotted on a horizontal
staff; }:;h2is the sum of height differences read scale 1/2000 to 1/500 and vertical scale 1/200
off on the red face of a staff; and }:;hmis the to 1/50. The vertical scale is usually taken 20
sum of mean height differences. times as large as the horizontal scale.
The misclosure of a closed line is fh = }:;hi
and that of a line run between the bench 6.6. Errors in Geometric Levelling
marks isfh = }:;hi-(HA -HB), where HA and
H B are the heights of initial bench marks. If the height mark of the initial point is
The permissible discrepancies are intro- known, -the height mark of the final point of
duced with an opposite sign into the cal- geometric levelling can be found by the
culated height differences as corrections de- formula:
termined by the formula O = (n/N)fh' where n
H i = H, + ~h.
be corrected and N is the number of stands in where Hin is the height mark of the initial
the entire levelling line. The sum of cor- point and ~hi is the sum of the height
rections should be equal to the actual dis- differences of a levelling line, which are
crepancy taken with an opposite sign. usually obtained by levelling from the mid.
138 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings
Each height difference is determined as the the telescope magnification is M = 20, the
difference of staff readings, i. e. hi = ai -hi, sighting distance to the staff 1 = 50 ill, and
Let us determine the root-mean square 't= 20":
error of the sum of height differences. For
this, let the rms errors of height differences be mo=J~= 1.Omm
denoted as mi. m2. m3. ., '. mn, Since the Hence the rms error of a height difference
distances between the change points of the in levelling from the mid, with the distance
line of levels are practically equal to one between the instrument and the staff 50 m,
another and the work is done by a single will be:
instrument and under roughly identical con-
ditions, the measured height differences can m=~=1.4mm
be taken to be equal to one another, i, e. The formulae given above make it possible
mi = m2 = m3 = , , , = mn = m.
to determine in advance the rms error of
Thus, the rms error of the sum of height levelling with an instrument of specified
differences is m; = nm2,
characteristics and under particular condi-
The errors of height differences are in-
tions or, on the contrary, to choose an
fluenced predominantly by the errors of rea-
appropriate instrument and method of level-
dings on two staffs and therefore:
ling to ensure the required accuracy.
m2 = m~ + m~ = 2m~
and B set in the footwall of an underground than B, then according to Fig. 6.l8b we have:
working (Fig. 6.180). It is required to mea- h=S sinv+v-i
sure the height difference of B over A. To
measure the inclination angle of a side AB, 3. With the point A set in the roof and the
the theodolite can be set up either in the point B in the footwall (Fig. 6.l8c), the height
lower point A or in the upper point B; let it difference can be found by the formula:
be first set up in A. Then a plummet is hung h = -S sin v + v +i
over the point B and a mark (say, the point of
string connection or the plummet point) is 4. If the points A and B of trigonometric
chosen so as to sight the theodolite telescope levelling are set in the roof of a working
on that point. (Fig. 6.18d) and the theodolite stands in the
The height difference for the schemeshown upper point (point B), then the height dif-
in Fig. 6.180 can be calculated by two for- ference will be found by the formula
mulae, one of which includes a horizontal
h=S sinv-v+i
distance s and slope v and the other, the sine
of an inclination angle v and inclined
length S.
6.8. Errors in Trigonometric
Denoting the sighting height by v and the
instrument height by i, we obtain for the first Levelling
case: The error of location of the final point in
h+v=stanv+i trigonometric levelling is determined by the
error of location of the initial point of a
and therefore traverse and the error in determining the
h=stanv+i-v height differences. In this case, the error in
determining the location of the initial point
For the second case: will not be considered. We shall only analyse
h+v=S sinv+i the accumulated errors caused by the errors
in determining the height differences. If the
and therefore root-mean square errors of height differences
h=Ssinv+i-v are denoted as mi' m2' m3, ..., mn,the sum of
height differences will be calculated with an
If the theodolite is set up in the upper point error:
B, the formulae for height differences will be
M 2- 2 2 2 2
written as follows: -mi + m2 + m3 + ...+ m"
265"; m" is the error of measured vertical v = 25°; ~ = 0.0015; I.. = 0.0001; mv = mi =
angle; mi is the error of measured height of an =2mm:
instrument; and mv is the error of measured m~ = 0.00152 x 30000 x 0.422622
sighting height. The last two errors may be
taken to be equal to each other, i. e. mi = mv. + 0.00012 x 300002
In view of what has been said above, the
preceding formula can be rewritten as fol-
lows:
+ 2 x 22 = 17.6 mm
S2
m2
h = ,,2Ssin2v + A.2S2sin2v + m2- 2 + 2m?, Thus, m" = 4.2 mm.
p
If the height difference is measured when
Let us calculate the root-mean square levelling forward and back, then:
error of height difference determined by tri- , r
m" = m,j.J2 = 3 mm
gonometric levelling for the following data:
sighting length S = 30 m; inclination angle
Chapter Seven
associated with driving underground wor- the side length and the linear discrepancy
kings of the planned dimensions; and ensu- should be not more than 1/2000 in closed
ring safe conditions of mining. traverses with gyroscopic sides or 1/1500 in
The surveys of underground workings are traverses run between two sides of a poly-
based on survey nets which can be formed by gonometric traverse.
running theodolite or goniometer traverses. The sides of theodolite traverses are mea-
The initial points for theodolite traverses are sured twice: in inclined workings, in forward
the points of polygonometric traverses. Ang- and back direction with simultaneous measu-
les in theodolite traverses are measured by rement of the inclination angle of the measu-
theodolites of a root-mean square accuracy red line; in horizontal workings, both measu-
not worse than 30". If theodolite traverses are rements can be done in the same direction
run in workings with the angle of dip less with measuring the length of intervals if the
than 30°, horizontal angles can be measured line is longer than the length of a measuring
in a single repetition or set. The difference tape. Steel tapes for the measurements must
between the check and final values of an be standardized to have the relative error not
angle should not exceed 1.5' in measurements more than 1/40000 of their total length; it is
by the method of repetitions and 2' in those permissible in taping to stretch the tape
by the method of sets. without spring balance.
The error of centring of the theodolite and Stope workings can be surveyed by run-
signals in theodolite traverses should be not ning goniometer traverses with the use of
more than 1/2000 of the horizontal length of theodolites or instruments of a lower ac-
the smaller side of a measured angle. curacy. Goniometer traverses should be con-
In underground workings with the angle of nected at both ends to the points of a
dip more than 30°, horizontal angles should theodolite traverse. The accuracy of gonio-
be measured by two rounds, with the circle meter traverses can be characterized by the
being reset roughly by 180° before the second following data: root-mean square error of
round. The discrepancy between the angles angular measurements 10'; ultimate length of
obtained in individual sets should not ex- a traverse 0.3 km; discrepancy between two
ceed 2'. The discrepancy between the angles measured lengths of a line 1/100; and linear
measured by half-sets should not exceed the discrepancy in traverses run between two
values given in Table 7.1. sides of a theodolite traverse, not more than
The discrepancy between the two measure- 1/200.
ments of one and the same side of a theo- The points of a survey net should be
dolite traverse should not exceed 1/1000 of located at distances not more than 50 m from
a face. In places where mining workings
Table 7.1
approach dangerous zones, this distance
Angle of dip of wor- Permissible angular discrepancy be- should be not more than 20 m. In the latter
kings, degrees tween half-sets, min case, the coordinates of the points of survey
control are determined twice.
at junctions bet- in inclined wor.
ween horizontal kings
and inclined
workings 7.2. Instruments for Surveys
of Preparatory
31-45 2 3 and Stope Workings
46-60 3 4
61-70 4 5 The most popular instruments employed in
mine surveying practice for the surveys of
144 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings
(a)
traverse sides are measured by a linen tape or for linearity by means of engineering theodo-
by goniometer stadia hairs. If goniometers lites or goniometers.
with eccentric telescope (types UTG and The junction of a goniometer traverse to a
UT -3) are employed, the inclination angles of theodolite traverse can be effected by means
survey traverse sides should be measured of a connection triangle. For this, the
twice, i. e. forward and back. The actual goniometer is set up in a point 1 in the entry
inclination angle is found as the half-sum of (see Fig. 7.11) to measure the angle 'Y of the
measured values. connection triangle and angle 13.The length
of the first side a of the goniometer traverse is
7.3.3. Survey Work in Faces measured. If the first point is chosen so that
the connection triangle angle 'Y does not
with Powered Mining
exceed 5°, the junction angle <p can be
Complexes calculated by the formula:
For the normal exploitation of faces <p= 180° -(I + a/c) 'Y
equipped with powered mining complexes, it
is essential to ensure survey control of the where c is the length of the polygonometric
linearity of a face and the position of a traverse side.
powered complex in it. If a traverse is run in a face with the sole
For controlling the position of the comp- purpose to check the face linearity, its con-
lex, pickets are established at intervals of 10 nection to the polygonometric traverse is not
m or 20 m in the main entry and ventilation needed.
entry. The lines connecting like points in
both entries should be perpendicular to the
7.4. Surveys of Underground
axes of entries. The position of the complex is
controlled by measuring the distances from Chambers and Cavities
its ends to the like pickets in the entries. With As the mineral is being extracted under-
horizontal and gently dipping seams, these ground, there are formed voids and cavities
distances should be equal, i. e. the complex of various configuration and size. These cavi-
should be located perpendicular to the axes ties may be filled with air, gases, salt water,
of the entries. For dipping seams (with the petroleum, etc. From the standpoint of mine
angle of dip 15-25°), these distances should surveying, underground cavities are divided
not be equal, since in that case the angle into accessible and inaccessible. Undergro-
between the face conveyer and the axis of und cavities are regarded to be inaccessible if
hauling (conveyer) entry must be equal to observers have no access to their walls or if
91-93°. Thus, the hauling (conveyer) face this is forbidden for some or other reason.
must be advanced to some or other extent Accessible cavities can be surveyed by the
depending on the type of complex, length methods discussed earlier, whereas the sur-
of face, and mining and geological condi- veys of inaccessible cavities have certain
tions. specific features.
The linearity of a face with a powered In view of a large diversity of mining
mining complex must be checked at least conditions, it may be distinguished between
once a month. The check for the linearity of a the following trends in the surveys of under-
face ofa small length (60-100 m) can be done ground workings of large volume: surveys
visually or by taping from change points or based on the tacheometric principle of deter-
theodolite traverse points. The faces of a mination of coordinates of inaccessible spa-
large extension (above loo m) are controlled ces; surveys based on the photogrammetric
7.4. Surveys of Underground Chambersand Cavities 151
geometrical.
11 11
Fig. 7.13 Scheme of projecting (I) and measuring II -2
(2) systems of tacheometer type TG-4 I II
11 11 I 11'
il ll !i I
II 1111
cy (1/100). At larger distances, the accuracy 1I
worsens substantially, since double images of 73
-111' 1 1-
a light mark cannot be brought to coincid- .Iii
The instrument set includes a photographic natural untwisting of the logging cable (the
camera, power supply unit, light projector, time of cable untwisting may amount to 1.5 h
reel with synchronizing cable, and four tele- in boreholes of a depth of 1000 m). After that,
scopic scaling rods. The total error in mea- surveying proper can be carried out, which
surements of cross-sectional areas is :t 1.5% . consists in measuring the depth to which the
borehole tool has been sunk, the velocity of
7.4.3. Sound Ranging sound propagation at the level of the obser-
of Underground Cavities vation point, and the radii of the horizontal
section of a chamber.
The physical methods of mine surveying of The velocity of sound propagation at the
underground cavities are based on the prin- level of an observation point is determined
ciples of transformation of acoustic, radio on brine samples taken beforehand from the
and light waves into values which can cha- borehole. The radii of the chamber are
racterize the direction and length of a measured by the sonar which automatically
measured section. Modern instruments de- turns on the vertical axis in the borehole.
signed on these principles mostly measure the Ultrasonic waves emitted by the sonar are
time of passage of acoustic or radio waves reflected from the walls of the chamber and
from an emitter to an object and back. enter the receiver of the acoustic system. The
Sound waves (in particular ultrasonic wa- received signals are recorded by the receiver,
ves) have turned out to be most suitable for amplified in an electronic unit, and transmit-
measuring of cavities (sound ranging). They ted as electric pulses through the logging
have a relatively low velocity of propagation cable to the on-ground station.
in air, because of which the time of their Large vertical workings and other air-filled
propagation can be measured with a rather cavities can be surveyed by means of a sonar
high accuracy. For instance, ultrasonic rang- profilograph type ZPR-2 developed in this
ing can measure relatively short distances
country.
with a root-mean square error :!:20 mm.
Sound ranging has found wide application
for surveys of underground cavities formed 7.5. Surveys of Preparatory
through salt leaching and of vertical work- Workings
ings of large cross-sectional area. A borehole The surveys of preparatory workings are
sonar 'Luch' has been designed in this count- carried out for plotting detailed plans and
ry for surveying of brine-filled underground sections within the limits of a stoping block
cavities. The apparatus is mounted on a or extraction section and for determining the
truck and consists of two portions: a bore- coordinates of particular points essential
hole tool and instrument stand. The borehole for the solution of various analytical prob-
tool is connected with the on-ground equip- lems.
ment by a logging cable which also serves to These surveys should include all details
hold the tool in a borehole. large enough to be visible on compiled plans
Surveying of brine-filled cavities is a la- and profiles. When surveying details, linear
bour-consuming procedure. Before making a measurements should be made at the level of
survey, it is required to depressurize the the mid section of a working with an
underground chamber to be measured, dis- accuracy to 5 cm or, in rough surveys, to
mount the rig head, extract the brine-lifting IO.cm.
pipe string, sink the borehole tool to the Angular measurements in the surveys of
bottom of a chamber, and allow time for preparatory workings can be done by using
7.6. Surveys of Blast Holes 155
"...
/ number of levels are to be oriented succe'ssi-
vely, this discrepancy must not exceed m =
c = 14'IJ~, where n is the number of levels. At
~~~1(
~ 15.41 least three station points should be es-
\ I ~~-~;;;"--o::j
, tablished at the oriented level.
0'
"',
15.0 Orientation can be effected through two
0, vertical workings connected on the oriented
"'I
level; through one vertical working; through
0,1
(0)'
one inclined working; or by the gyroscopic
method.
'J~~
B
Fig. 7.19 Assigning directions to parallel hori 7.7.1. Orientation of Sublevels
zontal blast holes
Through Two Vertical Workings
(Raises)
set up successively on these points to layoff Orientation through two vertical workings
angles 131'132'133'etc. Looking through the (raises} is made essentially in the same way as
telescope, the centre and number of a blast orientation via two vertical shafts: two plumb
hole are marked on the wall of the working bobs are hung in the vertical workings; the
(most often with chalk). After drilling, a check coordinates of plumb lines on the initial
survey of blast holes is done. The depths of (upper} level are determined by connecting to
vertical blast holes are measured by a tape or polygonometric or theodolite traverse points;
wire cable with numbered I-metre marks. a theodolite traverse is run on the oriented
The depths of horizontal and inclined blast level between the plumb lines; the horizontal
holes are measured by a steel wire 3-4 mm in angles in this traverse are measured with a
diameter, which is pushed up to the hole root-mean square error of 40" and the
bottom and then withdrawn, and the length lengths of sides, with a relative error of
of the immersed portion of wire is measured 1/1000. The relative discrepancy between the
by.a tape. It is also possible to make these lengths of a plumb-connection line calculated
measurements by means of self-straightening on the oriented and initial level should not
elastic steel tapes 50 m long or light-metal exceed 1/1000.
bars 1-1.5 m long which can be joined with In caseswhen sublevel workings are opened
one another to form a measuring bar up to by two vertical workings with one of them
40 m in length. being stepped (Fig. 7.20}, orientation can be
done by the indirect solution of a triangle
7.7. Orientation 010203. Connecting polygons 01-1-2-02
of Sublevel Workings and O2-3-4-5-03 are run on the levels to be
oriented and a connecting polygon 01-A-B-
The orientation of survey nets in sublevel C-D-03 on the main level. The coordinates of
workings should be carried .out so that the plumb lines 01 and 03 are determined by
maximum error of orientation in a block of a connecting them to the theodolite traverse on
size not exceeding 120 m relative to the the main level. The connecting traverses on
theodolite traverse points of the main level the oriented levels are constructed in a con-
will be not more than 10'. Orientation should ditional coordinate system, and the lengths of
be made twice, and the discrepancy between the triangle sides 0102 and 0203 are calcu-
two measurements must not exceed 14'. If a lated. The side 0103 and direction angle
158 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings
~
7.7. Orientation of Sublevel Workings 159
where Ql is the quantity of mineral shipped dumps to regular geometric bodies when
to consumers or spent at the mining enterpri- needed.
se,t; Q2' Q3 is the remainder of useful mineral In order to determine the volume of a
at the beginning and end of the period dump or pile, its height, width, length, ba-
considered in stores, bins, and railway se diameter, etc. are measured by a tape.
cars, t. Substituting the measured values into suita-
The quantity Ql is determined by weighing ble geometrical formulae (Fig. 7.26), the vol-
at shipping of the mineral or is taken ume of a dump is calculated with an accqracy
according to accounts, whereas Q2 and Q3 to 10% depending on. the shape complexity
are found directly by the results of the survey and dimensions of the dump. The volumes of
measurements of the mineral contained in dumps (piles) of category III and partially of
stores, bins and other storage places. Since category II (with the height more than 5 m)
the amount of mineral in stocks at the are determined on the basis of tacheometric,
beginning or end of a month is usually much plane-table or profile survey. In such cases,
less than the monthly output by the enter- the terrain area allotted for mineral storage is
prise, the errors of measurements in stocks surveyed topographically to plot a large-scale
have practically no effect on the montWy plan of the area with horizontals.
output of the mineral by a mine. The method of profiles is employed mostly
The remaining mass of mineral in stocks for surveying of elongated dumps. In that
(Q, t) is found by multiplying the volume Vof case, profile lines are assigned perpendicular
dumps (or of the filled-in portion of bins) by to the longitudinal axis of a dump. The
the density y of the mineral in dumps (bins). profile lines are plumbed, and the most
The accuracy of determination of the mass of characteristic points are fixed by pickets. The
mineral in stocks depends on the accuracy of spacing between the profile lines is taken
the volume and density determination, which equal to 5-10 m depending on the shape
in turn depends on the difficulties of measure- complexity of the dump. Surveying by profile
ments in stocks. In this respect, it is possible lines consists in measuring the distances
to distinguish between three categories of between the picket (change) points (starting
dumps. from the initial points) and the height diffe-
Category I includes dumps having an es- rences between them. Distances are measured
sentially regular geometrical shape: cone-sha- by tapes (twice), and the tape readings are
ped, pyramidal, prismatic with trapezoida,l rounded off to decimetres. The height diffe-
cross section (of the type of road embank- rence is determined by technical levelling.
ments) and some other shapes typical of Theodolite-tacheometers can also be used for
stockyards with trestles. profile line surveying. The measured results
Category II includes dumps whose shape is are recorded in a field book. Using the height
a combination of cone-shaped, prismatic, difference of the base isolines and the points
pyramidal, etc. bodies. (pickets) on the dump surface, the cross
Category III includes dumps with a comp- sections of the dump are plotted (Fig. 7.27)
licated shape of the surface typical of bin- and their areas are measured by a planimeter
scraper and scraper stores. (with double contouring).
The volumes of dumps related to the first The volume of a dump is found by the
and second category (except for second-ca- formula:
tegory dump~ of a height more than 5 m) can
be recommended to be determined by tape S1+S2 S2+S3 8.+8.+1
V=-/ 2 1 +-/ , 2 +..0+ , /.
(b)
$,
(cJ
(e) (f)
--
it
(9)
hb b
v=
6(2Ib+I,)
Fig. 7.26 Shapesof dumps suitable for tape measuring: (a) trapezoidal profile pile; (b) truncated pyramid;
(c) circular cone; (d) truncated circular cone; (e) truncated elliptical cone; (f) spherical segment; (g)
truncated trihedral prism; (h) wedge
7.8. Measurements of Mining Workings 165
~
166 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings
1- a -I
Im
aav
~-I~! a1
~/////////////~,
02
mineral and rock; thicknesses of the seam in partially in barren rock, it is required to
measured points .md outlines of structural measure the total cross-sectional area and the
elements of the seam (deposit); location and area in mineral (Fig. 7.28b) as the product of
measurements of bedding elements of the the seam thickness by the mean width of the
seam; location of geological disturbances and cross section in the seam: 8 = amm,where am
their bedding elements; and some other data is the mean length of the face line of the
that should be reflected in mine survey plan. working in mineral and m is the seam
An advance of a working may be de- thickness.
termined as the advance in coal (Ic)' that in The mean cross-sectional area in mineral
gangue (barren rock), 19' or that in support by the results of several (n) measurements will
(lining), Is (Fig. 7.28a). The amoUnt of advan- then be:
ce is found as the difference between the 81 + 82 + ...+ 8n
corresponding distances from the initial point 8 m=
at the beginning and end of the specified n
period. Hence, the amount of advance of a The quantity of mineral extracted from the
working during the specified period will be: working during the specified period can be
in coal Ic = Ic2-Ic1; in gangue 19= 192-/91' calculated by the formula:
and in support Is = Is2-Is1. Upon deter-
Q = IcSmY
mining the advances of a working, the
working cross section is measured. If the where Y is the density of coal, tlm3.
working is driven partially in the mineral and
Chapter Eight
x x
YO-YA
'~ B
B
B 8~
..r G/ ',E
"
Fig. 8.1 Schematic diagrams: (a) for solving the inverse problem; (b) for measuring the angle between
directions; (c) for determining the coordinates of intersection point of two straight lines
The inclination angle of the line AB is The coordinates of the point of intersection
found by the formula: (a point D) of these lines can be found by
ZB -ZA solving the triangle BCD:
rany= XD = xB + BDcosaAB' YD = YB + BDsin aAB
~
8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 169
~ .'I
~«'
A B
Fig. 8.2 Schemefor assigning a direction: (a) with an accuracy less than the instrument accuracy; (b) with
a higher accuracy
170 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings
r---
Fig. 8.3 Assigning a direction by compass
the permissible limit. If so, two other points, horizontal plane can be assigned by means of
P' and P", are set up by a theodolite along a suspension compass. For this purpose, the
the collimating ray RP, at a distance of 1-3 m plan of a working is oriented along the
from each other. Thus, the "line passing magnetic meridian, and a straight line is
through the points P, P', and P" will be the drawn on the plan from a survey point B at
beginning of the permanent direction. the beginning of the working in the direction
In caseswhen the angle must be constructed of the projected axis. The miner's compass is
with a higher accuracy (for instance, for then laid on the plan to measure the magne-
driving a working from two ends), the pro- tic azimuth of a line. A cord is fixed at the
cedure is as follows. A point Cl is set up in point Bin the mine and tensioned roughly in
one position of the,elescope (Fig. 8.2b), and the specified direction (Fig. 8.3). A suspension
the angle ARCl thus obtained is measured compass is hung from the cord and the free
with the required accuracy. The measured end of the latter is moved laterally until the
angle ~m= ARC 1 is compared with the compass needle points at the specified magne-
specified value ~sP' and the difference 11~= tic azimuth. The cord is fixed in this position,
= ~m-~sP is compared with the required and two or three plumb bobs are hung from
accuracy of angle laying. If 11~is higher than it. The method is, however, employed only
the required accuracy, angle ARCl must be rarely.
corrected. To do this, the distance RC 1 = I is Points for assigning the direction to a
measured and a linear correction is calcula- working in the horizontal plane can be
ted by the formulae: located more conveniently at a certain
distance (20-30 cm) from the walls of the
111 = -111~" working, rather than along the central axis.
p" In that case, plumb bobs hung from the fixed
or points will not obstruct the motion of mining
workers and will be preserved better. Drivers,
L\l = 1sin L\j3
however, must know the distance from these
The point C 1 is then displaced by this points to the face walls, which is called a
correction (to a point C), which gives the 'bracket' and can be found in the following
sought-for angle ARC. The theodolite is way.
sighted on the point C, and two new points, Suppose that a working must be driven
B' and B", at a distance of 1-3 ill from each from a point A (Fig. 8.4) in the direction of a
other, are set up and fixed. Thus, the specified line AC which is its axis. Points At and A2
direction will be given by the line RR"B' . near the walls of the working fix a direction
The directions of auxiliary workings in the that is parallel to the axis. The width of
8 Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 171
Fig. 8.4 Scheme for calculating 'brackets' when axial direction is transferred closer to working sides
'brackets' Cl and C2 can be determined from plummet has a cylindrical housing 2 with a
triangles AA1D1 and A1A2D2. First, we have cover 1, which contains a dry cell. An electric
to calculate the distances dl and d2 by the lamp 3 at the bottom end of the housing is
formulae: covered with a red or green transparent cap
dl = AA1 sin 11 and d2 = A1A2 sin 12 4. At the top of the housing, there are a
switching knob 6 and eyelet 5 for hanging the
or, since the angles 11 and 12 are small, by plummet from a cord.
the formulae:
Light plummets are hung along the spe-
cified direction so that the line formed by the
dl = AA1- 1~ and d2 = A1A2- 1;
lamps is the direction axis in the vertical and
p" p"
horizontal plane. Light plummets are visible
where 11 = aAA
1
-a AB' 12 = aA
1
B -aA
1
A
2
,
at a distance of 60- 70 m on the average.
and p" = 206265".
As may be seenfrom Fig. 8.4, Cl = 0.51- dl
and C2= 1- (Cl + d2), where I is the clear
width of a working.
Drivers are usually provided with a sketch
of the working which gives the positions of
plumb bobs and the size of a 'bracket'.
Points assigning the direction to a working
are usually fixed in support beams or roof. In
permanent workings, range points are fixed
more reliably by drilling holes 20 cm in depth
in the roof and driving survey markers with
hooks for plumb bobs into them. As the
working is advanced, the plumb bobs are
transferred closer to the face. With the
transfer distance up to 15-20 m, new points
can be marked visually (by sighting along the
line of the earlier plumb bobs) and with
distances up to 50 m, by means of a
theodolite. Fig. 8.5 Light plummet: 1- cap; 2- metal hous-
Directions to workings can also be assig- ing; 3-electric lamp; 4-coloured acrylic plastic
ned by using light plummets (Fig. 8.5). A light cap; 5 -eyelet; 6 -light-switching screw
172 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings
...
.!) 0:) .~
~ ~ O
"
"' .~,
'l C? .."
.~~ t?~\:o \:;...,;.~
'X((
8-' ~.O~~
' ; 0 .~ 0 ~ "
:!0
1 "'
,- ?,
0
.~ o
.6] a
'-i0.6~0 ~ 40"15"
,-, 3.00~i-
2.55~
11.05
-1.8 R=17.5m
1.80
~O
1.65~ ....;
~1.'J5 R=18.5m .
7
Fig. 8.7 Scheme of direction assigning by method Fig. 8.8 Scheme of direction assigning by method
of perpendiculars of radii
A
---
,
a
R1
Fig. 8.9 Scheme of vertical direction assigning to working by a level and wall marks
bench marks may be fixed in the opposite diameter of light beam varies depending on
wall of the working. distances and reaches 200 mm.
Directions to workings can also be assig- A level-inclinometer (Fig. 8.11) consisting
ned by using laser indicators whose optical of a level 1 and wedge-type inclinome-
system includes a wedge compensator with ter attachment 2 can be employed for as-
the working range :t 2°. The desired slope is signment and checking of slopes of horizontal
set up by means of a special ring arranged workings and for laying rail tracks in mines
before the collimator and graduated in and on the surface. It has the following
thousandths of gradient. operating characteristics:
A laser sight (Fig. 8.10) has many applica-
lions, in particular, for direction assignment Range of slopes assigned by the
and control of cutting of heading machines main optical-wedge system, rad . ::t:0.008
Ditto, with the use of additional
and tunnel shields in workings with inclina-
Division
wedges,rad
value of slope scale, rad .. I 0.048
lion angles up to 10°. Laser sights of this type I 0.0001
can operate properly at temperatures from Accuracy of slope assignment, rad . I 0.0005
+ 30° to -40° and air humidity up to 80% . Mass of inclinometer attachments,
Their working range is above 200 m and the kg. 0.33
4
/
\
5 2
traverse sides are measured by a linen tape or for linearity by means of engineering theodo-
by goniometer stadia hairs. If goniometers lites or goniometers.
with eccentric telescope (types UTG and The junction of a goniometer traverse to a
UT -3) are employed, the inclination angles of theodolite traverse can be effected by means
survey traverse sides should be measured of a connection triangle. For this, the
twice, i. e. forward and back. The actual goniometer is set up in a point 1 in the entry
inclination angle is found as the half-sum of (see Fig. 7.11) to measure the angle 'Y of the
measured values. connection triangle and angle 13.The length
of the first side a of the goniometer traverse is
7.3.3. Survey Work in Faces measured. If the first point is chosen so that
the connection triangle angle 'Y does not
with Powered Mining
exceed 5°, the junction angle <p can be
Complexes calculated by the formula:
For the normal exploitation of faces <p= 180° -(I + a/c) 'Y
equipped with powered mining complexes, it
is essential to ensure survey control of the where c is the length of the polygonometric
linearity of a face and the position of a traverse side.
powered complex in it. If a traverse is run in a face with the sole
For controlling the position of the comp- purpose to check the face linearity, its con-
lex, pickets are established at intervals of 10 nection to the polygonometric traverse is not
m or 20 m in the main entry and ventilation needed.
entry. The lines connecting like points in
both entries should be perpendicular to the
7.4. Surveys of Underground
axes of entries. The position of the complex is
controlled by measuring the distances from Chambers and Cavities
its ends to the like pickets in the entries. With As the mineral is being extracted under-
horizontal and gently dipping seams, these ground, there are formed voids and cavities
distances should be equal, i. e. the complex of various configuration and size. These cavi-
should be located perpendicular to the axes ties may be filled with air, gases, salt water,
of the entries. For dipping seams (with the petroleum, etc. From the standpoint of mine
angle of dip 15-25°), these distances should surveying, underground cavities are divided
not be equal, since in that case the angle into accessible and inaccessible. Undergro-
between the face conveyer and the axis of und cavities are regarded to be inaccessible if
hauling (conveyer) entry must be equal to observers have no access to their walls or if
91-93°. Thus, the hauling (conveyer) face this is forbidden for some or other reason.
must be advanced to some or other extent Accessible cavities can be surveyed by the
depending on the type of complex, length methods discussed earlier, whereas the sur-
of face, and mining and geological condi- veys of inaccessible cavities have certain
tions. specific features.
The linearity of a face with a powered In view of a large diversity of mining
mining complex must be checked at least conditions, it may be distinguished between
once a month. The check for the linearity of a the following trends in the surveys of under-
face ofa small length (60-100 m) can be done ground workings of large volume: surveys
visually or by taping from change points or based on the tacheometric principle of deter-
theodolite traverse points. The faces of a mination of coordinates of inaccessible spa-
large extension (above loo m) are controlled ces; surveys based on the photogrammetric
176 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings
~ ooooooo 000
100
-ii'". ' : F-.'.'i'Y - 5mm
'II 01
2mmt t==M.: 11mrr
0)
"0
la
:1@
80 I~
60
!!!!!i ~2
40
I~ ~
\~.r=
...C)
"Q;:E
=-
3
-of
20
~
...~
~Q)
...0:
.0:"'
".~:c
,CI:
0
o alo O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Picket15 Picket25
Fig.8.16 Chart strip with recorded data: }-curve of track gauge variation (::t2mrn); 2-curve of
recorded longitudinal profile; 3 -curve of recorded discrepancies between the heights of rails
-52.8 = 2.4 mm on the chart and, con- number of divisions by the width of one
sidering that the chart scale is 1/50, the actual division on a scale 1/1, i. e. 5.5 x 2 = II mm.
height difference will be 120 mm. Dividing By the results of these measurements, it is
this height difference by the distance between possible to judge on the condition of the rail
the chosen picket points, we obtain the track and the necessity of repairs.
gradient 120/103, or 12. In mining practice, it is essentiar to control
The elevation of one rail above the other, that underground workings are cut to the
say, in a point H (see curve 3 in Fig. 8.16) is design cross-sectional area. This is especially
found by multiplying the distance from the important for opening and development
point H to the zero line by the scale base, i. e. workings, air ways, and haulage ways. With
2x3x5=30mm. reduced cross sections of workings, the
The deviation of the track gauge from the clearance for the rolling stock or conveyer
standard size, say in a point p (curve 1 in trains will decrease below the permissible
Fig. 8.16) is determined by multiplying the limits and may be the cause of accidents and
8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 179
2
.2
~
"
3.5 3
the angles and sides in the polygon A-E- The total mean error of face connection in
III-II-D-C-B in Fig. 8.26. Let a point k be the the horizontal plane in the critical direction
expected point of face connection. We can x' is found from the formula:
draw two axes through this point: y' along Mx = Jm~. + m~ (8.3)
the axis of a working and x' perpendicular to p ,
that axis. We are interested in the deviation The mean error of face connection along
of the axes of faces in the direction perpendi- the height can be calculated by the formula:
cular to the axis x' and in the direction of the
Mz = Jm;l + mll (8.4)
axis z' (vertically).
