The Indian National Question: A Conceptual Frame Author(s): Amalendu Guha Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.

17, No. 31 (Jul. 31, 1982), pp. PE2-PE12 Published by: Economic and Political Weekly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4371179 Accessed: 27/02/2010 05:25
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=epw. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Economic and Political Weekly.

http://www.jstor.org

The

Indian

National
AmalenduGuha

Question

A Conceptual Frame
Many marxists maintain (after Stalinr)that since Indians possess neither a commonality of language, nor of economic life and mental make-up, the concept of a developing Indian nation is difficult to accept. But the ingredients of a nation or a nationality cannot be so precisely and mechanically listed. A territorial commnunity of culture andlor of nation could evolve in appropriate historical circumstances on the basis of any of a wide range of common identity m.arks, not all (as for instance, script) being mentioned by Stalin. This paper which attempts to provide a conceptual frame for Indian nationalism argues that None of these, India is a union of nationalities, big and sm.all, at varying stages of development. however, yet by itself forms a nation; nor an autonomous development towards such a singular formation within any of these units is yet in sight. Under big bourgeois-landlord rule, the Indian economy continues to remain backward; and the tangled national question, a reflection of this backwardness, has remained unresolved for lack of democratisation of the society. The problem is further complicated by the fact thzat the national question in India, as in so many underdeveloped countries, has become a matter of great 'concern' and a special field of operytion for neo-colonialist policy makers of metropolitan countries who are coming out as champions of every kind of separatism and ethnic consciousness in underdeveloped countries, with a view to disrupting working class unity and nationality formation process. Keeping these specificities of the Indian case in mind, th.e paper argues that not onoly a nationality, but also a union of nationailitieslnational groups could be transformed into a nation through its stable association with the ideal of a unified statehood, desired or realised. India, in this view, is a many-nationa-lity State; and India's several nationalities together form or are tending to from the Indian nation in the making. I General Background
AS concepts, 'nation', 'nationality' and 'nationalism' defy any rigorous definition in terms of form and content. Various attempts at defining these terms have run into difficulties. Of the available definitions of a nation, for instance, the one by Stalin appears to be so far the best. But this, too, is not fully satisfactory. The crucial factors contributing to the formation of a nation or nationality have not always been the same. Nor can these be so precisely enumerated as Stalin attempted to do.' The Swiss nation is multi-lingual, but not the German. Jewish nationalism had no actual territorial foothold or base to start with, while all other nationalisms had. As an event, however, the growth of nations/nationalities and nationalism relates necessarily and sufficiently to the modern Worldto the epoch of capitalism and its market formation process.2 Nationalism could be unitary or federal in spirit, authoritarian or democratic, expansionist or self-contained, aggressive or defensive, depending on the specific circumstances of that process. The manifestation of national consciousness was first seen in the conPE-2 solidated feudal monarchies of western Europe when these countries were involved in the process of eliminating feudalism and developing capitalism. The task before a rising capitalist class then was to get rid of its own country's restrictive feudal regime so that a free market, co-extensive with a definite culturally-politically unified or unifiable territory, could be brought iAto existence with popular support. Generally, language - a means of inter-dialectal communication - emerged as a crucial factor for realising such a market. Conditions of unification had to be created through collective will and conscious effort. For political ends, the rising bourgeois class made, or tended to make, its own people aware of their distinct cultural-political identity. It managed to invent suitable myths and used idioms and symbols to transform this identity consciousness into a powerful and purposive spiritual sentiment. This was nationalism. It helped the young bourgeois class to mobilise the people for conquest of state power. The national movement it launched pulled down feudal barriers. It led to the establishment of a nation-state and a free national market co-extensive with it, both needing continual protection from external pressures. The same process, with some variations, was also seen later in countries penetrated by colonialism; there the national movement primarily aimed at pulling down the colonial barriers so that capitalist transformation of the relevant society could proceed unhindered. Thus, historically viewed, nationalism was, and continues to be, more than mere patriotism or love for one's own country. In less developed and late-developing countries outside western Europewhere ecdnomic backwardness remained a more formidable hindering factor course of nationalism, though -the basically the same, had other notable features. As in western Europe, here too, the drawing-out of peasants into the market and their mobilisation however limited it might have been remained a major issue for the nationality formation process. But there was more compromise with the feudal elements here; and a relatively larger initiative was left to the enlightened gentry and the bureaucracy. This resulted in a cult of authoritarianism, as one found in Prussia and Japan. In countries under foreign rule such as Poland, the anti-foreigner character of the national movement was often more pronounced than its anti-feudal char-

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY acter. However, even in such countries, compromises and collaboration with colonialists were not altogether absent. Moreover, in a multi-ethnic situation, nationalism acquired certain other features that were not common to the west-European model. The varying roles played by the bourgeoisie, the gentry and the peasantry in the leadership and mobilisation of the masses decided the nature and course of the mQyement. Even within a single long-drawn national movement, there could be, accordingly, different phases. In the case of Poland, for instance, Lenin noted in 1914. German oppression has welded the Poles together and segregated them, after first awakening the nationalisn of the gentry, then of the bourgeoisie, and finally of the peasant masses (especially after the campaign the Germans launched in 1873 against the use of the Polish language in schools). ITings are moving in the same direction in Russia, arnd not only with regard to Poland.3 Lenin, however, had no occasion to further elaborate his point; and, in his own life-time, there was a revival of the Polish gentry nationalism in its worst form. The opposite happened in Ukraine. In their struggle for nationality, language and 'Ukrainian' land, the peasants there were able to isolate the secessionist gentry and merge their national movement into the workers' struggle for socialism and internationalism. Peasant nationalism has attained new significance since then. No doubt, the stirring of the peasantry was due to a large scale capitalist transformation. Yet such a concept is found useful for understanding the developments in China, Vietnam and several other third world countries, where the industrial bourgeois class had remained extremely weak - weaker than in Poland or even India - both before and during the declining phase of world capitalism. In such countries the nationalist reaction to feudalism and imperialism largely asserted itself not through the bourgeoisie, but through the numerous peasantry - a peasantry firmly allied to the numerically weak industrial prolateriat and other radical forces. Thus, nationalism, once a weapon of the rising capitalism, came in this from to the help of rising socialism. Where it did not, as in South Korea and Taiwan, the bourgeois ie had been able to take advantage of its strategic position inglobal politics for collaboration with Inerialism on the best possible terms. Of whatever variety it may be, nationalism still continues to be a powerful ideology and emotion all over the world, its socialist parts not excluded. It is becoming increasingly clear that national conflicts, prejudices and exclusiveness even in socialist countries like Russia, China, Vietnam etc will take time to wither away even after their economic base is gone. Indeed, once born, nationalism like caste-outlook dies hard and persists at the superstructural level. Whether Timur is as much a national hero in Uzbek history as General Suborov is in Russian history, whether the outnumbering of the Kazakhs by Russians as citizens in the former's homeland infringes their self-determipation, or whether the recent exodus of Chinese settlers from Vietnam is indicative of national such questions show that oppression national contradictions still survive in the socialist world. With this general background in mind, we shall now discuss the development and nature of the Indian national question, highlighting some of its major features. It may be noted here that India is comparable more to East Europe than to West Europe in this respect.

