SHERALYNNE DEVEAUXS PHILOSOPY OF ASSESSMENT

Introduction: Assessment is a measurement of student learning gathered by assigning marks to student work (Williams, 2012b). However, this essential component of effective teaching and learning that is often overlooked and undervalued (Marzano, 2006). The following philosophy of assessment will address important topics in the field of assessment and will explicitly highlight the importance of assessment in the teaching and learning processes. This document will serve as a guide which presents effective assessment practices and outlines relevant academic theory. Categories of Assessment (Diagnostic, Formative, and Summative): There are three categories of assessment frequently harnessed by educators: diagnostic, formative, and summative assessments. Each type of assessment has a different purpose, time of implementation, and use. However, all three should be utilized in a classroom to help facilitate and support the learning process. Diagnostic assessments are used at the beginning of an instructional period to help guide educators as they determine the ways in which they will plan their lessons, teach curriculum, and assess/evaluate students. They may take the form of records, comments, observations, etc. and can help perfect the content and instruction provided to students (Airasian, 2007). Further, diagnostic assessments may be used to identify students who may need additional support in acquiring prerequisite skills for a subject area or course (Dufour, 2007). Formative assessments consist of all those activities undertaken by teachers and/or by students which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they engage (Marzano, 2006, p. 9). These assessments occur while the

learning process is taking place and can help to improve and change the learning process (Airasian, 2007). Formative assessments have proven to be particularly beneficial to the teaching and learning processes as they can be used to increase student motivation and achievement (Marzano, 2006). Summative assessments usually occur at the end of a classroom process, activity, unit or course (Airasian et al., 2007, p. 88). They assess the learning outcomes presented during instruction and can help teachers make decisions relating to grading, grouping, testing, and the allocation of special services. The primary aim of a summative assessment is to provide students with a fair opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned from the instruction they have received (p. 89). Clearly, each category of assessment provides unique advantages and all three are essential components of both teaching and learning. Educators must learn how to effectively utilize these forms of assessment to help promote student motivation and achievement. Using Assessment to Inform Teaching and Learning: When used correctly, assessments, and in particular formative assessments, have been shown to significantly impact student achievement. Research in this field asserts that assessment feedback can positively impact student learning if it: provides students with information regarding their educational progress, outlines areas where improvement may be needed, is formative, and provides encouragement so that students are motivated to achieve their learning goals (Marzano, 2006). There has been a shift in the field of education from using assessment to order and rank students in a competitive world to using assessment as a tool that can guide instruction and improve the learning of students. Current academic research asserts that assessment should be used to: inform and guide teaching and learning, help students set learning goals, assign report card grades, and motivate students (Williams, 2012a). It is also

essential that educators use the CAI sequence when planning their lessons. This means that curriculum identification occurs first, followed by assessment planning then instruction. In this format, assessment is viewed as an instructional strategy. Further, educators must acknowledge that it is imperative that all assessments be driven by curricular goals (Williams, 2012a). The Relationship between Feedback Strategies and Student Achievement: Research shows that simply indicating whether a students response is correct or incorrect negatively affects the learning process, resulting in a decrease in student achievement. Educators must also provide students with the correct answer if the assessment is to be educationally beneficial. Other factors (listed from lowest to highest gain) such as the clarity of the grading criteria, providing explanations as to why answers are right or wrong and asking students to respond to a question until the find the correct answer all help to increase student achievement. Intriguingly, displaying students assessment results graphically and interpreting assessment results by a fixed set of guidelines result in the most gains in student achievement (Marzano, 2006). Educators must therefore aim to provide student with feedback that will elicit high gains in student achievement. The Relationship between Assessment Frequency and Student Achievement: Assessment frequency can also impact student achievement. A study by Bangert-Drowns, Kulik and Kulik demonstrated that increasing the number of assessment during a 15-week course raised the student percentile point gain in achievement (achievement gains began to plateau at approximately 10 assessments). While the optimal number of assessments to administer is unclear, it is evident that frequent formative assessments result in increased student achievement (Marzano, 2006). Teachers should therefore commit to providing their students with frequent

formative assessments so that students are provided with the resources needed to find academic success. Assessment and Student Achievement/Motivation: When assessment feedback discourages students it also decreases student achievement. It is necessary to understand the motivation theories (drive theory and attribution theory) in order to comprehend the difference between encouraging and discouraging assessment feedback. Drive theory postulates that much of human motivations can be explained as a function of two competing forces, or drivers-the striving for success and the fear of failure (Marzano, 2006, p. 7). Individuals who are success-oriented enjoy being faced with a challenge because they can foresee the satisfaction that results when success is achieved. Conversely, failure-avoidant students are dismayed when faced with challenges because they anticipate the negative emotions that accompany failure. Attribution theory states that encouragement or discouragement can result from the manner in which students explain or attribute failure and success (p. 7). Essentially, students who interpret their failures as a result of a lack of effort, feel that they can increase their effort to find success when facing future challenges. Being that teachers can significantly impact student effort, attribution theory asserts the key role teachers play in encouraging students to succeed (Marzano, 2006). Attribution theory and drive theory are clearly connected. Individuals who are successoriented also tend to believe in the effort of attribution (Marzano, 2006, p. 7-8). Intriguingly, research shows that students who do not believe that effort leads to success can learn that effort does produce achievement. These theories also demonstrate why assessments may be both encouraging and discouraging. When a failure-avoidant student does poorly on a test, it reinforces their belief that success is not possible. If a success-oriented student has a negative