The mean error of face connection due to where mgl is the root-mean square error of
the errors of angular measurements in hang- geometric levelling in the mine and mtl is the
ing polygonometric traverses run twice can mean error of trigonometric levelling in the
be determined by the formula: nune.
In caseswhen it is needed to determine the
m = -.!!!!!-~ I~R;. (8.1) mean error of connection of approaching
Xp p"j2v .
faces along the height considering the error of
where mIl is the mean square error of angular height transfer through the mine shafts, it is
measurements, s; Ry. are the projections of essential to take into account the following
the distances from the connection point to probable sources of errors:
the corners of a polygon onto the y'-axis, m (a) error of geometric levelling on the
(the values of Ry are found graphically on the surface mz;
plan, see Ch. 4); and p" = 206265". (b) erro~ of geometric levelling in the mine,
The mean error of face connection depen- mgl;
~(c) error of trigonometric levelling in the
ding on the accuracy of measurement of side
lengths in polygonometric traverses run twice mine, mtl; and
can be determined by the formula: (d) error of height mark transfer through a
vertical shaft, mz (see Ch. 4).
mx =
,
JI.12~SiCOS2
2
a, + A.L2 cas
~~2 "'I (8.2) The expected total error of face connection
along the height can be found by the formula:
where 1.1 is a coefficient which accounts for the M z = ~; , + m;, + mfl + 2m;' (8.5)
influence of random errors per unit of mea-
sured length; I.. is a coefficient of the influence In preliminary calculation of the error of
of systematic errors per unit length; Si is the face connection in vertical shafts (see Fig.
length of the side of a theodolite traverse, m; 8.24) the following errors must be deterrni-
L is the projection of the closing side of a ned:
traverse onto the x'-axis (the distance be- (I) errors of angular measurements in
tween the initial poirits of a polygonometric theodolite traverses run at the upper and
traverse in a mine); ai is the angle between the lower levels of a mine:
side of a polygonometric traverse and the m"
critical direction (to be found graphically on M = --.!!. rr:iii
{1 "V~~i
the plan); y is the angle between the closing p
side of a traverse and the critical direction (to where m{1is the root-mean square error of
be found graphically on the plan); the term angular measurement and Ri is the distance
SiCOS2 ai can be found graphically by double from the centre of connected shafts to the
projection on the plan (see Ch. 4). corners of a theodolite traverse;
8.3. Preliminary Estimation of Face Connection Accuracy 187
(2) errors of measurements of side lengths the lower level being connected ( + 50 m):
in theodolite traverses run at the upper
( + 150 m) and lower ( + 50 m) levels: mar
Mar = -Ro
p
M s = ft;;;:;
where mar is the mean error of orientation
where ms is the mean error of length mea- and Ro is the distance between the centres of
surement~; and shafts.
(3) errors of the orientation of surveys at
Chapter Nine
As=S-Sf ~ (smpf
mp= ms +~
p
which is laid off from the point Eo. and at last
the point E is fixed. where ms and mp are the rrns errors of
Fig. 9.4 Transfer of specified horizontal distance into nature on rough terrain
192 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
ing hoisting depths, increased speeds of may be of the single- or multi-rope type.
hoisting vessels, and larger mass of cargoes. Hoisting plants of vertical shafts are equip-
In addition, the construction of mine comp- ped with medium-sized or large-sized drum-
lexes is often oriented at industrial methods. type machines. The former have a winding
These circumstances set forth new compli- drum 2.5 m. 3 m or 3.5 m in diameter and
cated problems before mine surveyors. In ensure a hoisting speed of 7-10 m/s. Large-
particular, they must ensure the proper ac- sized hoisting machines have drums 4-9 m in
curacy of mounting the process equipment diameter and up to 1560 m in coiling length.
and safe operation of mine hoists. The mine The hoisting speed of these machines attains
surveyor has to take part in all stages of the 16 m/s.
construction and operation of mine hoists. Multi-rope hoisting machines have several
He is directly engaged in the construction ropes which are driven from a hoisting pulley
and installation work, plays an essential role owing to the friction between the pulley
in the acceptance of a mine hoist, and lining and ropes. Each of the ropes is fastened
performs control during the hoist operation. to both hoisting vessels. Multi-rope hoisting
A mine hoist has the following main com- machines are mainly employed in tower-type
ponents: (I) hoisting plant, (2) shaft equip- head-gears. Multi-rope machines manufac-
ment, and ,(3) auxiliary hoisting equipment. tured in this country have four. six or eight
The hoisting plant of a mine includes a ropes. a load-carrying capacity from 3 t to
hoisting machine, head-gear (head-frame), 50 t and driving pulleys 2.1-5 m in diameter.
hoisting (driving) pulleys, hoisting ropes, and A head-frame is a structure above a shaft
hoisting vessels. which carries guide pulleys. conductors. cage
According to the kind of hoisting vessel, rests. unloading curves. etc. There are two
hoisting plants can be divided into skip main types of head-frame: jib head-frames
hoists, cage hoists, skip-cage hoists, and and tower head-frames.
bucket hoists. They may be of the single- or A jib-type head1rame (Fig. 9.9) consists of
multi-rope type depending on the number of a vertical frame 1. a jib 2 which serves as a
hoisting ropes. Further, by the method of strut for the vertical frame and absorbs the
rope winding, it is distinguished between tilting force developed by a hoisting rope.
hoisting plants with a constant winding and a pulley (landing) stage 3 for guide
radius and those with a variable radius. pulleys. Jib-type head-frames are mostly
Depending on the kind of guides, the made of metal and much rarely of wood and
equipment of a shaft may be either rigid or may be classified as A-shaped. four-stand-
consist of ropes. Combined equipment is also type and tent-type.
employed, in which rigid conductors are used A tower-type head1rame carries the entire
for hoisting vessels and rope guides, for hoisting complex. including the hoisting ma-
counter-weights. chine. Tower-type head-frames may have a
The auxiliary equipment of a mine hoist metal framework or reinforced-concrete
includes load-handling facilities and landing (cast-in-situ or precast) carrying walls (Fig.
stages. 9.10). The walls of a head-frame form an
Hoisting machines, which are the principal interior shell of a rectangular cross section
part of mine hoists, may be provided with which serves as a support. and an exterior
either rope-winding drums or friction type shell of a circular or rectangular cross sec-
pulleys (Koepe sheaves).Druni-type hoisting tion.
machines may be with a constant or variable Hoisting pulleys are mounted on the pulley
winding radius. Those with Koepe sheaves stage of a head-frame. They hold the ropes
9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 197
(b)
Fig. 9.9 Steeljib-type head-frames:(a) A-shaped;(III) with four stands;(c) tent type; 1-vertical frame;
2-jib; 3 -pu1ley (landing) stage
and direct them from the hoisting machine and those 9.5-35 m3 in capacity, in multi-
into the mine shaft. rope hoists.
Hoisting pulleys may be without lining or Suspensionsof hoisting vessels.Suspensions
with a lining made of soft metals, wood, (bails) are devices by which hoisting vessels
rubber, etc. The diameter of a pulley depends are connected to ropes. According to safety
on the diameter (thickness) of a hoisting rope. regulations, cage bails have a double inde-
For tight contact of a rope on a pulley, the pendent suspension with l3-fold safety mar-
diameter of the latter must be not less than 80 gin and skip bails, a single suspension with
rope diameters. Non-lined pulleys are made lO-fold safety margin.
of high-strength cast iron (with the diameter Loading-unloading devices (stations). Load-
up to 3 m) or stamped of steel (with the ing and unloading of hoisting vesselsare the
diameter more than 3 m). most critical operations of hoisting. Skips are
Hoisting ropes. Only steel-wire ropes are loaded in a shaft by means of a loading
employed in hoisting plants. Round-strand device which includes an underground bun-
right- or left-hand twisted ropes and flattened- ker, chutes, and gates with drive mechanisms.
strand ropes are used in hoists of a small or Skips and tilting cages are unloaded on the
moderate hoisting height. With a large hois- surface by means of unloading curves moun-
ting height, use is preferably made of cross- ted in the head-frame.
twisted round-strand ropes and self-tighten- A cage hoist has landing stagesin the shaft
ing sheathed ropes, as well as of self-tighten- and on the surface, which are provided with
ing multi-layer ropes. Hoisting machines with landing chairs to support the cages during
Koepe sheaves are equipped with flattened- loading and unloading; they also have arrange-
strand and sheathed ropes. ments for moving carriages into and from
Hoisting vessels.Buckets, cages, skips and cages and safety devices. Landing dogs are
combined types (such as skip-cage) are the most popular type of landing chairs.
employed as hoisting vessels. Cages may be Equipment of vertical shafts. The equip-
of the non-tilting (common) or tilting type ment of shafts is understood as a complex of
and are divided by the type of load into elements which ensure the directed motion of
man-cargo and man (passenger) cages. Sin- hoisting vesselsunder the specified operating
gle- and double-stage non-tilting cages are conditions of a hoist. The shaft equipment
the most popular types. Skips 7-15 m3 in may be either rigid or of the rope type.
capacity are employed in single-rope hoists A rigid equipment consists of conductors
198 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
\, ,0/. ~"~
"
\ \ 1!11
~1\\
I
.I~i'!'Y \I \ I
\ 1\1 , I
A
l\ \
(Fig. 9.13), from which horizontal distances The horizontality of the shaft of a head-
to the pulley rim are measured (/1' /1,4 and frame pulley can be controlled by a frame
/2). These measurements are then repeated level with a division value not worse than
after turning the pulley through 180°. The 20", hydrostatic level, or level with a com-
final results are found as their mean values, pensator, which permit the measurements of
i. e.: the elevations of shaft ends with an accuracy
11+/1 12+/2 up to 1 mm. The permissible deviations of
a1=-
2
a2=-
2
the pulley axis from the horizontal are estab-
lished by specifications on assembling parti-
If the distances a1 and a2 are not equal to cular hoists.
each other, it is then required to calculate the
angle'Y = a 1--a 2 n thrO1lgh whicJ, thp n1111p\T
r 0-- , .,'~ t'.."~J
9.3.3. Survey Control In Construction
Dp
must be turned (here D p is the diameter of the of Tower Head-Frames
pulley). The position of the axis of the pulley The layout work for the construction of
shaft is determined by measuring the distan- steel tower head-frames consists mainly in
ces Si and S2from the shaft axis to the plumb laying out the axes of columns of the first and
bobs hung from wires which fix the shaft axis upper stages of the frame structure.
on the landing stage. Before mounting steel structures on the
202 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
sections of the headframe constructed in The total hoisting height H is the vertical
intervals of 2-4 ill, which makes it possible to distance from the lowermost point of a
check the positions of the headframe walls hoisting vessel when this is in the lowermost
and thus to take measures for preventing position to the same point of the vessel in the
further deformations and deviations of the uppermost position at the end of unloading
slip forms. (Fig. 9.18): H = h + ht + hb, where h is the
depth of the shaft; ht is the distance from the
zero stage to the lowermost point of the
9.3.4. Geometrical Elements hoisting vessel at the moment of unloading;
of a Mine Hoist and hb is the maximum sinking of the hoist-
For efficient and safe operation of a mine ing vessel below the pit-bottom level during
hoist, its individual elements should have the loading.
The height of a head-frame Hhf is the
specified geometrical relationships.
Geometrical elements of a single-rope hoist. vertical distance between the axis of rotation
The principal geometrical elements of a sin- of the guide pulley and the zero stage:
gle-rope hoist are as follows. Hhf = ht + hv + hp + hz + O.75Rp
5000 dia
---
5000 dia
/
"/'~
ii
;,,;
~
~~
, '~
Level
,
of discharae curves
--~
'.
"
~
:" , ,,,
"
" ,
>
~.
"',
"
~
~Receiving stage level
5000 dia
~r~or level \, ~
~
~
+
~
30000 17500
~
9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 205
Rp
11'-"
by the formulae:
,
<PI= <P+ A<p,; <Pu= <P-A<pu
where <PIis the inclination angle of the lower
string; <Puis the inclination angle of the upper
, Lu string; A<p,and A<puare the inclination angles
~'a, of the lower and upper strings relative to the
" L~ ," line that connects the rotation axes of the
"
!.0.0 ~ L R 17' Rdr drum and pulley; <pis the inclination angle of
p the straight line connecting the axes of the
r ~~/&'/~~~
~
cated:
( H+
hemp = Ldr ~
30
+ n ) (d e)
a,-au
1'=
2 cos q>
I~-
L.u ~- - J1~
j -/-
10 ~ 11
Fig. 9.23 Geometrical elements and parameters of multi-rope hoisting plant: (a) and (6) vertical
projections; (c) plan view; 1-drum of drive pulleys; 2, 3-mean run-off points of ropes on drive and guide
pulleys; 4- guide pulleys; 5 -level of guide pulleys; 6- numbers of ropes; 7- bunton; 8- hoisting vesselclip;
9-conductor; 10-mean point of suspension device (clip); 11- hoisting vessel; l-length of intermediate
rope string; h-elevation of main shaft axis above guide pulley shaft axis; hi, hl -elevation of main shaft
axis and guide pulley shaft axis above guide pulley stage level; h3' h4 -elevation of main shaft axis and
guide pulley shaft axis above mean points of suspension devices; R"p. Rgp- radii of drive and guide pulleys
14-1270
210 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
drive pulleys, ai, Fig. 9.23 (an angle formed chine, lead to uneven wear of a pulley
by the axis of a rope with the plane of a drive lining, and cause uneven loads on ropes and
pulley); (b) the fleet angles of descending elevated forces acting .on conductors. The
ropes on guide pulleys, Pi (an angle between main causes which may lead to the dis-
the axis of a descending rope and the plane of tortions in the relation between the geomet-
a guide pulley); and (c) the fleet angles of rical elements and deviations of main ropes
intermediate rope strings on drive pulleys (~J from the vertical are as follows: (a) inaccu-
and guide pulleys ('1'J. In addition to fleet rate assembly of a hoisting machine and
angles, of essential importance are also the equipment; (b) wear of a pulley lining, and
angles of deviation from the vertical axis of (c) displacement of a hoisting machine or
symmetry of the system of ropes and the equipment due to underworking a tower
angle of contact (wrapping angle) of a rope head-frame or mine shaft.
on a guide pulley, 11 (see Fig. 9.23).
The elevated fleet angles of ropes are the 9.3.5. Survey Work During Mounting
main cause of quick wear of a pulley lining, of Hoisting Plants
while the deviation of a rope system from the
vertical may cause increased horizontal loads Survey work for mounting a hoisting plant
exerted by hoisting vesselson the shaft equip- consists in transferring the hoisting axis and
ment. the main shaft axis into the hoisting plant
The fleet angles of ropes on drive and building and laying out the foundation for
guide pulleys of multi-rope hoisting machines the hoisting machine and its elements. The
must not exceed 30-40'. layout work is started by transferring into
The control of the relation between the nature the point of intersection of the axis of
main geometrical elements of hoisting ma- the main shaft and the axis of the hoist shaft.
chines of this type consists essentially in Upon erecting the walls of the hoisting
observing the following requirements: (a) the machine room to a height of 1-1.5 m above
axes of the main shaft and guide pulley shaft the ground, the axis of the main shaft and the
should be horizontal and parallel to one' axis of the hoisting machine shaft are trans-
another; (b) the axes of main hoisting ropes ferred by means of a theodolite inside the
should be perfectly vertical; (c) the drive and building and fixed by brackets on the inner
guide pulleys of a rope string should lie in the walls. Mter erecting the building walls to the
same vertical plane; (d) the straight line full height, a second row of brackets (mount-
connecting the mean run-off point of a rope ing brackets) is built in at a height somewhat
and the mean point of a suspension device below the ceiling floor level. The axial points
should lie on the vertical axis of a hoisting are transferred onto these brackets from the
compartment; (e) drive and guide pulleys lower ones by a theodolite or plumb bobs.
should have the same diameters correspond- The hoisting axis and the machine shaft
ing to the design specifications; and (1) the axis are laid out twice. The mean direction
angles of deflection of ropes by guide pulleys angle of the main shaft should differ from the
should be within the limits of 8-15°. design value by not more than 2', and the
The experience of operation of multi-rope angle between the two fixed perpendicular
hoists has demonstrated that the design di- axes should differ from a right angle by not
mensions of these machines should be obser- more than 1'. The distance from the centre of
ved with a high degree of accuracy, since the mine shaft to the machine shaft should
their deviations may influence substantially differ from the design value by not more than
the operating conditions of a hoisting ma- 100 mm, and the side displacement of the
9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 211
point of intersection of the hoisting axis and traverse A-I-2-3 (Fig. 9.24) is run from the
machine shaft axis, by not more than 50 mill. layout axis of the main shaft which is taken
The permissible deviation of the machine as the initial direction. The point 4 of a
shaft axis from the horizontal position is traverse is fixed approximately on the hoist-
established by the specifications for hoisting ing axis near the zero stage. The angle 2-3-1
machine assembly. is laid up at a point 3 (from the side 3-2),
Mter laying the supporting frame of a hoist which is calculated so that the direction 3-1 is
into its place, it is checked for horizontality perpendicular to the axis of the machine
and correct position relative to the hoisting shaft. This direction is transferred onto the
axis and the main shaft axis of the machine. pulley stage and fixed by a wire I-II. At the
The position of the frame along the height is pulley stage, the distances a1, a'1' a2 and a~
checked by levelling the corner points of the from the wire I-II to the external edges of
frame in plan relative to the axes by means of pulley rims at the ends of a horizontal
plumb bobs. The deviation of the frame from diameter are then measured. The distance 1
its design position should not exceed 10 mill between the external faces of the pulley rims
in plan and 100 mill vertically. The highest is also measured. In the machine room build-
difference of elevations of the corner points of ing, there are measured the distance between
the frame should be not more than 15 mm. the internal faces of drum rims ho, the width
The arrangement of the main shaft bear- of empty portion of the drum h and h', the
ings is checked along the height by levelling width of the working portion hw and h;., the
the lower points of their internal surface and
in the horizontal plane, by means of plumb +x
bobs hung from a cord stretched between the
I
axial brackets of the main shaft of the
hoisting machine. The deviations of bearings
in plan and vertically should not exceed
1-2 mill. The actual position of the shaft of
the hoisting machine is checked by the same
method as the position of bearings.
'~~
Mter the completion of the machine as-
""\
sembly, the position of the drum relative to ~
total width of the zone of friction coils and The distances a and a' for hoisting ma-
reserve coils (bfr + br) and (bfr + b~)for two- chines of the first and second type are found
drum machines; for single-drum and bicy- by the formulae:
lindrical machines, it is required to measure a = 0.5(a1 + a2) + 0.5/ :t c
the total width of the empty portion and of
a' = 0.5(a'1+ a~) + 0.5/ :t c
the zones of friction coils and reserve coils
(b + bfr + br) and (b' + bfr + b~)and the to- where c is the distance between the transfer-
tal width of the drum, B. red I-II direction and Ox axis, which is equal
Taking the system of coordinates with the to the ordinate of point I.
axis of machine shaft being the y-axis and the For hoisting machines of the third type, the
axis of symmetry of the machine, the x-axis, it distances a and a' are determined by the
is now possible to calculate the coordinates formulae:
of theodolite traverse points and of the axes a =10.5(a1+a2)+0.5/-cl
of ropes and conductors. For each rope, there
a' = 10.5(d1+ a~) + 0.5/- cI
are determined the maximum exterior (a.x)
and interior (ain) fleet angles on the drum of The inclined distance L (of a rope string)
the hoisting machine: can be found from the expression
(a) for a hoisting plant with two cylindrical
L=~
drums and pulleys:
where Lo = x.. -D J2 (here x.. is the abscissa
b.x -a, a -bin ,
of a rope in the adopted system of coordi-
a.x= p, ain=-p
L L nates and D p is the pulley diameter); Ah is the
(b) for a hoist with one cylindrical or height difference of the pulley axis above that
bicylindrical drum: of the machine shaft.
Since the axis of a pulley may turn out to
b.x -a, bin + a , be unparallel to the machine shaft axis, the
= .p Uin =
u"x -:--p
L 1 fleet angles on the pulley may respectively
differ from those on the drum. For pulleys,
where p' = 3440'; hexand hin are the distances
we determine the two maximum fleet angles
from the axis Ox to the rope on the drum in
of ropes: an exterior angle ~ex and interior
its extreme (exterior or interior) positions; a is
the distance from the axis Ox to the axial angle ~in' by the formulae:
plane of the pulley; and L is the inclined ~ex= a ex -'Y cos <p, ~in = ain + 'YCOS<p
distance between the axes of the machine where 'Y is the horizontal angle of turning of
shaft and pulley, which should be determined the pulley plane relative to the axis Ox
with an accuracy to 1 m.
The terms hex and hin can be found by the
(h ...
olstlng
)
axis ,
a2 -at
y =
,
~ p an
d
<p
.
lS t h e
following formulae: Dp
for two-drum machines (see Fig. 9.21a): angle of inclination of the hoisting rope
string, which can be found, with an accuracy
hex = 0.5ho + h + hw + hr
to 10, from the formula
or hex = B- hfr + 0.5ho, hin = 0.5ho + h
tan <p= L\h/ L
for single-drum and cylindrical machines
(see Fig. 9.21h and c)
hex= O.5B -hfr
h,- = 0.5B -(h' + h: + h'..-)
9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 213
9.3.7. Survey Work for Checking One of the probable methods for deter-
the Relation Between mining the radii of drive pulleys consists in
the Geometrical Elements the following. A line parallel to the main shaft
of a Multi-Rope Hoisting Plant axis is fixed in the machine room, after which
the distances from that line to hoisting ropes
Surveying a multi-rope hoisting plant is
are measured.
carried out in order to determine the angles
of deviation of the axes of rope systems from The point A is fixed on the floor of the
machine room (Fig. 9.25). A theodolite is set
the vertical in projections onto the axes x and
up on that point and sighted roughly along
y (ex, ey, mx' and my),fleet angles of the main
the rope line (direction AaIl). The readings aI
and intermediate ropes on drive and guide
and all are taken on two staffs set up in points
pulleys (a, ~, <p,and 'I'), angle of deflection of
I and II horizontally and tangentially to the
the rope by a guide pulley (11), angles of
machine shaft. The distances SI and SII from
inclination of the axes of the main shaft and
the point A to staffs I and II are then
guide pulleys (0, 0'), and the angle of turn of
the axes of guide pulleys relative to the main measured. The shaft is measured circum-
shaft axis (I:). ferentially in the points I and II (CI and CII)
and its radii are calculated by the formulae
The sequence of survey work for checking
a four-rope hoisting plant is as follows. rI = cJ21t and rIl = cIJ21t
Determination of radii of drive pulleys. The
radii of drive pulleys should be determined to These radii and the measured values aI and
obtain the abscissae of the rope axes in all make it possible to take readings on the
run-off points, which, with the hoisting staffs with the theodolite telescope sighted
vessels in the lowermost position, are con- parallel to the main shaft axis:
sidered practically coincident. Because of this
sIlaI -sI(aIl + rIl -rJ
the run-off points are ,projected onto the bI=
measuring levels. SII-SI
and rope axes by the formulae: If aCD::!:90° < 10', then Xc = Xr5 and YC=
= v -f 5' where v is the staff reading corres-
liI + lill + 2d -lillI -liIv
'=k+ ponding to the centre of a hole for the
4
fixation of the staff in the point C (see
1; =
J;I + J;II +J;III
4
+ J;IV Fig.
The9.27).
angles of rectangle ABCD are found
by solving the triangles into which the
where i is the number of a rope; k is the rectangle is divided by diagonals AD and CB.
distance from the staff axis to the beginning Taking the coordinates of the point C as the
of the ordinatometer scale; and d is the length initial ones and knowing the direction angle
of the ordinatometer scale. aCD' it is possible to determine the coordi-
The values of abscissaeon the staff can be nates of points A, B, and D.
found from the expressions: Determination of the angle of turning of
x r5 = -R 5 + 15' x r6 = -R 6 + 16 guide pulley shaft axis relative to the main
..
--R + 1 --R + 1 shaft axis. In order to determIne the angle &,a
Xr7 -7 7' Xr8 -8 8 staff is fixed on points A and B laid up
where R is the radius of a drive pulley. parallel to the line of deflected ropes (Fig.
The direction angle ofa side CD (staff axis) 9.28). Two plumb bobs 01 and O2 are hung
can be found by the formula: at one end of the shaft in a point IV, and a
(x -x) metal rule is laid below them perpendicular
aCD = 90° +
r5 r8 p'
.
to a staff AB. A series of readings n1, n2' n3'
f8 -f5 n4' etc., and m1, m2, m3, m4, etc. are taken
The coordinates x, y of a point C are under the centres of plumb bobs, and their
calculated by the formulae: mean values are found (n and m). The dis-
tance CIVfrom the metal rule to the axis of the
Xc = Xr5 + (V -f5)tan(aCD -90°)
staff AB is measured, after which the distance
Yc = v -f5 + 15tan(acD -90°) from the shaft axis to the staff axis AB is
216 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
Staff
Fig. 9.28 Determining angle of turning of guide pulley shaft axis relative to main shaft axis
AHI-II + Arl-ll
°II- p'
SI
11is the wrapping angle of a rope on a guide dimensions of the shaft, the arrangement of
pulley; E is the angle of turning of the axis of equipment and hoisting vessels, the line of
the guide pulley shaft relative to the main vertical section along which records are being
shaft axis; ° and 0' are the angles of inclina- made, and conventional symbols of rocks
tion of the axes of the main shaft and guide and lining materials. The second page con-
pulley shaft; and 1 is the length of an inter- tains data on the course of shaft sinking. On
mediate rope string: the third and subsequent pages, a vertical
1 = [h -(Rg + xr) tan 11] section of the shaft on a scale 1/100 and
sketches of shaft elements are drawn. Mine
where h is the height difference between the surveying work during the sinking of a shaft
axis of the main shaft and that of the guide can be divided into two periods: (I) initial
pulley shaft and Xr is the abscissa of the axis period during which the shaft is provided
of a deflected rope. The permissible values for with mining (heading) equipment and the
the indicated angles are as follows: Ox,Oy,rox shaft collar is constructed and (2) shaft sin-
and roy not more than 0°15'; angle of incli-
king proper.
nation of the main shaft axis, 0, not more
than 0°05'; angle of inclination of the axis of
the guide pulley shaft relative to the direction 9.4.1 .Survey Work During the
of the main shaft axis, not more than 0°45'; Initial Period of Shaft
fleet angles a and ~, not more than 1030' and Sinking
those for intermediate strings (<p,'11),not more The survey work at this stage consists in
than 0°30'. transferring the axes of temporary buildings
and structures into nature, which is required
for arranging a layout network and marking
9.4. Survey Work During Sinking
the axes of a shaft according to the dimen-
of Vertical Shafts
sions indicated on the general layout and on
The construction of mine shafts include.s the drawings of the arrangement of mining
sinking a shaft and the arrangement of a equipment. During the mounting of hoisting
lining and equipment. The main object of machines, special attention should be given
mine surveying service in the construction of to checking the arrangement of the hoist
mine shafts is to ensure the design position of frame relative to the predetermined hoisting
the shaft and its elements. To achieve this, the axis and machine shaft (drum) axis, as wen as
mine surveyor has to perform the following to correct arrangement of the shaft of the
procedures: to transfer the axes of hoisting mine hoist. The deviation of the hoist frame
plants into the driven shaft; to assign the from the hoisting axis should not exceed
design direction to shaft sinking; to transfer 50 mm; the deviation of the elevation marks
and mark the layout net for the assembly of of frame corners from the design level should
hoisting machines; to make check measure- be not more than 300 mm, and the elevation
ments in the shaft; and to layout shaft marks of corners should differ from one
workings and chambers. another by not more than 15 mm. The de-
All mine surveying measurements are re- viation of the hoist shaft axis from the axis of
corded in a register which is the main docu- a layout network should be not more than 2',
ment reflecting the actual state of the const- the height difference on one end of the shaft
ruction of a shaft (Fig. 9.29). The first page of above the other being not more than 0.001 of
the register gives the design section of the the shaft length.
shaft on a scale 1/50 and the principal The sinking frame should be mounted
9.4. Survey Work During Sinking of Vertical Shafts 219
Intermediate
shoe at -25.5 m
properly relative to the shaft axis; the displa- a zero frame are carried out relative to the
cement of the pulley stage in the horizontal axial lines of the shaft. The displacement of
plane from the design position should be not the zero frame axes relative to the design
more than 60 mm. position should not exceed 5 mm, the devia-
The layout of the pit for the shaft collar, tion of the elevation marks of the frame from
construction of a cap, and the arrangement of the design position should not exceed 50 mm,
220 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
indicators or projection meters. Plumb bobs at least in eight points around the periphery
are mostly employed for the purpose. Their of the forms. The vertical axis of the forms
number and arrangement depend on the should not deviate from the mean position of
cross-sectional shape of the shaft and the the plumb bob by more than 20 mm. The
arrangement of mining and hoisting equip- vertical position of the forms is checked by
ment in it. For instance, a single central hydrostatic level with an accuracy not worse
plumb bob is employed in shafts of a circular than 10 mm. The errors of measurement of
cross section, four plumb bobs hung at a distances from the central plumb bob to the
distane of 20-30 cm from the shaft walls, in forms of a shaft lining should not exceed
shafts of a rectangular cross section. In shafts 10 mm. For cast-in-situ concrete and rein-
of an oval cross section, two plumb bobs are forced-concrete linings, the deviations of
suspended near the walls at each axis of an radial distances from the centre should be not
ellipse. The positions of plumb bobs during more than 50 mm.
sinking a shaft should be checked at least A concrete-tubbing lining is built from the
once a month. top downwards, support tubbings (crib seats)
The deviations of vertical directions from being placed after every 20-24 m. They are
the design values are checked by making placed in the presence of the mine surveyor
measurements from the axial points fixed in who checks that the distances from the
the shaft mouth or on the main heading central plumb bob to the internal faces of
frame. These measurements can be made by tubbings differ by not more than 10 mm from
using plumb bobs, light indicators or projec- the design value.
tion meters. In order to minimize errors, the All placed tubbing crib seats and each
cables of projection meters should be fixed in tenth ordinary tubbing should be controlled
every 300 or 400 m. The error in the position by mine surveying. The plan position of a
of fixation points of light indicators relative tubbing ring is controlled by measuring the
to the previous level should not exceed distances from the central plumb bob to
15 mill. selected points at tubbing joirits. Vertical
The state of shaft walls is controlled by control is effected upon mounting 6-8 rings. If
measuring the radii from the central plumb it turns out that the deviation of a tubbing
bob to walls in vertical intervals of 3-4 m. column from the vertical is more tban 30 mm,
The measured results are used to calculate the lining should be corrected.
the actual cross-sectional area of the shaft
which should not differ from the design value
9.5. Survey Work for Arranging
by more than 4-10% for shafts up to 20 m2 in
of Shaft Equipment
cross-sectional area, by 3-8% for those
20-40 m2 in area, and by 2-5% for those The main task of the mine surveyor during
above 40 m2 in area. the arrangement of shaft equipment is to
The permanent lining of vertical shafts is control that buntons and conductors are
constructed by means of travelling forms mounted strictly in their design positions.