Review of Political Economy July-1982

What about the regionalised communities of culture that were developing in medieval 'India and were found as crystallised units immediately before the British conquest? At the regional level, one could point out to the, orientation of the Marathi people of the 17th-18th centuries to the concept of swarajya (own state) and, stil earlier, to that of Maharashtra-dharma (a Marathi way of life and code of conduct). Similarly one could refer to the rise of the Sikh state. In fact, in 1952 E M S Namboodiripad talked of the formation of a 'nation' (?) in late medieval Kerala on the basis of its community of culture.5 One could likewise project the feudal monarchy of Assam, where the Assamese had developed as an embryonic nationality, with a distinct language, some kind of a sense of collective pride and a concept of traditional frontiers in course of their struggle against the 17th-century Mughal expansionists.6 However, in the absence of germs of bourgeois formations, these communities hardly produced any ideology of nationalism with a focus on desirable structural transformation. They were not exposed to new productive forces, existing or anticipated. Hence, far from developDing into nationalities, they underwent disintegration or stagnation. What came out of the medieval Indian National Questioii in regionalisation process in India were Historical Background clusters of objective identity marks There was no nationalism or sub- (language, scriDt etc) that could have jectively conscious nationality in pre- been used to distinguish regionalcolonial India. Not that objective marks cultural communities from one another. of identity (such as a common language, But conscious efforts to that end were script, typical psychological make-up, hardly visible. In contrast to bonds of belief-system etc) indicating a terri- kinship (such as tribe, clan and caste) torialised community of culture were and religion, other identity marks not there. Such things might have even remained dormant until the bourgeoisie been casually taken note of. The concept of the 19th century picked them up to Bharatavarsha, extending from the symbolise their people's territorial Himalayas to the Seas (asarnudra-hima- unity in order to forge solidarity on chala) and peopled by the descendants that basis. They formulated a political of Bharata (Bharatasantati), for exam- programme, however limited and decepple, was an ancient one that still persists tive, with a focus on desirable strucin our heritage. Madhavadev, a 17th tural changes, and they created mass century Vaishnava saint of Assam, for sentiments in its favour. Needless to instance, even took-pride in his birth say that the concerned classes - genein Bharatavarsha in his Nama-ghosa, a rally the bourgeoisie - failed to percobook of verses. But there was no term late these sentiments on any substantial in any Indian language, in times ancient scale down to the grassroots of the or medieval, that could convey the peansantry. Things began to change meaning of such categories as nation, somewhat only with the rise of Gandhi nationality and nationalism. New terms and the left parties after World War I. In its own interest, the British rule had to be coined when the necessity was felt after the coming of the British, unified India's remote and heretofore as Rabindranath Tagore pointed out disparate parts through a network of railways a-dcommunicatins, a cenlong back.4 PE-3

Review of Political Economy July 1982 tralised administration and a widened market linked with the British industries. India's largely new, but yet unconsolidated bourgeoisie of diverse ethnic groups (engaged in trade and industry, as well as in professions and services) were encouraged to collaborate with foreign capital and enterHowever, the port-orientation prise. and colonial alignment of the market network somewhat weakened and distorted the nationality formation process. At the sub-regional, regional and pan-Indian levels, the bourgeoisie were operating in a subordinate role. Nevertheless, by and large, they were objectively opposed to the foreign domination over the home market. For they, themselves, needed it for their own development. This oppositional role of theirs was not necessarily revolutionary in action; neither was it consistently uncompromising. Throughout the early 19th centur~ and, particularly, in 1857, when there was widespread organised resistance to firangi (European) rule by the peasants and patriotic sections of the feudal class, neither the bourgeoisie nor other middle class elements sided with them. Rather they collaborated with the British on tactical considerations. They took the path of soliciting an increasing share of the market and local political power through a peaceful and constitutional movement. This movement attained a degree of militancy, punctuated with occasional outbursts of revolutionary terrorism, during the early twentieth century. On the whole, the Indian bourgeoisie continued to express their discontent against the British rule and highlight the unity of the Indian people in their struggle against it. This is how the two major concepts of Indian nationalism
swara; and swadeshi
-

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY Put into the melting Pot of colonial oppression, the diverse ethnic elements came closer to each other than in preBritish times. A process of bourgeois class formation, transcending barriers of caste, religion and tribe, started. Through the alchemy of this intermingling process, however limited under the colonial constraints, there appeared simultaneously two streams of national consciousness - one pan-Indian and the other, regional. The former was professedly based on observed pan-Indian homogeneities of culture such as a common all-India tradition and history. economic life and psychological make-up and the accepted unifying role of Sansktit, Persian, English and Hindustani by turn - and also calculations of advantages of an India-wide market. The other consciousness was professedly based on the relevant region's distinctive homogeneities and demands for substantial or exclusive control by the sons of the soil over its resources and market facilities. In both cases, what was said to have been observed, and was professed, could have been based on mere myths. But myths do have a role in promoting nationalism and do-not drop from the sky. The two processes, respectively linked with the yet-unconsolidated big bourgeois and regional small bourgeois interests, more often than not complemented each other and despite conflicts, these tended to merge. An average Indian of the upper and middle classes identified himself at ease with both. During the latter half of the 19th century, Chattopadhyay of Bankimchandra Bengal, Mahadeo Govinda Ranade of Maharashtra and Anandaram Dhe;kiyalPhukan of Assani articulated this duality of our national consciousness, which cuts across all narrow community feelings based on creed, caste or other kinship affinities.7 Class forces at work behind this twolevel articulations of nationalism need a further exnlanation. Because of uneven developments, the bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie (between them consisting of traders, mill-owners, professionals, bureaucrats, etc) of certain regions and ethnic origins were more capable than their counterparts in other regions and other ethnic groups, in the matter of seizing the limited business and job opportunities in an open Indiawide market. Hence they stood, in general, for an ideology that would uphold a unitary nation-state, more or less modelled ownthe British practice, There was however no immediate open conflict with the relatively retarded bourgeoisie of the backyards; the latter were just coming up and were yet to articulate their grievances effectively. Boupndedby moderate constitutionalism at all levels, the bourgeois aspirations did not yet provide much scope for such open conflicts either. From its birth in 1885 till about the turn of the century, the Indian National Congress continued to deliberate exclusively on subjects deemed to have an all-India importance. Until then the national ideology was, by and large, secular and modernist; but its anglicised values had limited application and relevance to the Indian realities. The vision of a united India, to quote a historian, was "fragile and superficial" throughout the 19th century.8 Deeper below at the regional level, there were not only forces of regionallinguistic nationalism, but also a parallel trend of pan-Indian Hindu and Muslim revivalisms, respectively feeding themselves to some extent on the myths of an Aryan past and a pan-Islamism. The utter lack of concern for a federal scheme, universal adult suffrage and regional autonomy in the projected vision of one India soon ran into difficulties early in the 20th century. For, without such provisions the aspirations of the regional bourgeoisie, petty bour,geoisie and the peasantry could hardly be accommodated in their respective regions, the Muslim-majority ones included. The form of polity that was conceived of by the early nationalists did not thrive on the given realities of life. It only anticipated the market aspirations of the embryonic big bourgeoisie of India, not of the regional middle and small bourgeoisie. The challenge from regional nationalism was not felt much before 1917. But the challenge. from an Islamic revivalism, no less than that of the Hindu revivalism, was increasingly felt, still earlier since about 1905. -Spearheaded by the Muslim League, this reaction crystallised into a parallel proto-nationalism that aimed at maximising political advantages for the Indian Muslims, not only through ideas of federal decentralisation and other such secular means, but also through separate communal electorates parallelly built into the political system. It was an attempt at artificially dividing the people according to 'national' curiae. These seeds of divisiveness, ferby British patronage, later tilisei

evolved in

course of the foreign capitalist penetration. Despite compromises and tactical collabo;ation, this-ideoloigy and programme of political and economic emancipation remained, on the whole, anti-imperialist; though not anti--feudal to the same extent. Militant peasant struggles, anti-feudal as well as anticolonial, and the bourgeoisie's then concern for the progressive realisation of swaraj and swadeshi - these diq not -mix well. This was because the men in trade, industries, professions and services were in some way or the other themselves linked with the network of feudal and colonial exploitation of the peasantry, PEA4

