CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.

1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

Variable frequency drive (VFD) usage has increased dramatically in HVAC applications. The VFDs are now commonly applied to air handlers, pumps, chillers and tower fans. A better understanding of VFDs will lead to improved application and selection of both equipment and HVAC systems. This paper is intended to provide a basic understanding of common VFD terms, VFD operation, and VFD benefits. In addition this paper will discuss some basic application guidelines regarding harmonic distortion with respect to industry standards. 1. Variable Frequency Drive (AC drives) are used to stepless speed control of squirrel cage induction motors mostly used in process plants due to its ruggedness and maintenance free long life. 2. VFD control speed of motor by varying output voltage and frequency through sophisticated microprocessor controlled electronics device. 3. VFD consists of Rectifier and inverter units. Rectifier converts AC in DC voltage and inverter converts DC voltage back in AC voltage.

Figure no. 1 Variable Frequency Drive

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A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, micro drives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. Variable-frequency drives are widely used in ventilation systems for large buildings; variablefrequency motors on fans save energy by allowing the volume of air moved to match the system demand. They are also used on pumps, elevator, conveyor and machine tool drives. All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off. Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the power dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load. Drives can be classified as:

Constant voltage Constant current Cycloconverter

In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase, making up the desired variable-frequency output waveforms from pieces of the fixedfrequency input waveforms. The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load

1.2 Applying Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs):On cooling tower eliminates drawbacks associates with starter-controlled fans. Reduced energy consumption (lower utility costs), reduced maintenance requirements (personnel and equipment replacement costs) and process water temperature stabilization are among the benefits. The fan may be spinning when a VFD is commanded to start. A VFD must correctly identify motor rotation, slow the motor down to zero speed (when opposite rotation is detected),

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accelerate the motor in correct direction and not trip on an over-voltage or over-current condition. Mechanical brakes or anti-ratcheting device can be used to ensure that a fan doesnt rotate in the wrong direction. A VFD eliminate both mechanical and electrical brakes as well as antiratcheting devices, time delay relays, etc. In extreme cold weather, tower icing can be averted by running the fan slower than required, raising the tower and process water temperatures. It is also common to reverse a cooling tower fan, keeping the heat in the tower. VFDs accomplish this function and eliminate reversing starters. Likewise on hot days, when the air is thinner, fans can be run above 60Hz, providing additional cooling capacity. The VFDs current and/or torque limit function will limit the current of motor such that the nameplate FLA rating is not exceeded. This is impossible without a VFD.

1.3 Common VFD Terms

There are several terms used to describe devices that control speed. While the acronyms are often used interchangeably, the terms have different meanings.

1.3.1 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

This device uses power electronics to vary the frequency of input power to the motor, thereby controlling motor speed.

1.3.2 Variable Speed Drive (VSD)

This more generic term applies to devices that control the speed of either the motor or the equipment driven by the motor (fan, pump, compressor, etc.). This device can be either electronic or mechanical.

1.3.3 Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD)

Again, a more generic term applying to both mechanical and electrical means of controlling speed.

1.4 Energy savings

AC motor-driven applications that do not require full speed can save energy by controlling the motor with a variable speed drive. Energy cost saving with variable torque can be significant, often paying for the cost of VFD within a matter of months. In variable torque applications such as fans and blowers, the torque required varies roughly with the square of the speed, and the horsepower required varies roughly with the cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horsepower for even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only 25% as much power at 63% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which define the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower.

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In the United States, an estimated 60-65% of electrical energy is used to supply motors, 75% of which are variable torque fan, pump and compressor loads. Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs . Only about 3% of all AC motors are provided with AC drives An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table

Small

General Purpose - Medium-Size Large

Power

10W to 750W 750W to 375kW

375kW to 100MW

Phase, voltage

1-ph., <240V 3-ph., 200V to 1kV

3-ph., 1kV to 20kV

% total motor energy 9%

68%

23%

Total stock

2 billion

230 million

0.6 million

Table no. 1 Global Population of Motors

1.5 Benefit Of VFD in HVAC System

One of the most successful energy management tools ever applied to building HVAC systems is the variable frequency drive (VFD). For more than 20 years, VFDs have successfully been installed on fan and pump motors in a range of variable load applications. Energy savings vary from 35 to 50 percent over conventional constant speed applications, resulting in a return on investment of six months to two years. While the number of applications suitable for early generation drives was limited based on the horsepower of the motor, today's drives can be installed in practically any HVAC application found in commercial and institutional buildings. Systems can be operated at higher voltages than those used by earlier generations, resulting in off the shelf systems for motors up to 500 horsepower.

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Early generation systems also suffered from low power factor. Low power factor robs the facility of electrical distribution capacity and can result in cost penalties imposed by electrical utility companies. Today's systems operate at a nearly constant power factor over the entire speed range of the motor. Another problem that has been corrected by today's systems is operational noise. As the output frequency of the drives decreased in response to the load, vibrations induced in the motor laminations generated noise that was easily transmitted through the motor mounts to the building interior. Today's drives operate at higher frequencies, resulting in the associated noise being above the audible range. And VFDs continue to evolve. From numerous system benefits to an increasing range of available applications, VFDs are proving to be ever more useful and powerful.

1.6 MANUFACTURERS
1. Danfoss Graham. 2. ABB. 3. Yaskawa Electric.

1.7 CONTROLLER
Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, full-wave-diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load. As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century.

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AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz is the general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor.

Figure no. 2 Controller is connected to main supply and electrical machine

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CHAPTER 2 VFD OPERATION 2.1 OPERATION

Understanding the basic principles behind VFD operation requires understanding the three basic sections of the VFD: the rectifier, dc bus, and inverter. The voltage on an alternating current (ac) power supply rises and falls in the pattern of a sine wave (see Figure 1). When the voltage is positive, current flows in one direction; when the voltage is negative, the current flows in the opposite direction. This type of power system enables large amounts of energy to be efficiently transmitted over great distances. The rectifier in a VFD is used to convert incoming ac power into direct current (dc) power. One rectifier will allow power to pass through only when the voltage is positive. A second rectifier will allow power to pass through only when the voltage is negative. Two rectifiers are required for each phase of power. Since most large power supplies are three phase, there will be minimum of 6 rectifiers used (see Figure 2). Appropriately, the term 6 pulse is used to describe a drive with 6 rectifiers. A VFD may have multiple rectifier sections, with 6 rectifiers per section, enabling a VFD to be 12 pulse, 18 pulse, or 24 pulse. The benefit of multi pulse VFDs will be described later in the harmonics section. Rectifiers may utilize diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), or transistors to rectify power. Diodes are the simplest device and allow power to flow any time voltage is of the proper polarity. Silicon controlled rectifiers include a gate circuit that enables a microprocessor to control when the power may begin to flow, making this type of rectifier useful for solid-state starters as well. Transistors include a gate circuit that enables a microprocessor to open or close at any time, making the transistor the most useful device of the three. A VFD using transistors in the rectifier section is said to have an active front end.