which are placed into the working positions The equipment of a mine shaft is a
relative to the central plumb bob. The posi- complex of structures and elements which
tion of the travelling forms and shaft walls ensure correct motion of hoisting vessels.The
should be checked by the mine surveyor at main elements of equipment are conductors
least after every three or four travel cycles. and buntons; the latter are divided into the
The correct position of the travelling forms main and auxiliary ones depending on their
relative to the central plumb bob is checked position in the shaft. The main buntons are
222 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
built in into the shaft lining at both ends, The survey work during the arrangement
whereas the auxiliary ones are either fastened of the equipment of a vertical shaft includes
between the main buntons or attached at one three stages: (I) the control of preparatory
end to a main bunton and built in at the work and the arrangement of hoisting and
other end into the lining. The main bunton mining equipment; (2) the control of the
arranged in the centre of a shaft or near it is arrangement of buntons and suspension of
called the central bunton. The combination of conductors; and (3) the final control of the
main and auxiliary buntons located in the accuracy of mounting the equipment by
same horizontal plane is called a bunton making the profile survey of conductors and
stage. The distance between adjacent bunton buntons.
stages is called the pitch of equipment. At the first stage, the profiles of the shaft
Conductors (of the rigid or rope type) are and drawings of cross sections at various
fastened to buntons. levels are prepared, and it is checked that the
The arrangement of equipment in a shaft dimensions of buntons, points of connection
may be done by a consecutive or combined of buntons, etc. correspond to the design
scheme. In the former case, first all buntons specifications. Upon sinking the shaft, the
are mounted to the entire depth of the shaft, profiling of the shaft walls (control survey) is
after which conductors are fastened to them. carried out in order to determine the minimal
In the latter case, conductors are suspended gaps between the shaft lining and the most
upon mounting three or four bunton stages. protruding portions of hoisting vessels. The
Soil O 0
5 +30 mm
10 +10
Clay
15 -10
20 +10
~, 25 +20 0
Sand 30 +10 0
35 +10 -10
~
Floating
-- earth 40 0 0
Clay shale 45 0 0
Sandstone 50 0
~
~ 55 0
Shale
60 -10
Coal
3~ p:C9 51
2F
lA
6
A-A
'r=='
~ 88:z.tzA
plumb bobs proper. Since the positions of the usually made from steel sheets, angles or
characteristic points of the shaft equipment tubes.
are repeated from one bunton stage to another, According to their application, templates
it is possible to employ templates for the can be divided into the following groups: (1)
control of mounting operations. The number templates for marking the lengths of buntons
and design of templates are chosen depen- and places of location of sleepers or moun-
ding on the arrangement of buntons and ting holes; (2) templates for placing the bun-
plumb bobs and the technology of arrange- tons at specified vertical distances from one
ment of the equipment. The templates are another (spacing templates); (3) templates for
~
9.5. Survey Work for Arranging of Shaft Equipment 225
When used individually, the apparatus is ordinates. The design positions of hoist clips
fastened to a hoisting vesselor to the hoisting and jacks are denoted by axial marks op
cable of a mine hoist. The measuring accu- supporting surfaces.
racy is:!: 1 mm, the scale of recording 1/1, Rope conductors are fixed in the vertical
and the working speed of lifting or lowering position by using a projection meter; for this
in a shaft, 1-2 m/s. purpose, the vertical sensor of the projection
The survey work during mounting of a meter is fastened on a rope conductor above
rope equipment consists in transferring the the tensioning frame.
layout axes onto the mounting levels; check- The final surveying of rope conductors is
ing the tensioning frame; control of arrange- carried out after mounting the hoist clips and
ment of suspension clips, guide and ten- fastening the guide sleeves and consists in
sioning devices;control measurements during measuring the linear distances from the
mounting of auxiliary conductors; checking layout axes. The results of measurements are
the track gauge of guides for hoisting vessels; processed to compile a scheme of fastening of
and final surveying of shaft portions with rope conductors on a head-frame ceiling and
hoisting and mining equipment. tensioning frame. The actual distances be-
The layout axes of tower head-frames are tween the axes of ropes (devices) and layout
transferred onto the mounting levels (head- axes should differ from the design values by
frame ceilings) by using the layout axes of a not more than 7 mm.
multi-rope hoisting machine. For jib-type
head-frames, the axes are transferred onto the
9.6. Survey Work During Driving
mounting level from the axial points by
of Shaft Workings
means of a theodolite and plumb bobs hung
from a pulley stage. The axes of a shaft are The survey work during driving of un-
transferred onto the fixation levels of guide derground workings near a shaft may involve
ropes by means of plumb bobs at an earlier certain difficulties, since such workings often
stage (during sinking a shaft). The discrepan- have a rather intricate configuration with
cies between the positions of axial marks many joints, curvatures and with variable
obtained in two measurements should not cross sections, combinations of straight and
exceed 20 mm on a suspension level and curvilinear sections, an intricate profile of
50 mm on a fixation level. haulage tracks, and contain large-sized sta-
The arrangement of a tensioning frame and tionary equipment units.
auxiliary conductors at loading levels is cont- Before constructing the shaft bottom, a
rolle.d relative to the layout axes of the design polygon on a scale of 1/200 or 1/500 is
fixation level of rope conductors and the drawn (Fig. 9.39) which serves for checking
axial points set up in the lining near the shaft whether the dimensions of underground work-
bottom. The displacements of axes of bun- ings are correct and for obtaining the initial
tons on a particular level should be not more data for the instrumental transfer of the axes
than 3 mm in the horizontal plane, and the of designed workings into nature.
difference of elevations of the ends of buntons The drawing of such a polygon contains
should not exceed 5 mm. numerical data on the dimensions of straight
The mounting of hoist clips and jacks on a and curved sections of workings, angles of
suspension level is controlled relative to the turn of circular curves, elevations of parti-
axes of a shaft or multi-rope hoisting machi- cular pqints, etc.
ne which are fixed on that level. The axes of The axes of curved sections are replaced by
these devices are laid out by the method of chords whose number is chosen so that the
9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 229
suitable for the construction of vertical shafts position of drilling equipment, and the verti-
by conventional methods. In such cases, cality of surface casings; surveying drill holes
special methods are resorted to, in which during drilling; and the compilation of level
measures are taken for strengthening the plans of ice-rock enclosure.
rock massif, ground water lowering, plugging The centre and axes of a shaft are trans-
and soil freezing, which can facilitate the ferred into nature by the method described in
driving of mine shafts. Under complicated Sec. 9.2. The most popular method of layout
conditions, vertical shafts can also be driven of holes in the terrain consists in the fol-
by drilling. In mine shafts driven by these lowing. A theodolite is set up at the centre of
special methods, the mine surv~yor has to the shaft and oriented along one of the shaft
solve certain specific survey problems. axes, after which the required angle is laid off
and distances to each drill hole are measured
by a tape according to the design data. The
9.7.1 Survey Work During Driving
accuracy of laying out of holes should be not
of Vertical Shafts
worse than :J:50 mm. The mouth of each
with Artificial Rock Freezing
hole is marked by pegs.
During driving of a mine shaft with artifi- Before drilling the holes, a geometrical
cial freezing of the rock, the mine surveyors check is made (for verticality, centring above
perform the following operations: the layout the hole mouth, linearity of the kelly, etc.) in
of the centre of a shaft and the mouths of accordance with the direction assigned by the
freezing and monitor holes; checking the mine surveyor, and the hole mouth is drilled
construction of a drilling site, assembly and for the surface casing. The length of the latter
,Jf
5' 3
Fig. 9.40 lnclinometric station: 1- automobile with logging hoist; 2- inclinometer; 3- tripod; 4- striding
level; 5- counterweight block
9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 231
The inclinometer consists of a housing 2, in the given direction, so that its orientation
measuring portion 8, and guide rollers 1. is not changed.
The measuring portion includes the unit of The unit for zenith angle measurements
azimuthal gyrostabilizer and unit for deter- has two measuring elements which determine
mining the zenith angle. The gyrostabilizer the zenith angles in two mutually pocpen-
has a sensitive element 5, semiconductor dicular planes. Each element has a flat pen-
amplifier 4, actuating motor with a reducer 3, dulum 9 contained in a h()rmetically closed
and a m9tor with a rocker 7. cylinder which is filled with a viscous liquid.
When the inclinometer moves in a hole, Each pendulum carries the frame of an
there appears an external moment which induction sensor;
rotates the housing 2 on the longitudinal axis Surveying a drill hole is started from
of the instrument. This moment is transferred centring the inclinometer on a tripod above
onto the measuring portion 8 and tends to the hole mouth, after which the first orien-
turn the latter. Under this action, a gyro- tation is carried out by means of an orien-
motor together with an angle sensor frame 6 tation attachment fastened on the inclino-
deviates from the neutral position, and the meter housing. For this purpose, a distinct
sensor pulse is transmitted to the actuating object is chosen on the terrain at a distance
motor 3. The motor develops (through the not less than 30 m from the inclinometer, and
reducer) a compensating moment which re- the direction angle of this object relative to a
tains the measuring portion of the instrument line OlHl is measured (Fig. 9.42). The incli-
01 g2S0r.1 HI
~
1230 Or.2
02
"I
1
0;1
~
9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 233
N
the lines HlOl and 02H2. The angular
correction is then introduced into the two
orientation directions obtained during sin-
king and lifting of the inclinometer. The
corrected directions are brought to coinci-
.--J dence in the points of the hole mouth, which
, e 5 26, gives two positions of the inclinogram.
23/
/
24/
~ 3
~ -;,~, 3
The results of surveying of freezing holes
are used for plotting the level plans of an
/' \ 4
)~ ,1 ,
\ ice-rock enclosure (Fig. 9.43), which make it
\
\ I--, possible to estimate the thickness of the
(21( " enclosure and determine the boundaries of
I
,201
--r-
~, , frozen rock (to the centre and to the rock
19\ massif). The radii of ice-rock cylinders can be
" 6'r
~ 18 "
calculated by the formula:
17 ,
,
18' ~ r = J(I/2 + af + k
16 '--
14 ~ where 1 is the spacing between freezing
\ ..
holes; a is the deviation of a hole from the
,If vertical; k is a coefficient depending on the
,f~
/ thickness of an ice-rock enclosure; it is taken
I
equal to 0.6L for the inner boundary and
0.4L for the outer one (L is the thickness of
s
the ice-rock enclosure as specified in the
Fig. 9.43 Level plan of ice-rock enclosure project). The permissible deviation of freezing
holes from the vertical is 0.5 + 0.002 H,
where H is the depth of a shaft, m; in all
nometer is then unclamped and sunk into the cases, the maximum deviation of freezing
drill hole. As the instrument is being sunk, holes from the vertical to the shaft centre
the planigraph records an inclinogram with should not exceed 0.6 m.
elevation marks of depth intervals. Upon
reaching the face of the drill hole, the
9.7.2. Survey Work During Drilling
orientation (inclination) of the inclinometer
of Vertical Shafts
axis 0191 is recorded, and the gyrostabilizer
is turned through 180° to record a new The drilling method is used widely for
orientation of the inclinometer axis, 0292. driving of mine shafts. It allows one to
Mter that, the inclinometer is lifted in the mechanize completely the operations of rock
hole to make measurements from the bottom disintegration and rock lifting onto the sur-
upwards. As the inclinometer appears on the face and eliminates the dangerous and hard
surface, it is again oriented, and the work of underground miners. The method is
direction angle of a line H2O2 is measured. mainly employed for shaft driving in soft
The lines 0 1H 1 and H 20 2 are shifted parallel water-bearing rocks (drift sand, water-bea-
to themselves until points 0 1 and H 2 coin- ring sands, chalk, clays, etc.); in coarse-grai-
cide. The angle 'Y formed by these lines (and ned sands, the method is not quite efficient in
called the angular correction) is determined view of large losses of a clay drilling mud.
graphically. A similar procedure is done for Mine shafts are drilled by drilling rigs
234 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
permitting the drilling out of the rock allover drilling tool, which is done by the optical or
the face. geometrical method. With the optical meth-
Drilling a shaft is started from drilling a od, the surveyor observes a light signal
pilot hole of a depth exceeding by 5-10 m the projected through a drill string; with the
design depth of the shaft and of a diameter of geometrical method, a cable is stretched
0.5-1.2 m. The pilot hole serves for guiding through the drill string from the shaft mouth
the drilling tool in subsequent widening of to the drilling tool, and its deviation is
the shaft. Upon drilling, the shaft lining is measured. In the former method, which is
constructed by the float-on or sectional applicable at depths up to 200-250 m, use is
method. made of instruments of the type of direction
With the float-on method, a number of projectors. In the latter method, the de-
lining rings are mounted on one another on a viations of the cable from the vertical can be
reinforced concrete bottom plate. The cyl- measured at any desired depth with an
inder thus formed is sunk into the fore shaft accuracy to 20" by means of a projection
filled with washing fluid and floats, as it were, meter. The error in the position of the cable
in the latter. New ring sections 4-6 m high relative to the drill string axis does not
are then put on top of the floating cylinder. exceed 20 mm.
After placing a ring section on the cylin- Shaft walls are surveyed during drilling by
der, ballast fluid is pumped in to ensure means of ultrasonic locators which make it
sinking the cylinder to a certain depth. After possible to take measurements in mud-filled
building the lining to the entire height of the shafts with an error up to 2% along the
shaft, the space between the lining and rock is radius and 3%, in the orientation of a
plugged with a cement mortar. measured radius.
With the sectional method, a fixing section
of the lining is first sunk onto a concrete pad
9.8. Survey Work During
prepared on the shaft bottom. Upon check-
ing whether the section is placed correctly, it Deepening of Vertical Shafts
is fixed by a cement mortar poured into the Deepening vertical shafts can be performed
space behind the lining. Mter that, the lining from the top downwards or vice versa. In the
sections 15-20 m high are placed successively former case,the survey work is essentially the
onto the fixing section and secured by plug- same as that during sinking of a shaft from
gmg. the surface, though some specifics relate to
Mine survey servicing during drilling of the restoration and fixation of the centre and
min shafts consists in checking the vertica- axes of the shaft in the deepened portion.
lity of the shaft axis and observing that the Deepening a shaft from the top downwards
lining is errected properly. The deviations of can be done by one of three probable
the shaft axis from the design (vertical) posi- schemes: (I) under a platform constructed
tion should not exceed the spacing between below the floor level of the working connec-
the outer surface of the lining and the surface ted to the shaft bottom; (2) by means of a
of the rock, which is taken equal to 200- special passageway driven in the shaft por-
350 mm. The control of verticality of a shaft tion to be deepened;and (3) through auxiliary
axis is complicated by the fact that the shaft workings driven sideways of the shaft.
is filled by clay drilling liquid during drilling. In deepening by the first scheme, the
In shaft drilling without lifting the drilling survey work consists in determining the
tool onto the surface, the verticality is con- centre and axes of the shaft in its section
trolled by the position of the centre of the adjacent to the conjunction between the shaft
9.8. Survey Work During Deepening of Vertical Shafts 235
A-A
p
Fig. 9.45 Transferring centre and axes in deepened portion of shaft through winze
traverse is then run from these points to the level, it is possible to solve an inverse geode-
auxiliary working. In the case illustrated in tic problem and calculate the layout angle
Fig. 9.45, the auxiliary working is oriented by ARC = 13and layout length RC = I, which
means of plumb bobs 01 and O2. This are laid off in nature and determine the
orientation makes it possible to find the position of the shaft centre. Then, as in the
direction angle of a certain direction fixed by previous case,the direction of one of the shaft
points A and B on the level to which dee- axes is assigned and fixed by points F and G.
pening should be done. The coordinates x, y For a shaft to be deepened from the
of these points are also determined. bottom upwards, the coordinates of the shaft
With the known coordinates of the shaft centre and the direction angle of the shaft
centre and the coordinates of the point B of axis are determined before starting the layout
the polygonometric traverse on the lower work. The survey work in the workings on
9.8. Survey Work During Deepening of Vertical Shafts 237
the level of deepening is also carried out. All positions of the plumb bobs are checked by
measurements essential for laying out the measuring the distance between them and the
centre and axes of the shaft on the level of centre of the shaft. The centre of the shaft in
deepening are carried out. The centre of a the face is found by means of templates
shaft on the lower level is usually fixed in the or measurements from temporary plumb
foot of a working, and the shaft axes are fiXed bobs which are centred above the permanent
by brackets in the walls or roof of the plumb bobs. The shaft should be checked for
working. The verticality and cross-sectional verticality in every 3 m of face advance, and
area of the shaft are checked by means of the shaft axes should be transferred onto the
plumb bobs hung under the sinking platform brackets of permanent plumb bobs after
from brackets in the temporary lining. The every 10 m of shaft advancement.
Chapter Ten
Surveying in Quarries
A ," I
,I
2 3
/-~ '>f'
~2' "1'
~.J
\ 6
~
.~-
) 6
B \
B
~
240 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
of 1/2000 and one such point, on those on a net. Triangle chains and central figures are
scale 1/1000. used most often. The latter are employed for
Depending on the terrain relief, shape of a constructing a surveying net on the lower
quarry in plan, mining technology and some levels of quarries of a small area or of some
other factors, surveying nets can be con- portions of a quarry, whereas triangle
structed by the following methods: method of chains are preferred in the quarries of an
geodetic intersections; method of analytical elongated shape and appreciable depth. The
nets; method of theodolite traverses; method number of points detennined by an indi-
of range lines; polar method; and method of a vidual triangle chain or figure should be not
rectangular network. more than seven. Triangles should have a
Since a survey control net has to exist only shape close to equilateral. The angles at the
for a relatively short time, it can be fixed by points being determined should be not larger
permanent or temporary points in the form than 120° or smaller than 30° and the side
of wooden page or metal rods driven into the lengths, not smaller than 300 m or greater
soil. In hard rocks, temporary points are than 1000 m.
usually fixed by cross marks made on the Angular measurements are commonly
protruding portions of the rock. Survey made by means of theodolites. The permis-
points are usually located on the lower sible angular discrepancy in triangles with
platform of each working bench at distances the side length up to 1000 m is l' and in those
not more than 400 m from one another. with the side length more than 1000 m, 40".
Method of geodetic intersections is em-' Method of theodolite traverses is employed
ployed in cases when the points of a survey- in quarries having a large extention of the
ing net are located at appreciable distances front of mining and stripping work and
from those of a reference net. Right and side benches of a form convenient for linear
intersections and reverse intersections (resec- measurements. Theodolite traverses are run
tions) are usually employed. between two known points A and B (points
Right and side intersections are drawn from of a reference net) or between closed poly-
at least three initial points. A resection is gons. At junctions of theodolite traverses to
drawn from four points, provided that the the initial points, there are measured the
point to be determined lies near the circle angles between the junction side of a theo-
passing through three of the four initial dolite traverse and two directions onto the
points. points of a reference net (Fig. 10.4).
The coordinates of the points determined The distances between the points of theo-
by r.ight or side intersections are calculated dolite trayerses should not exceed 400 m and,
from two triangles; in the method of as a rule, should be less than loo m. The
resections, they are found from two versions. length of a traverse should be not more than
In all cases,the final coordinates are taken as 2.5 km.
the arithmetic means from two measure- The angles in theodolite traverses are
ments. The maximum discrepancy should not measured by theodolites. An angular dis-
exceed 0.8 m. crepancy should not exceed f fJ= 30"J~ ,
Method of analytical nets is employed in where n is the number of measured angles.
quarries where both flanks are working The three-stand scheme can be recommended
(moving). Analytical nets are constructed as for angular measurements. The theodolites
chains of triangles or other figures (geodetic should be centred with an accuracy not worse
quadrangles, a central system, etc.) which are than 2-3 mm.
supported by sides and points of a reference The length measurements in theodolite
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 241
traverses can be made by means of steel or available, it is possible to measure the lines of
cloth tapes or range finders. In some cases, a theodolite traverse by the indirect method of
the lengths of traverse sides can be determined geodetic intersections which is essentially as
by indirect methods, but in all casesall mea- follows. A theodolite traverse is run on the
surements should be done in the forward and working platform of a bench and connected
reverse direction, and the relative difference at the ends to the points of a reference net (I,
between two independent measurements II, Fig. 10.5).Auxiliary points A, B, and C are
should be not more than 1/1000. The linear chosen at certain distances away from the
discrepancies in theodolite traverses should theodolite traverse line. Angles ~1' ~2' ~3' ...,
be not more than 1/3000 of the traverse ~17 are measured from the points of the
length. The corrections for temperature, tape theodolite traverse line and lines I-I and 6-1I,
standardization, and horizontalization of which are the refere~ bases, are measured
lines should be introduced into the measured by a tape. The side l-A of a triangle IAl is
lengths. A temperature correction is intro- calculated by the sine theorem:
duced in cases when the temperature at
measurements differs by more than 5 deg. C
from that at which the tapes have been
standardized. A correction for horizontaliza-
tion is introduced when the inclination angle
is larger than 10.
Linear measurements can also be carried A-l
out by the optical method with the use of 1-2= sma2
sin P4
optical range finders and range finder attach-
ments and a base-measuring (subtense) bar. In a similar way, the side 2-3 is calculated,
In some cases when the form of benches is which is the connecting side for solving the
inconvenient for length measurements on the triangles constructed from the point B. The
ground and optical range finders are not calculations of the next series of triangles give
16-1270
242 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
~
I I
B C !
A
I'~ \ ): ~
~17
/~,
~,
\\ l~n ~
(15
6
" a-,'l: 8m
i \
\
\ {, I
I ,
Pel
"
a side 4-5 which is the basis for solving the nates of the point p 1 are found, In order to
last series of triangles constructed from the have an optimal shape of triangles, it is
point C. A check is done in this method by essential that the angles a and 13 be not
comparing the calculated length of the last smaller than 30°, If however these angles are
line of a theodolite traverse, 6-11, with its smaller than 30°, it is possible to sight the
length measured in the field. instrument at reference points located on
Method of range lines is employed in adjacent range lines (for instance, a point p 2
quarries where the working front is advanced and sighting at points B and F).
in one direction only, so that the reference Polar method of providing survey control
points fixed on the non-mining flank can be has become popular with the appearance of
easily observed from the working benches.
This method is especially convenient in cases 123 456 7
when the platforms of working benches have y ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~
III 111 IV v VI VII
a certain elevation above the ground surface I I I I I I
of the opposite flank of a quarry (Fig. 10.6). A B C D F G
For laying out a range line, a second- ~~~
order .polygonometric traverse is first run (A,
B, C, ..., G). With the known direction ~
angles of range lines, it is possible to calculate -7
the angles 'I' and <p according to which the
direction of a range line is assigned and fixed Oj:l=.: JJI.::.--I~ -:::.
by points A-l, B-2, C-2, ..., G-7. The points
of profile lines are laid off as follows. A point 1--
e
A< , ( I oB
[3
4
Aa<
.2 \{5
I l5 \ I
b\ ~
~ 2
~
DO .
j ~c
Fig. 10.8 Providing survey control by method of
rectangular network
geodetic light range finders. For successful chosen parallel (perpendicular) to the main
application of this method, a greater por- mining front or coincident with the orienta-
tion of a quarry must be readily visible from tion of a coordinate network.
a few number of points ofa reference net. For For laying out a rectangular network, a
the construction of a surveying net, a light plan of the surface is compiled, which gives
range finder i.s set up on a point (A) of the the technical boundary of a quarry and a
reference net, and light reflectors are set number of reference net points (1, 2,3,4, 5)
(Fig. 10.7) up on surveying net points 1, 2, 3, near it. Then the directions of the axes of a
...which are to be determined. Upon rectangular survey net are chosen, the rectan-
measuring the distances, the light range gular network is laid out, and the coordinates
finder is replaced by a theodolite to measure of its corners are calculated on the plan. After
polar angles ~l' ~2' ~3' etc. that, a project of the densification of the
Method of a rectangular network for the reference net is designed so that its points can
construction of surveying nets is applicable in be as close as possible to the corners of the
quarries of a shallow depth and with a flat rectangular network; the densification net-
relief of the surrounding land. A network of work is transferred into nature and fixed on
rectangles is laid out on the territory of the ground. The corners of the network can
deposit, and survey points are fixed in their be fixed by laying off the distance and
corners (Fig. 10.8).It is a common practice to direction angle from the closest reference
layout two systems of rectangles: the main point or by the method of angular intersec-
network with the side length d equal to 50 m, tions with the use of one or two theodolites
loo m or 200 m and the densifying network (see Fig. 10.8).
of rectangles with the side length dl equal to For the transfer of surveying net points
5-40 m, which is used directly for surveying. onto the lower levels of a quarry or the
The orientation of the sides of a network is restoration of annihilated points, use is most
~
244 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
(a) (b)
L--L.
r--r- :J=' --r-!
.+-~
, ~ ' ,
.(, ~-+ --1
L 1 !
Fig. 10.9 Transfer (restoration) of surveying net points: (a) by method of range lines; (b) by method of
angular intersection
often made of the method of range lines in 50JL mm, where Lis the length of the level
which two theodolites are set up on two line, km.
closest existing points (Fig. 10.9a),and a new Trigonometric levelling has found use in
point is fixed at the intersection of their quarries with railless transport and in cases
collimation lines. It is also possible to use the when a surveying net is formed by the
method of direct angular intersection. In that method of geodetic intersections. When de-
case the position of a point of the reference t.ermining the elevations of points by trigo-
net is determined on the ground by laying off nometric levelling, vertical angles are mea-
two horizontal angles ~1 and ~2 by means of sured by means of theodolites at the same time
two theodolites (Fig. 10.9b); the sought-for with measuring the horizontal angles; the
point is then found at the intersection of the accuracy of reading-off devices of the vertical
collimation lines of the two instruments. circle of the instruments should be not worse
than 30". The heights of an instrument and
10.2.3. Elevation Control of Quarries sighting target should be measured with an
accuracy to 1 cm. The measurements of ver-
Elevation control is required for determi- tical angles can be controlled by the constant
ning the heights of the points in a quarry. place of the zero point of the vertical circle.
The heights of the points of a surveying net The deviations of the zero point should be
are measured by geometric or trigonometric not greater than thrice the reading-off error
technical levelling. on the vertical circle.
Geometric levelling is usually employed in Trigonometric levelling lines should be
quarries with railway transport. Technical connected to the points whose elevations
levels and levelling staffs of any type are have been determined by geometric level-
suitable for the purpose. Technical levelling ling. Their length should not exceed 2.5 km.
between the points of a reference net may be The permissible discrepancy between a for-
done in one direction only; hanging lines are ward and reverse elevation is not more than
permitted, provided that they are run in the 0.041cm where I is the length of a line, m. The
forward and reverse direction. discrepancy of a levelling line, cm, should be
The readings in levelling are taken only not more than
relative to a single line. The difference of mh = 0.04[1]/J~
elevations determined on the black and red
face of staffs should not exceed 10 mm. The where [I] is the length of the levelling line, m,
permissible discrepancy of level lines is and n is the number of levelling lines.
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 245
If the points of a surveying net are deter- The periodicity and sequence of surveys in
mined by the polar method or method of quarries are as follows: surveys of contours of
geodetic intersections, the elevations between bench crests and blast holes are made only in
the points are found by trigonometric level- places where blasting work is to be perfor-
ling in the forward and back direction or in a med. All other objects except for mineral
single direction only, but from at least two stores are surveyed only when a need arises.
points. In such cases,elevation discrepancies Mineral stores are surveyed every ten days or
(in centimetres) should be not more than once a month depending on the method
0.031for distances up to 1 km or 0.021for dis- adopted for calculating the amount of the
tances above 1 km (where 1 is the length of extracted mineral.
the lines, m). If a side in one-sided levelling Surveys in quarries are made from the
exceeds 700 m, a correction for the Earth points of a survey net. The distances between
curvature and refraction should be intro- these points on a bench should not exceed
duced into the measured elevation. 300 m for a scale 1/1000 or 400 m for a scale
1/2000. It is permissible when needed to
determine the additional points of a survey-
10.2.4. Surveying in Quarries
ing net by running a single-sided hanging
The surveys of quarries and complemen- theodolite traverse. The length of sides
tary surveys of benches can be carried out by should be not more than 300 m in surveys on
the following methods: tacheometry, method a scale 1/1000 or 400 m on a scale 1/2000.
of perpendiculars, plane-table survey, stereo- The staff is set up on all characteristic
photogrammetry, and their combinations. points of the contours and surfaces being
For the compilation and complementation surveyed. In surveys on a scale 1/1000, the
of mining working plans, it is advisable, distances between the staff points should not
where possible, to perform aerial and ground exceed 20 m for the bench crests of intricate
stereophotogrammetric surveys. shape or 30 m for the extended crests. In
Tacheometric survey is employed for: surveys on a scale 1/2000 the respective
(a) surveying of quarries where the mining distances are 30 m and 40 m.
technology is such that the volume of ex- In the surveys of the surface of blasted rock
tracted burden rock and that of the mineral the distances between the staff points should
in the pillar can be determined directly from not exceed 10 m for a scale 1/1000 or 20 m,
the results of bench surveying; for a scale 1/2000.
(b) for surveying of quarries of a relatively A sketch of bench contours is drawn at
low capacity; each survey station (Fig. 10.10a).
(c) for surveying of'dead' spaces obtained A sma[[-sized geo[ogica[ a[timeter
in ground stereophotogrammetry; and (Fig. 10.11) has been developed in this coun-
(d) for check surveying of mining workings try for the geological documentation of
in the selective control of their plan posi- quarry benches. The instrument is intended
tions and for surveys in cases where stereo- for the remote measurements of vertical thick-
photogrammetric methods are inefficient ness and dip angles of visible seams. It can
or inapplicable. also determine the relative elevations of the
Plane-table survey has found no wide ap- position of geological elements and other
plication. It is mainly used for single surveys objects.
of small quarries or their portions when a The altimeter is essentially an optico-
general plan of mining workings is to be mechanical goniometer provided with a di-
compiled. rect-image telescope and self-adjusting verti-
246 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
(a) (b)
~ : 10--:~-- :~ ~
("I cpi "' LO ~
~~-,I.:Lg--- o-~~ -13 ("II ("I.
c.;
(I)
c-.
~ v.:.-~ -- 39.71-
0:
~ ;15 -:.~,;~5~~
~
~ 3 \
~I-- --'0
ir::::njt1r~
Fig. 10.10 Sketch of bench contours: (a) by tacheometric method; (b) by method of perpendiculars
cal circle with scales of elevations and (b) eliminates the need in staffmen and thus
vertical angles. The working portions of increases the safety of work;
measuring scales are visible directly in the (c) provides a large choice of points in
telescope. compiling plans by photographs and thus
The range of measured elevations is better characterizes the section surveyed; and
:t 10 m for a sighting length up to 10 m or (d) involves all visible objects including
:t 20 m for a sighting length of 20-40 m. The those which are inaccessible for tacheometry.
range of measured visible dip angles is :t 90°.
The error in the measurements of the vertical
thickness of seamsis not more than 5 cm and
that of the visible dip angles of seams, 1°. The
mass of the instrument is 1.5 kg.
Method of perpendiculars can be employed
efficiently for the surveys of bench crests with
simple contours when the required number of
staff points is not large (Fig. 10.10b).
The surveying net for the method of
perpendiculars is constructed in the form of
theodolite traverses or as a rectangular net-
work. The length of ordinates, as a rule,
should not exceed 30 m. For a length more
than 15 m, they should be set up by means of
a right-angle mirror. Lengths are measured
by tapes and rounded off to decimetres. The
distances between the staff points are chosen
according to the recommendations given for
tacheometric surveys.