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY germinated by 1940 into the concept of a separate state/states for' the Indian Muslims in contiguous territories, where they formed a majority and whereto Muslims of other parts of India could gravitate. We call this Muslim reaction proto-nationalism, since it also tended to overcome casteisTn, localism and even pan-Islamism in its own sphere and tried to project the Indian Muslims as an India-wide distinct community of culture, gravitating to a defined- homeland and language (i e Urdu). The 19th century Aligarh Movement had, in a way. contributed towards this trend. The Hindu reaction helped jt crystallise. Pakistan was -born. Later, the emergence of Bangladesh by way of splitting Pakistan in 1971 on a linguistic basis showed how false the concept of a nation based on religion was and what dangers the religious exclusiveness and separatism were fraught with. Under such stresses and strains, the dominant platform of the Indian bourgeoisie,' the Congress, gradually realised sthat the Indian realities its many languages, two major beliefsystems, many tribes, imperialist intrigues and, above all, weak bourgeois formations - did not fit well into the 'Island' model that had been emulated. From around 1917 or so, they began to increasingly anpreciate the advant-ages of having autonomous linguistic units within a federal structure. ' This appreciation and the concerns for peasant mobilisation and for Indian languages spoken bv them, were associated as much with- pressures from below as with the phenomenal rise of Gandhi'ji'sleadership within the Cong,ress. In form and content, Indian nationalism remained, by and large, federal in spirit since then. The concept of linguistic states struck its roots firmly by 1931 "when the Congress Declaration of Rights was adopted. Today India's multinationality (manvnationality ccomposition) is indeed recognised by the Indian Constitution, implicitly if 'not explicitly, through its provisions for fairly autonomous linguistic states and Sixth Schedule tribal areas, with the scope of further constitutional adjustments 'in CentreState relations in their favour. under the Dressure of popular struggles for a consistent democracy. III suggests that after a false start and drift for years, the Congress was forced to take note of the complexites of the nationality formation process and make gestures to accommodate regional aspirations within the frame of a united India. Other political parties, barring those anchored in religion and revivalist values, had also more or less the same approach. Although this change of outlook failed to arrest the Muslim 'League-sponsored separatism 4nd eventual creation of Pakistan, it succeeded in maintaining the territorial unity of the rest of India. Constitu-tional provisions that were adopted to deal with India's national question were amended from time to time with a view to extending regional autonomy. The amendments were in fact concessions wrested from the big bourgeoisie by the people through democratic struggles at the regional level. Indian constitutional rorovisions in respect of the national question were indeed somewhat influenced by the Soviet practice. This happened despite basic differences in the two countries' structures of economy and polity and in the historical circumstances, respectively antecedent to their' nationality formation processes. The Russian national orocess could be 'traced back at least to the 17th centurnywhen its bourgeois formations began to aDpear. It attained maturity by late 19th centu'ry and was continuallv associated not only with a panslavQnic movement but also with a colonialising thrust - west, south and east of the Russian homeland. In reaction to this thrust, many subjugated peoples also attained their respective national consciousnesses. The Tsarist Empire was indeed a prison-house of oppressed nationalities. The Russians were dominant in it not only numerically, but also politically, economically and culturally. They were an oppressor nation and others, oppressed nations and patiopalities. Hence, in the democratic struggle against State power symbolised by the Tsar, the unity of nations/nationalities that was built had to bi based on the, recognition of a right to self-determination (i e secession). not demands just for autonomy only. Also a prison-house of nationalities, India presented a somewhat different situation during the l9th-20th centuries when its nationalities were taking shape in course of their capitalist transformlation and democratic strug-

Review of Political Econoiny July 1982 gles against British imperialism. None of these nationalities were in an overall dominant position vis-a-vis the others. Big and small. they forged their unity in struggle and strengthened it by invoking from their common past, eco-symbols of emotional integration and shared cultural values. The basis of this unity was neither religion, nor a concern for regional selfdetermination with a right to secede, but an urge to achieve a free, united India on the basis of autonomy and consistent democracy. This had to be so since the Indian big bourgeoisie wanted an unfettered India-wide home market and hence would mobilise country-wide popular support towards this end only on such terms. The point needs a little more elaboration. The Russians constituted more than 43 per cent the population of the Tsarist Emp)ire, as they still do (now 53 per cent) in the USSR. This weight of numbers was one important facet of their dominance. The Hindusthani (Hindi and Urdo) speakers in India now account for some 43 per cent of India's total population, and hence their numerical importance is apparentlv somewhat comparable to that of *the Russians in their own Union. However. in the matter of developing a unifying culture and literature, the Hindusthanis, unlike the Russians. still remain far behind the countrv's other smaller (but more consolidated) nationalities. This continues to be so despite the flowering of Urdu for a while in. the past and the use of Urdu in Roman script as a common language in the erstwhile British-Indian army (and also in Subhaschandra Bose's Indian Army). In fact, the nationality formation process amongst the Hinduithanis. and for that matter also amongst the Punjabis, has remained extremely halting, weak and problematic. as com-.. pared to the process in some nounHindusthani regions. This is because of the relatively late penetration of capitalist market forces and lesser intensitv of capitalist transformation in the Hindushani-speaking regions, and for other reasons. It is not yet clear whether the Hindusthanis are emerging as a single unified nationalitv or as several such nationalities. In any! case. attempts at promoting Hindusthani (written both in Devanagri and Urdu scripts, or in Roman script) as India's national lanzuaee. are now a thing of the past. Instead. Hindi. written in Devanagri, PE-5

The Soviet Example

The brief outline, as given above.

Review of Political Economy July 1982 has been constitutionally posed as the alternative to English as India's link language to be progressively realised, subject to general acceptance. In the case of the Punjabis, their 'we-consciousness', based on a common language, etc, remained always weak and tenuous. Eventually, their nationality formation process got disrupted and distorted, as it failed to overcome divisive religious influences. The position of the Hindusthani nationality/nationalities in the economy, bureaucracy and army of British India also was anything but one of dominance. This remains true even after the British quit. According to a crude analysis made in 1967 by Ajit Roy, only 33 per cent of total assets of India's 75 top monopoly houses, listed by the Monopoly Inquiry Commission, was accounted for by the Hindusthani houses (Marwari houses 25 per cent and non-Marwari Hindusthani houses 8 per cent). The Gujarati houses had a larger share, as much as 37 per cent of the total assets, though the nationality they represent accounted for less than 5 per cent of India's total population. Another 13.5 per cent of the assets continued to be controlled by foreign houses (all British except one).9 Besides, the interlocking of Indian capitalists at all levels and their dependence on western multinationals for technology and markets abroad make it pointless and impossible to isolate the big bourgeoise of this or that nationality as the sole villain in India. Like capital, the bureaucracy and army, too, are of composite character. Of the 41,663 class I and Class II officers of the Union Government, as of 1967, only 18.3 per cent belonged to the four major Hindusthani-speaking states of UP, Bihar, MP, and Rajasthan while the shares of Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal and Maharashtra ranged severally between 13.7 and 9.7 per cent each. Quite disproportionately to its population resources, non-Hindi speaking Punjab maintains a significant role in the army; and, together with some In coastal states, also in the navy. 1970-71, for instance, Punjab accounted for 2.5 per cent of India's total population, but its share of all noncommissioned officers and jawans, recruited for the Indian army in that year was 17.5 per cent as against a 34.2 per cent share of the aforesaid four Hindi-speaking states. Recruitment from Gujarat was one of the lowest, at o1.4 per cent f the total, though the
PE-6