Figure no. 3 Mechanical capacity control

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After the power flows through the rectifiers it is stored on a dc bus. The dc bus contains capacitors to accept power from the rectifier, store it, and later deliver that power through the inverter section. The dc bus may also contain inductors, dc links, chokes, or similar items that add inductance, thereby smoothing the incoming power supply to the dc bus. The final section of the VFD is referred to as an inverter. The inverter contains transistors that deliver power to the motor. The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a common choice in modern VFDs. The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per second and precisely control the power delivered to the motor. The IGBT uses a method named pulse width modulation (PWM) to simulate a current sine wave at the desired frequency to the motor. Motor speed (rpm) is dependent upon frequency. Varying the frequency output of the VFD controls motor speed: Speed (rpm) = frequency (hertz) x 120 / no. of poles Example: 2-pole motor at different frequencies 3600 rpm = 60 hertz x 120 / 2 = 3600 rpm 3000 rpm = 50 hertz x 120 / 2 = 3000 rpm 2400 rpm = 40 hertz x 120 / 2 = 2400 rpm

2.2 VFD Capacity Control Saves Energy

Most applications do not require a constant flow of a fluid. Equipment is sized for a peak load that may account for only 1% of the hours of operation. The remaining hours of operation need only a fraction of the flow. Traditionally, devices that throttle output have been employed to reduce the flow. However, when compared with speed control, these methods are significantly less efficient.

2.2.1 Mechanical Capacity Control

Throttling valves, vanes, or dampers may be employed to control capacity of a constant speed pump or fan. These devices increase the head, thereby forcing the fan or pump to ride the curve to a point where it produces less flow (Figure 3). Power consumption is the product of head and flow. Throttling the output increases head, but reduces flow, and provides some energy savings. Pump power ~ flow x head / 39601

2.2.2 Variable Speed Capacity Control

For centrifugal pumps, fans and compressors, the ideal fan (affinity) laws describe how speed affects flow, head and power consumption. When using speed to reduce capacity, both the head and flow are reduced, maximizing the energy savings. A comparison of mechanical and speed control for capacity reduction (Figure 4) shows that variable speed is the most efficient means of capacity control.

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Figure no. 4 Comparison of mechanical capacity control and speed capacity control

2.2.3 Low Inrush Motor Starting

Motor manufacturers face difficult design choices. Designs optimized for low starting current often sacrifice efficiency, power factor, size, and cost. With these considerations in mind, it is common for AC induction motors to draw 6 to 8 times their full load amps when they are started across the line. When large amounts of current are drawn on the transformers, a voltage drop can occur, adversely affecting other equipment on the same electrical system. Some voltage sensitive applications may even trip off line. For this reason, many engineers specify a means of reducing the starting current of large AC induction motors.

2.3 VFD as Starters

A VFD is the ideal soft starter since it provides the lowest inrush of any starter type as shown in Table B. Unlike all other types of starters, the VFD can use frequency to limit the power and current delivered to the motor. The VFD will start the motor by delivering power at a low frequency. At this low frequency, the motor does not require a high level of current. The VFD incrementally increases the frequency and motor speed until the desired speed is met. The current level of the motor never exceeds the full load amp rating of the motor at any time during its start or operation. In addition to the benefit of low starting current, motor designs can now be optimized for high efficiency. The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three phase induction motor . Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice.

2.3.1 Soft Starters

Wye-delta, part winding, autotransformer, and solid state starters are often used to reduce inrush during motor starting. All of these starters deliver power to the motor at a constant frequency and

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therefore must limit the current by controlling the voltage supplied to the motor. Wye delta, part winding, and autotransformer starters use special electrical connections to reduce the voltage. Solid-state starters use SCRs to reduce the voltage. The amount of voltage reduction possible is limited because the motor needs enough voltage to generate torque to accelerate. With maximum allowable voltage reduction, the motor will still draw two to four times the full load amps (FLA) during starting. Additionally, rapid acceleration associated with wye-delta starters can wear belts and other power transmission components.

Figure no.5 VFD soft starter panel

2.4 BENEFITS OF VFD

As VFD usage in HVAC applications has increased, fans, pumps, air handlers, and chillers can benefit from speed control. Variable frequency drives provide the following advantages: energy savings low motor starting current reduction of thermal and mechanical stresses on motors and belts during starts simple installation high power factor lower KVA Understanding the basis for these benefits will allow engineers and operators to apply VFDs with confidence and achieve the greatest operational savings.

2.5 Easy Installation

Many pieces of equipment are factory shipped with unit mounted VFDs that arrive pre programmed and factory wired. Motor leads, control power for auxiliaries, and communication lines are all factory wired. The VFD cooling lines on unit-mounted chiller VFDs are also factory installed. The installing contractor needs only to connect the line power supply to the VFD.

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2.6 High Power Factor

Power converted to motion, heat, sound, etc. is called real power and is measured in kilowatts (kW). Power that charges capacitors or builds magnetic fields is called reactive power and is measured in Kilovolts Amps Reactive (kVAR). The vector sum of the kW and the kVAR is the Total Power (energy) and is measured in Kilovolt Amperes (KVA) (Figure 5). Power factor is the ratio of kW/KVA. Motors draw reactive current to support their magnetic fields in order to cause rotation. Excessive reactive current is undesirable because it creates additional resistance losses and can require the use of larger transformers and wires. In addition, utilities often penalize owners for low power factor. Decreasing reactive current will increase power factor.

KW

KVAr

KVA Figure no. 6 Power Triangle

We know that Power Factor = Cos From the above diagram1. KVA = 2. Cos = KW/KVA = KW/ 3. KW = KVA Cos 4. Tan = KVAr/KW It is now clear that in order to reduce the flow of reactive the Power Factor will have to be improved. At unity Power Factor (i.e. Cos =1) the flow of reactive power is zero and is thus the ideal condition.

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Typical AC motors may have a full load power factor ranging from 0.84 to 0.88. As the motor load is reduced, the power factor becomes lower. Utilities may require site power factor values ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 and impose penalties to enforce this requirement. Power factor correction capacitors can be added to reduce the reactive current measured upstream of the capacitors and increase the measured power factor. To prevent damage to the motor, power factor correction capacitors should not exceed the motor manufacturers recommendations. In most cases, this results in maximum corrected values of 0.90 to 0.95. The VFDs include capacitors in the DC Bus that perform the same function and maintain high power factor on the line side of the VFD. This eliminates the need to add power factor correction equipment to the motor or use expensive capacitor banks. In addition, VFDs often result in higher line side power factor values than constant speed motors equipped with correction capacitors.