Stereophotogrammetric surveying of quar-
ries. In recent time, stereophotogrammetry
Fig. 10.11 Geological altimeter: l-eye-piece;
has come into use in many quarries in place
of tacheometric surveying, which offers the 2-housing; 3-adjusting level; 4-reading-otT
magnifying glass; 5- horizontal circle; 6- base;
following advantages: 7-levelling wedges;8-handle; 9-horizontal sight-
(a) increases the labour productivity of the ing screw; 10-vertical sighting screw; ll-tele-
field work; scope; 12-focussing device
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 247
~
C1
/ ~
a
'y-
I
~
,11\ 2
J
C2
a.,
tograph (P 2);
t2) the centres of projection of the left-hand
and right-hand photograph, SI and S2' or the Fig. 10.12 Elements of stereoscopic pair
rear optical centres of the two objectives of
stereophotogrammetric camera; (10) the focal distances of photographs
(3) the photographic base Bph = S1S2 !1 = 8101 and!2 = 8202.
which is also equal to the distance between In stereophotogrammetry, the'position of a
the centres of projection of the photo- point on the land is determined by a direct
graphs; spatial intersection which is formed by the
(4) beam bundles alSlA, ~ISIC, a2S2A, projecting beams passing through tq~ left-
C2S2C,etc., i. e. the combination of projecting and right-hand point of the base. For in-
beams which form images on the photo- stance, the position of a point C (see
graphs; Fig. 10.12)can be determined if the directions
(5) the main beams S101 and S202 which of projecting beams c181C and c282C are
are perpendicular to the planes of photo- known. The surface formed by the plurality
graphs; of the points of intersection of corresponding
(6) the main points 01 and O2, i. e. the projecting beams is called the geometrical
points of intersection of the main beams with model, or simply model.
the planes of photographs; Photographic cameras for making stereo-
(7) identical points a1 and a2' c1 and C2' photographs are provided with devices which
etc.; ensure their definite and fixed position
(8) the images of the same point on the during exposure. A photographic camera can
land on the photographs of a stereoscopic also be combined with a theodolite, and the
paIr; combination is called a photo theodolite.
(9) corresponding beams Slal' S2a2' etc.; The stereophotogrammetry of quarries can
and be performed from a fixed base on the
248 Ch. 10. Surveying in auarries
ground or from a flying object (aeroplane). It dinates of the main point, Xo and Zo, are
is distinguished between two principal cases equal to zero.
of ground photogrammetry: with a hori- The coordinates of points on the land are
zontal position of the optical axis of a determined in the coordinate system adopted
photographic camera (horizontal stereo- for a quarry. In contradistinction to photo-
photogrammetry) and with the optical axis coordinates, they are designated by capital
inclined substantially relative to the hori- letters xYZ.
zontal (oblique, or perspective, stereophoto- The coordinates of points on the land are
grammetry). determined on photographs according to the
Horizontal stereophotogrammetry is easier positions of the bundles of projecting beams
to make and has an essential advantage over at the instant of exposure. The characteristics
the oblique method, since the latter requires that determine the positions of beam bundles
more intricate techniques of photoreading. are called the elements of the orientation of a
Horizontal stereophotogrammetry is usu- photograph (which are subdivided into
ally done as a combination of three cases: external and internal).
with the optical axis of a photographic ca- The elements of internal orientation in-
mera directed perpendicular to the base and clude the focal distance (focal length) of a
deviated by 30-35° to the left and right from camera and the coordinates of the main point
this position (Fig. 10.13). Xo, Zo. Among the elements of external
The coordinates of points on photographs orientation (Fig. 10.15)are the coordinates of
are determined in a rectangular system of the left-hand end of a photographic base,
coordinates (x'x' and z'z' in Fig. 10.14).The Xs , ys and Zs ; the angle of inclination of
point of intersection of coordinate axes, 0', is thelmaih beam 6f the left-hand photograph,
the origin of coordinates. The coordinates of (J)1;the angle of turn of the left-hand photo-
a parti<;ular point a, as measured on a graph in its plane, "1; the oblique angle of the
photograph, are commonly called the pho- left-hand photograph <Pl which is equal to
tocoordinates (xa, Za). the angle between the projection of the main
Coordinate marks are fixed so that the beam of that photograph onto a horizontal
point 0' which is the origin of coordinates, plane and the perpendicular to the projection
and the main point 0 of a photograph, are of the photographic base onto the same
perfectly coincident. In that case, the coor- plane; the direction angle of the photographic
Fig. 10.13 Horizontal stereopho togrammetri c Fig. 10.14 Coordinate system of photograph
survey
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 249
xph
<p
/ /~ :..'
Yph
ZPh / // /
//
/
1112
(111
~ c /
/ --\-"' ff 2
x /
190 8
~ ./
/
~
HoLta,
/ x ,.../ S1 i , Xph /
01 xI I Base
B ,
ys z X ,.ls, z 2
---1 I
x ~ / / Horizontal.11
,I
/
02 X X2
I':/
/ / Xs1 1
base QB; the projection of the photographic nearly zero values by means of spirit levels
base onto a horizontal plane; the height mounted on the camera.
difference of the right-hand- end of the The mine-surveying plans of land surface
photographic base above the left-hand end, and mining workings art: usually constructed
Az; the angle 'of inclination of the main beam in a left-hand system of coordinates, whereas
on the right-hand photograph, m2; the angle stereophotogrammetry employs a right-hand
of the turn of the right-hand photograph in coordinate system. In both cases, however,
its plane, "2; and the angle made by the main the z-axis is arranged vertically.
beam projections of the photographs onto a Let us analyse a case of normal stereo-
horizontal plane, y (Figc 10.16). With a posi- photogrammetric survey (see Fig. 10.16) in
tive angle y, the main beams are convergent, which the optical axes of the photographic
and the angle y formed by them is caned the cameras set up in points SI and S2 are
angle of convergence; with a negative y, the parallel to each other and perpendicular to
main beams are divergent, and y is called the the photographic base Bph. It is assumed in
angle of divergence. this example that:
The coordinates Xs , ys , and Zs , the (a) axis Xphcoincides with the direction of
photographic base Bp~, arid its dirbction the photographic base;
angle QBare determined by geodetic methods. (b).axis yph coincides with the direction of
The oblique angles of photographs are set up the optical axis of the photographic camera
by the orientation device of a phototheo- set up in the point SI (the left-hand end point
dolite. The inclinatio~ angles of the main of the base); and
beams of photographs, m, and the angles of (c) axis Zphhas a direction perpendicular to
the turn of photographs, ", are reduced to the plane formed by the two other axes.
250 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
-:4
<
"-
~
..A'
Fig. 10.16 Normal stereophotogrammetric survey
Y ph from the pho-tographic base. The for- Depending on the length of the photo-
mer IS needed "lor the appearance of a stereo-
max
graphic base, accuracy requirements, and
scopic effect and the latter ensures the possibilities of photoreading, the length of the
specified accuracy of measurements. photographic base can be determined by one
The minimum permissible distance de- of the following methods:
pends on the technical characteristics of (I) if a quarry or land portion is surveyed
stereoscopic devices and the specifics of the for mapping, the base can be calculated by
stereoscopic vision of an observer. It can be the formula:
determined by the formula: 2
Yph .= (3-4)Bph (10.4) B=Q~ (10.6)
mln
Mfctmin
The maximum permissible distance is
where y f is the distance to the farther boun-
found by the formula:
Mfc ~ dary of the working portion of a given
Yph = 1.25-tmin (10.5) stereoscopic pair and Q is a coefficient which
max loo is taken equal to 15 for a single survey of a
quarry and to 20 for mapping of the land
where fc is the focal length of a phototheo-
surface;
dolite; M is the denominator of the scale of (2) in monthly complementary surveys for
the plan to be compiled; tmin = COS~ = calculating the volumes of excavator cuts, the
= (x2/fc)sin~ (here ~ is the oblique angle of
base length is found by the formula:
a photograph and X2 is t~e largest coordinate y} .
x on the right-hand photograph within the Bph = ( 10.7)
limits of the stereoscopic pair working stage). 1.8 Mfcdmvtmin
252 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
(10.11)
Ground stereophotogrammetric surveying
includes reconnaissance, geodetic measure-
ments, and land photography.
Reconnaissance is done for selecting the
locations of the points of a referenee net,
photographic bases, and fiducial (correcting)
points. Since the length, number and dire:c!-
tion of photographic bases can influence
Fig. 10.18 Determining useful area of stereogram substantially the productivity of the survey
work, it is advisable to have a minimum
number of bases that is sufficient to cover the
entire survey area without leaving 'dead'
where d is the width of a cut, m; mv is the spaces (Fig. 10.19).
specified root-mean square error of the vol- In order to obtain the required accuracy in
ume measurement, %; and YI'fc, tmin and M the determinations of the coordinates of
as in formulae (10.5) and (10.6). points on the photographs of stereoscopic
It is also essential to know the overlapping pairs and the horizontal parallax at each
area in a stereoscopic pair taken from a station, it is essential to establish a number of
particular photographic base. Consider, for fiducial (correcting) points whose coordi-
example, the photographic base SlS2 nates are determined by the photogram-
(Fig. 10.18). We construct the horizontal vi- metric or geodetic method. Thus, it is pos-
sion angles (working angles) a of a photo- sible to compare the coordinates obtained by
theodolite on the land from the ends of the two independent methods and to check the
base. The useful area F us' confined by points ste~eophotogrammetric survey. Three cor-
abcd, is depicted on each photograph of the recting points are usually established for
stereo pair and later processed in a stereo- each photographed stereoscopic pair at each
comparator. station. One of these points should be located
It can be written by reference to Fig. 10.17: in the closer plan and the other two, in the
Fus= (D/t)(Lmin + Lmax) (10.8) farther plan of the area being photographed.
In order to decreasethe number of correcting
where D is the depth of a survey; Lmin is the points, some of them are usually made com-
closer base of a trapezium; and Lmax is the mon for adjacent stereoscopic pairs.
farther base of a trapezium. The trapezium Places for establishing the photographic
bases can be found by the formulae: bases are chosen so that the bases can be
a ( Bph
Lmin = 2tan 2 3.5Bph-Tcotan
a
2 ) (10.9)
~llel to the working front and at the same
level with the objects to be photographed (or
somewhat above them). It is also essential
Lmax = 2tan-
a (Yph Bph
--cotan-
a
) (10.10)
that the height difference of the ends of the
2 max 2 2 photographic basesbe as small as possible. In
stereoscopic photographs of a quarry taken
Noting these expressions, the formula for from an inclined base, the like points will be
the useful survey area will be as follows: displaced relative to each other (vertical f)a-
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 253
point of horizontal angles between the di- oriented along the direction of a base line.
rection from that point onto the right- Photographs are taken by the techniques
hand point of the base and the direction including the following procedures:
formed by two certain points of a geodetic (I) tripods with lifting devices are set up on
reference net. These angles are measured with both points of a base line, and the elevation
an accuracy not worse than 5". The error in of the left-hand base point is measured;
the measured direction angle of a base should (2) the phototheodolite is then arranged on
be not more than: the left-hand point, and the sighting mark, on
me the right-hand point;
ma =
(101?)
, ,
D (3) the phototheodolite is oriented onto the
2yphmax right-hand point of the base, and it is checked
where p" = 206265" and meis the permissible that the camera lens is closed;
root-mean square error in determining the (4) a plate-holder (film-holder) is set in
positions of contour points. place, and its shutter is withdrawn;
3. Determination of the elevation marks of (5) the plate-holder is pressed against the
bases and correcting points by technical focal frame of the camera by means of a
screw on the back cover; the serial number of
geometric levelling.
The correcting points are fixed by placing the photograph to be taken and the number
marks on them, which are made as screensof of a station are set up on the numerator, and
plywood or another material. The vertical the kind of photograph (normal or with
and horizontal sizes (b and a) of screens are right- or left-hand deviation) is recorded;
calculated by the formulae: (6) the positions of spirit levels and the
orientation of the phototheodolite are
b = O.12yp h /j~, a = O.O6yPh /fc checked;
max max
(7) the correct exposure time is deter-
(10.13)
mined;
Photography proper is a critical procedure (B) the plate is exposed, and the positions
in stereophotogrammetric surveys of quar- of spirit bubbles and phototheodolite orien-
ries, since the quality of negatives produced is tation are checked again;
decisive for the accuracy with which the point (9) the holder shutter is closed, and the
coordinates and parallax will be detemlined. plate-holder is taken off from the camera;
The best results are obtained on sunny cloud- (10) new photographs are taken irl this
less days. During exposure, the Sun should be way, with the camera axis shifted first to the
behind or sideways of a surveyor. On cloudy left and then to the right;
days, it should be observed that the objects (II) the phototheodolite is taken off, and a
being photographed are not shaded by sighting mark is set up in its place; and
clouds at the instant of exposure. Photo- (12) the photo theodolite is set up on the
graphs are made on high-contrast repro-c right-hand base point to take new photo-
duction films or plates. ~\ graphs as described.
When making the photographic field work, Stereophotogrammetric office work includes
the phototheodolite is set up on one of the the processing of exposed plates (films) in a
base points so that two of its foot screws are laboratory, preparatory work, and the com-
arranged along the direction of a base line. A pilation of the plans of mining workings.
lifting apparatus with a sighting mark is The preparatory work includes the fol-
established on the other base point; the foot lowing procedures:
screws of this apparatus should also be (a) calculation of the geodetic coordinates
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work
~
Fig. 10.23 Longitudinal and lateral laps of photographs in courses
S1S2Ml' we have:
H1 = Bphfc/P1 (10.20)
elevation control (control points, or beacons), the ratio of like line sections s and S taken
which are usually arranged in places where respectively on the restored and photo-
they can be preserved for a long time and graphed surfaces, i. e. l/m = s/S.
used in subsequent aerial surveys. The plani- In order to determine the scale of a model,
metric coordinates of the control points at least two control points should be avail-
should be determined with an accuracy speci- able. The horizontalization of the model
fied for the coordinates of survey net points. reduces to determining the angles of turn of
The elevation marks of control points are the model on the corresponding axes x and y
determined with the accuracy of technical of the geodetic system of coordinates.
levelling. Thus, for solving the problem of geodetic
Aerial photographs are processed for the orientation of the model, it is required to
purpose of compilation and complementa- have at least three control points, all the
tion of mining work plans. This is done in coordinates being known for two of them and
all-purpose stereophotogrammetric devices. the elevation mark, for the third point. In
Irrespective of the type of device, processing geodetic orientation, the plate is also orien-
includes the preparatory work, mutual orien- ted. For this purpose, the measuring mark of
tation of aerial photographs in the device, the device is matched with one of reference
and geodetic orientation. points, and the centre of a focussing micro-
The preparatory work includes the prepa- scope is set up above the corresponding point
ration of plates (application of kilometre on the plate. The microscope is then sighted
network and control points), manufacture of onto another reference point, and the plate is
transparencies, preparation of aerial photo- turned until the centre of the microscope will
graphs, checking of the device, calculation of be on the line connecting these points.
model scale, focal lengths of cameras, etc.
The mutual orientation of aerial photo- 10.3. Mine-Surveying Coverage
graphs is essentially the determination of the of Drilling
position of one photograph in a stereo pair and Blasting Work
relative to the other. This procedure can be
performed by various motions depending on Mine-surveying servicing (coverage) of
the design of a particular device. For instan- drilling and blasting work consists in the
ce, one of the cameras may be considered to following:
be fixed and forms a stationary basis relative (a) preparation of the initial materials for
to which the position of the other camera is making a plan of blasting operations;
measured. (b) transfer of the blasting plan into
The mutual orientation in a stereophoto- nature;
grammetric device is carried out by observing (c) determination of the actual positions of
successively a number of points on photo- blasting holes after drilling; and
graphs and eliminating their lateral parallax. (d) determination of the volume of blasted
Though the problem is solved by the method rock and the location of worked-out area
of successive approximations, the resulting after rock excavation.
solution is quite accurate (to the accuracy A plan of blasting operations is compiled
offered by the apparatus for the elimination on a scale of 1/1000 or 1/500. Surveys are
of lateral parallax). carried out for the purpose, which have to
The geodetic orientation of a geometrical determine the following characteristics: the
model includes its scaling and horizontali- position of the upper bench crest; boundaries
zation. The scaling consists in determining of the slope fully cleared up by excavation;
10.3. Mine-Surveying Coverage of Work 261
~I
boundaries of a dangerous zone as deter-
I
/ , ~
4 /
mined by the rules of blasting work and
positions of buildings and structures near
that zone.
According to the plan of blasting opera- ~
tions, the design positions of the mouths of
blasting holes are transferred into nature and (b)
fixed by pegs with marks indicating the
number of a hole, the number of a drilling rig,
't-:
the design depth of a hole, and the soil
resistance. In laying out the hole mouths, the
mine surveyor, as a rule, transfers instrumen-
tally into nature only the boundaries of the
block to be blasted and marks them on the
upper crest of a bench. The mouths of
blasting holes in a block are marked by a
blaster foreman.
The instrumental layout of the mouths of
blasting holes is carried out only in cases
when the portions to be blasted are located at
the design boundary of a quarry and per"
manent access roads are being built. The Fig. 10.26 Surveying of bench profile: (a) by
main methods for transferring blasting holes means of inclinometer; (b) by means of telescopic
into nature are the polar method and method rod
of perpendiculars with the use of points of a
surveying net. Angles are laid off with an instruments which can determine the posi-
accuracy not worse than 5'. Distances up to tions of staff points without the presence of
50 m can be measured by means of range men on them, for instance, tacheometers,
finders. In the method of perpendiculars, inclinometers (or theodolites) with an at-
measured distances are rounded off to a tachment for measuring inclined distances, a
decimetre. telescopic rod with a tape, etc.
If a quarry has high benches of an irregular For making a profile survey by an inclino-
shape, these should be surveyed properly. meter (Fig. lO.26a), the instrument is set up
Since, according to safety regulations, staff- on the upper crest of a bench to measure the
men are prohibited to stand on the slopes of inclination angle onto a characteristic point,
benches, such slopes should be surveyed by after which the distance to the sighting point
262 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
is measured by a special tape. In order to blasting block which should give the block
measure a length, a cord with a weight is tied boundaries, blasting holes, the positions of
to the end of the tape and is let to slide along the upper and lower bench crests, rock con-
the slope of the bench. One of the workers tacts, and the situation on the bench berms.
stands on the upper crest and lowers the tape Mter blasting, the blasted rock is surveyed
end with the weight, whereas another worker, in order to determine the boundaries of the
standing on the bench foot in a safe place, muck pile, the break line, and several charac-
stretches the cord and the tape so that the teristic points along the profile lines on the
tape beginning is matched with the point to surface of the muck pile.
be measured.
Measurements with a telescopic rod are
10.4. Survey Work for Transport
made in the following manner (Fig. 10.26b).
The telescopic rod with a roller at its end is Servicing
applied horizontally to the crest and a mea- This work, which occupies an essential
suring tape with a weight is passed over the place in the daily activity of mine surveyors
roller to the point of interest on the slope. in quarries with railway transport, includes
Two coordinates are measured: the horizon- the laying out of routes of face railway tracks,
tal distance from the upper crest to the rod periodic profiling of tracks, etc.
end and (on the tape), the vertical distance In order to obtain initial data for laying
from the rod end to the surface of the slope. out railway tracks, a levelling survey of the
After drilling the blasting holes, the block bench surface is done after the removal of the
to be blasted should be surveyed. The posi- first strip of the rock from the muck pile. This
tions of the holes at the flanks of the block survey determines the recessed places which
are fixed from the points of a surveying. The should be filled with soil and the protruding
positions of intermediate holes are deter- ones which should be cut off for evening the
mined by measuring the distances between berm. After that, the railway track axis is
the holes. Besides, it is required to measure transferred onto the working berm of the
the distances from the holes to the upper bench. Two circumstances should be consi-
crest and the soil resistance. If the excavator dered in this case: the axis should be laid out
work or clear-up work is carried out on the so that two bands of an excavator cut can be
bench after compiling the plan of blasting charged into cars without relaying the rail-
operations, an additional survey of the bench way track, and the tracks should not occupy
should be carried out. The height marks of the zone of the muck pile of a next blast.
the mouths of blasting holes are determined As the design axis of the railway track is
by geometrical levelling. transferred into nature, picket points are
Having surveyed a prepared blasting established along it, and geometric or trigo-
block, the mine survey6r compiles cross sec- nometric levelling is carried out. By the
tions through blasting holes on a scale of results of levelling, it is decided to correct the
1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000, which are needed for track profile in accordance with the permis-
making a corrected plan of blasting work. sible ruling gradient.
These sections should show the profile of the The surveys of permanent railway tracks in
bench slope, blasting holes, the design and a quarry and beyond its boundaries are made
actual level of the bench foot, contacts of by the method of perpendiculars or polar
various rocks and mineral, and drillability method from the sides of a theodolite tra-
and explosibility characteristics of the rocks. verse run along the track axis. These surveys
It is also required to draw a plan of the have to determine: the axis of a track; centres
10.5. Survey Work in Trenching 263
chords.
The layout work for the construction of
automobile roads is carried out by mine
cT 1-
~~ .
surveyors according to the design materials
~o 93 ~/'lc
which give the gradients, curvature radii,
width of roadbed, etc. At the end of road
construction, instrumental survey should be
carried out in order to check that the actual
1?0 ~2
characteristics of the road correspond
properly to the design values. ~ J~ I, ~2 ..A
.-A
c-c
1°°°
i 0 0 0 1 00°°'0 072
'/\I'fi~~r#
1000 0001 \ I III I/
C
-.1-0 I' -0-0- ~-0-o-0-'--
I c
\JrLI-~1
I... ...1
1...t..~1
1...t...1
B : ... ! ...I IB
-+ ~.~-81-
A-A
>---r
y
~
A iJ7
Fig. 10.30 Conveyer bridge: I-facing console truss; 2-facing support; 3-middle truss; 4-dumping
support; 5- dumping console truss
ements are inadmissible. This necessitates the nearest rail are measured by the method
additional survey observations on the trusses of perpendiculars and recalculated into the
and other e,lements of conveyer bridges in distances to the support axes. By the results
order to preserve their strength. The mine- of field measurements, the positions of sup-
survey servicing of conveyer bridges consists port axes are marked on the mine-surveying
in checking the plan position and gradients of plan which serves as the basis for correcting
the railway tracks of bridges and controlling the positions of tracks and supports of a
the horizontal, vertical and angular mobility conveyer bridge.
of a bridge. The control of vertical mobility of conveyer
The plan position of tracks is controlled by bridges is done to check that the height
theodolite surveying with measuring the spa- difference between the supports of a bridge
cings between the rail lines by a steel tape; the does not exceed the specified safety licnit.
track gradient is controlled by geometric The detailed surveys of coQveyer bridges
levelling. are carried out for determining their de-
The control of horizontal mobility is carried formations in order to prevent the appear-
out in view of the fact that the distance ance of dangerous deformation. This work
between the facing and dumping supports of requires the stoppage of a bridge for a long
a conveyer bridge can be increased or decrea- time.
sed depending on the varying geometry of In these surveys, points are marked at the
faces.An increase or decrease of this spacing intersections of beam axes in each unit of the
beyond the specified limits is however inad- metal structure of a bridge. The axial line bb'
missible. The mine surveyor has to control (Fig. 10.31) is fixed at the upper and lower
periodically the spacings between the axes of horizontal belts of the bridge. A theodolite is
the facing and dumping supports. For this then set up at the edge of the upper belt
purpose, theodolite traverses are run along or above a point 19-b', and the directions onto a
near the track axes on the working berms of point lI-b (longitudinal axis of the belt) and
benches on which the bridge supports are points 19-a' and 19-c' are determined. In
moving. The theodolite traverses should al- order to determine the lateral deformations
ways be connected to the points of a re- of the bridge truss, the ordinates from the
ference net. A series of profile lines roughly axial lines to the centres of units of metal
perpendicular to the mining front are also laid structures are measured by a millimetre-
out in a quarry. In each profile, the distances graduated rule or ordinatometer arranged
from the sides of the theodolite traverse to perpendicular to the collimation axis of the
266 Ch. 10. Surveying in Ouarries
Top cho
~
a' ***~~1918171615141312 A 1110 9 876 54 3210111a
Axis
b' --c
-b
c'
Bottom chord
Fig. 10.31 Fixation of axial lines of conveyer bridge for detailed surveys
theodolite. The distances between the points ed-out area has a more or less regular shape,
along the collimation axis of the theodolite and the required accuracy in calculations of
are measured by a controlled-tension steel the volumes of excavator cuts can be ensured
tape. Similarly, the distances in cross sections by any method of surveying, including
to the extreme points of the belt are de- tacheometry.
termined. The results thus obtained are used 2. On some kinds of loose deposits, the
for plotting the actual state of the bridge on worked-out area has an irregular shape, so
the design plan and listing the deformations that tacheometry cannot ensure the specified
of all units of the upper belt of the main truss. accuracy. In such casesit is recommended to
The horizontal surveying of the lower belt employ the ground stereophotogrammetric
of the main truss is carried out by the method surveymg.
of ordinates from the sides of a theodolite 3. In the extraction of igneous and hard
traverse run on side ladders along the truss. ro9ks with preliminary loosening to the
Measurements are made by controlled-ten- width of one excavator cut, the calculations
sion steel tapes with an accuracy to a milli- of volumes should be carried out by the
metre. A plan of the lower belt is plotted by results of ground stereophotogrammetric sur-
the results of a survey, and the actual posi- veys or by weighing the mined rock and
tions of structures are marked on it. considering its density.
4. If rocks are loosened by multirow blas-
10.7. Calculations of Volumes ting and the loosened rock is later loaded by
of Extracted Overburden several excavators, the calculations of vol-
Rock and Mineral umes can only be done by the results of
in Quarries weighing of the mined rock (of the known
density), since other methods are insuffi-
In mine surveying, the volumes of extrac- ciently accurate.
ted mineral and overburden rock are calcu- The determination of volumes by the re-
lated by the main plans of mining work sults of weighing of the mined rock (operative
levels. The choice of the best calculation accounting) has a number of essential ad-
method depends on the mining technology vantages:
and the surveying method employed. (a) the method offers the highest accuracy
I. In open-cast mining of loose rocks by and can be used with all technological
conveyer bridges, excavators, etc. the work- schemes of mining;
10.7. Calculations of Volumes of Rock and Mineral 267
(b) it provides timely information on the are established by an instruction so that the
volumes of mining and stripping work even error ay is not greater than IO%.
for individual mining teams and for any time The ~thod of arithmetic mean is recom-
interval; and mended for cases when the mining technol-
(c) it is possible to control efficiently how ogy permits the determination of the volumes
fully the transport vehicles are loaded. of the mined rock (recalculated to the
The volumes of extracted and blasted over- undisturbed rock) directly by the results of
burden rock and mineral can be calculated bench surveying. The volume of a block is
by the method of arithmetic mean, horizontal calculated in that case by the formula:
and vertical sections, volumetric measuring v= Shm
grid, etc., provided that the 'errors in their
determination do not exceed the following where S is the area of the base of a figure or
permissible values. section, m2, and hm is the mean depth of a
1. If the volume of the extracted over- cut, m, or by the formula:
burden (mineral) is found directly by sur-
veying of benches, the permissible error cry, V=~S!h2 m
%, can be calculated by the formula: p
-/\\\1:,\
n
found by the formula:
'\. \ n
v sLh,
1
Fig. 10.32 Determining mineral reserves by
vertical sections where S is the area of the grid base, m 2; n is
the number of baseswithin the boundaries of
the contour being measured; and h is the
can be divided into simple geometrical figures
thickness of the layer of extracted (blasted)
whose elements are measured by a rnilli-
rock in the centre of each grid base.
metre-graduated rule. Analytical determina-
The choice of a method for volume cal-
tion of areas is also possible.
culation depends on the shape of the work-
The method of vertical sections (Fig. 10.32)
ed-out area and muck pile, as well as on the
is usually employed for calculating the vol-
method of surveying.
umes of blasted rock surveyed by tacheo-
In surveying of undisturbed rock, various
metric methods. The following formulae are
methods can be used for the calculations of
used in calculations:
(I) in cases when spacings between the volumes. With a tacheometric survey which
section planes are different: determines the positions of bench crests, the
method of horizontal sections is preferable.
SI + S2l S2 + S3 With tacheometric surveys carried out once a
v- -2 I + 2 l2
month, area measurements should be done
S.-1 -..on
+Sn. plans plotted on a scale not smaller than
+ ~ln-l tlU.L:» .1/1000. If calculations are done once a quar-
ter of a year, plans on a scale 1/2000 can be
where s 1 and S. are the cross-sectional areas used.
at the boundaries of an extracted cut (block), If surveying is done by ground stereopho-
m2; S2' S3' ..., S.-1 are the areas of inter- togrammetry, rock volumes can be calculated
mediate sections, m2; and 11,12, 13' ...,1.-1 by the method of horizontal or that of
are the spacings between the sections, m; vertical sections. In the former case, areas are
(2) "in case of equal spacings between the measured by a planimeter. In the method of
vertical sections, areas can be determined by
) analytical or graphoanalytical methods.
\ .I. 2 byIna the surveys of mined
tacheometric method, rock
theinvolumes
a muck pile
can
where I is the spacing between the sections, be calculated by the method of vertical
m; S are the areas of intermediate sections, sections; if the muck pile is surveyed by
m2; and n is the number of sections. stereophotogrammetry, the method of verti-
The spacings between the sections should cal and that of horizontal sections are ap-
be not greater than the distances between the plicable. Recalculation from the volume of
staff points. loosened rock to that of undisturbed rock is
The method of volumetric measuring grid is done by dividing the measured volume by a
recommended for the calculations of the loosening factor.
10.8. Reclamation of Land
269
The calculations of the volume of a muck loosening factor for the first cut, which
pile produced by multirow blasting can in- should be determined experimentally.
volve certain difficulties, since the loosening In the calculation of the volume of the first
factor of rock may vary within rather wide cut of a block, a correction (with a plus sign)
limits (its average variation may attain 8% or for the generalization of the slope shape is
even more). In such cases,the calculations of introduced:
blasted rock and the determination of a
AV= (O.O3h3+ O.7h)L
loosening factor should be carried out se-
parately for each block before and after where h is the mean height of a slope and L is
blasting. the length of a block.
for blocks exploded onto a cleared-up The volumes of subsequent cuts are cal-
slope, the mean loosening factor can be found culated without this correction. The loosen-
by the formula: ing factors for the subsequent cuts are
k, = ~/V.n determined by considering the factor for the
first cut, the mean loosening factor of the
where ~ is the volume of a block in the
block, and the areas of corresponding vertical
loosened state and ~n is the volume of
sections of the first cut and the remaining
undisturbed rock in a block.
portion of the block:
If blasting is done onto an uncleared slope,
V" = V"
the volume of undisturbed rock in the blasted un ,
/ k"
1
block should be summed with the volume of k'1 -kl (P' + pI') + k;P'
the blasted rock left on the slope from the , -11
p
previous blasting; the loosening factor of this
rock is taken such as adopted for the cal- where k7 is the loosening factor of the second
culations of the volumes of the last extracted and subsequent cuts in a block; k, is the mean
cuts. loosening factor of the rock; k; is the loos-
Thus, the mean loosening factor is cal- ening factor of the rock in the fJ.fstcut, and p'
culated by the formula: and p" are the weights of the loosening
k. = ~/V' factors, which are taken equal numerically to
the mean areas of vertical sections in the first
where J-;is the volume of the loosened rock; and subsequent cuts.
V~. = v.. + V~, (here v.. is the volume of the
undisturbed rock in the block and V~l is the 10.8. Reclamation of Land
volume of the blasted rock remained from the
previous blasting, recalculated to the volume The problem of the restoration of land
of the undisturbed rock). areas spoiled by opell-cast mining of mineral
By the resl,llts of surveying before and after deposits is of crucial importance.
the extraction of the first excavator cut, it is A complex of measures aimed at the resto-
possible to calculate the volume of that cut ration of land on the territories abandoned
and the mass of rock in it and in the on opell-cast mining is called land reclama-
remaining portion of the blasted rock. lion.
The volume of the undisturbed rock in the Land reclamation can be carried out by
first cut can be found by the formula: engineering, biological and construction tech-
V~. = V;/k; mques.