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY Guiaratis together with the Marwaris are in a somewhat dominant position in the economy through the monopoly business houses they control. These are only stray examples as to how dominance is composite and diffused, and not monopolised by any single nationality.10 Rather, dominance - economic, is largely political and cultural.exercised by higher caste-groups (of more than one religion) that transgress regional and nationality frontiers. One important difference, not yet sufficiently- highlighted, between the Soviet and Indian national -situations, lies in the matter of their conceptualisation of nationhood. A nation is constituted by a single nationality (or arguably, one coul&: say, also by a group of nationalities), when that single nationality (or group) forms, or is desirous of forming, a sovereign state. The Japanese provide the example of a single-nationality nation; and the Canadians, of a two-nationality nation.' A number of nationalities, integrated within a common political system, is as much a feature in India as in the USSR. Both are officially described 2s Unions, and both have a unified army as well as a common citizenship concept. However, the concept of citizenship is not exactly the same in the two countries. In the USSR, each Union Republic, unlike in India, has also its own republican citizenship and' the right of granting citizenship. The absence or presence of a nationality's right to secede in the Constitution also leads to a basic difference at the formal conceptual level in constitutional terms. This is so, even if it is conceded that in the Soviet Union this right is now more formal than real, be6ause of a high level of integration already achieved over the last half a century by virtue of its socialist planning and a single party system. In India the concept cf nationhood, though composite, is, in constitutional terms, all-inclusive and singular; in the USSR, it is plural. By usage, official or otherwise, the former is called a 'nation' (or sometimes, as a union of nationalities, but never as a union of nations), while the latter is said to stand for 'nations'. What distinguishes the Indian case from the Soviet one is the former's historically evolved two-level national consciousness. India is not iust a sum total of nationalities, as the USSR is; but something more than that. Alongside of the nationality consciousness at the regional level, there has also been a parallel Indian national consciousness that transcends the former and stands on its own legs. It emerged from the bourgeoisie's discovery of a historically evolved identity of culture and common tradition - real or imagined to be so - co-extensive with the whole Indian territory and people inhabiting it. The Indian personality, indeed, reflects a simultaneous footing in two communities of culture, two streams of consciousness - one Indian and the other regional; the set and the subset. An average Marathi or Assamese or Bengali tends to describe himself at ease also as an 'Indian', as we already noted. But to describe what was common to a Russian, an Uzbek and a Georgian, there was no such similar value-loaded nationality-indicating term in the Tsarist Empire. Later, since the 1930s, the term 'Soviet' was put into use as a common label to serve the purpose (e g, Soviet people, Soviet citizen, Soviet land etc). Though in terms of its latest Constitution, the USSR is an 'integral federation' (A,rticle 70) with a single unified army and one party system, it claims to embody not a common nationhood, but only "the state unity of all its nations and nationalities together for the purpose of jointly building communism",. Incidentally, the distinction made between the categories, 'nation' and 'nationality', continues to remain vague in contemporary political science in India and elsewhere. Marxists do make a distinction between these two categories but how it is made is not clear. Besides, much confusion, semantic in origin, stems from their use as interchangeable terms. We shall a-gain discuss this problem in Section V of this paper. IV

and Self-Determination Assimilation

Not that the right to self-determnination of nationalities was never pressed for or its recognition demanded as a matter of principle in free India. There had indeed been, from time to time, secessionist (to secede from India) movements even. But all these haVe so far happened only at a frivolous level or in the border regions of the Indian territory. Frivolous when the united CPI mechanically demanded such a right for all nationalities during the late 1940s and the 1950s as a matter

ECONOMIC AND. POIlTICAL WEEKLY of principle; or when the Drvida Munnetra Kazhagham still later actually demanded secession for Tamil Nadu. Such demands had to be dropped or pushed under the carpet within a few years in both the cases for lack of mass support. The secessionist demand for Khalistan raised recently by a section of the Punjabi Sikhs, also, apparently awaits a similar fate. For, the relatively mobile Punjabi Sikh bourgeoisie and petty-bourgeoisie have little to gain from their insulation within a tiny territory. Far from being oppressed, the community enjoys a higher share of all opportunities that could be offered.. by a united India than what their relative numerical strength justifies. A concern for the right to 'selfdetermination is now found on a more serious and persistent basis only in some of the thinly-populated border tracts of northeast India, amongst very small nationalities. These -were all late entrants into the British colonial system, and hence still preserve some of the remnants of primitive communism. Left, untouched by the Indian railways, \and almost so also by administration, these were kept insulated from contacts with the rest of India and the Indian freedom movement. Hence their isolation and alienation from the broad stream of the Indian tradition, culture and thoughts. The hilly parts of northeast India therefore present a different setting for the national question2-" In Nagaland and Mizoram, for example, tl4e process of tribes transforming themselves into nationalities started only in the 1940s by which time there had already appeared indigenous middle I class elements within them. These immature nationalities, rather tribes in transition do not yet share the sense of belonging to the wider Indian community of culture at large as the Bengalis or With the increasing Assamese do. elimination of communication-gaps and isolation, and following political-administrative reforms, a shift in the attitudes of the Naga and Mizo peoples is, however, already taking place over the post-Independence years. The Indian Constitution had to be amended several times under popular pressure to accommodate their urge for autonomy and raise the status of their respective Sixth-Schedule tribes areas to that of constituent states. Further Union the between negotiations Government and the rebel groups are in progress for resolving' the national contradictions in a peaceful manner. Besides, it is also being increasingly felt in these remote regions that the toiling people of all nationalities, big and small, have a common cause to make against the bourgeois-landlord rule and neo-colonial intrigues that have kept India's national question unresolved. Both in Nagaland and Mizoram, the solution ,f te national question depends also on the feasibility of nationality formation by way of integrating their several tribes, speaking as many languages, at the local level. Also a border tract left outside the British-Indian railway network and centralised administration, the State of Jammu and Kashmir is yet another crystallised unit where the question of the right to nationial self-determination was seriously raised. Such a demand originated long before 1947, in course of the Kashmiri people's anti-feudal, against the democratic struggles British-backed Maharaja's rule. Jammu and Kashmir's isolation is, however, only relative and is totally unlike that of Nagaland and Mizoram. In all historical periods, Kashmir remained, and still remains, very much integral to what constitutes the corpus of Indian tradition, culture and thought. Because of its anchorage in Indian heritage and in a united democratic movement directed against a common enemy, it reacted sharply to, the partition of India on a religious basis. It decided to join the Indian Union, while still looking forward to a special autonomous status within it. Given the choice between Pakistan and India, the leaders of the Kashmiri people opted for the latter, with hopes that bourgeois-democratic reforms would be easier to achieve there than in Pakistan. Even if we assume that border states like Kashmir, Nagaland and Mizoram and, for that matter also Sikkim (annexed in 1975) and Manipur, fall out of or do not share the wider national consciousness that arises out of an .awareness of the pan-Indian cultural homogeneit\es, these may be deemed as exceptions, somewhat similar to the autonomous regions like Tibet in the People's Republic of China. These exceptional cases, each having a small population, surely raise questions of political significance, but they do not crucially influence- the fate of India's overall democratic movements as such. The State of Jammu and Kashmir, alone, accounts for less than one per cent and the other four fron-