2.7 Low Full Load KVA

Total Power (KVA) is often the limiting factor in the amount of energy that can be transmitted through an electrical device or system. If the KVA required by equipment can be reduced during periods of peak demand, it will help alleviate voltage sags, brown outs, and power outages. The unit efficiency and power factor are equally weighted when calculating KVA. Therefore, equipment that may be equal or worse in efficiency, but higher in power factor has significantly lower KVA . Backup generators are typically sized to closely match the load. Lowering KVA can reduce the size of the generator required. When VFDs with active front ends are used, the generator size can approach an ideal 1:1 ratio of kW/KVA because the power factor is near unity (1.0) and the harmonics produced by the VFD are extremely low. Lower KVA also benefits utilities. When the power factor is higher, more power (kW) can be delivered through the same transmission equipment. A drive can control two main elements of a 3-phase induction motor: speed and torque. To understand how a drive controls these two elements, we will take a short review of AC induction motors. Fig. 4 shows the construction of an induction motor. The two basic parts of the motor, the rotor and stator, work through magnetic interaction. A motor contains pole pairs. These are iron pieces in the stator, wound in a specific pattern to provide a north to south magnetic field. With one pole pair isolated in a motor, the rotor (shaft) rotates at a specific speed: the base speed. The number of poles and the frequency applied determine this speed . This formula includes an effect called "slip." Slip is the difference between the rotor speed and the rotating magnetic field in the stator. When a magnetic field passes through the conductors of the rotor, the rotor takes on magnetic fields of its own. These rotor magnetic fields will try to catch up to the rotating fields of the stator. However, it never does this difference is slip. Think of slip as the distance between the greyhounds and the hare they are chasing around the track. As long as they don't catch up to the hare, they will continue to revolve around the track. Slip is what allows a motor to turn.

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Motor Slip: Shaft Speed = 120 X F/P Slip for NEMA B Motor = 3 to 5% of Base Speed which is 1800 RPM at Full Load F = Frequency applied to the motor P = Number of motor poles Example: Shaft Speed =120 X 60 Hz Slip P We can conveniently adjust the speed of a motor by changing the frequency applied to the motor. You could adjust motor speed by adjusting the number of poles, but this is a physical change to the motor. It would require rewinding, and result in a step change to the speed. So, for convenience, cost-efficiency, and precision, we change the frequency. Fig. 6 shows the torquedeveloping characteristic of every motor: the Volts per Hertz ratio (V/Hz). We change this ratio to change motor torque. An induction motor connected to a 460V, 60 Hz source has a ratio of 7.67. As long as this ratio stays in proportion, the motor will develop rated torque. A drive provides many different frequency outputs. At any given frequency output of the drive, you get a new torque curve.

2.8 How Drive Changes Motor Speed

Just how does a drive provide the frequency and voltage output necessary to change the speed of a motor? That's what we'll look at next. Fig. 6 shows a basic PWM drive. All PWM drives contain these main parts, with subtle differences in hardware and software components.

Figure no. 7 Circuit Diagram of Basic VFD

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Although some drives accept single-phase input power, we'll focus on the 3-phasedrive. But to simplify illustrations, the waveforms in the following drive figures show only one phase of input and output. The input section of the drive is the converter. It contains six diodes, arranged in an electrical bridge. These diodes convert AC power to DC power. The next section-the DC bus section-sees a fixed DC voltage. The DC Bus section filters and smoothes out the waveform. The diodes actually reconstruct the negative halves of the waveform onto the positive half. In a 460V unit, you'd measure an average DC bus voltage of about 650V to 680V. You can calculate this as line voltage times 1.414. The inductor (L) and the capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC component of the DC waveform. The smoother the DC waveform, the cleaner the output waveform from the drive. The DC bus feeds the final section of the drive: the inverter. As the name implies, this section inverts the DC voltage back to AC. But, it does so in a variable voltage and frequency output. How does it do this? That depends on what kind of power devices your drive uses. If you have many SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)-based drives in your facility, see the Sidebar. Bipolar Transistor technology began super ceding SCRs in drives in the mid-1970s. In the early 1990s, those gave way to using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) technology, which will form the basis for our discussion.

2.8.1 Switching Bus with IGBTs

Today's inverters use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)to switch the DC bus on and off at specific intervals. In doing so, the inverter actually creates a variable A C voltage and frequency output. As shown in Fig. 8, the output of the drive doesn't provide an exact replica of the AC input sine waveform. Instead, it provides voltage pulses that are at a constant magnitude. The drive's control board signals the power device's control circuits to turn "on" the waveform positive half or negative half of the power device. This alternating of positive and negative switches recreates the 3 phase output. The longer the power device remains on, the higher the output voltage. The less time the power device is on, the lower the output voltage (shown in Fig.9). Conversely, the longer the power device is off, the lower the output frequency.

Figure no. 8 Drive Output Waveform Components

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The speed at which power devices switch on and off is the carrier frequency, also known as the switch frequency. The higher the switch frequency, the more resolution each PWM pulse contains. Typical switch frequencies are 3,000 to 4,000 times per second (3KHz to 4KHz). (With an older, SCR-based drive, switch frequencies are 250 to 500times per second). As you can imagine, the higher the switch frequency, the smoother the output waveform and the higher the resolution. However, higher switch frequencies decrease the efficiency of the drive because of increased heat in the power devices.

2.8.2 Shrinking cost and size

Drives vary in the complexity of their designs, but the designs continue to improve. Drives come in smaller packages with each generation. The trend is similar to that of the personal computer. More features, better performance, and lower cost with successive generations. Unlike computers, however, drives have dramatically improved in their reliability and ease of use. And also unlike computers, the typical drive of today doesn't spew gratuitous harmonics into your distribution system-nor does it affect your power factor. Drives are increasingly becoming "plug and play." As electronic power components improve in reliability and decrease in size, the cost and size of VFDs will continue to decrease. While all that is going on, their performance and ease of use will only get better.

2.9 Four Quadrant Operation

A Four-quadrant diagram can represent mode of operation of variable speed drive. In Quadrant 1 the speed and torque can be represented positive or forward direction. This is consistent with a motor driving a load taking power from the mains. Similarly in Quadrant 3, both speed and torque are in negative or reverse direction.

Figure no. 9 Four Quadrant operation This Corresponds to a motor turning in the reverse direction, driving a load and again taking power from the mains. In Quadrants 2 and 4, the speed and torque are in mutually - opposed directions, that is to say, the torque of the motor is opposing its rotation, giving a braking effect. It follows, then, that mechanical and kinetic energy of the load is being converted into electrical

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energy. The motor is behaving as a generator and the system as a whole is delivering power into the mains. This behavior is known as Regeneration. After going, through the mode of operation of VSDs, let us briefly discuss about the various loading patterns. The characteristics of the load are particularly important in the trouble -Free operation of VSDs. Load refers essentially to the torque output and the corresponding speed required. Loads can be broadly classified as follows

Constant torque Variable torque Constant power

2.9.1 CONSTANT TORQUE LOAD

Constant torque load are those for which the output power requirement may vary with speed of operation, but the torque does not vary. Conveyors, rotary kilns and constant - displacement pumps are typical examples of constant torque loads.