A mining enterprise should carry ellgin"
where V; is the volume of rock of the first cut eering reclamation which consists in the
in the loosened state and k; is the mean preparation of land territories. freed after
270 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
at the end of each planned period. The by the points of the upper unflooded crests of
contours of polygons and sections at the slopes in a polygon with a smooth surface
upper and lower crest are usually surveyed by relief where there is the required number of
the polar method from the points of survey surveying net points and control points. The
control. distances between the surveyed points and
Ground stereophotogrammetry is employ- pickets or control points are measured by
ed for surveying of large polygons when an tapes.
area of at least 25 000 m2 can be photo- Tacheometric surveying has found appli-
graphed from a single photographic base. cation in all main regions of dredging work.
Tacheometry and method of profile lines In this method, the line of a lower crest is
have found use for surveying of pits and also fixed upon determining the combination of
of polygons which are deepened by more points of the largest depths at the foot of a
than 1.5 m monthly, i. e. when a placer de- facing slope. With depths more than 2 m, the
posit is being mined by excavators or hyd- positions of the crests of the facing slope is, as
raulic machines actually to the entire depth a rule, determined by the position of the
of bedding of loose deposits. The techniques centre of the lower bucket drum as it moves
of tacheometric surveying on placer deposits over the facing platform.
are the same as elsewhere. Range lines which On some placer deposits, tacheometric
are parallel to one another are laid out across surveying is used only for determining the
the strike of a pit. position of the upper crest of a facing slope.
In the method of profile lines, the upper The position of the lower crest is drawn on
and lower crests of the side slopes of a pit are the plans of the mining work relative to that
first surveyed and plotted on the plan of the of the upper crest considering the specified
mining work, after which transverse vertical slope angle, which is determined experimen-
sections are marked with intervals of tally for different depths and lithologic cha-
20-25 m, the depths in the equidistant points racteristics of loose placer deposits. This
of each section are measured, and a sketch of method is applicable only in rare caseswhen
measurements .is drawn. the flanks of a dredge pit are composed of
The survey work in dredging consists es- rocks quite resistant to caving, so that the
sentially in surveying of dredge faces and pits, face retains its initial configuration during the
determination of the volume of mined rock entire period between measurements.
and losses, and the dilution of the mineral. The mean depth of a dredge face is found
The periodicity of face surveying is determi- by averaging the measured face depths (depth
ned by the accuracy of measurement of the of digging plus the height of freeboard) or by
geometric parameters of dredge pits (poly- averaging the differences of elevation marks
gons). For instance, for dredges of moderate of the polygon surface in the upper crest
capacity, each third or fifth face should be contour and the bottom of the dredge pit.
surveyed, i. e. roughly after every 10 m of The depth of digging can be measured by a
dredge advancement. lead-and-line, mechanical depth gauge, echo
Surveying of dredge pits can be performed sounder or asdic (sonar). The error in depth
by one of the following methods. measurements should not exceed 0.1 m.
With the linear method, surveying is done
Chapter Eleven
18-1270
274 Ch Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
a b
Fig. 11.4 Scheme depicting Hausse's hypothesis Fig. 11.5 Scheme of bisector rule
working systems on the pattern of rock sidence have been carried out extensively and
displacement. on a wider scope and have included the
According to Hausse, the process of rock problems of the pressure of rocks and filling
displacement can be represented as follows materials, specific effects of rock pressure in
(Fig. 11.4). A zone abdc forms immediately mines with powered supports, laws of rock
above the worked-out space,in which rock is pressure in ore deposits. Recent investiga-
displaced by caving and bending. Above that tions of the mechanism of such dangerous
zone, there is another zone, dcef, where only effects as rock, coal and gas bursts carried
the bending of rock layers is observed. The out in a number of countries have provided
thickness of the cave-in zone was found to be the basis for developing effective measures to
equal to (30-60) m, where m is the thickness of prevent the dynamic effects of rock pressure.
the mined seam.
A large contribution to the advancement of
11.2. General Data
the theory of rock displacement was made by
on Rock Disturbance
A. Goldreich in 1913 when he published a
monograph based on his instrumental ob- The stressed state that appears after the
servations of rock subsidence. He came to a formation of a cavity in the rock massif (say,
conclusion that the fault fissures in rocks of upon driving a working) is determined by
the coal age should have directions governed initial stress fields. The magnitude and distri-
by the bisector rule (Fig. 11.5), i. e. the bution of stressesdepend substantially on the
displacement boundary is a line coincident shape of workings.
with the bisector of an angle between the At the initial period when a stope working
normal to a seam and the vertical. For still has not been advanced far from the rock
tertiary rocks, it was proposed to determine massif, the roof of a deposit is in a relatively
the angles of displacement by considering the stable state, and its bending is insignificant.
angle of repose As however the worked-out space is widened,
e = 45° + p/2 the amount and rate of roof bending increase,
the continuity of rock layers is disturbed,
where p is the angle of repose. Further, they are stratified, fissures form in the rock,
Goldreich was one of the first to refer to the and finally, roof layers cave in into the
horizontal displacements of rocks. worked-out space.
In recent time, the studies of rock sub- With an increase of the dimensions of the
11.3. Rock Displacement Parameters 275
(a) ibt
Fig. 11.9 Boundary angles for seams: (a) gently dipping ((J-angle of maximum subsidence); (b) steep
boundary points, i. e. the points on the Earth's surface may subside to the same
Earth's surface in which subsidence does not depth (maximum for the given conditions)
exceedthe mean error of levelling. In practice, over a large area. Further expansion of the
the boundaries of a displacement trough are working will not increase the subsidence area,
defined by points with a subsidence of 15 mm and the latter is then considered to be under
or relative horizontal tensile deformations the conditions of complete underworking.
0.5 x 10-3. Otherwise, underworking is incomplete.
It is distinguished between the boundary The area of complete underworking is
angles in sections across the strike ([30' [301' determined by means of angles of total displa-
and y ° in Fig. 11.9) and those in sections on cement, i. e. the interior angles relative to the
the strike (00). worked-out space, which are formed in the
Boundary angles depend substantially on vertical main sections of a displacement
the depth of the mining work, dipping angle trough by the seam lines and the lines
of seams, and, rock density. connecting the boundaries of the worked-out
Boundary angles are used in preliminary space with the boundaries of the flat bottom
calculations of displacements and deform- of the trough.
ations of the Earth's surface. It is distinguished between the angles of
With the horizontal bedding of a seam, the complete underworking in sections across the
centre of a displacement trough lies above the strike: "' 1 at the dipping end and", 2 at the
middle of the worked-out space. With dip- rising end of the worked-out space
ping seams,it is shifted from the middle by an (Fig. 11.10) and those in sections on the
angle e (Fig. 11.9a) which is called the angle strike; "' 3 at both sides of the worked-out
of maximum subsidence. This angle is mea- space.
sured at the dipping end of a seam in the
vertical main section of the displacement
trough across the strike and is formed by a
horizontal line and the line connecting the
middle of the working with the point on the .1. 0/1 \1
surface having the maximum subsidence or ~I ~I
with the middle of a plate-shaped displace-
ment trough.
If the dimensions of the worked-out space
are large relative to the bedding depth, the Fig. 11.10 Complete underworking angles
278 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
\=::7
Ib)
and Do2, the coefficient of underworking on A 8
the dip will be nl = Dl/Dol and that on the
82 ' \ \
strike, n2 = D2/Do2.
An important characteristic of underwor-
king is the ratio of the length of a longwall D AI ~ --~C
to the depth of a mine H at which complete
jc)
underworking occurs. It is taken that com- A 81 8
plete underworking takes place at nl :;:?;1 and
n2:;:?;I.
In many cases, rock displacement causes "\\ c \ ~~ "
fissures in the trough. The portion of the
displacement trough in which fissures are A
working and J', 2', 3' are the same points AA 1 be drawn through the point B. It is also
after underworking; 111'112'113are the sub- clear that AlBl is the length of the section
sidencesof respective bench marks; 11-2' 12-3 AB after surface deformation. The relative
are the distances between the points before horizontal deformation will be:
underworking; and ~1' ~2' ~3 are the ho- AB- AlBl CB2
rizontal displacements of respective bench E ---
marks. AB-AB -AB
The inclination of an interval on the sur- Thus, horizontal deformation (tensile or
face is determined relative to the initial compressive) is the elongation or contraction
position of that interval. For instance, the of the initial length of a section related to this
inclination of a section 2-3 after underwor- length.
king is expressed by an angle i2-3. In prac- The duration of the displacement process
tice, inclination is measured as the difference may be of interest mainly when deciding on
of subsidences of extreme points of a section the possibilities of the construction of buil-
related to the initial length of the section: dings on an underworked area. It is agreed to
distinguish three stages of surface subsidence:
'2-3 = 113-112 the initial, active, and attenuating. The initial
4-3 stage, i. e. that during which deformation
The inclinations of adjacent sections in a initiates, usually continues to the moment
displacement trough are in most cases dif- when a mine is advanced under a particular
ferent. This non-uniform subsidence gives rise observation point and can be characterized
to another kind of vertical deformation, cur- by the subsidence rate from tenths of a
vature. Non-uniform subsidence of the sur- millimetre to 1-1.5 mm per day. The active
face can be characterized by the difference of stage is the period in which the rate of
inclination angles of two adjacent sections: subsidence exceeds 50 mm/month on gently
dipping seams or 30 mm/month on steep
k2 = i2-3 -il-2 ones. The displacement process is considered
11-2/2 + 12-3/2 to be finished at that day of observations
i. e. curvature is the ratio of the difference of after which the total subsidence during six
inclinations of two adjacent sections to the months does not exceed 30 mm.
half-sum of the lengths of these sections. The duration of the subsidence process
The radius of curvature is the inverse of mainly depends on the depth of the mining
curvature: work, thickness of seams, and the physico-
R = l/k mechanical properties of rocks.
The path of the motion of surface points
Horizontal deformation is one of the most and the distribution of displacements and
important characteristics of surface subsid- deformations within a displacement trough
ence. Let us analyse the combined motion of obey definite regularities. As a mine face
two surface points, A and B (Fig. ll.12b). As approaches, the paths of points deviate from
a result of displacement, the point A will be the vertical towards the face. After the face
shifted to A1 and the point B, to B1. In the has passed beneath the points, their paths
case of the compression of a section AB, deviate towards the advancing face. Finally,
vectors AA 1 and BB 1 will be directed as in as the face has been moved sufficiently far,
Fig. 11.12b and in the case of tension, as in the paths of points become perfectly vertical.
Fig. 11.12c. When solving problems associatedwith the
Let a line parallel and equal to the vector protection of surface structures, it is essential
280 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
a bed, secondary subsidence can appear in strike. The distribution of hazardous zones in
the mine roof, especially when quickly caving a trough is also associated with the angle of
soft rocks lie immediately on the roof, dip.
whereas the layers (bands) of hard rock are A steeply dipping structure of a deposit,
overlying and hang up periodically over a sharp changes in the angle of dip, folded
large area. Poorly predictable cavings of bedding, and the presence of moderate and
these bands can develop an elevated rock large tectonic disturbances can lead to the
pressure in stope workings and adjacent appearance of concentrated deformations, fis-
preparatory workings and sometimes are the sures and ledges in the surface. Depending on
cause of emergencies and rock bursts in the thickness of seams and bedding depth,
mmes. these deformations may vary from a few
Quicksands can complicate substantially millimetres to tens of centimetres and are
the process of rock displacement. Cases have quite dangerous for surface structures, since
been recorded when quicksands occurring in structures located on ledges then suffer from
the rock massif being underworked caused substantial deformations or even break down
sharp flattening of displacement angles. Un- if these deformations exceed 20-30 cm.
derworking of quicksands can involve large The sites for the construction of new
water losses, which can result in surface objects should, as a rule, be located on
subsidence far ahead of the working face. non-underworked territories or on those with
The angle of dip of a deposit is among the favourable geological conditions. If a need
critical factors governing the rock displa- arises to erect new objects in underworked
cement process qualitatively and quantita- zones which can cause the appearance of
tively. The pattern of displacement of the large deformations and ledges, protective
overlying rock is closely associated with the measures should be taken to increase the
angle of dip. With steep angles of dip, sub- strength and spatial rigidity of buildings and
stantial shear deformations in displaced rock structures (reinforced-concrete, belts in the
are quite typical. With horizontal or gently underground portions of buildings, cast-in-
dipping seams, the main kind of deformation situ concrete foundations, reinforced joints,
is bending of rock strata. With steep bedding, continuous horizontal reinforced-concrete
the horizontal component of a displacement belts at the level of floor ceilings and parti-
vector is predominant, whereas the vertical tions, division of buildings into sections,
component prevails in the rock displacement provision of horizontal sliding joints, etc.).
on flat seams. It is found by observations The construction of new objects on areas
that, under similar conditions, structures above old stope workings at depths of
above workings in seams with steeper angles 20-80 m can only be started after preliminary
of dip suffer from greater deformations. For geological examination to reveal empty ca-
instance, in the Donetsk coal basin, mining in vities in the worked-out space. The construc-
gently dipping seams at a depth of 200-250 m tion of residential buildings above the zones
causes no fissuring on the surface, whereas of preparatory mining workings at depths
the mining work in steep seams, even at a less than 10 m (where m is the height of a
depth of 600 m, can lead to the appearance of working) is possible only after geological
large rupture cracks on the surface. examination for determining the non-caved
An increase in the angle of dip of a deposit portions of workings (voids). In all cases,
involves a change in the position of a displa- detected voids should be filled in.
cement trough relative to the worked-out The depth of the mining work can influence
space, i. e. the trough is shifted towards the substantially the magnitude of rock displa-
282 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
cement and the time and rate of its ma- cohesion), which in turn leads to a loss of
nifestation. With an increase in the mining stability of slopes and landslide phenomena.
depth, the amount of displacement decreases The disturbance of the rock massif by old
and the process becomes smoother and less stope workings. Numerous field observations
dangerous for surface structures, though this have demonstrated that the mining work in a
is true only to a certain depth. An increase in disturbed rock massif can activate rock dis-
the depth of the mining work always in- placement by increasing deformations, rates,
creases the time of the displacement process. and non-uniformity of surface subsidence.
The thickness of an extracted seam. Com- The activization of rock displacement may be
pared with the depth of the mining work, the due to the following factors:
thickness of a seam has an inverse effect on (I) voids formed due to hanging up of
the rock displacement: with a larger thick- overlying rock layers during primary un-
ness, the process of displacement is more derworking. Repeated underworking can lar-
pronounced and involves higher horizontal gely eliminate hang-ups and produce better
and vertical deformations. With an appre- compaction of the disturbed rock massif;
ciable thickness of a seam, the zone of (2) primary underworking decreases the
smooth sagging can disappear fully, and the strength of a rock massif by opening old and
rock then subsides by caving and with the forming new fissures. For that reason, rock
formation of terraces. displacement on repeated underworking pro-
On seams of a small thickness, the rock ceedsat a high rate, since it takes place in the
displacement occurs mostly by bending of rock massif with impaired strength proper-
strata. The cave-in zone develops only weak- ties.
ly and only in the direct vicinity of the Working systems.The principal parameters
worked-out space. of working systems which can influence rock
The presence and thickness of sedimentary displacement are the height of levels, length
rocks and the surface relief In bed rocks, the of a mining field, method of roof control, rate
.rock displacement occurs so that points , of face advance, and the completeness of
move almost along the normals to the bedding mineral extraction.
plane. In sedimentary rocks of an appreciable The height of a mining level and the length
capacity, the rock displacement occurs in of a mining field are equally important, since
directions from the edges to the centre of a they determine the shape of a displacement
displacement trough. In the contacts on the trough. With small dimensions of the work-
rise of a seam, sedimentary rocks and bed ed-out space, a cup-shaped trough usually
rocKs are displaced in opposite directions, forms. With an increase in the space di.
which often causes the separation of sedi- mensions, a cup-shaped trough changes to a
mentary layers from the bed rock and the plate-like form.
destruction of underground objects. The best method of roof control to prevent
The effect of the surface relief on rock the surface subsidence is backfilling of the
displacement is appreciable only in moun- worked-out space. The filling decreases the
tainous regions where underworking of steep size of voids, supports the overlying rock, and
slopes often triggers landslides. Rock stability decelerates and decreasesto a certain extent
depends substantially on the angle of internal the process of rock displacement.
friction and the cohesion at slip planes. The The effect of filling depends on the filling
rock displacement then results in loosening of material used. Continuous dry filling decreas-
the rock massif and associated reduction of es the volume of voids only insufficiently
the strength properties of rock (mainly of (sometimes only by 40 per cent). Hydraulic
11.5. Monitoring Rock Displacement. Observation Stations 283
filling and hardening filling produce the most 1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000); it should give the
favourable effect on surface subsidence. With boundaries of the mining field, the current
carefully packed hardening filling, the surface state of the mining work and its further
subsidence may be as low as only 3 per cent development, the supposed position of the
of the seam thickness. In this case, surface displacement zone, tectonic disturbances, and
displacements are uniform and smooth, so the scheme of junction of control points; (b)
that even large structures settle down slowly geological cross sections along the profile
and without large damage. lines with indication of the workings; and (c)
With continuous working systems, espe- the designs of control and working bench
cially with a large-Iength longwall and com- marks.
plete roof caving, surface displacement occurs The place for establishing the observation
smoothly and uniformly. With pillar and station is chosen by considering the positions
room-pillar working systems having roof of mining workings and according to the
caving where safety pillars are left at short particular object of observations. An area on
intervals in the worked-out space,the overlying a flat country with few structures and away
rock massif may be broken by the pillars into from haulage tracks and roads is a conve-
individual blocks, with fissures propagating nient place for an observation station. Usu-
up to the surface and causing largely uneven ally, two profile lines across the strike and
subsidence. one on the strike are laid out. When working
deposits with varying geological and mining
11.5. Monitoring conditions, the profile lines are laid out
Rock Displacement. separately on the sections which differ from
one another in the bedding elements, thick-
Observation Stations
ness of a seam, working system, etc.
An observation station on the surface is a The profile line across the strike which is
system of fixed points (bench marks) placed the closest to undisturbed (intact) rock is
in the ground or surface structures located at a distance not less than 0.85 Hm
(Fig. 11.14). Bench marks are usually set up from a breakthrough or the point where the
along the profile lines on and across the face is stopped (Hm is the mean depth of a
strike of a deposit. In mountainous, wooded working). If the longwall face has already
and densely built-up areas, broken profile moved from the breakthrough, the distance
lines are permissible. from the latter to the profile line is found by
When examining the underworking condi- the formula:
tions for railroads, pipelines and other d = Hm cotalloo :;::?;
0.85Hm
stretched objects, the profile lines may be
arranged diagonally to the strike. In some The next profile line is laid out at a
cases, say, for monitoring underground gas distance of 50 m from the previous one.
pipelines, stations may be established as a The length of profile lines drawn across the
network. strike (Fig. ll.l5a) is determined on vertical
An observation station is set up according sections by the boundary displacement
to the design plan which includes an ex- angles. Two control bench marks are es-
planatory note and graphical appendices. tablished on the continuations of the profile
The graphical material of the design plan lines beyond the expected displacement zone.
should contain: (a) a joint plan of the land The distance from the first control bench
surface and underground workings with pro- mark to the end of the working portion of the
file lines of an observation station (on a scale profile line should be not less than 50 m, and
Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
the spacing between the control bench marks, towards the undisturbed rock massif, and a
50-100 m depending on local conditions. distance 1.75Hm, towards the worked-out
The profile line on the strike passes space.
through the point of the maximum sub- Control bench marks are established by
sidence of a displacement trough. To find this the same rules as for the profile lines across
point on the vertical section across the strike, the strike.
a line is drawn at an angle 9 from the middle Working bench marks are set up along the
of the worked-out space up to its intersection profile lines at intervals decided by the depth
with the surface. of the mining work.
The length of the profile line on the strike Bench marks should be designed so as to
is found in the following way (Fig. ll.15b). ensure their stability and preservation for a
The point where the face will be supposedly long period; in addition, they should be
stopped is projected onto the surface (point inexpensive and convenient for establishing
k). A distance B = Hmcotan 00 is the~ laid off and observations. Bench marks for long-term
11.5. Monitoring Rock Displacement. Observation Stations 285
(b)
Fig. 11.15 Determination of length of profile lines: (a) in section across the strike; (b) in section on the
strike
and ordinary stations are made from metal 15 JL, mm (where L is the length of a level
tube sections, studs or rail pieces which are line, m).
set up below the freezing line and concreted. Upon connecting a station, it is possible to
For temporary stations, they can be made start primary and secondary observations. A
from wooden stakes or pegs driven into the complete set of instrumental observations
soil. For better preservation, bench marks are contains: the levelling of all bench marks; the
often buried in the ground to a depth of measurements of bench spacings along pro-
30-40 cm. file lines; determination of the deviations of
Observations. Observations at stations on working bench marks from a profile line;
the surface include tying (connecting) control surveys of surface fissures with records of the
bench marks to an existing reference net, time of their appearance; and the measure-
primary observations on the bench marks in ments of the deformations of structures.
horizontal and vertical planes, and secondary The first observation at a station is recom-
observations. The horizontal connection of mended to be carried out in 7-10 days after
control bench marks is carried out by trian- setting up of bench marks (if these have been
gulation or by closed theodolite traverses. It concreted) or in 2-3 days for bench marks
is permissible to run a hanging theodolite driven into the ground. Primary observations
traverse, provided that the angles and sides are carried out twice, and the final result is
are measured in the forward and back direc- obtained as the arithmetic mean of the two
tion. The permissible relative discrepancy of a observations.
theodolite traverse should not exceed 1/2000. The time intervals between the observa-
The vertical connection of control bench tions depend on their task. If it is essential to
marks is done from the points and bench obtain detailed information on rock displa-
marks of a levelling net by means of geomet- cement, at least four intermediate observa-
ric levelling with a discrepancy not more than tions between the initial and final observa-
286 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
ments of the Earth's surface are tabulated as Depending on the completeness of initial
given in Tables 11.1 and 11.2. data, it is possible to detennine the expected
or probable displacements and defonnations
11.6. Calculations of the Earth's surface. The expected displa-
of Rock Displacement cements and defonnations can be calculated
when the calendar plans of the mining work
An increase in the depth of the mining development are available and the probable
work leads to an increase of the zones of ones, when there are no such plans. In the
harmful effects on the surface, and therefore, calculations of the expected displacements
more objects on the surface will be subjected and defonnations of the Earth's surface, the
to these effects and require protection. On the following characteristics are detennined: sub-
other hand, with an increase in the mining sidence 11,horizontal displacements ~, incli-
depth, surface deformations decrease,so that nations i, curvature k and curvature radius R,
it becomes possible to underwork even criti- horizontal defonnations E, and displacements
cal structures which could not be underwor- and defonnations caused by rock motion
ked when mining was done at higher mining along the bedding.
levels. In densely inhabited areas with multi- If the angle of dip a is smaller than the
storey residential and public buildings and limiting value a" the expected displacements
extended networks of gas and water supply and defonnations are detennined by the
and seweragesystems,underworking requires calculation method for the conditions when
complicated engineering calculations for de- there is no rock motion at the lying wall. If
termining the expected deformations and the angle of dip is equal to or greater than the
degree of damage to structures. It is also limiting value, the calculation method consi-
needed to carry out observations on the ders rock motion at the lying wall. The
surface subsidence and the state of structures limiting angle of dip of a seam, a" is the angle
and control the protective measures and the at
thewhich
lying dangerous displacements
wall can appear. , of rock at
repairs of damilged buildings.
The existing methods of calculation of rock The calculation of displacements and de-
subsidence can be divided into the following fonnations is started from constructing the
groups: (a) empirical methods; (b) methods geological sections on and across the strike,
based on distribution function; and (c) meth- in which sedimentary and bed rocks should
ods based on theoretical models. Empirical be indicated. These sections should also show
methods are the most preferable since they the driven and projected workings (with the
use the results of direct observations on dates of driving), the depth of the mining
subsidence. work, and the dimensions of workings and
Among the empirical methods, the method pillars. The extracted thickness m of a seam is
developed in this country is quite accurate. It detennined as the total sum of the thicknes-
is used in cases when the roof control is ses of layers of coal and enclosing rock
effectedby complete caving of the back-filling extracted from the stope workings. With
of the worked-out space and is applicable back-filling of the worked-out space, the
when the underworking ratio is Him > 20 for calculation of displacements and defonna-
the angles of dip between 0° and 55° or tions is carried out by considering the effec-
Him > 15 for the angles larger than 55°. tive thickness of the seam:
The underworking ratio is here the ratio of
the mean mining depth H to the extracted or mer=(hc+hin)(I-BJ+Blm (11.6)
effective thickness of a seam, m. where hc is the convergence of the roof and
288 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
Table 11.2
156.262 0 ° O 0
9.893 + 0.1 +0.1 0.03 +33.3
floor before back-filling (if there are no where qo is the relative maximum subsidence;
observation data and the face is advanced by m is the extracted thickness of a seam; a is the
8-20 m ahead of the filling, hc is taken equal angle of dip of a seam; and N 1 and N 2 are the
to 0.15 m); hin is the incompleteness of filling factors depending on the ratio of the design
(mean distance from the top of a filling massif length of a longwall Dd to the mean mining
to the roof of a seam), which is determined depth H,
experimentally; m is the extracted thickness of T he subsidenceof the Earth's surface in the
a seam; and B 1 is the shrinkage factor of pdints of the main sections of a displacement
filling whose values are given below: trough is determined by the formula:
Tl(x,y) = TlmS(z) (11,8)
Hydraulic filling: B1
sand. 0.05-0.15
crushed rock. .0.15-0.30 where S(Z)is the function of a typical subsi-
Pneumaticfilling 0.25-0.40 dence curve, which depends on coefficient N 1
Gravity-f1owfil-
and N 2'
ling: The inclinations in the main sections of a
crushed rock. .0.25-0.45
ordinary rock. .0.35-0.50 displacement trough are determined by the
following formulae:
In the calculations of displacements and for a half-trough on the strike:
deformations, it is essential to consider the
influence of all projected stope workings and ~ F( 1
of those driven earlier, which can activate the zx,
L3
displacement process in the given section. for a half-trough on the dip:
The maximum subsidence of the Earth's
surface is found by the formula:
llm = qomcosaNllN2 (11.7)
11.6. Calculations of Rock Displacement 289
lst-4th observations
0 0
+0.3 +0.01 + 100.0 +0.6 +0.02 50.0
+0.1 +0.01 + 100.0 +6 +0.6 +0.3 +0.03 33.3
+0.4 +0.04 +25.0 +9 +0.9 +0.1 +0.01 +I 00.0
0.0 0.0 +10 +1.0 -0.1 -0.01 -I 00.0
-0.4 -0.04 -25.0 +9 +0.9 +0.4 +0.04 + 25.0
+1.9 +0.19 +52.5 +13 +1.3 +1.5 +0.15 + 67.5
+2.1 +0.21 +47.5 +27 +2.8 +2.6 +0.28 + 38.5
+2.8 +0.28 +35.7 +57 +5.4 +2.5 +9.25 + 40.0
+5.2 +0.52 +19.2 +79 +7.9 +3.5 +0.85 + 11.8
+163 +16.4
"x = O.5ao
-L1lmF'(zx)
3 (11.18)
19-1270
290 Ch.1 Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
to its entire height (except for the founda- building of a rectangular form 28 x 45 m in
tion); plan (Fig. 11.16) and arranged diagonally (at
(b) yieldable foundations which absorb the 45°) to the strike of a seam. Another seam, 11,
horizontal stressesin buildings. This is achie- of a thickness m = 0.9 m and an angle of dip
ved by providing a horizontal joint to sepa- a = 30°, lies under the seam mentioned. The
rate the underground portion of a building thickness of sedimentary rock is 25 m. The
from the foundation; the joint is filled with a displacement angles are: <p in sedimentary
material having a low coefficient of friction; rock and 13,y, and Oin bed rock. The width of
(c) foundation plates. The idea consists in a safety berm, which depends on the type of
that a reinforced-concrete plate is laid onto building to be protected, is taken equal to
the levelled and compacted soil surface. The 15 m in the case considered.
plate is cut through by diagonal joints filled The construction of the pillar is started by
with an elastic material. A layer of wet sand drawing lines parallel and perpendicular to
up to 5 cm thick is laid on the plate and the seam strike through the corner points 1,
above it another plate (without joints) is 2, 3, 4 of the building. A berm 15 m wide is
placed on which the building will be erected. plotted around the rectangle thus obtained.
Effective protection of buildings against This gives another rectangle, ABCD. A verti-
the effect of underworking is provided by cal section across the strike is plotted, and
compensating ditches dug in the ground the corner points of the building and berm
along a building; they diminish horizontal are projected onto it. Lines are drawn through
deformations by 33-50 per cent. The bottom points A (B) and D (C) in the sedimentary
of a ditch is made somewhat lower (around rock at the displacement angle <pup to the
50 cm) than the foundation foot. Compensa- contact with the bed rock. Lines are drawn
tion ditches are filled with corrugated steel, in the bed rock through points K 1 and K 2
fine coke or a mixture of soil and sawdust. thus obtained, at the angle yon the dip and
3. Safety (protective) pillars are left in the the angle 13,on the rise.
worked-out area of mines. This method is The boundaries of the pillar on the dip side
resorted to when other protective measures are points a and b which are the points of the
are inefficient or too expensive. intersection of the seam with the line drawn
at the angle y; on the rise side, the boundary
points are c and d obtained by the intersec-
tion of the "line drawn at the angle 13to the
11 .8. Construction
seam line.
of Safety Pillars
A vertical section on the strike is then
Safety pillars can be constructed by the constructed, and the corner points of the
method of vertical sections or method of berm, B (C) and A (D) are projected onto it.
perpendiculars. Lines are drawn in the sedimentary rock
through these points at the angle <pup to the
intersection with the bed rock, which gives
11.8.1. Method of Vertical Sections
points K3 and K4, after which lines at the
Let us consider two examples of the appli- inclination angle O are drawn through these
cation of this method: construction of safety points. The intersections of these lines with
pillars for a building and for an extended the lines of the upper and lower boundary of
object. the pillar determine the pillar dimensions in
Example 1. It is required to construct a the section on the strike.
safety pillar for a four-storey brickwork Upon the construction of the vertical sec-
19.
292 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
2004080m
I I I I I I I
a
Fig. 11.16 Construction of safety pillar for building by method of vertical sections
tions of the pillar, the plan contours of the the bed rock on the dip. The two latter angles
pillar are determined (abcd). can be found from the formulae:
The reserve of coal in the pillar is calcula- cotanf3' = Jcotan2f3 cos2e + cotan2o sin2e
ted by multiplying the seam thickness by the
total area of the pillar. cotany' = Jcotan2y cos2e + cotan2o sin2e
Example 2. It is required to construct a
safety pillar for a railway bed in a brown coal where 13,y, and O are the displacement angles
field (Fig. 11.17).The railway bed is arranged in the main sections of a displacement trough
diagonally to the seam strike. The seam for the given seam and e is the acute angle
thickness is 1.3 m and the angle of dip, 25°. between the strike line of the seam and the
The overlying bed rock is represented by clay contour of the object to be protected.
shales, argillites, and aleurolites. The thick- The boundaries of the safety pillar are
ness of sediments is 20 m. The displacement determined by plotting a number of vertical
angles are: ~ = 47°, y = 65°, O = 65°, and sections perpendicular to the railway line in
<p= 45°. the characteristic points of the protected area
For objects extended diagonally to the (1-2, 3-4,5-6, 7-8, and 9-10). In these sections,
strike, safety pillars are constructed by the the traces of protected planes are drawn from
displacement angles: <p in the sedimentary the berms in the sedimentary rock at the
rock, ~' in the bed rock on the rise, and y' in displacement angle <p and then in the bed
11.8. Construction of Safety Pillars 293
9-10 7-8
10 ~o 9 ~
/ 47~ ~5°
/ 5-6 3-4
--8 ? -- ~o--
~ 45O 4 ° 5 4 45° -45° 3
- ~~
225
!1 SectionNo.1 6113'11'1
1-2 '~1561651
3-4
Fig. 11.17 Construction of safety pillar for extended object by method of vertical sections
rock at displacement angles J3iand yi. The The angle of dip of the seam ,in the section
bedding deptb of the seam under the railway plane is determined graphically. The points
bed is determined as the difference of eleva- obtained by the intersection of seam traces
tions between the Earth's surface and the with protection planes are transferred onto
seam foot. This depth is laid off in the the plan where straight lines or smooth
sections, and the line of the seam is drawn at curves are drawn to determine the contours
an angle ai through the points thus obtained. of the pillar.