Review of Political Economy July 1982 tier states together, for less than half per cent of India's total population. We therefore reiterate that Indian nationalism, while combining many autonomous nationalities and their several regional nationalisms (variously called as sub-nationalism, little nationalism, local or narrow nationalism, etc), a separate dimension also has of its own, independent of the totality of such nationalisms. It is based on the shared feeling of all Indians of belonging to a India-wide community of culture, which can be distinguished from other such communities of the rest of the world by a pool of identity marks. When the early Bengali and Assamese nationalists faced the problem of coining appropriate terms to signify their newlyacquired national- identity/identities, they used the words, 'jati' and 'mahajati', in two different senses. The word jati, which earlier meant 'caste', now stood for a constituent 'nationality' and the word maha-jati exclusively for the 'nation'. For example, as early as 1926, the concept of the two-level consciousness was idealised by an Assamese nationalist as follows: Let all nationalities (jati) of India follow their own paths. The Brahmaputra, the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Kaveri, the Sindhu -'let all of them flow down 'along their respective courses. Let there be no attempts to merge one with th6 other. Finally all will converge in the Indian ocean, that is, the Indian nation (7inaa-jati). Troubles will increase if any other method is resorted to for creating the Indian nation (translation ours).12 Because of the distorting influences of diverse economic interests, this1 ideal of Indian Rationalism is not. however, free from deyiations in real life. Calculations of advantages of a highly centralised and integrated Indian market often prompt India's monopoly capital to project nationalism as an Indian 'great nationalism', not mindful of the aspirations of the smaller constituent nationalities. Thisis reflected, for example, in the attempts at reviving the concept of a Hindu Rashtra; at minority-baiting; at prescribing a presidential form of government for ailing India: at imposing Hindi as a compulsory national language, if possible; or at depriving states of, appropriate constituent measures of financial resources and autonomy. On the other hand, the calculatiotis of the advantages of reserving the market and job opportunities of a region exclusively for its 'own' people thing often championed by the -a
PE-7

'Review of Political Economy

July 1982

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY

relatively fragile regional small bourgeoisie -- tend to distort nationalism into a regional 'little nationalism', not mindful of the overall all-India national interests. Despite these pulls in opposite directions, Indian nationalism has by and large remained nearer the norm, while simultaneously combining and transcending regional nationality consciousnesses and continuously fighting in that process casteism, tribalism and other forms of narrow community feelings, both at all-India and regional levels. The nation-building process in India remains however yet immature and incomplete. Since the cultural and economic development of the regions and nationalities is uneven and since a persistent overall economic stagnation hardly allows for any increase in the size of the divisible cake, forces of secessionism are raising their ugly heads. In the absence of a breakthrough in the economy, secessionist tendencies might break out more widely and frequently in. future than now. But the problem of unevenness is cutting more caste group-wise rather than across nationalities nationality-wise. Hence, such secessionism has little chance of success in whipping up mass sentiments of any major nationality on a stable basis, as was possible ill Bangladesh. In Assani, seemingly a likely case in this respect, this has been evident only recently. Secessionism has been firmly and widely disowned there even by the little nationalists themselves, barring a few- extremists."3 There the movement professedly aims at driving out a sizeable section of the toiling immigrant population, rather than assimilating them. No demand for increased regional autonomy as such or right to secede from India has yet been raised from this platform. Yet another major influencing factor that acts in favour of Indian nationalism is the Indian industrial proletariat's stake in the matter.'4 Having emerged out of a mixed population of various national groups, intermingling'all over India in cities, mines and plantations, it has a vested interest in preserving Indian unity. Itself a product of assimilation under compulsions of the very conditions of life, it generally stands for assimilation on the widest possible scale, although workers ,under bourgeois influence might go astray. Indeed, in the era of the waning world capitalist system of today, PE-8

divisive bourgeois nationalism as such tion.1d For a study of the national can no more be deemed democratic question in India today, and for that and legitimate (as' it once used to be), matter in many other countries, an and it needs to be subordinated to the analysis of the world forces at play has general world-wide struggle for people's indeed become all the more important. democracy and socialism. Rosa Luxem- But a thorough probe of this kind is burg's arguments against the recogni- beyond the scope of this short paper. tion of the right to self-determination V (secession) of nationalities by ' the working class of a centralised State, Some Clarifications and a where a possible hegemonic role for Summing-Up itself was already within its sight, were The 'distinction presumed between not acceptable to Lenin in 1913-16 on a -nation' and a 'nationality' in all quite valid grounds. But we live in a Marxist discussions is somewhat crucial different world today. More 'than for our above conceptual framework a third of the human society having of Indian nationalism. It is there in meanwhile become socialist, national Stalin's treatment of the national democratic movements are now a part question, but with no sufficient clarity. of the global struggle for socialism. As an Indian Marxist Dolitical scientist Hence, some of the old arguments of has noted, "Stalin unfortunately attriRosa Luxemburg appear to have butes to the 'nation' all these characacquired fresh relevance in the pre- teristics which should properly apply sent situation.15 only to the 'nationality'. This lands question him in all sorts of conceptual difficulParadoxically, the national today has visibly become a matter of ties when discussing the national ques'great' concern and a special field of tion in eastern Europe"."8To get out neo-colonialist of this confusion, the same author the operation for policy-makers of the metropolitan refers to Engels. According to him, countries. In their efforts to perpetuate Engels explicitly recognises. 'nationathe domination of monopoly capital lity' as a pre-capitalist structure - a they are, on the one hand, building up 'community' (gemeinschaft), already a network of transnational corporations possessing a distinct and common all over the world, and on Ithe other, cultural identity in the pre-capitalist are coming out as super-chamDions of era, as in the case of the Germans.'9 umpteen varieties of separatism and Various kinds of ethnic communities, on ethnic consciousness, with a view to the basis of tribal (kinship) and religidisrupting the working class unity in ous ties, etc could surely emerge and their own countries and the nationality be gradually transcended by more formatiorn processes in third world complex linguistic-cultural communicountries. Much of recent academic ties in Pre-capitalist times. But that community as research on the national question is Engels accepts any such by interested a 'nationality' even in the absence of motivated and sponsored imperialist quarters. They do so with any signs of an emerging capitalism class) a view to providing justification for a (along with a rising bourgeois 'divide and rule' policy and inspiring is doubtful. It could indeed be accepted secessionism in countries non grata. so only after a section of it (embryonic the Such research reiterates the old theme class) had become conscious of advantage of mobilising the relevant that the nation-building process in the liberated colonies is a fiction, that community feelings to their class what is real is the ethnic plural- benefit. This could happen, we belie . ism and that the going process only in a society where seeds of capistarted of assimilation or integration is talist relations had already In other words, a nationality India sproutingnot worth taking ' note of.'6 continues to be a melting pot of is not a pre-capitalist structure as such, and but a product of early caoitalist relacommunities tribes, castes, nationalities. Its nation-building pro- tions; it is a less developed form of a cess is not yet at that more or less developing nation. Engels implicitly complete and comfortable stage when nakes this distinction clear when he on Indian nationalists could afford to be refuses to put the label of nation long less sensitive to the wide variety of "the entire German pecple" so some of as "the low level of industry, commerce foreign interventionists and investigating and agriculture ruled out any centralithem missionaries indulge in acti- sation" of these people.20At that level, social scientists -who vitiers prejudicial to national integra- they impliedly formed a nationality