2.9.2 VARIABLE TORQUE LOAD

Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with speed of operation. Centrifugal pumps and fans are typical examples of variable torque loads ( torque varies as the square of the speeds ).

2.9.3 CONSTANT POWER LOAD

Constant power loads are those for which the torque requirements are typically changed inversely with speed. Winders, coilers are typically the examples of constant power loads. The largest potential for energy savings with variable speeds drive are generally in variable torque applications. For example, centrifugal pumps and fans, where the power requirements changes as the cubes of speed. Constant torque loads are suitable for VSD application. The latest industrial trend is to use AC drives for variable speed application. As already discussed, to vary the speed of an AC motor and at the same time retain its torque producing capability a power source is required. This power source has to provide variable voltage and frequency output in such a way that, in most of the operating area the V / f ratio is maintained constant. This can be achieved through an AC drive which gives variable frequency and variable voltage as output by taking fixed voltage as input. The principle involved in this technique is first to convert the fixed frequency, fixed voltage AC supply into a variable or constant DC voltage. This is then into the AC supply of desired frequency & amplitude. The criteria for the selection of AC inverter drive are essentially the same as for a DC variable speed drive. The latest developments in technology and successful

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development of electronic drives (AC drives) for cage motors have resulted in the following benefits: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Availability of full load torque from standstill Absence of torque fluctuations at low speed. Ability to hold a set speed, regardless of load torque variation Ability to control the rate of increase & decrease of speed Dynamic response.

2.10 VFD controller

Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, full-wave diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three- phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load. As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century.AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz are the general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor. In addition to these simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct torque control(DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque of the motor can be precisely controlled. The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-width modulation(PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to construct a quasi-sinusoidal output waveform by a series of narrow voltage pulses with pseudo sinusoidal varying pulse durations. Operation of the motors above rated name plate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above rated name plate speed. Permanent magnet

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synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed(2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150% of the rated name plate speed. Wound rotor synchronous motors can be run even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300% of the base speed is used. Naturally the mechanical strength of the rotor and lifetime of the bearings is also limiting the maximum speed of the motor. It is recommended to consult the motor manufacturer if more than 150% speed is required by the application.

Figure no. 10 Variable Controller An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.

2.10.1 VFD controller interface

The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alpha numeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the

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VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer. When an induction motor is connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6 times) its rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. Note, however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation. In principle, the current on the motor side is in direct proportion to the torque that is generated and the voltage on the motor is in direct proportion of the actual speed, while on the network side, the voltage is constant, thus the current on line side is in direct proportion of the power drawn by the motor, that is U.I or C.N where C is torque and N the speed of the motor (we shall consider losses as well, neglected in this explanation). 1.n stands for network (grid) and m for motor2.C stands for torque [Nm], U for voltage [V], I for current [A], and N for speed [rad/s] We neglect losses for the moment: Un.In = Um.Im (same power drawn from network and from motor) Um.Im = Cm.Nm (motor mechanical power = motor electrical power) Given Un is a constant (network voltage) we conclude: In = Cm. Nm/Un That is "line current (network) is in direct proportion of motor power". With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With 4-quadrants rectifiers (active-

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front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and reverting the energy back to the network.

2.11 Power line harmonics

While PWM allows for nearly sinusoidal currents to be applied to a motor load, the diode rectifier of the VFD takes roughly square-wave current pulses out of the AC grid, creating harmonic distortion in the power line voltage. When the VFD load size is small and the available utility power is large, the effects of VFD systems slicing small chunks out of AC grid generally go unnoticed. Further, in low voltage networks the harmonics caused by single phase equipment such as computers and TVs are such that they are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics. However, when either a large number of low-current VFDs, or just a few very largeload VFDs are used, they can have a cumulative negative impact on the AC voltages available to other utility customers in the same grid. When the utility voltage becomes misshaped and distorted the losses in other loads such as normal AC motors are increased. This may in the worst case lead to overheating and shorter operation life. Also substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected, the latter especially if resonances are aroused by the harmonics. In order to limit the voltage distortion the owner of the VFDs may be required to install filtering equipment to smooth out the irregular waveform. Alternatively, the utility may choose to install filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high power installations decrease of the harmonics can be obtained by supplying the VSDs from transformers that have different phase shift. Further, it is possible to use instead of the diode rectifier a similar transistor circuit that is used to control the motor. This kind of rectifier is called active in feed converter in IEC standards. However, manufacturers call it by several names such as active rectifier, ISU (IGBT Supply Unit), AFE (Active Front End) or four quadrant rectifier. With PWM control of the transistors and filter inductors in the supply lines the AC current can be made nearly sinusoidal. Even better attenuation of the harmonics can be obtained by using an LCL (inductor-capacitor-inductor) filter instead of single three-phase filter inductor. Additional advantage of the active in feed converter over the diode bridge is its ability to feed back the energy from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus no braking resistor is needed and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.

2.11.1 Transmission line effects

The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at thecarrier frequency. Because of the rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effectsof the cable between the drive and motor must be considered. Since the transmission-lineimpedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting voltages can produce up to twice the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high

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stress on the cable and motor winding and eventual insulation failure. Increasing the cable or motor size/type for long runs and 480vor 600v motors will help offset the stresses imposed upon the equipment due to the VFD(modern 230v single phase motors not effected). At 460 V, the maximum recommended cable distances between VFDs and motors can vary by a factor of 2.5:1. The longer cables distances are allowed at the lower Carrier Switching Frequencies (CSF) of 2.5 kHz. The lower CSF can produce audible noise at the motors. For applications requiring long motor cables VSD manufacturers usually offer du/dt filters that decrease the steepness of the pulses. For very long cables or old motors with insufficient winding insulation more efficient sinus filter is recommended. Expect the older motor's life to shorten. Purchase VFD rated motors for the application.

2.12 Motor bearings

Further, the rapid rise time of the pulses may cause trouble with the motor bearings. The stray capacitance of the windings provide paths for high frequency currents that close through the bearings. If the voltage between the shaft and the shield of the motor exceeds few volts the stored charge is discharged as a small spark. Repeated sparking causes erosion in the bearing surface that can be seen as fluting pattern. In order to prevent sparking the motor cable should provide a low impedance return path from the motor frame back to the inverter. Thus it is essential to use a cable designed to be used with VSDs. In big motors a slip ring with brush can be used to provide a bypass path for the bearing currents. Alternatively isolated bearings can be used. The 2.5 kHz and 5 kHz CSFs cause fewer motor bearing problems than the 20 kHz CSFs. Shorter cables are recommended at the higher CSF of 20 kHz. The minimum CSF for synchronize tracking of multiple conveyors is 8 kHz. The high frequency current ripple in the motor cables may also cause interference with other cabling in the building. This is another reason to use a motor cable designed for VSDs that has a symmetrical three-phase structure and good shielding. Further, it is highly recommended to route the motor cables as far away from signal cables as possible.