assessment outcome, they are not discouraged because they know and believe that working harder will produce success in the future. For assessment to be encouraging the teachers must demonstrate to students that low scores must not be interpreted as failures. Further, educators must illustrate that increased student effort results in academic success (Marzano, 2006). Forms of Assessment: Paper and pencil tests help to gather information about a student learning progress. They can be used to measure both students knowledge of concepts (ex. multiple choice, true-false, matching, and completion questions) and their higher-level thinking skills (ex. essays or interpretive exercises). It is essential that teachers understand how to differentiate between well and poorly-constructed test items, as only well constructed tests are a valid measure of student learning and achievement. In addition, educators must learn to write test items clearly and simply. Further, the important objectives, skills, and topics highlighted during instruction should be mirrored in the test items so as to create a valid indicator of student achievement. Teachers must always reflect on how to best arrange test items and should always review (or have a colleague) review their test before administering it to students. Most importantly, all tests should allow students a fair chance to demonstrate what they know (Airasian, 2007). Following these guidelines will allow educators so successfully utilize paper and pencil tests as a form of assessment. Paper and pencil test are not the only valid manner to assess students. Project and problem-based learning, readers theatre, multimedia presentations, electronic/paper portfolios, graphic organizers, foldables, dioramas, and public performances can all be used to assess students and to draw on higher level cognitive abilities. Fisher and Frey (2007) suggest four design principles for projects and performances which can help to promote the creating of

meaningful works. These principles include: learning-appropriate goals, scaffolding for student and teacher learning, frequent opportunities for formative assessment and revisions, and social organizations that promote participation and a sense of agency (p. 74). Projects are performances are an efficient way to check for student understanding, but are unfortunately underused in many classrooms. These creative assessments are an excellent manner to promote the transfer of learning and should be promoted in all classroom (Fisher and Frey, 2007). Teacher Collaboration in Assessment: Recently, schools have been establishing professional learning communities (PLCs) to help facilitate supportive and shared leadership, collective creativity, shared values and vision, supportive conditions, and shared personal practice (SEDL, 2012). PLCs can provide benefits to both students and teachers such as: reduced teacher isolation, well-informed and committed teachers, and increased academic success for students (Public Schools of North Carolina). Such collaborative frameworks provide unique opportunities in the field of assessment. As demonstrated in Richard DuFours article (2007), teams of teachers can work cooperatively to outline the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that all students need to acquire in a specific curricular area. In addition, teachers can cooperatively develop curriculum pacing guides, assessment calendars, preassessments, essay/term paper rubrics, and common assessments. Educators can also work together to examine students assessment results, review areas of student weakness, and brainstorm instructional, curricular, and assessment strategies to address these weaknesses. Such practices can provide students with a more equitable educational experience as they are provided the same curricula, given common assessments, and judged against the same standards. Each student receives the best education that the teachers can collectively provide (Dufour, 2007). Most importantly, there exists a sense of comradely and

support among staff members when a collaborative culture is created. As a collective, teachers hold a wealth of knowledge, resources and skills that, when shared, can improve the teaching and learning process. Conclusion: Assessment is a complex component of the educational system which requires careful planning, thoughtful judgement, a clear focus on purpose, excellent communication skills, and an overriding concern for students (Guskey and Bailey, 2001, p. 146). Teachers must continually strive to better their assessment practices by soliciting feedback from master teachers, reading academic literature and engaging in self-evaluation practices.

References: Airasian, P.W., Enemann, J.E., & Gallagher, T.L. (2007). Preparing Selected and Constructed Response Tests. Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications Canadian Ed. McGraw Hill: Toronto, 87-116. DuFour, Richard. (2007). Once upon a time: A tale of excellence in assessment. In Ahead of the Curve: The Power of Assessment to Transform Teaching & Learning. Doug Reeves (Ed.), 253-267. Solution Tree: Bloomington IN. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2007). Using projects and performances to check for understanding. In Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment Techniques for Your Classroom. ASCD: Alexandria,VA, 72-97. Guskey, T.R., & Bailey, J.M. (2001). Special Problems in Grading and Reporting. Developing Grading and Reporting Systems for Student Learning. Corwin: Thousand Oaks CA, 128-146. Marzano, R. (2006). The case for classroom assessment. In Classroom Assessment & Grading that Work. ASCD: Alexandria VA, 1-11. Public Schools of North Carolina. Professional Learning Communities at School. Retrieved from www.dpi.state.nc.us/profdev/resources/proflearn/ SEDL. (2012). Professional Learning Communities: What Are They And Why Are They Important?Retrieved from www.sedl.org/change/issues/issues61/attributes.html Williams, Ray. (2012a). Assessment as an Instructional Strategy [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved From people.stu.ca/~raywilliams/Meas%20&%20Eval/AddFiles.html Williams, Ray. (2012b). Grading and Reporting [Course Notes]. Retrieved from people.stu.ca/~raywilliams/Meas%20&%20Eval/MEout.html