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY

- something that was more than a community of culture, but less than a nation. This kind of distinction is perhaps also implied in Stalin's discriminating use of the two terms in his categorisation of a peonie as a nation or a nationality. In English, the words 'nation' and 'nationality' can be used interchangeably; anid this is often done even in scientific writings. But suchk interchangeability between 'natsiya' and 'natsionalnost' is not permitted in Russian. The distinction is not merely one of the stage of development, but also one of perspective related to the relevant stage. A R Kamat, Inidian Marxist thinker, therefore, follows Karl W Deutch in defining a naticnality as "a people having some characteristics which go towards the making of a nation, and who are striving for a measure of political, economic and cultural autonomy...!". Kamat further observes that it "may (or may not) develop an alternative cento. of allegiance among the people, strive for recognition as a nation and struggle to form its own distinct nation state".2' We are in agreement with him. In this paper India is projected as a a union of many-nationality State nationalities, big and small, at their different stages of development. None of these, however, yet by itself forms a nation; nor an autonomous development towards 'such a singular formation within any of these is vet in sight. At the same time, under big bourgeois-landlord rule, the Indian economy continues t6 remain backward and exposed to neo-colonial intrigpes. The tangled national question, a reflection of this backwardness. also remains unsolved for lack of democratisation of the society on the basis of an extension of regional autonomy up to the grassroots. Keeping these specificities of the Indian case in mind, we have however ventured to argue that not only a nationality (as it normally happened in west Europe, e g, in the case of the Irish), but also a union of nationalities/national groups (as in the case of the Swiss and the Canadians) could be trnsformed into a nation through its stable association with the ideal of a unified Statehood, desired or realised. India, in our view, is a many-nationality State. Since the State unity is base9 on what is universally recognised as Indian nationalism, there is no harm in saying that India's several natio)nalities together form or

Review of Political Economy July 1982 nation, both independently co-existing with and, at the same time, integrally including the federated nationalities (as is tentatively upheld in this paper) is, however, hardly recognised by Marxist intellectuals and scholars. Nevertheless, the 4we-consciousness' as Indians is so real that they are prone to refer, by way of sheer habit or a slin, often to the 'Indian nation' and to 'national integration' in their s0eIechies and writings. Fcar instance, the aforesaid CPI(M) document on the national question of India scrupulously avoids any mention of 'nation' or 'nations' in the Indian context, and only talks of 'nationalities' and 'sulbnational currents'. By implication, it is
reluctant
-

tend to form the Indian nation in the making. Quite obviously, at this last tentative formulation, many Marxists may point out that Indians possess a commonality neither of language, nor of economic life and mental make-up; and hence, the concept of a developing Indian nation is difficult to accept. To this our answer is that ingredients of, a nation or nationality cannot be so precisely and mechanically listed, nor are the latter two easily identifiable. A territorialised community of culture, and/or of nationhood, could evolve in appropriate historical circumstances on the basis of any of a wide range of common identity marks, not all (e g script) being mentioned by Stalin. We have already explained in earlier Sections how India's bourgeois national leaders discovered unity in diversity and ani objective 'basis for their panIndian nationalism in the country's real or supposed common' tradition and common past. To them, a-typically Indian mental make-up was as real as its regional sub-.types. This has wide acceptance even now. As to how common is the economic life remains difficult to determine both, at the regional and pan-Indian levels. In any case, industry, commerce and cashcropping in India bear a considerable imprint of centralisation that widens what is common in Indian economic life. Kaniat, who, projects India, like us, as a union of nationalities, stops short of calling this collective body 'a developing nation'. He is, however, aware that none of them can so far be called a nation by itself in the defined sense of the term. though he would not mind if one talked of a 'united nations of India' either. He asserts that, though the right of self-determination is impliedly inherent in them, ';it is in their own interests not exercise it, nor to harp on it" and rightly holds that such issues "need to be considered in their historical socio-economic and cultural contexts and cannot be universalised like mathematical propositions."22 Years back, having precisely reconsidered these very contexts, the Indian communists had indeed deleted from their programme the clause guaranteeing nationalities a right to secede -. a right that had remained enshrined therein until 1964 in imitation of the Soviet model.23 The fact that there is an obiective basis for the growth of an Indian

and rightly

to equate

nationalities with nations and maintains conspicuous silence regarding the location of the nationhood.24 Yet another - document from the came party, while focusing on the situation of Assam, views the disruptive stand of the Assamese "narrow nationalists" to be against "the integrity of the nation", i e, obviously t-he Indian nation.25Our formulation is free from this kind of semantic confusion.' If the foundation of the Indian (panIndian) national consciousness, based on certain homogeneities, is weak, it is no less so in the case of the regional national consciousnesses. Take, for example, the informed observations of A M Dyakov, a Soviet Marxist scholar. In 1948, he included the Hindustanis, Rajasthanis, Biharis and Puniabis in the category of "forming nationalities". But, later in 1963, he observed, especially with respect to the first three groups that "the populations of these regions have not develoiped an awareness of national affinity. They regard themselves as Indians, but if a more specific question is asked, they name their State" (emphasis ours).26Within vears after Dyakov wrote this, Punjab was further split in 1966 into two states, ostensibly on the question of the script and language, but actually on a religious basis. Thus, of the twin streams of national consciousness in India, the pan-Indian one appears to have a more solid basis than the regional one, in several cases. In fact, a dozen or so of the major representing nationalities, Indian linguistic groups varying in size from 9 million (Assamese) to 236 million (Hindustanis) people according to the 1971 cen'sus, together account for 94 per cent of India's total population.

-..g r-,

Review of Political Economy July 1982 They occupy contiguous territories, living often in a mixed society and largely sharing a common memory of what happened in Indian history. They also share many common traditional and modern values and are exposed to powerful and centralised modern communication media. They were all oppressed under and fought together against the British imperial system, while continuing to acquire new cultural values in that process and together still fighting the big bourgeoislandlord rule for their radical transformation. This fact brings into focus the interrelationship - these nationalities as the component parts and the collective 'body of the Indian people or (if one would prefer to put it like that) the nation as a whole. Through a process of interpenetration and fusion, the particular memories, sentiments, attitudes, styles of art and experiences acquired from each other tend to shed their particularities and are being increasingly universalised at the all-India level. If so, one could conceive of centralisation and au,tonomisation in the same breath. One need not miss the wood for the trees. What is true of the bigger nationalities (94 per cent of the Indian people) is also largely true of the small nationalities, though they are relatively more isolated from the whole, because of their tribal ethnicity and/or habitat in difficult border terrains. One has to note, for instance, that neither Jammu and Kashmir, nor Manipur, nor Nagaland - in 1971 these had populations, respectively, numbering 46, 11 and 5 lakhs - is a unilingual crystallised unit. On linguistic-cultural considerations, the first in its Indian portion is too obviously a collective body of three distinct units - Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh; and, if reorganised on the same considerations, Manipur (the land of the Meiteis) would be reduced in area to one-tenth of what it is today. In Nagaland, there are fourteen tribes and as many languages/dialects, none of which shows yet any sign of developing as a means of inter-dialectal communication. English at the elite level, and Nagamese (pidgin Assamese) at the common man's level, serve at present In the purpose of a link language. Mizoram, the Lakhers have a distinct language other than Mizo and they live in a compact area; and so do also the Buddhist Chakma tribe whose language is a corrupt form of Bengali, FE-10