2.13 Available VFD power ratings

Variable frequency drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 110 V to 690 V are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 0.2 kW or 0.25 horsepower (hp) up to several megawatts. For example, the largest ABBACS800 single drives are rated for 5.6 MW. Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at 2,400/4,162 V (60 Hz), 3 kV (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7 kV

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and5,000/10,000 hp should probably be considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs. Medium voltage drives are generally rated amongst the following voltages : 2.3kV, 3.3 kV, 4 kV, 6 kV, and 11 kV. The in-between voltages are generally possible as well. The power of MV drives is generally in the range of 0.3 to 100 MW however involving a range a several different type of drives with different technologies.

2.14 Dynamic braking

Using the motor as a generator to absorb energy from the system is called dynamic braking. Dynamic braking stops the system more quickly than coasting. Since dynamic braking requires relative motion of the motor's parts, it becomes less effective at low speed and cannot be used to hold a load at a stopped position. During normal braking of an electric motor the electrical energy produced by the motor is dissipated as heat inside of the rotor, which increases the likelihood of damage and eventual failure. Therefore, some systems transfer this energy to an outside bank of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to protect the resistors from damage. Modern systems have thermal monitoring, so if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it will be switched off.

2.15 Display / keypad

All applicable operating values shall be capable of being displayed in engineering (user) units. A minimum of three (3) operating values from the list below shall be capable of being displayed at all times. The display shall be in complete English words (alpha-numeric codes are not acceptable): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Output frequency. Motor speed (RPM, percent, or engineering units). Motor current. Calculated motor torque. Calculated motor power (kW). DC bus voltage. Output voltage.

Keypad shall include a backlit LCD display. The display shall be in complete English words for programming and fault diagnostics (alpha-numeric codes are not acceptable). The keypad shall use the following assistants: 1. 2. Start-up assistants. Parameter assistants.

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3. 4.

Maintenance assistant. Troubleshooting assistant.

VFD shall have the same customer interface, including digital display, and keypad, regardless of horsepower rating. Keypad shall be removable, capable of remote mounting and shall allow for uploading and downloading of parameter settings as an aid for start-up of multiple VFDs. Keypad shall include Hand-Off-Auto selections and manual speed control. The drive shall incorporate bumpless transfer of speed reference when switching between Hand and Auto modes. There shall be fault reset and Help buttons on the keypad. The Help button shall include on-line assistance for programming and troubleshooting. Provide a built-in time clock with battery back-up in the VFD keypad. The time clock shall be used to date and time stamp faults and record operating parameters at the time of fault. If the battery fails, the VFD shall automatically revert to hours of operation since initial power up. The time clock shall also be programmable to control start/stop functions, constant speeds, PID parameter sets and output relays. The VFD shall have a digital input that allows an override to the time clock (when in the off mode) for a programmable time frame. There shall be four (4) separate, independent timer functions that have both weekday and weekend settings.

2.16 Serial Communication

VFD shall have the capability of communicating with the building automation system (BAS) via an RS-485 serial port. VFD shall be provided with protocol information specific to the selected BAS Provider and shall be pre-configured at the factory to provide automatic communications without the need for field programming. VFD shall continue to provide serial communications regardless of how inverter is being controlled (manual mode via keypad, automatic mode via BAS, or stopped mode via either keypad or automatic BAS start/stop signal). Serial communications capabilities shall include, but not be limited to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Run/stop control speed set adjustment. Proportional/integral or PID control adjustments. Current limit. Accel/decel time adjustments.

VFD shall have the capability of allowing the BAS to monitor the following feedback signals: 1. Process variable.

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Output speed/frequency. Current. Torque. Power (kW). Operating hours. Kilowatt hours (kWh). Relay outputs. Diagnostic warning and fault information.

VFD shall allow the BAS to control the drives digital and analog outputs and monitor all drive digital and analog inputs via the serial interface. VFD shall be capable of providing the BAS with status signals for bypass operation and external safety trips via serial interface.

2.17 SYSTEM OPERATION

Selector switch in the "off" position: controller run circuit shall be open and the system shall not operate. Selector switch in the "manual" position: motor speed shall be controlled by the manual speed potentiometer. Selector switch in the "auto" position: operation shall be via input 0 to 10 VDC or 4-20 mA signal with strategy output speed proportional to the input signal. If required into the controls strategy, VFD manufacturer shall furnish a pressure transducer mounted in the drive enclosure to convert a 3 to 15 psi pressure signal to a 0 to 10 VDC signal or 4-20 mA signal.

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CHAPTER 3 HARMONICS AND ITS EFFECT

3.1 HARMONIC DISTORTION AND INDUSTRY STANDARDS

A discussion of the benefits of VFDs often leads to a question regarding harmonics. When evaluating VFDs, it is important to understand how harmonics are provided and the circumstances under which harmonics are harmful.

3.1.1 Harmonic Definition

In the United States, three-phase AC power typically operates at 60 hertz (60 cycles in one second). This is called the fundamental frequency. A harmonic is any current form at an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, for 60-hertz power supplies, harmonics would be at 120 hertz (2 x fundamental), 180 hertz, 240 hertz, 300 hertz, etc.

3.1.2 What Causes Harmonics?

VFDs draw current from the line only when the line voltage is greater than the DC Bus voltage inside the drive. This occurs only near the peaks of the sine wave. As a result, all of the current is drawn in short intervals (i.e., at higher frequencies). Variation in VFD design affects the harmonics produced. For example, VFDs equipped with DC link inductors produce different levels of harmonics than similar VFDs without DC link inductors. The VFDs with active front ends utilizing transistors in the rectifier section have much lower harmonic levels than VFDs using diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs). Electronic lighting ballasts, uninterruptible power supplies, computers, office equipment, ozone generators, and other high intensity lighting are also sources of harmonics.

3.2 Rocks and Ponds

Obviously, the magnitude of the contributing wave forms has an effect on the shape of the resultant wave form. If the fundamental wave form (60 Hz) has a very large magnitude (5,000 amps) and the harmonic wave forms are very low (10 amps), then the resultant wave form will not be very distorted and total harmonic distortion will be low. If the harmonic wave form current value is high relative to the fundamental, the effect will be more dramatic. In nature, we see this effect with waves in water. If you continually throw baseball size rocks into the ocean, you would not expect to change the shape of the waves crashing onto the beach. However, if you threw those same size rocks into a bathtub, you would definitely observe the effects. It is similar with electrical waves and harmonics. When you calculate harmonics you are calculating the effect of the harmonics on the fundamental current wave form in a particular distribution system. There are several programs

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that can perform estimated calculations. All of them take into account the amount of linear loads (loads drawing power throughout the entire sine wave) relative to non-linear loads (loads drawing power during only a fraction of the sine wave). The higher the ratio of linear loads to non-linear loads, the less effect the non-linear loads will have on the current wave form.