Seam
outcropto overburden
<)6
1~ " .',
250~ /
,---
"
2
278~
200 -
"~--~-
'2'
280~
150- --
""
100
~
Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures
11.8.2. Method of Perpendiculars the seam foot; a is the angle of dip "of the
seam; M is the thickness of the sedimentary
In this method, the boundaries of a pillar
rock; and 13' and y' are the displacement
are obtained directly on a plan, i. e. without
plotting vertical sections. The lengths of angles.
Consider, as an example, the construction
perpendiculars are determined by the for-
of a safety pillar for a railway bed passing
mulae:
diagonally to the strike (Fig. 11.18). Points
(H -M) cotan [3' are chosen in the characteristic places of the
q=
1 + cotan [3' tan 11cos e protected area and perpendiculars are drawn
(H -M) cotan y' in these points to the contour of a safety
I= berm. The corresponding lengths q and 1 are
1 -cotan y' tan 11cos e laid off along the perpendiculars. Points 1, 2,
where q is the length of perpendiculars to the 3, J', 2', and 3' are connected by lines which
rise; I is the length of perpendiculars to the define the boundaries of the safety pillar. The
dip; H is the depth from the Earth's surface to coal reserve in the pillar is then calculated.
Chapter Twelve
12.1 Principal Causes and Kinds in quarry flanks can be divided into five
of Rock Deformation principal kinds: taluses, downfalls, landslides,
subsidences, and mud-streams {mud-flows).
Rock displacements in open-cast mining of A talus takes place when small volumes of
minerals determine to a large extent the loose rock roll gradually from the top of a
mining economics and labour safety. slope to its bottom. This can occur when the
The loss of stability (displacement) of angle of a slope is steeper than the angle of
flanks and benches in quarries is mainly internal friction of loose rock, and the latter
associated with changes in the stressed state has practically no internal cohesion.
of the undisturbed rock massif, which can be A downfall is essentially quick movement
caused by open-cast mining. of rock masses along slip surfaces, such as
In this process, the destruction of rock surfaces weakened by geological disturbances
mainly occurs under the action of tangential or fissures. These surfaces may be plane or
stresses which under particular conditions curved, in the latter case, mostly circular-cy-
can induce irreversible shear deformations in lindrical.
the rock massif along the surfaces called slip In order to prevent downfalls, .quarry
planes. flanks and benches are designed by conside-
The studies of the patterns of stressed state ring the specific characteristics of the rock
in quarry flanks demonstrate that in the massif or by providing artificial measures for
general case the distribution of shear stresses increasing the rock stability.
in a rock massif weakened by a side cut (such Landslides are characterized by that the
as a flank) may be represented by stress motion of rocks occurs slowly, the process
diagrams like those shown in Fig. 12.1 (lines may continue for a long time and entrains
1-1, 11-11, and 111-111).The points of the large massesof rock. The moving rock massif
maximum shear stresses,which are located at in a landslide is subjected to plastic deforma-
different heights of the flank, form the direc- tions. Both bed rocks and rocks of waste
tion of the weakest plane abcde.In the case of dumps may be involved into the process.
ultimate stresses, this plane becomes a slip A subsidenceis essentially a vertical sinking
plane. A slip plane of this kind mainly of loose rock masses at the edges of flanks,
corresponds to a homogeneous (isotropic) which occurs without forming a continuous
rock massif. If the massif has anisotropic slip surface. Landslides can occur on compac-
planes (bedding planes, jointing systems, tion of loose rocks in waste dumps, which are
tectonic disturbances, etc.), the position of a strengthened on wetting; on saturation of
slip plane changes and in some casesmay be high-porous sediments with water; or in cases
coincident with the planes of anisotropy. when there are soft plastic layers in the base
The whole diversity of rock deformations of waste dumps.
296 Ch. 12. Stability of Ouarry Flanks
Mud-streams (mud-flows) can occur in straight section mn to the an axis is called the
some rocks whose state changes from solid to angle of internal friction and the tangent of
fluid on water saturation. Mud-streams are that angle is the coefficient of internal friction.
observed most often upon saturation of loose A section OA describes the ultimate tensile
and high-porous sedimentary rocks (loesses, strength of the rock, at' and a section OD is
loess-like loams, etc.) or when sands are numerically equal to the ultimate compres-
carried off from sediments by filtering water sive strength ac.
flows. Mud-streams can be prevented by In the general form the equation of the
drainage. curve of ultimate equilibrium is 't = f(an) and
can be described by a parabola, cycloid or a
12.2. Factors Affecting straight line depending on the kind of rock. A
Flank Stability linear equation of equilibrium (Fig. 12.2b)has
the form:
The stability of quarry flanks depends on 't = an tanp + k (12.1)
the correlation between the forces that tend
to retain a slope and those which displace it. where 't is the tangential stress in a shear
These forGes can be influenced by many plane, MPa; an is the normal stress in that
factors. plane, MPa; p is the angle of internal friction
The determination of the stable angles of of the rock, degrees;and k is the coefficient of
inclination of quarry flanks (slopes) is essen- cohesion of the rock, MPa. The curves of
tially a problem of the theory of ultimate ultimate equilibrium are plotted by the re-
equilibrium according to which the strength sults of shear tests of rock specimens.
of a rock can be characterized by a certain A real rock is essentially a complex me-
curve plotted in coordinates t, O"n(shear and dium possessing a certain non-uniformity
normal stress),see Fig. l2.2a. A curve ARC in (anisotropy) of properties. The main factor
the figure determines the ultimate state of the responsible for anisotropy is the structure of
rock in a specimen. A section OB' cut off by a rock massif, in particular, various planes of
the curve on the t axis determines the weakness (bedding and stratification planes,
cohesion. The angle of inclination of a fissures, etc.). Because of anisotropy, the laws
12.2. Factors Affecting Flank Stability 297
Fig. 12.2 Strength certificate: (a) with curvilinear envelope of Mohr's circles; (b) with straight envelope
of geometrical similarity which are true for tests of rock specimens. The angles of inter-
isotropic solids (metals, plastics, etc.) are nal friction for selected rocks are given in
inapplicable to rock massifs. For that reason, Table 12.1.
the mechanical properties of a rock massif The angles of internal friction at contacts
may differ from those obtained by testing of layers are taken equal to the angle of
rock specimens. friction obtained by the results of laboratory
The properties of rocks in a massif are tests for friction on these surfaces.The angles
determined by special tests of rock prisms of friction obtained in tests at contacts of
delineated in their natural bedding and orien- layers and fissures are given in Table 12.2.
ted in a definite way relative to the planes of The mechanical properties of rocks in a
anisotropy. Forces p applied to a prism are massif (especially cohesion) not only differ
developed by ,powerful jacks (Fig. 12.3). from those in specimens,but are variable and
A prism usually breaks along a certain depend substantially on the size ratio of the
surface ab. The knowledge of the position of object being deformed, dimensions of struc-
this plane makes it possible to determine the tural blocks, and the strength of rock in
strength characteristics of a rock massif. specImens.
Experiments have shown that among the two During their formation and especially after
parameters characterizing the shear strength the formation, rock massifs were subjected to
(cohesion and angle of internal friction), co-
hesion is subject to larger variations. There-
fore, taking a particular value of friction by
the results of laboratory tests of rock speci-
mens, it is possible to determine the cohesion
in the rock massif by considering that the
resultant force of external pressure p can be
resolved into a normal component N and a
tangential component 1:
If slip surfaces do not coincide with the
planes of contact between rock layers in a T
massif, the angle of internal friction can be
taken equal to the angle determined in shear Fig. 12.3 Diagram of natural shear tests of priSJ
298 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks
Table 12.2
III Weakly compacted and weakly fissured sand-clay sediments; 0.4-0.9 0.5
strongly weathered, fully kaolinized igneous rocks; compacted
sand-clay sediments with normal jointing
Strongly kaolinized igneous sand-clay rocks; compacted sand- 3.0-8.0 3
clay rocks with developed diagonal jointing; moderate- 10,0-15.0 3
strength laminated rocks mostly with normal 15.0-17.0 4
jointing 17.0-20.0 5
Hard rocks mostly with normal jointing 20.0-30.0 6
30.0 7
Hard igneous rocks with developed diagonal jointing 20.0 10
following fornlula suggested by G. Fisenko: entire complex of rocks and all structural
ksp elements of a deposit is involved into exami-
k =
m 1 + a In(H//) (12.2) nation. In rock massifs divided into blocks by
geological disturbances, each block
should have one or two measuring sections.
where km and ksp are the coefficients of With a simple structure of a deposit or
cohesion of the rock in a massif and a quarry field, measuring sections can be spa-
specimen, MPa; a is coefficient which can be ced at distances of 150-200 m from one
found in Table 12.3; and H/l is the ratio of another. In each measuring section, there are
the flank height to the mean size of structural determined the bedding elements of all join-
blocks delinea~ed by fissures. ting systems, elements of stratification and
Thus, for estimating the mechanical pro- foliation, linear dimensions of individual fis-
perties of rocks in massifs, it is essential to sures, distances between the fissures in each
know the specific features of their jointing, in jointing system, pattern of fissure surface, and
particular, the primary and secondary system the shape and size of structural blocks.
of joints Uoint sets), contribution of each The bedding elements of fissures are mea-
system to the total quantity of fissures, sured by an inclinatorium. The total number
spatial angles between the systems of joints, of measurements of bedding elements on an
intensity of jointing, patterns of distribution area depends on the number of jointing
of fissures in the quarry field, and the signifi- systems and the pattern of surface of fissures.
cance of each jointing system in the structure As a general rule, 15-20 measurements of
of a deposit and the stability of slopes. bedding elements should be made for each
The field observations of jointing are car- jointing system. With a large discrepancy
ried out on natural and artificial rock out- between the measured results, the number of
crops and in exploring and drainage wor- measurements should be increased up to 30.
kings. The density of sections for the meas- Office work consists in determining the
urements of jointing and their mutual ar- typical orientations of fissures and the inten-
rangement are deternlined by the geological sity {density) of jointing. The elements of
structure of a deposit or quarry field. Mea- fissure orientation in space can be measured
suring sections should be located so that the most conveniently by means of stereographic
300 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks
grids. Statistical processing of stereographic ation the climatic factors: atmospheric preci-
grids makes it possible to divide the entire pitation, local temperature conditions, micro-
totality of fissures in the rock massif into relief, and wind velocity. Without proper
particular systems. drainage, atmospheric precipitation can
The number of fissures, i. e. the density of cause the inundation of sand-clay rocks to a
jointing, can be determined by two methods: state when capillary water changes to gravi-
I. ~sually. i .e. by recording all detected tational water, thus reducing sharply the
fissures in each system; the results are then shear strength, and therefore, the stability of
corrected by the data of statistical processing slopes. Temperature changes and winds of-
of a small number of selective measurements ten accelerate weathering and thus diminish
in systems. rock stability. Some kinds of microrelief can
2. By statistical processing of a fairly large be the cause of swamping.
number of measurements of bedding el- Rock stability can depend substantially on
ements of fissures. engineering factors, especially on the method
The density of jointing can be character- of blasting work. After blasting, the strength
ized by several coefficients: of rock in some portions of the massif can
(I) a linear coefficient which gives the ratio drop to 20-25 per cent of the initial (natural)
of a unit length to the mean spacing between strength. In order to prevent landslides and
the fissures. In some cases, the unit length downfalls, it is then required to change
may be taken as the length of the object being properly the elements of working systems
studied, for instance, the height of a quarry (width of berms and platforms, heights and
flank, etc.; angles of slopes and benches, etc.), though
(2) an area coefficient. or the ratio of a unit sometimes at the expense of the mining
area to the area confined between two pairs productivity.
of fissures forming a structural block; and It is also essential to consider other engi-
(3) a volume coefficient, i. e. the ratio of a neering factors which can influence the stability
unit volume to the volume of an averaged of, flanks, such as the width of stoping and
block. transport berms, profile of working, plat-
An important factor affecting rock stability forms, underworking of flanks, etc.
is weathering, i. e. degradation of rocks on the
Earth's surface caused by natural agents
12.3. Mine-Surveying
(temperature, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
Observations on Rock
living organisms, etc.). Weathering effect is
Mining Deformations
especially noticeable in the flanks of old
in Open-Cast Mining
quarries.
Rock stability can be influenced substan- Observations on rock disturbance in
tially by hydrogeological factors: inflow of open-cast mining and processing of the re-
ground waters, hydrostatic and hydrody- sults of observations are an important object
namic pressure, suffosion, leaching, sudden of mine-surveying service in quarries. Obser-
water outbursts, and mud-flows. Acting sep- vations on landslides include two stages: (a)
arately or in combination, these factors can exploration and detection of seats of land-
decrease substantially the strength charac- slides and (b) observations on landslide seats
teristics of rock, in particular the shear and development of particular measures to
strength. prevent landslide phenomena.
When estimating the stability of quarry In view of the continuous technological
flanks, it is also essential to take into consider- mobility of slopes in quarries, the organi-
12.3. Mine-Surveying Observations 301
zation of observations has certain specific located on benches so as to ensure safety for
features. Observation points established in an observer. Control bench marks are provi-
slopes cannot be preserved for a long time ded at the ends of profile lines. During the
(especially those on the benches of working construction of an observation station, at
flanks). In that connection, it is essential to least three initial bench marks are established
organize observations so as to complete them so as to guarantee their preservation. Control
in relatively short terms. There are two bench marks of all lines are connected to the
principal kinds of observations: (1) obser- initial bench marks.
vations on visible deformations of flanks and Mine-surveying observations at stations
benches in order to predict the shape of a include the following procedures: levelling of
landslide and the pattern of its development all bench marks, including control bench
in space and time and (2) observations on marks; measurements of spacings between
sections where deformations are invisible but the bench marks by controlled tension steel
can appear and cause serious damage to the tapes (with recording the temperature during
mining plant. measurements); instrumental surveying of
The results of observations should estab- particular benches, muck piles, bedding el-
lish the displacements of particular points of ements, jointing, existing displacements, etc.
a rock massif in space and time; dimensions All measurements should be made with
of a sliding massif, slip surfaces, stages of the checking. The accuracy of measurements
displacement process (initial, active, and at- should satisfy the following conditions:
tenuating), and the degree of hazard of rock (I) in geometric levelling, the difference of
displacements for mining operations and for two measured elevations should be not more
surface structures. than 3 mm;
For observations on rock displacements, (2) in measuring the spacings between the
observation stations are established on the bench marks, the discrepancy of two mea-
flank of a quarry, and instrumental obser- surements should be not more t:han 2 mm;
vations are made at them in specified time (3) in trigonometric levelling, the difference
intervals. An observation station is essentially between two measurements of the same el-
a system of bench marks set up along the evation should be not more than 5 mm for
lines perpendicular to the length of a quarry lengths up to 10 m or 8 mm for lengths above
flank. In order to take into consideration the 10 m.
effects of various factors on flank stability, The results of measurements are presented
the profile lines of an observation station are in the following graphical documents: the
usually located in sections of rocks having plan of an observation station (Fig. 12.4)on a
different geological conditions. scale 1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000 which should
The length of profile lines should be such show profile lines, mining workings, the situ-
that one or both ends of the line is beyond ation and relief of the land surface; vertical
the zone of expected displacements. In quar- sections for each profile with the positions of
ries of a small depth, profile lines can be a flank at the moment of laying out a profile
drawn through the entire quarry. Spacings line and during a given series of observations;
between the bench marks of a profile line vector diagrams of bench mark displace-
depend on the quarry depth and dimensions ments in the vertical plane on a scale 1/1,
of benches.At least two bench marks should 1/5, I/lO or 1/20; and the diagrams of the
be established on each bench: one near the rates of bench mark movement in the direc-
bench crest and the other at the foot of the tions of these vectors.
overlying bench. Bench marks should be In observations on landslides, it is also
302 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks
Fig. 12.5 Determining position of slip line by results of observations on displacements of bench marks
12.4. Stability of Benches and Flanks of Quarries
mass of rock stops in a new state of equili- where k is the coefficient of cohesion; p is the
brium in which the thrust forces are counter- angle of internal friction; and y is the mean
balanced by the forces of friction. density of the rock.
Solving the above equation for this state of In the calculations of the stable position of
equilibrium under the action of friction for- d quarry flank on a circular-cylindrical slip
ces, we find the angle of internal fric~ion of surface, it is rather difficult to find the centre
the rock massif. Substituting the value of p of the most dangerous arc of slip. The
into Eq. (12.3),it is then possible to determine analysis of equilibrium of a landslide wedge
the coefficient of cohesion k of rock in the gives us only one equation, so that the
massif. problem cannot be solved uniquely. Because
~
Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks
'ix /
y
12.6. Artificial Strengthening
~~\~'.4
of Rock Massif
\:\~k,..
,,~~ ' Q. Artificial strengthening of slopes in quar-
> ries is principally effective in cases when the
T2 specified inclination angle
a = arctan AI:h.' (12.7)
I:a., + I:h.cotano.
, I
turns out to be flatter than the angle found
from the conditions of slope stability. (In the
formula above: hi is the height of a bench; ai
35 40 45 a. degrees is the. width of a berm; and Oi is the incli-
nation angle of a bench slope).
Fig. 12.9 Flattening out of slope angle The existing methods of slope strengthen-
ing can be divided into the following groups:
position of the point corresponding to 11= (1) those based on mechanical principles;
= 410 on the top platform of the flank. This (2) those which increase the mechanical
point is marked on the ground by a peg and characteristics of rock by the injection of
determines the line to which the slope must stren,gthening materials; and (3) those em-
be flattened. ploying durable coatings of slope sections
Unloading the active pressure prism. When (mainly for rocks liable to quick degrada-
the mining work is being carried out in zones tion).
where deep landslides occur or are probable The first group includes methods in which
to occur, the stability of slopes can be slopes are strengthened by bolting, cables,
controlled efficiently by unloading the active retaining walls, etc.
pressure prism or, on the contrary, by increa- In the second group, the most popular
sing the mass of the support prism at the foot method is the injection of cement slurry.
of the waste dump. The efficiency of this The injections of liquid polymer resins are
method can be explained by the circumstance efficient in some cases.
that landslides on flank slopes with low In the third group, gunned-concrete, bi-
inclination angles develop only slowly, so tumen and epoxy-resin coatings are used
that there is enough time to transfer a large more often. An artificial coating is often
mass of rock from the active prism into the applied onto a metal net or bolting.
zone of a passive prism (support prism). Each of these methods may be preferable
Removing the centre (locus) of a landslide. over others under particular conditions. For
This method gives good results in caseswhen instance, slopes with distinct cleavage planes:
the bed strata are dipping towards the wor- tectonic fissures, laminations, disturbance
ked-out space and the inclination angle is not zones, etc. can be strengthened reliably by
12.6. Artificial Strengthening of Rock Massif 307
(b)
k,V,&/~/~//i
y ii,/
J.(
j --"
( ,
,
¥"
~
308 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks
greater than the thickness of the zone of instance, 40 per cent of Portland cement
unstable rock. Spacings between the hole grade 300 or 350, 10 per cerit of quicklime
clusters are chosen so as to ensure the with an activity 85-92 per cent, and 50-55 per
stability of the entire slope. The scheme of cent of Neogene clay).
slope strengthening by this method is il- The composition binder interacts with the
lustrated in Fig. 12.12. rock, so that clays in a certain volume
In clays with disturbed or undisturbed around the hole are dried due to the hydra-
structure and a high concentration of fine- tion of the binder, and the associated chemi-
dispersed particles and rather low coefficient tal and adsorption processes lead to the
of filtration, strengthening rock piles can formation of water-resistant and strong cal-
be formed efficiently by using composition cium hydrosilicates which bind disperse clay
binders. A hole is drilled in the rock particles. With the hole diameter 23 cm, the
massif and filled with a composition binder stre~gthened zone has a diameter up
consisting of cement, quicklime, and clay (for to 50 cm.
Chapter Thirteen
of mining in the working. As a rule, a contour vertical shafts, pits, and large-diameter bore-
is considered reliable if the old plan of the holes is taken not less than 20 m in all
mining work and field books with the coor- directions and can be determined by the
dinates of theodolite surveys and measure- formula:
ments of workings carried out after the d = 0.05 H + 0.002 L+ 5 (13.3)
working has been abandoned are on hand. In
caseswhen the contour of an old working is where H is the depth of a shaft to the mining
not confirmed by mine-surveying documents, level on which the barrier pillar will be left,
it is regardcd as unreliable. m; and Lis the same as in formula (13.1).
Mine-sur\cying service is responsible for The boundaries of safe mining work
the reliability of the contours of flooded should be determined by considering the
workings. With a reliable contour, the boun- materials of the geological structure of the
dary of a barrier pillar is established. If the flooded portion of a mine field, stored in the
contour is unreliable, the mine surveyor de- mine-surveying department of a mining
termines the boundary of safe mining work. plant, geological parties, archives, etc., the
In coal fields; the width of a barrier pillar, d calculations and graphical documentation
for seams up to 3.5 m thick and angles of dip of the period when the working was in
up to 30° can be found by the formula: operation, and other information. Depending
d = 5 m + 0.05 H + 0.002 L (13.1) on the available materials, it is possible
to determine approximately the error of
where m is the extracted thickness of a seam, the contours of flooded workings and to
m; H is the mining depth, m; and L is the establish the boundary of the zone safemining
length of underground theodolite traverses work. As a rule, the dimensions of that zone
run from the initial survey points to the may vary from the width of two barrier pillars
contour of flooded workings and the boun- up to 200 m or sometimes 300 m.
dary of a barrier pillar, m. The width of a Measures for ensuring safe mining work in
barrier pillar should however be not less than hazardous zones should solve the principal
20 m. In seams more than 3.5 m thick and problems of organization and give engi-
with angles of dip more than 30°, barrier neering solutions and terms for effecting of
pillars are not usually left. Instead, as a these measures and their control. A typical
working approaches an old working, water example of such measures is an optimal
from the latter is pumped off in due time. scheme of the arrangement of unwatering
For flooded workings driven in the over- and advancing boreholes. The number,
burden rok, the width of a barrier pillar is length and direction of advancing boreholes
determined by the formula: should be such as to preclude the break-
d = 0.05 H + 0.002 L+ Lln (13.2) through of a new working into an old one.
The calculation of the expected water inflow
where H and L are as in formula (13.1); Lln is for an unwatering borehole can be done by
equal to zero for barrier pillars extended on the formula:
the strike with the angles of dip of the rock
between 0 and 30°; with the angles of dip
between 45° and 90°, Lln = 10 m; and with (13.4)
the angles of dip between 30° and 45°, Lln is
found by interpolation. For barrier pillars where Q is the expected water inflow to the
extended to the dip, Lln = 0. hole, m3/h; b is the hole diameter, m; His the
The width of barrier pillars near flooded height of a water column above the hole
13.3. Calculation and Construction of Dangerous Zones 311
mouth, m; 9 = 9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration contour of flooded workings is 1800 ill on the
due to gravity; and 1is the length of a hole, m. airway level 350 ill and 3200 ill on the
The mouths of unwatering and advancing haulage level 450 ill.
boreholes should be packed hermetically. By In accordance with formula (13.1), the
the most popular method of packing, a guide width of a barrier pillar on the airway level is:
tube is inserted into a hole drilled to a depth dl = 5 x 1.5 + 0.05 x 350 + 0.002
of 10-15 m and fixed in place by a cement x 1800 = 28.6 ill
slurry. A gate valve is mounted on the tube,
and the whole system is tested for strength and that on the haulage level is:
and tightness by pumping in water into the dl = 5 x 1.5 + 0.05 x 450 + 0.002
hole at a pressure exce~ding 1.5 times that in x 3200 = 36.4 ill
flooded workings.
On the horizontal projection (Fig. 13.1),
13.3. Examples of Calculation the sections of length dl = 28.6 ill are laid off
and Construction from points 1 and 2; the points l' and 2' thus
of Dangerous Zones obtained define the boundaries of a barrier
pillar on the strike on the airway level. At the
Calculation and construction of a barrier level 450 ill, the sections of length dl =
pillar in a seam with flooded workings. Sup- = 36.4 ill are laid off from points 3 and 4; the
pose that a worked-out field in a seam 16 resulting points 3' and 4' give the boundary
1.5 m thick and an angle of dip of 20° is of a barrier pillar on the strike on the haulage
flooded at a depth of 350-450 m from the level.
Earth's surface (Fig. 13.1).The contour of the To find the pillar boundaries on the dip of
mining work (1-2-3-4) is reliable. The length a seam, the horizontal projection of dl, i. e. dl
of mine survey lines for determining the cos v = 36.4 cos 20° = 34.2 ill is laid off from
the points 3 and 4. The resulting points 311
Vertical section across the strike and 4" determine the boundaiy of a barrier
pillar on the dip. The contour of the barrier
Level 350 m
pillar at flooded workings in the inclined
I. tI\.,\.~11'
£,e"311' 6 seam field 16passes through points 1'-2'-5-6.
\v=20' It is depicted on the plan of the mining work.
Level 450 m Calculation and construction of a safety
Plan
pillar under flooded workings. Let a seam 14
6 2 ill thick be bedded along a normal at a
~dl=2B.6 m distance of 25 ill under a seam 16(Fig. 13.2).
4li~ E- Id2=36.4m
The seam 14is expected to be worked out in
~
"'1"
"'
one or two years. Since it is bedded along the
" normal under the seam 16 in which the
workings are flooded, in order to prevent
l
3. 'to
i,,- 3"
=28.6m
water inrush from the seam 16into 14,a safety
pillar is constructed at a distance not less
I Jd2=36.4m than 40 times the seam thickness. The pro-
5 2 tected area is represented by a contour 1'-2'-
3'
5-6 which confines the flooded workings of
Fig. 13.1 Graphical construction of barrier pillar the inclined field together with a barrier
at flooded workings pillar. The construction of the safety pillar is
312 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety
carried out by using rupture angles. For the boundary in that section. The points 71, 81,
conditions considered, the rupture angles are: 91 and 101 are projected from the sections
~' = 64°, y' = 70°, and 0' = 70°. across and on the strike onto the plan. This
The points I' (2') and 5 (6) are projected gives the general contour of the safety pillar
from the plan onto the vertical section across (hazardous zone) in the seam 14' which is
the strike, which gives points 11 (21) and 51 confined in the plan by the contour with
(6J and onto that on the strike, which gives corner points 7-8-9-10.
points 1',2.: on the level 350 ill and points 51, Calculation and construction of a barrier
61 on the level 450 ill. pillar near an unplugged prospecting borehole.
In the section across the strike, lines are A prospecting borehole is drilled through a
drawn from the points 11 (21) and 51 (6J at seam [6 at a depth of 320 m and stopped in
angles ~' = 64° and y' = 70° respectively up 7 m after passing out from the seam (Fig.
to the intersection with the seam 14.Points 71 13.3). The position of the borehole in the
(8J and 91 (IOJ found in this way determine seam [6 is determined by the measurements of
the boundaries 9f a safety pillar on the rise the hole curvature. A seam [4 is bedded at
and on the dip. Mter that angles 0' = 70° are 40 mbelow the normal, The seam thickness
laid off from the points 1',2', 61, and 51 on is: [6 = 1 m and [4 = 0.9 m. The total exten-
the levels 350 ill and 450 ill on the vertical sion of mine-surveying theodolite traverses is
section on the strike. The resulting points 11, 4 km in the seam [6 and 5.5 km in the
81,91, and 101 in the seam 14define the pillar seam 14.
13.3. Calculation and Construction of Dangerous Zones 313
Vertical section across the strike deteffilines in plan the contour of the barrier
Hole No.100 pillar in the seam 16.
//$/ ~/""')Y /~/AW/~ / ~ /~
Since the borehole has been stopped in the
underlying rock at a depth of 7 m below the
seam foot, the actual distance from the seam
d16=29m ~ 14 is 33 m. Since, however, the safe distance
7m
'1'*'--- between the seamsis 40 times the thickness of
:..:
the seam 14, i. e. 40 x 0.9 = 36 m, and the
6
sea((\\&
B .. II actual distance between the borehole bottom
~ arrlerplar d h 1 . II ...
5 ~ in seamJ6 an t e seam 4 lS sma er, it lS reqwre d to
w
seali\14 ¥ I dt4=31.5m leave a barrier pillar in the seam 14. For
I I Barrierpillar constructing this pillar, a noffilal is drawn
, I I Inseam
[4 ...
'
iI-J -from the hole bottom to the mtersectlon with
I 1 -the seam, which gives a point O2. The
~' "5' O , '1B' ~ sections of a length dl /2 = 15.75 m are then
+ ~ laid off from that point on the rise and on the
I dip, which gives points 5 and 6. Similarly, the
~ points 5 and 6 are projected onto the plan to
4 B obtain points 5' and 6'. Mter that, the sec-
Fig. 13.3 Construction of barrier pillar near tions of length dl/2 = 15.75 m are laid off
unpluggedcurved borehole from the point o24in the direction perpendi-
cular to a line 5'-6', which gives points 7 and
By fofl1lula (13.1), the width of a barfler 8. Finally, the points 5', 7, 6', and 8 are
pillar will be: connected by a smooth curve which defines
for the seam 16: the contour of the barrier pillar in the
dl = 5 x 1.0 + 0.05 x 320 + 0.002 seam 14.
6 Arrangement of advancing boreholes when
x 4000 = 29 ill
approaching flooded old workings. When a
and for the seam 14: working is approaching flooded old wor-
dl = 5 x 0.9 + 0.05 x 360 + 0.002 kings, the mine surveyor develops the scheme
4 of the arrangement of advancing (unwatering)
x 5500 = 31.5 ill
boreholes and determines the number of
In the vertical section across the strike, llne holes from the following considerations: the
sections equal to half the pillar width, i. e probability of the breakthrough of a new
14.5 ill are laid off from a point 01 in the working into the old working should be
seam 16 on the rise and on the dip. The completely precluded; the distance from ad-
resulting points 1 and 2 fix the barrier pillar vancing boreholes to the flooded old working
boundary. These points are then projected in the section considered should not exceed
onto the plan (points I' and 2'). The sections the width of the crushed edge zone of a
of the half-width of a barrier pillar are again barrier pillar in stope workings, i. e. 5 m; the
laid off from the point 01 along the strike line pitch of the advancement of the working
passing through the intersection of a bore- should be chosen so as to ensure a constant
hole with the seam 16,which gives points 3 (not reducing) advance of the prospected
and 4. These points define the pillar boun- portion of the boundary of safe mining work,
dary on the strike. After that, points I', 3, 2', but not less than the width of the barrier
and 4 are connected by a smooth curve which pillar.
314
F:==:=-
Reserve
entry
ventilating
in seam m4
Ch. 13.
=3
B
"
rI...
~1
.,{'
I'
Mine-Surveying
d= 20m
iui! ~
Control
11=2m
~rr'-
87.1
~T
"~j',-
of Mining
2=5m
-~ij~~~r~~~d
1"'"-
--Hole
--
,..
~!