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY written in a different script. All *this shows why indiscriminate insistence on the right of national selfdetermination today is meaningless. The 'principle of nationalities', if overstretched, is harmful in the national and international situation that India has been facing since her independence. Incidentally, what Engels thought in 1866 of the utilisation of the small nation movements by Bonapartism and Tsarism for their own benefit against European democracy may be relevant here in the context of the small nationality movements in India, Lenin writes in 1916: Engels emphasises that the proletariat must recognise the political independence and 'self-determination'... of the great, major nations of Europe, and points to the absurdity of the 'principle of nationalities' (particularly in its Bonapartist application), i e, of placing any small nation on the same level as these big ones.27 Thus, the secessionist movements of the small nationalities of the border tracts as such as well as any talk of their right to secede is tenable neither on practical considerations, nor' on grounds of Marxist theory. It is conveniently forgotten by some that even in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, autonomous small nationalities are not given this right. In the People's Republic of China, where the Han nationality, occupying less than half the territory, constitutes 94 per cent of China's total population, all of the minority nationalities -- the biggest of *them, the Zuang (of the province of Guanxi) numbers ten million and ten of them are more than one million each -have also no constitutional right to secede. While enjoying maximum possible autonomy in respective autonomous regions, they are regarded as component parts of 'the collective body of the Chinese people', represented by a 'Unitary State' - the People's Republic of China.-IIn the absence of any, particular dominant nationality like the Hans in India, the collective body of
the Indian people
-

of 'national' oppression cannot be ruled out, particularly in the areas inhabited by the tribal people.29However, in that case, their emancipation lies not in self-determination (secession from India) but in autonomy and thoroughgoing socio-economic and cultural transformation to be achieved .through a united struggle of the toiling peoples of all Indian nationalities against the. stranglehold of bourgeois-landlord rule. Self-determination, as a slogan, does not help but disrupts such a united struggle. Besides, because of their gene-. ral backwardness and non-viable size, the minor nationalities of the border tracts undergo - considerable risks of relapsing into more primitive conditions, inter-tribe conflicts and exposure to imperialist wolves, if isolated from the collective body - the developing Indian nation (mahajati).:0 India, to Marx in the 1859s, was a "country not only divided between Mohammedan and Hindu, but between tribe and tribe, between caste and caste; a society whose framework was based on a sort of equilibrium, resulting from a general repulsion and constitutional exclusiveness between its members."3" Yet this aggregate of "various races, tribes, castes, creeds and sovefeignties" constituted, he observed, "the geographical unity of what is called India", having "ethnographical, political and military frontiers"
-

its "natural limits"

which

we believe

has been developing as a composite nation, alongside of its component nationalities, under certain historical circumstances. Finally, a word about whether the minor' and backward nationalities of India could be economically, culturally and nolitically dominated over and oppressed by sections of the big and advanced ones (who jointly control the 75 monopoly houses and the State machinery). The answer is yes, a sort

the British empire-builders took two centuries to reach.39 The Indian army that the British organised within this framework became "the first general centre of resistance which the Indian. people was ever possessed of."33 More often than not, Marx also used the term 'Hindu' in its wider sense to stand for the Indian people. What first appeared as a mlutiny in the army was, according to Marx, a widespread "Indian revolt" of both Hindus and Muslims who had combined in 1857 to project the last of the Mughals as the symbol of their conmmonpast and their common urge for a united, sovereign India.34 Since that first War of Independence, the concept of one India has continually played a determining role in diffusing inter-group languages of communication (e g, Urdu), in consolidating common cultural traits - into an Indian social personality, in widening the horizons of an average Indian's motherland-awareness and, finally, in giving a purposive direction to the two-level

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY national process in our cohesive polyethnic society. For a comprehension of this two-level process of unity in diversity, the Marxist applies a dialectical method. It simultaneously combines the macro and micro points of view; treats the part and the wholealways together .as a historical relationship; and rejects the sociologist's one-sided emphasis on the grassroots of ethnicity (gentile ties), as one finds in the current studies of the so-called 'ethnic process'. Despite retarding influences of religion and tribalism in India, nationalities went on developing there and getting integrated into the simultaneously emergent 'Indian people' (or, as we are inclined to put it so, the 'Indian nation'), following the appearance of capitalist relations. "The political unity of India, more consolidated and extending further than it did under the Moghals was the first condition of its regeneration. That unity, imposed by the British sword", Marx said in 1853, "will now be strengthened by the electric telegraph."3IThat unity what remained of it after the Partition of 1947, we may add h- as indeed been substantially preserved and further strengthened in the subsequent period of one and a ouarter century of new technology and mass comlnunication media. 2 "The market is the first school in which .the bourgeois learns its nationalism". Ibid, p 316. 3 Quote from - V I Lenin, 'Right of Nations to Self-Determination', "Collected Works", Volume 20, 1913-1914, Moscow, 1964, p 453n. 4 For relevant comments by Tagore in 1919 see "Ravindra-Rachanavalii" (in Bengali) Centenary Edition, Government of West Bengal, Calcutta, Volume 15, pp 284-5. 5 See E M S Namboodiripad, "The National Question in Kerala", Bombay, 1952, pp 51-58. A mere community of culture should not have been mistaken for a nationality or nation in the making, as Irfan Habib rightly pointed out in 'Emergence of Nationalities' in Social Scientist, Trivandrum, 37, August 1975, pp 16-17. 6 Though the active agency of the Ahom royal court and the popular neo-vaishnavite movement, a consolidated and distinct Assamesespeaking communitv of culture was develpped by, then, into which tribes and other smaller communities merged or tended to merge. 7 For my earlier, not quite satisfactory, attempts at conceptualisina this duality, see 'Great Nationalism, and the Problem of Integration: A Tentative View', ELPW,Annual Number, February 1979. 8 S Sarkar, "The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal", New Delhi, 1973, p 494. 9 Ajit Roy, 'Some Aspects of the Natioiial Question in India', Marxist Review, Calcutta, October 1967, p 22 and 'National Problems in India and Pre-Revolutionary Russia', Social Scientitst, August 1975, pp 21-32. 10 The relevant data on the Government officers (source: United News of India, 1967) are taken from Table 1 of Ajit Roy's Social Scienitist article, n 9, and those related to the anny are from Table 1 in Prakash Karat, 'Theoretical Aspects of the National Question', Social Scientist, August 1975, pp 5-13. The aforesaid issue of the Social Scientist is focused on the Indian national question. Incidentally, some of my points were earlier effectively made by Roy, Karat and Irfan Habib in this very issue. 11 For an understanding of the northeast India and its problems, see S K Chaube and others, 'Regional Development and the National Question in Northeast India', Social Scientist, August 1975, pp 40-66. Also see Bhaben Barua, "Language and National Question in Northeast India", Bani Prakash, Gauhati, n d. 12 Quote from Presidential address delivered at the 1926 annual conference of the Assam Sahitya Sabba at Dhubri by Benudhar Rajkhova (1872-1955). 13 Amalendu Guba, 'Little Nationalism turned Chauvinist: Assam's Anti-Foreigner Upsurge 1979-80' EPW, Special Number, October

Review of Political Economy July 1982 1980; also, 'Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: A Reply' and 'Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: A Summing Up', ibid, April 25, 1981 and May 23, 1981, respectively. This had particularly been noted in the 'Note on National Question' in the CPI(M) "Work Report (Political) of the Central Conmittee to the Ninth Congress", Calcutta, 1972. See, Rosa Luxemburg, "The National Question: Selected Writings", edited by H B Davis, New York, 1976. For instance, Myron Weiner wrote his cointroversialbook, "Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India", Princeton, 1978, with financial support from several US agencies including the Behavioural Siciences Research Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health and the RockefellerFord Programme for Population Research. This book motivated by America's concern for India's mental health and interest in ethnic tensions, had wide circulation in Assaimn and lent ideological stupport to the xenophobia and outburst of. chauvinism there and persisted through 1979-1981. While upholding the legitimacy of and the right to national self-determination in the era of bourgeoisdemocratic revolutions, Lenin did nqt fail, in his 'Critical Remarks on the National Question', also to point out: 'The eoonomic development of capitalist society presents 'us with examples of inmnture national movements... and also examples of assimilation /.,f nations. The proletariat, however, far from undertaking to uiphold the national development of everv nation, on the contrary, warns the masses against such illusions, stands for the fullest freedom of I capitalist intercourse and welcomes every kind of, assimilation of nations, except that which is founded on force or privilege" (emphasis ours). "Collected Works", ;'Volume 20, 'p 35.
Quote
from

14

15

16

17

Notes
[This is a working paper to be presented at the proposed Indo-Soviet Symposium on "Marxist Understanding of the Nature of the State with Special Reference to Developing Countries" to be held at the Madras Institute of Development Studies in 1982. I am grateful to mnycolleagues, Javeed Alam, Gyan P'andey and SainjibMukherjee for their comments on the earlier draft, which were found useful while revising it. For errors of fact or interpretation if any, the responsibility is however
entirely mine.]