3.3 Are Harmonics Harmful?

Harmonics that are multiples of 2 are not harmful because they cancel out. The same is true for 3rd order harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th etc.). Because the power supply is 3 phase, the third order harmonics cancel each other out in each phase 3. This leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. to discuss. The magnitude of the harmonics produced by a VFD is greatest for the lower order harmonics (5th, 7th and 11th) and drops quickly as you move into the higher order harmonics (13th and greater). Harmonics can cause some disturbances in electrical systems. Higher order harmonics can interfere with sensitive electronics and communications systems, while lower order harmonics can cause overheating of motors, transformers, and conductors. The opportunity for harmonics to be harmful, however, is dependent upon the electrical system in which they are present and whether or not any harmonic sensitive equipment is located on that same electrical system.

3.4 Understanding IEEE 519

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) created a recommendation for evaluating harmonics. The IEEE-519 standard provides recommended limits for harmonic distortion measured at the point of common coupling. The point of common coupling is the point at which the customers electrical system is connected to the utility. Although the IEEE standard recommends limits for both voltage distortion and current distortion, specifications that reference a 5% harmonic limitation are generally referring to current distortion. In most cases, if the current distortion falls within IEEE-519 requirements, the voltage distortion will also be acceptable. Determining compliance with IEEE-519 requires an actual measurement of the system during operation. Predicting compliance in advance often requires a system study that accounts for all electrical equipment (transformers, wires, motors, VFDs, etc.) in the system.

3.5 Introduction To Harmonic Terms 3.5.1 Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion - THD (V)
As harmonic currents flow through devices with reactance or resistance, a voltage drop is developed. These harmonic voltages cause voltage distortion of the fundamental voltage wave form. The total magnitude of the voltage distortion is the THD (V). The IEEE-519 standard recommends less than 5% THD (V) at the point of common coupling for general systems 69 kV and under.

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3.5.2 Total Harmonic Current Distortion - THD (I)

This value (sometimes written as THID) represents the total harmonic current distortion of the wave form at the particular moment when the measurement is taken. It is the ratio of the harmonic current to the fundamental (non-harmonic) current measured for that load point. Note that the denominator used in this ratio changes with load.

3.5.3 Total Demand Distortion - TDD

Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is the ratio of the measured harmonic current to the full load fundamental current. The full load fundamental current is the total amount of non-harmonic current consumed by all of the loads on the system when the system is at peak demand. The denominator used in this ratio does not change with load. Although TDD can be measured at any operating point (full or part load), the worst case TDD will occur at full load. If the full load TDD is acceptable, then the TDD measured at part load values will also be acceptable. To use our rock analogy, the full load fundamental current is the size of our pond and the harmonic current is the size of our rock.

3.4 Short Circuit Ratio

Short circuit ratio is the short circuit current value of the electrical system divided by its maximum load current. Standard IEEE-519 defines different acceptance levels of TDD depending on the short circuit ratio in the system. Systems with small short circuit ratios have lower TDD requirements than systems with larger short circuit ratios. This difference accounts for the fact that electrical systems with low short circuit ratios tend to have high impedances, creating larger voltage distortion for equivalent harmonic current levels.

3.5 Mitigating Harmonics

Some utilities now impose penalties for introducing harmonics onto their grid, providing incentives for owners to reduce harmonics. In addition, reducing harmonic levels can prevent potential damage to sensitive equipment residing on the same system. There are many approaches to mitigating harmonics. Several commonly used methods are discussed here.

3.6 Line Reactors

Line reactors add reactance and impedance to the circuit. Reactance and impedance act to lower the current magnitude of harmonics in the system and thereby lower the TDD. Line reactors also protect devices from large current spikes with short rise times. A line reactor placed between the VFD and the motor would help protect the motor from current spikes. A line reactor placed between the supply and VFD would help protect the supply from current spikes. Line reactors are typically only used between the VFD and the motor when a freestanding VFD is mounted more than fifty feet from the motor. This is done to protect the motor windings from voltage peaks with extremely quick rise times.

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3.6.1 Passive Filters

Trap Filters are devices that include an electrical circuit consisting of inductors, reactors, and capacitors designed to provide a low impedance path to ground at the targeted frequency. Since current will travel through the lowest impedance path, this prevents the harmonic current at the targeted frequency from propagating through the system. Filters can be mounted inside the drive cabinet or as free standing devices. Trap filters are typically quoted to meet a THD(I) value that would result in compliance with IEEE-519 requirements if the system were otherwise already in compliance.

3.6.2 Active Filters

Some devices measure harmonic currents and quickly create opposite current harmonic wave forms. The two wave forms then cancel out, preventing harmonic currents from being observed upstream of the filter. These types of filters generally have excellent harmonic mitigation characteristics. Active filters may reduce generator size requirements.

3.7 VFDs Using Active Front End Technology (AFE)

Some VFDs are manufactured with IGBT rectifiers. The unique attributes of IGBTs allow the VFD to actively control the power input, thereby lowering harmonics, increasing power factor and making the VFD far more tolerant of supply side disturbances. The AFE VFDs have ultra low harmonics capable of meeting IEEE-519 standards without any external filters or line reactors. This significantly reduces installation cost and generator size requirements. An AFE drive provides the best way to take advantage of VFD benefits and minimize harmonics.

3.8 Multi-Pulse VFDs (Cancellation)

There are a minimum of six rectifiers for a three phase AC VFD. There can be more, however. Manufacturers offer 12, 18, 24, and 30 pulse drives. A standard six-pulse drive has six rectifiers, a 12-pulse drive has two sets of six rectifiers, an 18-pulse drive has three sets of six rectifiers and so on. If the power connected to each set of rectifiers is phase shifted, then some of the harmonics produced by one set of rectifiers will be opposite in polarity from the harmonics produced by the other set of rectifiers. The two wave forms effectively cancel each other out. In order to use phase shifting, a special transformer with multiple secondary windings must be used. For example, with a 12-pulse VFD, a Delta/Delta-Wye transformer with each of the secondary phases shifted by 30 degrees would be used.

3.9 GENERAL
All materials shall meet or exceed all applicable referenced standards, federal, state and local requirements, and conform to codes and ordinances of authorities having jurisdiction.