1=50m
d= 20 m
Safety
~O\e
--
\",.0--
le ~0.'3
-;d"ge
- I
o
E
"'
II
...
u
2
.,
Seam m4
i- d=20~
m=l.omTIO°
L ~
-.,--- Jl -1~
4
Fig. 13.4 Arrangement of advancing boreholes across barrier pillar
When driving a single working in the hole is directed along ;1 tangent to this arc.
hazardous zone in a seam with flooded Considering the distance between the bot-
workings, a fan of diverging advancing bore- toms of boreholes No.1 and No.2, the
holes is drilled. number of additional advancing holes is
Consider a case of the arrangement of determined, noting that a distance of 5 m at
advancing boreholes when driving a single both sides is controlled by each borehole and
working in the hazardous zone with the that the entire zone controlled by a borehole
width d of a barrier pillar 20 ill (Fig. 13.4). should be not wider than 12 m. In the
The planned ventilation adit in a seam m4' example considered, it is required to drill an
boundary of the hazardous zone (I-II), and additional borehole (No.3). In a similar way,
the boundary of a pillar (1-2-3-4), where the directions and number of boreholes for
water inrush is probable and which should be controlling the hazardous zone on the dip are
proved by advancing holes, are plotted on determined. Thus, five holes are drilled from
the plan of the mining work. Lines 1-2 and the point of the first setting of a drilling rig (a
3-4 are drawn at a distance d = 20 ill frOm point Bl).
the axis 9f the projected working. The first The place for drilling another group of
borehole (No. 1) is directed along the axis of boreholes is determined from the condition
the projected working (ventilation adit in a that the working face should be stopped in a
seam m4)' and its optimal length is 50 ill. The point B2 which is spaced from the point Bl at
second borehole (No.2) is directed into a a distance d = 20 m. The number of advan-
point which ensures the control of a band of cing boreholes in the second and subsequent
width 12= 5 ill. For this, the shortest possible groups diminishes by one both on the rise
distance to the flooded working (11= 2 ill) is and on the dip of a seam.
laid ofTfrom a point 1, which gives a point A. Arrangement of advancing boreholes at
The zone of the crushed edge portion of a distortions intersecting flooded workings.
barrier pillar 5 ill wide is constructed from When mining workings are approaching the
the point A. An arc of radius 5 ill is drawn by distortions which intersect flooded old
compasses from the point A, and the bore- workings, exploratory drilling should be
1 3.4. Construction of Zones of Elevated Rock Pressure 315
la)
left, so that the projections of these pillars get
into the displacement zone on the seam being
worked out. This gives rise to an additional
effect which is called the bearing pressure and
forms a zone of elevated rock pressure. 3 -4
It is distinguished between three types of '1 I
~
13.4. Construction of Zones of Elevated Rock Pressure 317
~ " E HZ !I
pillar or edge portion. The last characteristic
Seam '8 \ ,1 ~
can be found in the nomograms of Fig. 13.7.
The zones of elevated rock pressure are A \ p oll I
B
Seam I I ar 10 !
constructed in the following way. For the
known mining depth H and seam thickness 10'1
'-
m, the width I of the zone of bearing pressure Seam I ~
~
318 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety
As an example, let us determine the zones of the rock massif. The boundary of the zone
of influence of elevated rock pressure in the of elevated rock pressure is a straight line
roof and foot if the width of the zone of drawn perpendicular to the bedding plane at
bearing pressure is 1 = 65 m and the width of a distance corresponding to the width of the
the pillar is a = 50 m. The ratio of the pillar zone of bearing pressure.
width to the width of the bearing pressure If a number of coal seams are being mined
zone is a/[= 0.77. Using this ratio, we find under (above) pillars, the boundaries of the
N /I for faces passipg under pillars (N 1// = 2, zones of elevated rock pressure are construc-
N fl = 3.4, and N 3/[ = 5) and for those ted for each seam. If pillars have been left in a
passing above pillars (N'1/1= 3.5, N~/l = 4.9 number of seams under (above) the seam,
and N~/l = 5.9). The distance of influence of a being mined, the boundaries of the zones of
pillar for underlying faces will be as follows: elevated rock pressure are constructed for
for the zone of elevated hazard: N = each pillar. If the zones of elevated rock
1
= 65 x 2 = 130 m; for the dangerous zone: pressure from a number of adjacent seams
N 2 = 65 x 3.4 = 221 m, and for the predic- overlap on the seam being mined, they are
tion zone: N 3 = 65 x 5 = 325 m. For over- considered in the first place by the degree of
lying faces we have: for the zone of elevated hazard.
hazard: N'l = 65 x 3.5 = 227.5 m, for the
dangerous zone: N~ = 65 x 4.9 = 318.5 m,
13.5. Construction of Dangerous
and for the prediction zone: N~ =
Zones for Mining Work
= 65 x 5.9 = 383.5 m.
in Seams Liable to Coal,
For the construction of zones of elevated Gas and Rock Bursts
rock pressure from a pillar (see Fig. 13.8),
lines are drawn from points 1 and 2 at an The mining work in deeply bedded coal
angle of 60 o to the bedding plane up to the seams increases the risk of harmful and
intersection with the line of distance of dangerous effects of rock and gas pressure
influence of elevated hazard zone in points 3 which, may be associated with dynamic
and 4 (3' and 4'). Perpendiculars to the phenomena: sudden bursts of coal, gas and
bedding plane are then drawn from these rock. Soviet scientists have studied the nature
points up to the intersection with the lines of of the principal engineering and geological
distance of influence of dangerous zone and factors causing gas-dynamic phenomena and
prediction zone in points 5 and 6 (5' and 6') rock bursts, established the relationships
and 7 and 8 (7' and 8'). To determine the side between the effects of gas and rock pressure,
boundaries of the elevated hazard zone, sec- determined the parameters for the construc-
tions 1-9 (1'-9') and 2-10 (2'-10'), each 20 m tion of dangerous zones, and developed the
long, are laid off in the bedding plane from measures for preventing outbursts. One of
points 1 and 2 (I' and 2'). Points 9 (9') and 10 the main methods for preventing sudden
(10') are connected with points 3 and 4 (3' outbursts is working out of protective seams.
and 4') by lines which define the side bounda- A protective seam is a seam (or interlayer,
ries of the elevated hazard zone. For a seam or rock layer) which, when being worked out,
[8' the width of the elevated hazard zone is ensures complete safety from outbursts in
equal to (AB) and for a seam [4' to (CD). The another seam of a suite that is to be protec-
construction of the boundaries of the zones of ted, or relieves partially the rock pressure.
elevated rock pressure from the edge portions In mining of a suite of seams which are
at the side of the worked-out space is done in dangerous in outbursts, a non-dangerous
the same way as for the pillar, but at the side protective seam is extracted in the first place.
13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 319
(cl
I'
I
[i
Fig. 13.9 Construction of protected zone in
working of protective seam on dip: (a) section on
r 'Q1 strike with b < 2~; (b) section on strike with
2
b > 2~; (c) section across strike; l-protective
seam;2 and 3- seams to be protected; 4- protected
I~
~ zone; 5- zone of dangerous loads
320 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety
Table 13.1
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 50 75 100 125 150 200 250
on the strike. It is required to take into this is done by using protection angles O and
consideration only pillars whose dimensions pressure angles <p (Figs 13.9 and 13.10). The
exceed the following values: 4 m for the seam values of these angles are given in Table 13.2.
thickness up to 1 m; 3 m for the seam In cases when h ~ 25 m, v ~ 30°, m ~ 1.3 m,
thickness from 1 m to 2.7 m, and 8 m for the and the roof control is effected by com-
seam thickness above 2.7 m. plete caving, the angles O are taken equal to
The dimensions of the protected zone in 90°. The zone of the restoration of dangerous
the roof, SI' and in the foot, S2 (Fig. 13.9)can loads can only form when a ~ ~ + ~ and
be determined by the formulae: b ~ 24 simultaneously.
SI = ~1~2S'1and S2 = ~1~2S~ (13.6) The values of ~. ~, and 4 can be
calculated by the formula:
where ~I is a coefficient depending on the
method of roof control: Li = [31L;
(13.7)
ma
(Fig. 13.11b).
The permissible maximum and minimum
but should not be less than unity; mo is the values of advancement of the stoping face in
critical thickness of a protective seam which the protective seam relative to the mining
can be found in the nomogram of work in the seam being protected (Figs 13.9
Fig. 13.11a; ~2 is a coefficient considering the and 13.10) are given in Table 13.3.
concentration 11, per cent, of sandstones in Construction of protected zone. The protec-
the interlayer: tive seam is worked out at a depth of 1000 m,
the extracted thickness is m = 0.7 m, and the
~2 = 1 -0.4(11/100) angle of dip v = 50°. The inclined height of a
and S'I and S~ are taken from Table 13.1. level is 150 m and the size of the worked-out
If hI < SI in underworking or h2 < S2 in space on the strike is 650 m. A pillar 15 m
overworking, it is required to separate sec- wide is left on the airway level. The roof is
tions where dangerous loads can appear again; controlled by complete pneumatic back-fil-
~
13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 321
(a)
b,
(b) "'" .,
L3 .1 4
?
--if
H
, 1 /i ;.:,
"{45~: ~\
"' 2 t
~ b2~!~
Fig. 13.10 Construction of protected zone in working of protective seam on strike: (a) section across
strike with a < 4 + ~; (b) section across strike with a >4 + ~; (c) section on strike; I-protective seam;
2 and 3- seams to be protected; 4- protected zone; 5- zone of restoration of dangerous loads
ling. A seam dangerous in rock bursts is According to the nomogram (Fig. 13.11a),
bedded in the ground at a distance h2 = with a = 150 m and H = 1000 m, the critical
= 10 m. The interlayer contains 50 per cent thickness is mo = 0.68 m. For the roof control
of sandstones. by pneumatic back-filling, k = 0.3, and
Since the size of the pillar between the therefore:
levels is greater than 4 m, then a is taken as me! = km = 0.3 x 0.7 = 0.21 m
the inclined height of a level, i. e. a = 150 m.
~1 = me!lmo = 0.21/0.62 = 0.31
The size of the protected zone towards the
foot of a protective seam is: ~2 = 1 -0.4(11/lOO) = 1 -0.4(50/lOO) = 0.80
S2 = f31f32S~ From Table 13.1, we find: S~ = 45 m,
21-1270
322 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety
Table 13.3
Minimal advancement:
b; in underworking khl h1, but not less than 20 m*
b; in oveI;;Working h2 h2, but not less than 20 m
Maximal advancement**
b1 in underworking Not limited Not limited
b2 in overworking:
if a < Ll + L2 b1 < L3 + h1 cotan ~3 Not limited
if a > Ll + L2 b2 < L3 -0.3 h2
* Coefficient k depends on the rate of advance of a stoping face in the protected seam:
v, m/day up to 2 2 to 5 over 5
k I 1.2 1.4
** Permissible advancements are given for the stoping work on the strike. If the stoping work is carried out on the
dip, LJ and <PJare replaced by L, and <PI;if on the rise, they are replaced by 4 and <P2.Permissible advancement is
determined on the departure of a stoping face from breakthrough by a distance more than 2LJ (or LJ + L2 if the stoping
work is carried out on the dip or on the rise).
13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 323
(a)
ron
200 /.I\
0.8
1150 III
IIII
100 \ \
0.4
=50m
\
0 400 800
(b)
H,m
\ I~~
t(J&,
300
,
II
250
La
L~ ~
200
\- .,,\
0 30 60 IXo
y
y
21.
Chapter Fourteen
M ine-Surveying Control
of Geological Exploration
and the exploration of mineral deposits. The pographic and mine-surveying operations
main object of this stage is to evaluate the which are done to attain the following
commercial significance of detected deposits, objectives:
reject. those which are of no interest for the I. The formation of the geodetic basis for
mining industry, and select objects for pre- the layout, connection and geological survey
liminary prospecting. The results of the work required for geological prospecting;
search-valuation work are represented in the provision of a control network for topo-
form of preliminary geological maps and graphic surveys when these are needed; and
geological sections of a detected deposit. the solution of various engineering problems
5. The stage of preliminary prospecting is when driving mining and exploring workings
done in order to obtain trustworthy informa- or making the geophysical and drilling
tion for reliable geological, technological and work.
economic evaluation of commercial signifi- 2. The formation of the topographic basis
cance of deposits. Most deposits are explored for geological prospecting; this is meant as a
by prospecting boreholes. topographic plan or map with the points of
The results of preliminary prospecting are field observations, which is plotted in a
represented in the form of approved tempo- simpler form, i. e. without showing some
rary specifications and technico-economical elements of the topographic situation and
report on the expediency of the detailed relief that are inessential for the construction
exploration of a deposit. of geological boundaries.
6. The stage of detailed prospecting (explo- The topographic and geodetic materials
ration) is carried out only for deposits which collected at the stage of geological prospec-
are evaluated positively by preliminary pros- ting are latt;r used in the design and exploita-
pecting and recommended for commercial tion of mining plants.
exploitation.
7. The stage of complementary prospec-
14.2. Mine-Surveying Control
ting can be fulfilled both on explored deposits
of Geological Work
which are not still mined commercially and
on those which are being mined. The mine-surveying control of geological
8. The stage of exploitation prospecting is work includes the following procedures: the
continued during the whole period of mining transfer of the design positions of objects of
of a deposit and is carried out for collecting geological observation (boreholes, mining
systematic reliable information required for workings, etc.) into nature; determination of
current (annual) and operative (quarterly, the planimetric and height coordinates of
monthly, and daily) planning of mineral these objects; and the formation of the
extraction and the control of the comp- topographic basis for geological and other
leteness and quality of extraction. special maps.
The main objects of exploitation prospec- The geodetic control for the mine-sur-
ting consist in determining more accurately veying work can be provided by:
the contours of mineral bodies and their (a) geodetic nets;
internal structure and bedding conditions, (b) elements of survey control, such as
quantity and quality of mineral resources, planimetric, elevation and combined plani-
geometrization of technological types and metric-elevation surveying nets and indivi-
grades of a mineral, etc. dual points, and geodetic reference nets;
All stages of geological reconnaissance and (c) distinct contour points of deposits
prospecting are associated with geodetic, to- whose coordinates can be found on topo-
326 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
Table 14.1
in plan in elevation
N ole: Numbers in brackets are rms errors for determining the positions of geological observation objects
desertous, woody, and mountainous regions.
Table 14.2
Notes: I. Errors are given relative to the points of a national geodetic net and geodetic densification nets.
2. As initial points of connection, it is possible to use any points including those by which the structural maps
are plotted, provided that this ensures the accuracy indicated in the table.
according to the topographic maps and mining the boundaries of mineral deposits,
materials of aerophotogrammetric surveys, revealing geophysical anomalies, etc; and for
Instrumental field measurements at these compiling special maps, sections, prospecting
stages of geological work are only possible in profiles, and other graphical documentation.
exceptional caseswhen topographic maps are
unavailable or cannot ensure the specified 14.3. Topographic Basis
accuracy of the connecting work. of Geological Exploration
The points of a geodetic net or surveying
nets fixed on the ground by permanent bench The topographic basis for the geological
marks can be used for the layout, connection exploration work can be provided by:
and geological survey work, planimetric and (a) topographic maps (plans);
elevation control of topographic surveys, and (b) large-scale plans; or
(c) special topographic plans. .
for solving certain engineering-geological
problems. In the geological, search and exploration
The points of geodetic survey control fixed work, the scale of the topographic basis
by temporary bench marks, points of geode- should correspond to that of the map to be
tic reference nets, and distinct contour points plotted.
on the terrain whose coordinates are taken The recommended scales of the topogra-
from a topographic map can be used only for phic basis for preliminary and detailed geolo-
the layout, connection and geological survey gical prospecting are given in Table 14.3.
work. In the maps and plans of the topographi(;
The coordinates of geological observation basis on a scale 1/10000 and smaller, the
objects can be used: for marking the positions errors in the positions of contours, orienta-
of these points on maps and sections with an tion marks and horizontals should be not
accuracy that can ensure reliable representa- more than 2.5 times the errors permissible in
tion of the results of observations and accu- national topographic maps.
rate calculation of mineral resources;for deter- In special topographic plans used as the
328 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
Table 14.3 1.0 m for a scale 1/2000, and 1.0 m for a scale
1/1000. For mountainous regions and foot-
Stage of geological prospec- Scale for topographic sur. hills, the recommended contour intervals are
ting veying
respectively 5.0 m, 5.0-2.0 m, and 1.0 m.
Preliminary prospecting 1/10000 to 1/5000
Hydrographic objects are indicated on the
Exploration of: topographic basis only as the coastal lines of
(a) metal ores 1/10000 to 1/1000 seas,lakes, rivers, etc. without detailed char-
(b) carbonate rocks, acteristics. Vegetation is not shown. Woods
phosphorites, sands, are marked by contours. Swamps and mar-
and gravels 1/25000 to 1/5000 shes are shown by conventional symbols
(c) salts 1/25000 to 1/10000 without detailed characteristics. Other typical
(d) coals and oil shales 1/1000 to 1/2000 features of the terrain and ground are not
(e) underground water 1/1000 to 1/5000
indicated on the topographic basis.
(I) other non-metallic
minerals 1/10000 to 1/5000 The topographic basis of geophysical
maps should give only the situation associa-
ted with the text of the report; land relief is
topographic basis, the errors in the positions shown only in rare cases.
of land contours and objects relative to the
nearest points of a surveying net should. not
14.4. Transfer of Plan
exceedthe pef111issible errors of corresponding
of Exploratory Workings
topographic maps by more than 1.5 times for
into Nature
a scale 1/5000 or 2 times for larger scales.
The errors of relief surveys relative to the Exploratory workings are transferred into
nearest points of elevation control on the nature according to the plan of the mine-
topographic basis should not exceed 0.5 m surveying work. Depending on local condi-
for contour intervals of 1 m or 1/3 of the tions and the specifics of geological pros-
contour interval in other cases. pectiDg, this plan may involve various kinds
For better clarity, the amount of topo- and volumes of the topographic and mine-
graphic details on geological maps on a scale surveying work. For instance, Fig. 14.1
1/10000 and larger is diminished. Coordinate shows the plan of the topographic and
grids are shown as ticks of kilometre lines in mine-surveying work for detailed prospecting
intervals of 10 cm. The points on geodetic of a deposit by drilling exploratory boreholes
nets and on the schemesof geological obser- along profile lines. The plan envisages trian-
vations are.taken selectively, i.e. only those gulation surveys (points I, II, III and IV);
points which are essential for the compilation running of base lines (main theodolite tra-
of geological and geophysical maps are used. verses) for the layout of profile lines; the
The points of a national geodetic basis are connection of base lines (by closed theodolite
shown only in caseswhen this is specified by traverses) to triangulation points III and IV;
the design. Land relief is indicated by plane;.table surveying of the territory of a
horizontals and numerical marks of indivi- deposit on 10 plates; and the transfer and
dual heights. For the topographic basis on a connection of points for borehole drilling.
scale 1/10000, land relief is shown in the Exploratory workings and objects of geo-
same vertical contour intervals as on national logical observations are transferred into na-
topographic maps. For larger scales, the ture and connected relative to the points of
following contour intervals may be recom- reference nets which can include main theo-
mended: 2.0 m for a scale 1/5000; 2.0 m or dolite traverses (base lines), profile lines. and
14.4. Transfer of Exploratory Workings Plan into Nature 329
the points of a surveying net and national ric shape and consist of a system of parallel
geodetic net. base lines intersected by a system of parallel
The layout work is carried out with an profiles (Fig. l4.2a). In many cases, some
accuracy which can ensure the required base lines can be matched conveniently with
accuracy of connection. If an object is extended objects on the terrain (roads, river
transferred into nature with an accuracy banks, open watersheds, etc.). In such cases,
insufficient for connection, additional con- base lines may have a curvilinear shape
nection to the closest control points should (Fig. l4.2b).
be carried out. As a rule, the plans of exploration nets are
Networks for detailed geological prospec- transferred into nature by instrumental
ting usually have a relatively regular geomet- methods.
330 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
(a) (b)
In laying out geological exploration nets, angle between the direction of the base line
the mine-surveying and geodetic work is and the direction onto another point of the
practically organized on the following prin- reference net (for instance, angle 13,Fig. l4.3a)
ciples: is measured on a topographic map. This
(a) the initial points and directions are angle is then laid off on the ground by an
transferred into nature, and the survey area is angle-measuring instrument set up in the
delineated by laying out base lines, which initial point;
provides a 'framework' for subsequent layout (b) base lines pass far from the points of a
operations; geodetic reference net. Then a point of the
(b) the. base lines delineating the survey reference net near the base lines is selected,
area are connected to the points of a geodetic from which two or three adjacent reference
net, i. e. the 'framework' is connected to the points are visible, and a theodolite traverse is
existing system of coordinates; and run between the selected reference point and
(c) profiles are laid out and picked points the base line (Fig. l4.3b). By means of this
are established. traverse, the base lines can be connected to
For transferring the initial points into the existing local system of coordinates;
nature and assigning direction to the initial (c) the region of geological prospecting is
portions of base lines, the following methods located in an inhabited area, so that the
can be employed: points of a geodetic reference net are invisible
(a) one of the base lines passes through a from it. In that case, the directions of base
point of the geodetic reference net existing in lines can be assigned by means of a magnetic
the region being explored. In that case, the azimuth. If the prospected region is located in
14.4. Transfer of Exploratory Workings Plan into Nature 331
(a)
.,A
/
-
--c.
~
(32
(b)
==
~ -
B. """6
a closed area with poor visibility (woods, etc.) 14.4.1. Connection and Transfer
and where there is a magnetic anomaly, base of Geological Observation
lines can be' connected by a geographic Objects from Topographic
azimuth. Map into Nature
The intervals between the pickets (obser-
vation points) on profile lines are measured In the geological survey and search work
in one direction by means of range finders or made on a scale 1/25000 or smaller, geolo-
tapes. Inclination angles wider than 5° are gical observation objects are transferred into
measured by theodolites or inclinometers; in nature and connected by reading off their
such cases a length laid off between the positions on topographic maps or aeropho-
pickets is corrected for the inclination angle. tographic maps and plans.
The coordinates of the final pickets of profiles For regions with a small quantity of con-
are determined by running theodolite tra- tours and for which renovated maps are not
verses between the ends of profiles. available, the plane coordinates and eleva-
For observation points and exploratory tions of geological observation objects are
workings not coincident with the points of a transferred into nature and connected accor-
reference net, connection can be done by ding to the materials of the aerophotogram-
tacheometric or plane-table surveys, length metric surveys of the latest years.
measurements or intersections. Objects can be transferred from aeropho-
tographs onto a topographic map by visual,
graphical or instrumental methods.
Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
1. By reading off a point if this point ted on a topographic map are found on the
coincides with a contour point on the map. terrain; measurements are carried out, when
2. If the given point is located between two needed, on the terrain between the objects
contour points on the map, by measurements being determined and the orientation marks;
on the range line of these points from one of and the objects are indicated on the map;
the points to the point to be connected (or (b) observation objects are transferred
transferred). from aerial photographs onto a map; and
3. If the point to be determined is visible (c) the planimetric coordinates and eleva-
from contour points, its position can be tions of observation objects are read off on a
found by direct intersections. map.
4. If three typical points are visible from Measurements on maps and terrain should
the point to be determined and these points be carried out by methods which can deter-
are indicated on the map, the position of that mine the plan positions of objects relative to
point can be found by resection. a known contour with a root-mean square
The determination of the planimetric coor- error not exceeding 0.2 mm on the map being
dinates and elevations of geological observa- used.
tion objects on topographic maps (aerial The measurements of planimetric coordi-
photographs) includes the following steps: nates and elevations on maps are made twice.
(a) contours and orientation marks depic- The errors in elevations of observation
Table 14.5
Pattern of terrain and relief Root-mean square errors (m) of elevations determined by interpolation between
marked points (numerators) and between horizontals (denominators)
map scale
objects on topographic maps should corres- of the oriented directions from the rotor
pond to the data given in Table 14.5. centre in order to establish deviations and
The determination of the planimetric coor- (b) the layout and fixation on the ground
dinates and elevations of geological objects of the design direction of boreholes and the
on topographic maps should be made with a determination of the plan position of faces.
check of at least 20 per cent of the points
being measured. 14.5. Layout of Exploratory
Ditches
(a)
v
~
~o
~o
0( . 6
0 ..inewood 7 PK :
0 v
VI
v
v
on the plan; x B' y B are the coordinates of the laid off in that direction, and the point K thus
point E taken from the list of calculated obtained is fixed.
coordinates of the points of a geodetic net; The angle ~K is constructed in the point K
and aBA is the initial direction angle taken relative to a direction KN, the design length
from the list of the calculated coordinates of SKN of a ditch is laid off, and the point N is
the points of a geodetic net. fixed.
A theodolite is set up in the point E and The upper crests of a ditch are laid out by
the junction angle 13Bis constructed from a using a number of profiles which are plotted
direction EA at two different positions of a on millimetre-squared paper on a large scale
circle, after which the length of a line SBK is (say, 11200).The width 1 of the ditch bottom
Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
(Fig. 14.5,where it is shown by a dotted line), fields, either existing in nature or formed
the depth h, and the inclination angle of ditch artificially. Any kind of these fields can be
sides are taken from the design and the characterized by its specific parameters. For
elevations of the points of the Earth's surface, instance, a gravitational field can be repre-
from the plan. In the case considered, three sented by the acceleration due to gravity or
profiles are plotted: a longitudinal profile second derivatives of the gravity force poten-
along the axis KN (Fig. 14.5b) and two tial; a magnetic field is characterized by the
transverse profiles through the points K and total intensity vector and its components
N (Fig. 14.5c). (vertical, horizontal, etc); an electromagnetic
The construction of profiles gives the field is characterized by the vectors of magnet-
points of intersection of ditch crests with the ic and electric components; an elastic field is
Earth's surface (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Inclined described by the time of the propagation of
distances K-l, K-2, N-3, and N-4 are then various elastic waves; etc.
found on transverse profiles and K-6 and The principal possibility of geophysical
N-5, on a longitudinal profile. These distan- methods of prospecting with the use of
ces are laid off on the ground from the points various physical fields is based on the fact
K and N; the former four perpendicularly to that the distribution of field parameters on
the ditch axis and the latter two, along the the Earth's surface, underground, in air, outer
axis. The points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are fixed on space, and in the Ocean is determined by the
the ground. general structure of the Earth and the near
The angles of the upper crests of the ditch space, variations in the physical properties of
(points 7, 8, 9 and 10 in Fig. 14.5) are rocks, and the dimensions and bedding
obtained at the intersections to the continued depths of geological objects.
lines 1-4 and 2-3 and perpendiculars raised to Geophysics has to solve two types of
the ditch axis in the points 5 and 6. problems: a direct problem and an inverse
If the terrain is flat, cross-sectional profiles one. Since the parameters of physical fields
are not constructed, and the distance from depend uniquely on the properties and
the ditch axis to its crest is determined by the dimensions of the geological objects being
formula: prospected, the parameters of a field can be
N-4 = N-3 = 112+ d uniquely determined when one knows the
properties and dimensions of geological
where d is calculated by the formula: objects. This is the direct problem to be
d = hltan..<p solved in geophysics. The inverse problem
consists in determining the dimensions, bed-
ding depth and other characteristics of geolo-
14.6. Geodetic Control gical objects by the measured parameters of a
of Geophysical Prospecting physical field, which, as a rule, cannot be
Methods determined uniquely.
The inverse problem can be solved
14.6.1 .General Data on Geophysical
uniquely by studying a complex of fields.
Prospecting Methods
Geophysical prospecting methods can be
Geophysical prospecting includes the employed in outer space, on the Earth's
methods of the investigation of the Earth's surface, in seas,and underground. According
crust, search and prospecting for minerals, to the problems and objects of investigation,
and engineering geological studies which are geophysical prospecting can be divided into
based on the analysis of various physical regional, structural, prospecting for ores,
14.6. Geodetic Control of Geophysical Prospecting 337
petroleum and gas, and engineering geo- the normal gravity force with the introduc-
physics. tion of corrections (reductions). In gravita-
Among the various methods used for tional prospecting, the most popular formula
geophysical prospecting, the gravitational, for describing the inhomogeneous density of
magnetometric, electric, seismic, nuclear and the Earth's crust is based on Bouguer's
geothermal methods are more popular. anomaly (Bouguer's effect):
14.6.2. Principles of Gravitational AgB = gm -'Yo + Agl + Ag2 + Ag3
Prospecting
where gm is the measured gravity force; Agl
Gravitational prospecting is based on is the correction for altitude which reduces
measuring the acceleration due to gravity the measured value to the sea level (Faye's
and its variations (gradients) in different correction), A 9 1 = 0.308 H (H is the altitude
directions. The parameters of the field of above sea level, m; Ag2 is the correction for
gravity force depend, on the one hand; on the attraction of an intermediate layer, which
some factors associated with the shape and is equal to the attraction of the masses
rotation of the Earth (normal field) and, on located between the sea level and a real
the other, on the density variations of rocks surface, Ag2 = 0.0419 o-H (0- is the mean
in the lithosphere (anomalous field). density of rocks in that layer and H is the
The gravitational (normal) field of the altitude of an observation point); and A g3 is
Earth is the field of the gravity force which is the correction for relief. The relief correction
the resultant of two forces: the force of takes into account the deviations of the
attraction of the Earth and the centrifugal physical surface of the Earth from the hori-
force caused by the rotation of the Earth on zontal plane passing through the given point.
its axis. The force of gravity can be measured For calculating the relief correction, the por-
in terms of the acceleration 9 acquired by a tion of the Earth's surface around the point
freely falling body. In gravitational prospec- of observation is divided in a particular
ting, the unit of acceleration is 1 cm s- 2 manner into a number of areas so as to
which is called the gal. approximate the relief by simple geometric
Gravitational prospecting is based on bodies whose gravitational effects can be
measuring the anomalies of the gravity force, determined analytically.
i. e. its deviations from normal values. The The correction for the surrounding relief is
normal field of the gravity force can be calculated for particular annular zones ar-
analysed by the formula: ranged concentrically around a gravimetric
point. Since the shape of the relief in each
Yo =Ye(l- ~sinB- ~lsin22B) zone may be variable, these zones are divided
where further into curvilinear prisms. The actual
~ = (Yp-Ye)/Y, ~1 = (1/8)a2 + (1/4)a~ (physical) surface of the Earth within each
prism is replaced by a horizontal plane whose
a is the contraction of the Earth's ellipsoid; B altitude is equal to the mean altitude of the
is the geodetic latitude; Yp is the normal prism relative to the observation point.
gravity field at a pole; and Ye is the normal The effect of the terrain on the topographic
gravity field at the equator. correction decreases proportionally with an
Thus, the anomaly of the gravity force is increase in the distance from the observation
essentially the difference between the gravity point, because of which the entire region for
force observed and its theoretical value which which the correction is taken into account is
can be calculated by one of the formulae for divided into three zones: the closer (up to
22-1270
338 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
200 m), the mid (from 200 m to 2000 m), and sections composed of horizontally bedded or
the farther (from 2000 to 13000 m). gently dipping structures; and (3) under-
The highest effect is produced by the relief ground electric prospecting used for the detec-
elements in the closer zone. In some cases,a tion of geoelectric inhomogeneities between
central zone of a radius of 10-50 m is separa- the boreholes or underground workings and
ted in the closer zone. In high-precision the Earth's surface.
gravimetric surveys, the relief corrections in Electric prospecting deals with the fol-
the mid and closer zone are determined by lowing kinds of field:
instrumental methods. I. Local natural electric fields, including
those of electrochemical and electrokinetic
14.6.3. Electric Prospecting origin. Electrochemical fields can be caused
by oxidation-reduction reactions at bounda-
The electric methods of geological prospec- ries between the electronic conductors (ore or
ting are based on studying natural and mineral bodies) and ionic ones (underground
artificial electromagnetic fields in the Earth's water surrounding an ore body). Electro-
crust. Natural fields may be either permanent kinetic fields exist due to the filtration of
or variable in time. The former are conven- underground waters through porous rocks
tionally called electric fields and the latter, and the associated processesof diffusion and
electromagnetic. adsorption of ions on solid particles.
In electric prospecting, both normal and 2. Regional natural electromagnetic fields
anomalous fields are studied. Normal fields (called magneto-telluric fields) which appear
are those which exist above a semispace in the Earth's crust in the regions of an
having homogeneous electromagnetic pro- appreciable area. Their origin is attributed to
perties. An anomalous field may appear due the influence of flows of charged particles
to an inhomogeneous structure of the geo- emitted by the Sun on the ionosphere of the
electric section of an area being prospected, Earth, and therefore, they depend on the
i. e. of the combination of geological bodies solar activity.
and seams, each of which has particular 3: Artificial permanent electric fields pro-
dimensions and specific electromagnetic duced in the Earth by means of earthed
parameters. cables connected to a d. c. voltage source.
In electric prospecting, the measured field 4. Artificial variable harmonic electromag-
parameters are the amplitudes and phase netic fields formed by various electric gen-
shifts of the intensities of electric and mag- erators producing a voltage that varies har-
netic fiel~. The principal electric properties monically in time.
(parameters) of rocks are the specific electric With the use of an alternating current, a
resistance, dielectric constant, magnetic per- field can be excited by an inductive (contact-
meability, electrochemical activity, and po- less) method. For this, a loop of a number of
larizability. wire coils, usually of a square shape with the
Depending on the problems to be solved, size from 10 m to 1000 m, is laid on the
all methods of electric prospecting can be Earth's surface and connected to an a. c.
divided into three groups: (I) profiling, which generator.
is used for the examination of inhomoge- 5. Transient electric and electromagnetic
neous geoelectric sections represented by fields excited by quick switching of rectan-
closely folded strata and electromagnetically gular d. c. pulses into the feed line.
inhomogeneous inclusions; (2) probing, In any method of electric prospecting, the
which is employed for the investigation of set of instruments contains electric generators
14.6. Geodetic Control of Geophysical Prospecting 339
and other supply sources, measuring and The principal methods of seismic prospec-
recording instruments, earthing electrodes or ting are as follows: reflected wave method;
non-earthed contours for the galvanic or refracted wave method, sometimes called ref-
inductive field excitation, earthing electrodes racted wave correlation method; transmitted
and antenna rods for measuring the electric wave method; method of common reflection
field components or frames and loops for point; method of vertical seismic profiling;
measuring the magnetic components, and etc.
auxiliary equipment. In practice, the reflected wave method is
14.6.4. Seismic Prospecting used most often, in particular for the dissec-
tion of sedimentary beds. It is the leading
Seismic prospecting for minerals is a method for structural investigations and
geophysical method based on studying the prospecting for petroleum, gas, and other
propagation of elastic waves excited by minerals.
explosions or other sources. The refracted wave method can provide
Since rocks have different density and are information on the elastic wave velocities and
characterized by different velocities of the the depth of beds composed of rocks with
propagation of elastic waves in them, reflec- high elastic moduli and on the bedding
ted and refracted waves can appear at the depths of these rocks. The transmitted wave
boundaries between the rock strata and, method is employed for detecting various
besides, elastic waves of a different kind can inhomogeneities in rock beds.
form in inhomogeneous media. The records
14.6.5. Magnetic Prospecting
of these waves provide information on the
structure of the region being studied. Magnetic prospecting is a geophysical
Seismic prospecting is based on the method based on studying the spatial distri-
analysis of the kinematics and dynamics of bution of variations of the geomagnetic field
waves. which can appear due to different magneti-
The seismic.methods of prospecting consist zation of rocks.
essentially in the excitation of elastic waves The principal methods of magnetic pros-
and detection of the induced soil oscillations pecting are the aeromagnetic, hydromagnetic
which are transformed into electric pulses; and ground magnetic surveys, underground
these pulses are amplified and recorded on and borehole observations, and the measure-
seismograms and magnetograms. These are ments of the magnetic properties of rock
processed in order to separate various kinds specimens.
of seismic waves and determine the time of In any point on the Earth's surface, there
their propagation to a point with the known exists a magnetic field which can be described
coordinates. Quantitative interpretation of by the total magnetic intensity vector T or its
the results of seismic prospecting gives the vertical (2) and horizontal (H) components.
velocities of wave propagation, variations of As a first approximation, the magnetic field
their propagation along the depth and over of the Earth can be likened to the field of a
an area, bedding depths of seismogeological uniformly magnetized sphere or dipole (To).
boundaries, their dipping, extension, etc. In addition to this unifQrm field of the
Using additional geological characteristics, it magnetized sphere, however, the magnetic
is often possible to establish the geological field of the Earth also has the components of
nature of detected boundaries of geological anomalous geomagnetic fields which are
bodies, i. e. to construct a seismogeological associated with continental (TJ, regional (T2),
section. and local (T3) anomalies. In the practice of
22.
340 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
magnetic prospecting, the normal magnetic latter case, however, the starts and ends of
field is usually taken as the field of a uniform- profiles and the centres of anomalies are
ly magnetized sphere (To) plus the continental connected instrumentally.
anomaly (TJ. The normal geomagnetic field
can be characterized by a normal gradient,
14.7. Mine-Surveying Work
i. e. a change in field intensity per kilometre.
in Geophysical Prospecting
The deviations of the observed values of
magnetic vectors from the normal field are The principal object of the mine-surveying
regional or local anomalies depending on the work in geophysical prospecting is to layout
area of their appearance. the set-up points for instruments and to
In magnetic prospecting, the measure- determine their planimetric and height coor-
ments of the magnetic field may be either dinates. A particular method of geodetic
absolute or relative. In ground magnetic control in geophysical surveys is chosen
prospecting, however, relative vertical com- mainly depending on the scale of geophysical
ponents of the geomagnetic field, A Z, are work, provision of the geodetic basis, and
measured most often and, less frequently, physico-geographic conditions in the pros-
relative values of the total vector, A 1;' i. e. pected region.
increments of these characteristics relative to The elevations and plan coordinates of
an initial (reference) point. points for geophysical measurements can be
Ground magnetic surveys can be done on determined easily and efficiently by reference
scales from 1/50000 to 1/2000 and larger. to topographic maps. If reliable maps are
With scales 1/50000, 1/25000 and 1/10000, unavailable, the plan positions of points in
geological magnetic surveys are carried out regional geophysical surveys can be determi-
for mapping the territory being studied, as ned on aerial photographs. The elevations of
well as directly for searching iron-containing these points are usually determined by
ores. barometric levelling.
Magnetic surveys on scales 1/10000, In geophysical field surveys on scales
1/5000 and 1/2000 are fulfilled for more 1/50000 to 1/10000, point coordinates are
detailed analysis of magnetic anomalies, most often determined by running main
detection of ore bodies and tectonic distor- traverses (base lines) and laying out profiles
tions, and for the estimation of the dimen- between them. Theodolite traverses and level
sions, shape and location of ore bodies. lines are then run along base lines and
Ground magnetic surveys are carried out, sometimes along profile lines.
as a rule,. on areas which are recognized The topographic and geodetic control of
prospective by the results of aeromagnetic geophysical prospecting includes the fol-
surveys. Observation profiles are assigned lowing steps:
across the strike of anomalies on aeromag- (a) the design positions of prospecting
netic maps. Spacings between the profiles profiles or individual observation points are
depend on the scale of surveys and can range transferred into nature and fixed on the
from 500 m (1/50000) to 50 m (1/5000). ground; in gravimetric and magnetometric
Distances between the observation points on prospecting, all observation points should be
profiles should be 50-60 per cent smaller than transferred into nature, and in seismic and
the profile spacings. electric prospecting, this involves all centres
The connection of observation points can of excitation and reception of signals; the
be done by instrumental (in prospecting positions of profiles and individual points
work) or semi-instrumental methods. In the should be transferred onto the ground with
14.7. Mine-Surveying Work in Geophysical Prospecting 341
the accuracy of planimetric connection; (c) determination of the plan and elevation
(b) observation points located on profiles coordinates of observation points;
and beyond them are connected, i. e. their (d) determination of relative height dif-
plan coordinates and elevations are deter- ferencesaround observation points in order to
mined; this should be done for all points of take into account the effect of a terrain relief;
geodetic observations; (e) provision of the geodetic basis for
(c) the topographic basis for geophysical gravimetric maps; and
maps is formed; and (f) the technical control and estimation of
(d) height differences around the gravi- the accuracy of the work performed.
metric points are determined in order to take The planimetric connection of gravimetric
into account the effect of a terrain relief on prospecting points can be carried out by
the measured values of a gravity force. using topographic maps on scales corres-
In aerogeophysical prospecting, the plan ponding to or larger than the scale of a
connection of aerogeophysical routes is gravimetric survey, aerophotogrammetric
usually done by aerial photogrammetry. materials, instrumental geodetic methods,
autometric topoconnectors, etc.
14.7.1. Mine-Surveying Work For determining the elevations of gravi-
in Gravitational Prospecting metric points, it is possible to use topo-
graphic maps on scales which ensure the re-
The mine-surveying work in gravitational quired accuracy; geometric and trigonometric
prospecting consists of the following opera- levelling; barometric levelling; materials of
tions: stereophotogrammetric surveys; and hydro-
(a) the transfer of the design position of static levelling.
reference and ordinary gravimetric points The permissible errors for determining the
into nature (laying-out of base lines, profiles, positions of the points of gravimetric obser-
etc.); vations are given in Table 14.6.
(b) fixation of the points by suitable marks; In cases when the surface of observations
Table 14.6
Scale of gravimetric Interval, milligal Root-mean square erros (m) of point position relal
map initial points
in plan in elevation
~
14.7. Mine-Surveying Work in Geophysical Prospecting 343
Table 14.7
Method of electric prospecting Map scale Root-mean square errors of point position relative
to initial points
in plan in elevation
For instance, in the method of isolines, linear receiving loop q, an active distance 001 and
electrodes are laid on the ground at distances an angle 6 (Fig. 14.7). The length of the
of 500-1500 m from one another and connec- feeding dipole can be calculated by the coor-
ted by insulated wires to the poles of a dinates of the feeding dipole AB centre 0 and
current source. The points of the same poten- the centre of a receiving circuit 01. The
tial are found on the terrain by means of connection of points A, B, 0, and 01 is
what is called a search circuit. The mine- usually done by means of topographic maps
surveyor's task in this caseis to determine the or aerophotogrammetric materials.
positions of these points. In regional pros-
pecting, the coordinates of these points are
14.7.3. Mine-Surveying Work
mainly determined by the materials of aero-
in Seismic Prospecting
photogrammetry and in detailed work, by
instrumental methods. In seismic prospecting by the reflected
In induction, natural direct current and the wave method, seismic profiles are laid out on
like methods, the points for setting up instru- the ground and connected in plan and ver-
ments in regional prospecting are determined tically by instrumental methods. In the ref-
by reference to aerophotogrammetric mate- racted wave correlation method, seismic pro-
rials and topographic maps and in detailed files are connected instrumentally, and the
work, by measurements on a preliminarily explosion points located beyond the profiles
laid-out square or rectangular network. are connected in plan. In seismic logging, it is
In electric prospecting by probing meth- required to determine the distances between
ods, the object of mine-surveying is to the logged and explosion boreholes, height
determine the plan and elevation coordinates differences between them, and the direction
of a record point Q, which is required for the angle from the logged boreholes onto explo-
construction of a geoelectric section, the sion points. In spatial mass probing, the plan
length of a feeding dipole AB, the area of a and elevation positions of probes and explo-
344 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
sion points are determined, and the figure for (a) profile methods with a preliminarily
the arrangement of seismographs is con- laid-out observation network;
structed. (b) profile methods with the simultaneous
The accuracy requirements for the mine- semi-instrumental layout of an observation
surveying work in seismic prospecting are network; and
given in Table 14.8. (c) route methods with the observation
In seismic prospecting in seas at a small points being read off from a topographic map
distance from the coast, observation points or aerophotogram.
can be connected by means of a reflecting In magnetic prospecting with a prelimi-
circle (index) by the method of resections narily laid-out observation network, the
onto the initial points on the coast. In such accuracy of the mine-surveying work should
cases, profiles are ranged out by poles or be as given in Table 14.9.
buoys set up at intervals not more than Profile methods with the simultaneous
2-3 km in detailed surveys or 5-6 km in semi-instrumental layout of an observation
regional surveys. In cases when the seismic network are usually employed in the search
work is being carried out far from the coastal work on a scale of 1/50000, 1/25000 or
line, observation points are connected mainly 1/10000 in woody territories; in that case,
by radiogeodetic methods. survey profiles can be ranged out by a
magnetic azimuth, and distances along a
profile can be measured by striding.
14.7.4. Mine-Surveying Work
Magnetic surveys are carried out, as a rule,
in Magnetic Prospecting
along roads, forest cuttings, footpaths, rivers,
In ground magnetic surveys, the mine- etc., and the surveying net is connected
surveying work includes the transfer of the visually to the orientation marks which are
contours of a survey area, layout, connection present both on the ground and on the map.
and fixation of observation points, and the The errors of the planimetric positions of
connection and fixation of detected anom- points on a survey line should not exceed 1/4
alous zones, structures, etc. of the spacing between the points, but not
In ground magnetic prospecting, the meth- more than 250 m in any case.
ods of the preparation of observation points
can be divided into three main types:
14.8. Barometric Levelling of Observation Objects 345
Root-mean square Root-mean square error of meas- without cor- with cor-
error of measured ured atmospheric pressure, mb rection for sys- rection
heights, m tematic error
of air tempe-
rature meas-
at observation at barometric urement
-~:-,.
Table 14.13
Root-mean square error Time of traverse Mean length of tra. Mean height difference of observed points
of height difference, m run, h verse, km relative to TBS, m
Root-mean Mean dist- Mean height difference of Root-mean square error of up up above
square error ance between points relative to RBS * in measured heights of points, to I to 2.5 2.5
of height dif- RBS *, km calculation, m
ference, m
Permissible fInS error of
without cor- with correc- comparison of mercury
rection for sys- tion
tematic error of barometers at reference
air temperature stations, mb 0.03 0.07 0.10
measurement
1.2 50 90
2.0 50-130 180-50 500-135
3.5 150 250 700
B 00
>< ~ ,..;
;0
-
""' -
-
~ ~ "'
ai
Ir)
.,;
O
- - N
00 V) ~
~ r-i
~ ~ ~ ""' -0
+ +
"' 1- N
r- 1- t-
~ ~ O
A :=: ~ -
b
<=! N 0-
Fig. 14.8 Calculation of elevation of observed Q,. -
-
...; It"i
~
point by method with severalbarometricreference + +
stations
c N
ric stations permanently for the entire period '0
"" :=; r.:
of station operation. Air temperatures are ~
~
measured at barometric stations and meas- ~
uring points by means of aspiration (sling) .. ,9 N 0 -
line of initial points should be not more than where H~, H~, and H~ are the preliminary
0.2 of the distance between these points. The elevations of the point observed and k1, k2,
principal requirements to the field work by and k3 are the weight coefficients which
this method are given in Table 14.13. depend on the position of the point and can
In barometric levelling by the method with be found by the formulae:
several barometric reference stations, these k1 = 11/Ll, k2 = 12/L2, k3 = 13/L3
stations are located so that all points of
observation can be inside the figure formed where 11= Oa, 12= Ob, 13= Oc, L1 = Aa,
by the stations (in most casesa triangle). In a L2 = Bb, and L3 = Cc.
particular case, barometric reference stations The elevation of the observed point is
can be located on the range line. The permis- calculated by a scheme given in Table 14.16.
sible distances between the barometric re- The elevations, H, of reference stations are
ference stations should be as recommended in recorded in column 4. The distances, I, from
Table 14.14. the observed point to the side connecting two
In this method, it is possible to use meteo- other barometric stations are written as nu-
rological stations or special temporary ref- merators in column 5 and the distances, L,
erence stations. All barometers used at the from a barometric station to the same side
stations are standardized by determining through the point being observed, as deno-
their corrections relative to one of them minators in the same column. Columns 7, 8,
which is taken as the standard instrument. 9, and 10 contain data from the field books.
The standardization of barometers should be The difference in atmospheric pressure, l\P ,
carried out with an accuracy as specified in between the barometric station and the point
Table 14.15. observed is calculated in column 11. Column
The elevations of observed points are de- 12 contains the values of barometric stages.
termined by the results of the measurements The values given in columns 11 and 12 are
of air temperature and pressure at these then multiplied to give the height difference
points, which are done at the same time with between the barometric station and the point
air temperature and pressure measurements observed (column 13). The preliminary values
at the stations. The point elevations are of elevations found by algebraic summation
calculated as weighted mean values, by con- of the elevations of barometric stations and
sidering the following circumstances. elevation differences are written in column
Let an observed point O be inside a 14. Finally, column 15 gives the elevation of
reference .triangle ARC (Fig. 14.8). The ele- the 'point observed, which is obtained by
vation of the point O can be calculated by the summing the products of preliminary eleva-
formula: tions and the c9rresponding coefficients.
H = H~k1 + H~k2 + H~k3
Chapter Fifteen
15.1. General
tides is called high water, the lowest level at
One of the novel trends in mining industry ebbs is low water, and the medium level is
is the exploitation of mineral resources of the what is called mean water. In open sea, the
Ocean bottom. Our knowledge of the Ocean tidal variations of the water level are equal to
is still insufficient for large-scale mining of its roughly 1 m; near coasts, especially at the
minerals, but it can be already stated quite head of narrow bays, the difference between
definitely that the mineral reserves in the high and low water may attain a few tens of
shelf and deep-sea zones of the Ocean are metres.
enormous and can be estimated approxi- The surface of seas and oceans to a depth
mately by the following figures: 4 x 1015t of up to 60 m can be disturbed substantially by
aluminium, 100 x 109t of cobalt, 300 x 109t winds which often create waves up to 12-13 m
of nickel, 350 x 109t of copper, 42 x 109t of high. The effect of wind disturbance is espe-
manganese,120 x 106t of zirconium, 80 x 106t cially detrimental for the accuracy of mine-
of molybdenum, etc. In addition, almost all surveying observations, since prospecting
elements of the Periodic Table are present in and mining work in seasare carried out now
the Ocean in the dissolved state. and will be done in the nearest future only in
The sea medium has certain specific fea- the shelf zone where the effect of wind waves
tures which can influence the organization is quite strong.
and accuracy of the mine-surveying work. Water waves can be characterized by the
The principal among them is the dynamics of length, height, velocity, period, front, and
water masses.The level surface of the Ocean steepness. The length A of waves is the
is subject to periodic, non-periodic and secu- horizontal distance between the crests (or
lar variations. Periodic variations mainly troughs) of adjacent waves; height h is the
include tidal oscillations. Non-periodic va- vertical distance from the trough to the crest
riations may be of geodyllamic or geothermal of a wave; velocity v is the distance covered
origin, i. e. they may be caused by earth- by a wave crest in unit time; wave period Tis
quakes, underwater volcanic eruptions, tec- the time interval during which two wave
tonic disturbances in the Earth's crust, water crests pass successivelythrough a given point;
surges, occasional sharp changes of atmos- wave front is a line perpendicular to the
pheric precipitation, changes of atmospheric direction of wave motion; and steepnessis the
pressure, etc. For estimating the dynamic height-to-length ratio of a wave.
conditions of the level surface of the Ocean, As a wave approaches the coastal line, its
of prime importance are the tidal phenomena profile changes substantially. The top portion
which may depend substantially on the geo- of the wave slope facing the coast becomes
graphic latitude, depth of sea, and the shape steeper, i. e. the wave profile becomes asym-
of a coastal line. The highest water level at metrical. The asymmetry of waves is notice-
350 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
able at depths roughly twice the wave height. portion of the bottom at the external edge of
At the coast, wave crests tip over and form the shelf. Its width is rather small and usually
feathers, or breakers. measures from 15 km to 30 km. Inclination
As the wind velocity decreases,water wa- angles are equal to 3-6° on the average,
ves attenuate slowly, the rate of attenuation ranging from lO to around 45°. The surface of
being proportional to the wave length. The the continental slope is often furrowed by
waviness of the sea surface that remains after U-shaped valleys called submarine canyons.
winds have ceased to blow is called swell, or Submarine canyons may have a length from
aftertossing. a few tens to a few hundreds of kilometres
and penetrate to depths of 3-4 km.
15.2. Brief Data on Geomorphology
The continental slope changes to what is
of Ocean Bottom Relief
called the continental base, a slightly inclined
By modern concepts, the ocean bottom has undulating plain at depths of 2-4 km.
four structural zones (Fig. 15.1). 2. The transition zone II is an intermediate
I. The first is the submerged margin I, zone between the submerged margin I of the
which includes the shelf la, continental slope continent and the ocean bottom (floor) III.
Ib, and continental base Ic. The submerged This zone has the basin of marginal sea at the
margin is regarded geologically as the flood- side of the continental base and island arcs
ed portion of the continental plateau which is lIb and deep-sea troughs IIc, at the side of
characterized by relatively calm tectonic the ocean. The deep-sea troughs form the
conditions and markedly prevailing slow boundary between the continent and ocean,
vertical deformations of the surface. The shelf so that one of their slopes is represented by
is essentially a shallow-water portion of the the continental crust and the other by the
submerged margin, which extends from the oceanic crust.
coastal line to a sharp bend of the bottom 3. The ocean floor III is represented by the
surface, usually at a depth of 130-140 m. The oceanic type of the Earth's crust and lies at
part of a shelf to a depth of 30-50 m is called depths of 2500-6000 m. It mostly has a hilly
shoal. relief of the accumulative type with large
The continental slope is a relatively steep oceanic troughs and uplifts.
Fig. 15.1 Profile of ocean bottom: l-submerged margin; la-shelf; lb-continental slope; lc-contin~ntal
base; ll-transition zone; lla-pits of marginal seas; llb-island arcs; IIc-deep-sea troughs; III -ocean
bottolD; lV -mid-ocean ridges
15.4. Geological Prospecting and Mining 351
4. Mid-ocean ridges are essentially moun- of sands and a high concentration of useful
tainous formations of a width of 500-2000 kID. components in them (up to 90% of non-na-
A depression, or rift valley, usually runs tive ones). As a rule, band-shaped shelf pla-
along the axial line of a ridge. At both sides cers have discontinuities at capes and in river
of the rift valley, there are rift crests with estuaries.
individual summits 7000-8000 m high above Placers in the continental slope are usually
the foot of a mid-ocean ridge. Earthquake located at distances from 500 m to 15 km
centres (foci) are confined to rift crests. from the coastal line and have a length of a
few tens of kilometres and width, .a few
hundreds of metres.
15.3. Characteristics The mechanism of transfer of heavier
of Some Solid Minerals minerals forming a submarine placer is deter-
At present, over loo countries are carrying mined by the same processes as the transfer
out geological prospecting in the water area of the mass of sediments forming the bottom
of seasand oceans, and enormous reserves of topography.
minerals have already been discovered
(Fig. 15.2). 15.4. Mine-Surveying Service
Submarine deposits of minerals are con-
of Geological Prospecting
ventionally classified by the following groups:
and Mining in Water Areas
metal-bearing concretions and red clays;
primary deposits; and submarine sedimenta- In prospecting for submarine deposits, the
ry deposits, mainly shelf placers and mine-surveying service has the following
metal-bearing silts. objects:
At present, shelf deposits attract the main (a) the collection and examination of geo-
interest, in particular, placer deposits formed detic, hydrographic and meteorological
due to the dynamic activity of seas and the documents available for a given water area;
chemical processes occurring in sea water. (b) the provision of the planimetric and
By the time of origin, submarine placers elevation survey control for the coastal part
can be classed into buried (concealed), con- of land and alloted water area;
tinental, and young (present-day). Buried (c) the complementary surveys of the bot-
placers formed on overlapping of ancient tom relief and prospecting workings;
placer deposits by younger sediments at (d) the control of the positions of pros-
changes of the sea level and displacement of pecting and mining workings in the water
the coastal line. Continental buried deposits area upon their transfer into nature;
are formed due to sinking of the coastal (e) the compilation of the graphical
surface of land below the sea level. All buried documentation of the alloted water area,
submarine placers, as a rule, are not subject which should reflect the bottom relief of a
to hydrodynamic actions and lithodynamic basin, the shape, dimensions and geological
changes. Present-day placers are more easily characteristics of a deposit, and the charac-
accessible for exploitation than other types, teristics of enclosing rocks;
since they are not covered by sediments. (f) surveying of underwater workings;
Present-day placers mostly have the shape of (g) the calculation of the mineral reserves;
bands extended along the coastal line. and
Delta placers have an irregular shape in (h) the analysis of the lithodynamic chan-
plan and variable characteristics. Shelf pla- ges of the bottom relief.
cers can be characterized by a very thin bed In the construction of underwater wor-
352 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
...~ .
"' ., ..
..o.~
~.~ ...
;~~
~
I... ~
'"'I~S
"' ..= 0
8~... ~
~ ~ ..,
c...8
-g]=,
., =' .~
0 , =
S~~ = .-
~
.-=' ...
~o>.
...,~~
1
, ~
=~(.)"'
08~§8.=I ~.~
~ ..."'
= L.--:
.~~.!!!.O
I
~ I!! I~ ~
.-I£,
"' S o
~~I~ ,Q
~ .=~
"o;UI~ ~
"' 0
.."'
==e~
.S S.S ~
~:aS~
~ ~ .~ .S
~~-
t:.(.)"0;"'
~...C , ...~ ..."'
="0;So
='... c.
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=S ~
~.s~~
~ .~ ~ 'E.
0,,--
~"'c.='
~ I "'
~ ~ ...I
~ta~oo
.0 "' ...
-1;;='-;;-
c.0 1;;
>< ='
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0...,
~ ,Q ~ ..,
=
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I
.-
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""'=c.
~ ..00 ~
~~..:=
&.9N ~
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~= .~
C(E::: .
0 -..
= ~ ;£ .E
..,
0 § .S fiJ
='~=~
:g§SS
..."' 1;; ...=
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.~
f"\ ' ...~
...= ...
0 "' .
M .= "§ S
='
II') 0 = .~
~ "'.- §
.~ S (.)
~- ...
~
~l,:=oN
15.5. Marine Mine-Surveying Reference Nets 353
23-1270
354 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
12
(d) (e)
Fig. 15.4 Benchmarks for marine mine-surveyingnets:(a) pole-type;(b) pile-type;(c) wooden frame;
(d) metallicframe;(e)buoyant; 1- bottom of seaor basin;2 ~ water line; 3 ~ earth embankment;4- tube or
rod; 5- benchmark centre;6- end fastening(plug);7~ concretefilling; 8- instrumentalplatform enclosure;
9-navigation signal; 10-bench mark platform or pontoon; 11-boundary of compacted layer;
12-concrete filling; 13-concrete base; 14-counterweights; 15-buoy rope; 16-anchors; 17-bottom
centre
those in the open sea, from the points of a polygonometric method is mostly employed
marine mine-surveying net, in particular for deposits extended along the coastal line.
from a local net connected to the geodetic The root-mean square error of determi-
reference net on the land. nation of the direction angles of sides in
Marine mine-surveying nets can be const- marine mine-surveying nets should not ex-
ructed by the methods of triangulation, trila- ceed I'. For the plan positions of the points of
teration and polygonometry. Reference nets a net, the rms error should be not more than
for deposits located near the shore can be 0.2 mm on the scale of a plan.
constructed by the methods of intersections, The elevation control for the surveying
combined intersections or resections. The work in the near-shore water area is provided
15.6. Special Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas 355
by levelling points. The absolute elevation nometric traverse; L is the length of the
marks of survey points on the shore are closing line of a traverse; mp is the rms error
determined by geometric or trigonometric of angle measurement; n is the number of
levelling and of those in the water area, sides in a traverse; and D is the distance from
mostly by trigonometric levelling. The rms the centre of gravity of a traverse to each
error in the determination of heights of the turning point.
points of marine (off-shore) nets relative to The best time for observations and mea-
initial (control) bench marks should not ex- surements is when the temperature of water
ceed 0.02 m and the rms error of height surface is close to that of air, since this
difference between two adjacent points, minimizes the effect of refraction on meas-
should be not more than 0.05 m. When the ured results.
water area is covered by firm ice, it is more
preferable to use geometric levelling.
The points of marine reference nets are 15.6. Special Mine-Surveying
fixed by means of special bench marks (bea- Work in Water Areas
cons) which may be of the pole-type (Fig. In the general case, all kinds of the mine-
l5.4a), pile-type (Fig. l5.4b), with a wooden surveying work carried out on submarine
or metallic frame (Fig. l5.4c and d), or deposits can be divided into special and
buoyant (Fig. 15.4e) with automatic correc- routine.
tion or recording of their deviations from the In special mine-surveying work, mine sur-
centre. Veyors together with geologists determine the
Marine bench marks should be set up geological and hydrogeological characteris-
before the beginning of stormy seasons, and tics of deposits, geomorphological and li-
each should be provided with a navigation thodynamic specifics, hydraulic conditions in
signal. If a marine mine-surveying net is the water area, etc. The main object of special
developed on ice, its points can be marked by work is, however, to analyse the lithodyna-
metal rods qr wooden poles frozen into the mic processes responsible for the variability
ice. of a given relief and to determine the prin-
Polygonometric traverses should be run so cipal parameters of the deposit and under-
that the mean arithmetic error of the final water workings. Surveys for mapping of a
point of a traverse line of any shape is not deposit should be carried out both in the
higher than the value calculated by the period of detailed prospecting and during
formula: exploitation. It is principally important to
decide on the frequency of repeated obser-
vations which should be such that the varia-
tions of relief that may occur between the
surveys can be commensurable with the
accuracy of surveying. The frequency of ob-
servations is usually determined experimen-
tally.
Special mine-surveying work also includes
the formation and development of planimet-
ric and elevation control (for off-shore and
open-sea mine-surveying nets), establishment
of level-gauging stations, navigation marks,
etc.
356 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
(a:
(c)
Id)
,~~
-I
, \--
~
~
Fig. 15.6 Typical schemes of traversing in bottom relief surveying: (a) with parallel traverses; (b) with
zig-zag extension traverses; (c) zig-zag traversing with control extension traverses; (d) radial traversing
with additional transverse extension traverses
358 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
somewhat lower than the horizon of the ing methods: (I) by the results of surveying;
lowest level. This is done in order that (2) by measuring the volumes of extracted
calculated levels may be always positive. rock shipped in ore carriers or contained in
A level-gauge station, or simply gauge, is on-shore stores; (3) by the readings of flow
made in the form of a level-measuring pole meters and consistometers mounted on pulp
which is fastened to a pile, wharf or another pipelines.
stationary structure. Level-gauge poles are Volume calculation by results of surveys.
mostly made of cast iron and have inserted This method can be recommended for cases
porcelain pieces forming 2-cm graduations. when the contours of mining workings are
Enamel-painted metal poles are also in use. not changed substantially during the period
Depth measurements are also carried out of measurements.
for studying the lithodynamic processes, in The calculation of the volume of the ext-
particular, the intensity and amount of racted mineral on the basis of the results of
wash-out (erosion) or, on the contrary, the surveys can be made most easily by the
accumulation of drifted sediments on the method of horizontal sections. The volume of
bottom and in underwater workings. a working is determined by the formula:
The thickness of an active layer of sedi-
ments is established by measuring the max- v = hm8m
imum depth in fixed points in the periods of
where hm is the mean depth of a working, m
rough sea, which can be done by the method
and 8m is the mean area of a working, m2.
of a 'movable disc' or by successive mea-
The mean area is found as the half-sum of
surements between the periods of rough sea.
the upper and lower areas:
The former method is employed at depths
up to 3 m and consists essentially in that the 8m = (8u + 8,)/2
disc is let to slide down a metal rod fixed in and the mean depth:
the bottom, after which the depth of disc
hm = ~h.I/ n
sinking is determined on the staff that is
connected with the disc and protrudes from where ~hi is the sum of measured depths
water. If the bottom ground is washed out, within the boundaries of a working floor, m
the disc sinks deeper and this is detected by and n is the number of measurements.
the changed position of the staff. Staff rea- In practice, the mean extractive capacity of
dings can be done instrumentally from the a mineral is usually determined as the dif-
on-shore or off-shore points of a reference ference of the mean elevation marks of the
net. .
surface of a submarine deposit (within the
The method of successivemeasurements is boundaries of the upper crests of slopes) and
not as accurate as the former, but is less of the bottom or as the difference of the mean
laborious. Measurements are carried out depths of a working floor and the mean
strictly on the same profiles, and the thick- depths of the initial surface of the sea bottom.
ness of an active layer is determined by Calculation of volumes in vessels and on-
differences between successivemeasurements. shore stores. In this method, the mine sur-
veyor has to make the following operations:
15.10. Calculation of Volumes (a) measuring the geometrical parameters
of a vessel or store;
of Extracted Rock
(b) determining the coefficient of filling of
The volumes of rock extracted in subma. a capacity with loose rock mass;
rine mining can be calculated by the follow. (c) calculating the volumes of loose rock in
15.10. Calculation of Volumes of Extracted Rock 361