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Furnish complete VFD controllers that convert incoming fixed frequency three-phase AC power into a variable frequency and voltage for controlling the speed of three-phase AC motors. The motor current shall closely approximate a sine wave. Motor voltage shall be varied with frequency to maintain desired motor magnetization current suitable for centrifugal pump and fan control and to eliminate the need for motor de rating. Contractor shall check equipment schedules on the Contract Drawings to determine if the VFD bypass switch option is required to allow the motor to run if the controller malfunctions. If the bypass switch option is not required, articles and statements in this section do not apply, and the Contractor shall provide one spare VFD for each equivalent horsepower motor or equipment power load indicated on the Contract Drawings. VFD manufacturer shall verify compatibility of motor furnished on equipment. One controller shall control the speed of one motor with the exception being a wall fan technology system. VFD shall convert 3 phase, 60 Hz utility power to adjustable voltage and frequency, 3 phase AC power for stepless motor speed control from 10 percent to 100 percent of the motors 60 Hz speed. Input voltage characteristics are 480 volts, 3 phase, 60 Hz. VFD shall include a converter section. The converter section shall convert fixed frequency and voltage AC utility power to a variable DC voltage. VFDs that use silicon controlled rectifiers in the converter bridge shall also include 5 percent reactors. Isolation transformers are not acceptable in lieu of line reactors. VFD shall include an inverter section. The inverter section shall invert the variable DC voltage into a PWM wave form; adjustable voltage and frequency output for stepless motor speed control. Individual or simultaneous operation of VFDs shall not add more than 5 percent total harmonic voltage distortion and no more than 5 percent total harmonic current distortion (per IEEE 5161992) to the normal bus. 1. VFD manufacturer shall perform harmonic analysis based on the electrical one-line diagram. 2. The VFD manufacturer shall provide calculations specific to this installation, showing total harmonic voltage distortion is less than 5 percent. 3. Input line filters shall be sized and provided as required by the VFD manufacturer to ensure compliance with IEEE Standard 519. All VFDs shall include a minimum of 5 percent impedance reactors, no exceptions. VFD shall include a coordinated AC transient protection system consisting of 4-120 joule rated MOVs (phase to phase and phase to ground), a capacitor clamp, and 5 percent impedance reactors. Alternate Harmonics Specification:

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Input line reactors and DC Bus filtered chokes (factory installed and wired in the drive enclosure) shall be provided to allow reliable operation on a typical commercial power distribution system and to minimize harmonics reflected onto the input line. 1. Shall not interfere with computer and other electronic systems in the building. 2. If not inherently protected, provide a suitable isolation transformer. 3. The system shall not produce spikes on the incoming line. Any inverter that generates sufficient electrical line noise to interfere with operation of sensitive building equipment shall be field modified or replaced by the inverter supplier at no additional cost to the Owner. EMI / RFI filters. All VFDs shall include EMI/RFI filters. The onboard filters shall allow the VFD assembly to be CE Marked and the VFD shall meet product Standard EN 61800-3 for the First Environment restricted level. Low voltage logic and 115V control circuits shall be electrically isolated from the power circuits. Signal circuit common shall be grounded. VFD shall include a power ride -through feature to allow continuous operation up to a threecycle line loss. Two independently adjustable accel and decel ramps with 1 to 1800 seconds adjustable time ramps. Extended time periods are also acceptable. VFD shall have full function output current limit adjustable from 10 to 100 percent. At the factory with compatible motor, provide at least three lock-out ranges (50 rpm maximum each), two of which can be used to correct any run test problems. Components shall be pretested and complete VFD shall have full burn -in under full load for a minimum of 12 hours. Provide at least three lockout ranges (50 rpm maximum), two of which can be used to correct run test problems. Ambient noise generated by the VFD shall be limited to an amount equal to the system noise level as designated by the latest ASHRAE noise level guidelines for such equipment at each octave band. Noise level criteria at different octave bands and mid -frequencies shall be furnished with the submittal data. VFD shall include a motor flux optimization circuit that will automatically reduce applied motor voltage to the motor to optimize energy consumption and audible motor noise.

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CHAPTER 4 COMPARISON BETWEEN VFD AND OTHER TECHNOLOGIES 4.1 General

Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs, also known as VSD or AFD) convert the line voltage into a voltage source, controlling the voltage and frequency accordingly. The ratio of voltage vs. the frequency can be controlled to match variable and constant torque/load curves, making it possible to control the speed and efficiency of the motor. While this is the best solution for speed control, other more efficient solutions are available for constant speed applications. Sinusoidal Motor Controllers are designed for constant speed applications with partial or variable load motors. Power Electronics Systems provides the Sinusoidal Motor Efficiency Controller (SinuMEC), which is a pure sinusoidal voltage controller. This document compares the differences in performance between the VFD and the SinuMEC.

4.2 The SinuMEC Advantages 4.2.1 Pure Sine VS. Harmonic

The SinuMEC provides a pure sine wave, resulting in, no harmonic pollution being introduced to the network. Furthermore, since the SinuMEC has a transformer in series, it can reduce harmonic pollution where such presents. A VFD generates significant current harmonics, typically 30% or more of the fundamental frequency. Harmonics filters can reduce the harmonics content to a certain extent, but the remaining levels are still very high. Moreover, when filters are installed on the NET side, the line between the drive and the motor will still remain polluted.

4.2.2 Possible solutions

The best way to filter harmonics is not to generate them. Harmonics cannot be eliminated, only mitigated. There is no technology that can filter out all the harmonics all the time. There are different solutions for filtering harmonics, from passive (reactors/inductors with or without capacitors) and active filters (injection of negative current for each distortion) to complete isolation of the source from the network using transformers, such as zigzag transformers. The cost of mitigating harmonics can be higher than the cost of the load that creates them. The maximum possible filtration using passive filters is 50% of the distortion (e.g., removing 15% of 30% distortion) while active filters can filter more than 90% but at up to ten times higher cost.

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4.3 INTERNAL LOSSES

Each electrical device has its efficiency, which is the ratio between output and input power. The SinuMEC losses are less than 0.5%, while typical VFD losses are 4% to 8% (note that modern VFDs with PWM have LOWER efficiency but LOWER THD pollution compared to older VFDs). It can therefore be concluded that for the same voltage output level, with a specific potential saving with SinuMEC, the VFD will save 3.5% to 7.5% less.

4.4 MOTOR LIFE EXPECTANCY

The parameters that affect motor life expectancy are divided into three major categories: 1. Mechanical stress 2. Voltage stress 3. Operating temperature Motor controllers do not affect the mechanical stress, but do affect the voltage stress and operating temperature. Reduced voltage level reduces the voltage stress on the motor and increases its lifetime. However, while VFDs reduce the RMS voltage, they use PWM modulation as shown in Figure1. Although the RMS voltage is reduced, the voltage stress remains high, approaching the zero crossing area, where pure sine wave has zero stress. To this end, voltage reduction via the SinuMEC reduces the voltage stress while a VFD increases it. Moreover, a VFD also generates non-linear voltage, which creates additional stress as a result of reflective waves, partial discharges (PD) and corona power.

Figure no.11 VFD PWM Modulation

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According to the Arrhenius law, every 10 degrees Celsius reduces insulation effectiveness by 50%. Therefore, for the same motor lifetime it is necessary to de-rate the motor. In existing installations, however, this means that VFDs shorten the motor lifetime. The significance of the above is that while the SinuMEC increases motor life expectancy, the VFD decreases it.

4.5 CURRENT TRANSFORMATION

The SinuMEC is based on voltage transformation in a ratio of 4:3. Even if there is no change in power consumption the line current will be reduced by 25%, reducing the conduction losses by 43% ( P=I2R). When voltage is reduced using power switching, this advantage is eliminated

4.6 PRICE
The price of a stand-alone SinuMEC is less than that of a stand-alone VFD. In addition, due to the harmonic pollution, VFDs may require additional filters, which further increase the price difference in favor of the SinuMEC. Different filtration solutions, such as chokes, reactors, isolation transformers, reflective wave or RLC filters, provide different levels of filtration. The price differences between the available solutions can reach 100% or more.

4.7 ADVANTAGES OF VFD OVER SinuMEC 4.7.1 STEP-LESS VS. STEP OPERATION
VFDs provide step-less operation, which means they can provide a very accurate voltage level. The SinuMEC uses stepped operation, which means there is less control over the aimed voltage level. In addition to the significant saving, the efficiency changes are very small and it is not recommended to introduce more voltage changes to the motor. As a result, VFDs can provide more accurate voltage, which can increase the motor efficiency by up to 1.5%. This difference between the SinuMEC and the VFD is reversed when taking the internal losses into consideration. Important Note: Part of the wasted energy consumed by VFDs is not in the fundamental harmony. Since this is the case, it is very important to use a power meter and current transformers that measure at least 25 harmonies (which means that the current transformer band width, as indicated on the transformer, should be at least 3kHz).

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4.7.2 WITH SO MANY DISADVANTAGES, WHY THERE ARE VFDS?

VFDs were designed to control the motor speed, not the voltage level. For variable speed applications with inductive motors, there is no other solution and all the disadvantages described above, including losses, harmonics and motor life expectancy, should be considered. For fixed speed applications, with fixed or variable loads, the best solution is pure sine wave voltage control using the SinuMEC - Sinusoidal Motor Efficiency Controller.

4.8 Difference between SinuMEC and VFD

SinuMEC Harmonics VFD

Pure sine operation, can filter Generates significant some network harmonics harmonics to the motor and delivered to the motor to the network 0.5% Improves DPF and TPF 4%-8% Improves DPF, may worsen TPF Reduces

Internal losses Power factor

Motor life expectancy Current Transformation

Increases

Line current is less than Line current is the same as motor current motor current Typically 40% less than VFD Required optional filters may only (without optional filters) increase price by 100% Operation in steps Step-less Operation

Price

Stepped or Step-less

Table no.2 Difference between SinuMEC and VFD

4.9 ENCLOSURE
VFD shall be enclosed in a UL Listed Type 12 enclosure. Enclosure shall be UL listed as a plenum rated VFD. The VFD tolerated voltage window shall allow operation from a line of +30 percent nominal, and -35 percent nominal voltage as a minimum.

GVSET/EE/34

Environmental operating conditions: 0 to 40 degrees C continuous. VFDs that can operate at 40 degrees C intermittently (during a 24-hour period) are not acceptable and must be oversized. Altitude from 0 to 3300 feet above sea level, less than 95 percent humidity, non-condensing. VFDs without these ratings are not acceptable. The following operator controls shall be located on the front of the enclosure: 1. 2. 3. 4. Bypass Hand-Off-Auto. Drive mode selector. Bypass mode selector. Bypass fault reset.

Provide the following indicating lights (LED type). In addition, provide test mode or push to test feature: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) Power-on (ready). Run enable (safeties) open. Drive mode select damper opening. Bypass mode selected. Drive running. Bypass running. Drive fault. Bypass fault. Bypass H-O-A mode. Automatic transfer to bypass selected. Safety open. Damper opening. Damper end-switch made.

Provide the following relay (form C) outputs from the bypass: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) System started. System running. Bypass over tide enabled. Drive Fault. Bypass fault (motor overload or under load-broken belt). Bypass H-O-A position. Digital inputs for the system shall accept 24V or 115VAC (selectable).

Customer Interlock Terminal Strip: Provide a separate terminal strip for connection of freeze, fire, smoke contacts, and external start command. All external safety interlocks shall remain fully functional whether the system is in Hand, Auto, or Bypass modes (not functional in firemans override). The remote start/stop contact shall operate in VFD mode.

GVSET/EE/35

Dedicated digital input that will transfer motor from VFD mode to bypass mode upon dry contact closure for firemans override. Two modes of operation are required: The first mode forces the motor to bypass operation and overrides both the VFD and bypass HO-A switches and forces the motor to operate across the line (test mode). The system will only respond to the digital inputs and motor protections. The second mode operates as the first, but will also defeat the overload and singe-phase protection for bypass and ignore all keypad and digital inputs t the system 9run until destruction). Include a run permissive circuit that will provide a normally open contact whenever a run command is provided (local or remote start command in VFD or bypass mode). The VFD system (VFD or bypass) shall not operate the motor until it receives a dry contact closure from a damper or valve end-switch. When the VFD system safety interlock (fire detector, freezestat, high static pressure switch, etc) opens, the motor shall coast to a stop and the run permissive contact shall open, closing the damper or valve. Include Class 20 or 30 (selectable) electronic motor overload protection.

4.10 BYPASS
Furnish where indicated on the Drawings, a complete factory wired and tested bypass system consisting of an output contactor and bypass contactor. Overload protection shall be provided in both drive and bypass modes. Bypass to be furnished, built, and mounted by the VFD manufacturer. Provide an internal switch to select manual or automatic bypass. Provide an adjustable current sensing circuit for the bypass to provide loss of load indication (broken belt) when in the bypass mode. Door interlocked, pad lockable disconnect that will disconnect all input power from the drive and all internally mounted options. Fused VFD only disconnect (service switch). Fast acting fuses exclusive to the VFD fast acting fuses allow the VFD to disconnect from the line prior to clearing upstream branch circuit protection, maintaining bypass capability. Bypass designs, which have no such fuses, or that incorporate fuses common to both the VFD and the bypass will not be accepted. The following contactor bypass schemes are not acceptable. Door interlocked main input disconnect switch. Power on the light. Drive-off-bypass manual mode selector switch. The bypass shall incorporate an internally sourced power supply and shall not require an external power source.

GVSET/EE/36

CONCLUSION
After the study of variable frequency drive it becomes possible to conserve electrical energy as well as speed control of electric motor, as we know that energy conservation has become subject to all over the world. Energy conservation can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources. Providing high performance variable speed drives for maximum process productivity has always required complex engineering considerations. Rapid improvements in AC control technology, combined with the ready availability of standard fixed frequency AC motors has increased the number of possible solutions. However, a component approach will not lead to an optimal solution in many cases. In order to utilize the present (and next) generation of adjustable frequency controllers to meet application needs equal to or better than DC motors have in the past, a definite purpose AC motor is required. A square laminated-frame configuration with integral feet on the end brackets and adaptable electromagnetic designs is one approach that meets this objective. Energy conservation can result in increased financial capital environmental quality, national security, personal security and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy security. Industrial and commercial users can increase energy use efficiency to maximize profit.

GVSET/EE/37

REFERENCE

HINDALCO INDUSTRIES Manuals Information by trainers and trainees. Daily Diary www.hindalco.com Reference by Power Electronics By Dr. P.S.Bhimra en.wikipedia .org

GVSET/EE/38