18

1 See J V Stalin. 'Marxism and' Nntional Quiestion',"Selected Works", Volmane1, 2, 1907-13, Moscow, 1953. His em-phasison one language could however, according to us, be overlooked in cases where easy market comimunication is made possible by historically evolved widespread bilingualismn/multilingualism (as in the case of Switzerland) or thes wide acceptance of a common link language. Although Soviet scholars are currentlv critical of Stalin's definition, thev still hold, like other Marxists, community of language as an essential condition for the making of a nation/nationality. The case of the Swiss nation is only an exception to them,

'Bengal: Rise and Growth of a Social Nationality', Scientist, August 1975, p 81n. 19 Ibid, pp 68 and 81n I words in quote are Chatterjee's. Contemporary Soviet scholars also think that "the term, natsionatnost has a broader range of meanings covering not only capitalist and socialist nations, but also peoples of precapitalist class formations." See I R Grigulevich and S Y Kozlov, ed, "Races and peoples: Contemporarv Ethnic and National Problems", Mo,cow, 1974, p 36n; also see ibid, pp 197-99 .and Yu V Bromley, 'Toward Typology of Ethnic Processes' in Sociological Studies: Ethnic Aspects, Moscow, 1974. pp 8, 19ui and 16-17. 20 F Engels, 'DECAY Feudalism and of Ri.se of National States', appended P141

Partha

Chatterjee,

to "The Peasant War in Germany", Moscow, 1974, pp 1.78-88, cited by Chatterjee. From the 14th to the 16th century, notes Engels in his book, "commercial capital had transformed the natural economy of the European peoples and rendered the political system of feudalism redundant." "Since the leaders and masters of this process were the merchant capitalists, the creation of these national ties" said Lenin in another context, "was nothing else than the creation of bourgeois ties." "Collected Works", Volume 1, Moscow 1963, p 155. 21 Quotes fromn A R Katnat, 'EthnoLinguistic Issues in Indian Federal Context', EPW, june 14-21, 1980, p 1061. Kamat refers to pp 78-80 in "Nationalism and Social Communication", New York, 1953 by Deutch for the definition of a nationalitv. In ordinary usage, by the term 'nationalitv' is meant 30 either a nation or a "race forming part of one or more political nations", Concise Oxford Dictionary". Neither of these meanings is conveyed by the Russian term 'natsionalnost'. Again, in English, the telm 'nation' often stands for a country's citizenry as such, but 'natsya' in 'Russian is hardly used in this sense. 22 Kamat, op cit. pp 1061-62. 2.3 "Note oIn National Question",
CPI(M) Work Report: 1972, op cit,

p 95. 24 Ibid, pp 95-103. Two terms 'nationality' and 'sub-nationality are used in the document, but how to distinguish them has been left vague. On the other hand, the other term 'niation' is scrupulously Bakelite avoided throughout this document. 25 Quote from the CPI(M) Central maker of indusCommittee's resolution on 'Situation BAKELITE HYLAM, trial plastics raw materials such as Democracy, People's in Assam', November 8, 1981. phenolic resins, phenolic moulding 26 Quoted in Baris I Kluyev, "India: materials, polyester resins and other National and Language Problem", allied products and,,industrial and deNew Delhi, 1981, p 54. 27 One of the three 1866 articles by corative laminates, is entering the marEngels on the Polish question cited ket on August 11 with an issue of in V I Lenin, 'The Discussion on 9,00,115 equity shares of Rs 10 each Self-Determnination Sumnmed-up', "Collected Works", Volume 22, at a premium of Rs 5 per share. The issue is being made to comply with the Moscow 1964, p 342n. reference, conditions of reduction of non-resident 28 For quotes and general Fei Hsiao Tung, 'On the Social equity holding in the company from Transformation of China's Minority 50 per -cent to 40 per cent as stipulatNationalities', mimeographed paper ed by the central government in the in Englislh presented at the Asian Sympositm, on Intellectual Creati- 'letter of intent' for expansion of vity in Endogenouis Culture, spon- laminates capacity from 3,000 to sored bv United Nations University 5,800 tonnes. The proceeds of the and Kyoto University, Kyoto, No- issue- will be utilised to meet part vember 13-17, 1978. For access to it, I am inidebted to my colleaguLe of the capital expenditure for the project estimated to cost Rs 3.80 crore. Barun IDe. For the evolution of the Com- This project is expected to be communist poliev oi) China's national pleted in September 1983. The com(iuestion, see Chang Chih-i, "A pany has also drawn up plans for Discussion of the National Ques- diversification. It has been issued a tion in the Chinese Revolution and the Actual Nationalities Policy: 'letter of intent' for manufacture of :Draft", Beijing, 1956 in translation phenolic foam and urea formnaldehyde in George Moseley, "The Party' foam for an annual capacity of 500 and the National Qulestion in China", Massachulsetts, 1966, tonnes each and phenolic foam products and urea formaldehyde foam ques- products for annual capacity of 150 29 In its note on the nlatioxnal PI&12

tion, the CPI(M) emphasises-that "the tribal people and more particularly the small border- rationalities, in several respects, suffer not only from crass class oppression but also a sort of 'national' oppression, at the hands of the other more advanced natikmalities". Its pro,gramme therefore states: "The tribal areas or the areas where population is specific in ethnic composition and is distinguished by specific social and cultural conditions will have regional autonomy with regional governlment within the state concemnedJ and shall receive full assistance for their development." A resolution adopted in ts eleventh congress at Vijaywada 1982 once more highlights this policy. Limited autonomy may or may not be always a step to still greater autonomy or even self-determination. On this point, see Lenin, n27, pp 344-5. The Tharkhand problem could largely be solved by creating compact autonomous areas within the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal on the Tripura model. However, a complete solution of the problem of ethnic conflicts, as elsewhere, is not possible without a radical transfornation of the co<untry's economy. Tagore was of opinion that the termi 'nation' could niot be satisfactorily translated into any Indian language. Nevertheless, he thought, one could coin the ternm'adhi-jati' In Bengali, for the purpose. See n4 above. Later, we find him suggesting the term apparently, for the same 'rImahiati',

purpose. In Hindi and Marathi languages, the term 'nation! is translated as 'rahtra' - a word that stands for 'State' in Bengali and Assamese. 31 Quote from 'T'he Future Results of the British Rule in India', New York Daily Tribune, August 8, 1853. .32 Quotes from 'The Revolt in the Indian Army', ibid, July 15, 1857 and 'The East India Company Its History and Results', ibid, July 11, 1853. In 'Indian Question', ibid, August 14, 1857, Disraeli is reported by Marx to have explained the causes of the 'national revolt' in terms of a change in the Britishi policy towards "the different nationalities of which India con-

sisted&'.
k

.3:3 Quote from 'The Revolt in the Indian Army'. 34 Ibid; also 'Indian Revolt', ibid, August 4, 1857 and 'The Indian Question'. True that Indian merchant capital and other middle classes did not give any support to, rather opposed, this revolt. Its driving force was undoubtedly the disaffected peasantry and rural artisans who looked forward to freedom and a reduction of their land taxes, despite their being led by zamindars and princes. Later, the middle classes too began to take a svmpathetic note of this great event while coming forward with a modern ideology of nationalism, in course of the following decades. .)5 Quote from 'The Future Results of the British Rule in India'.

Hylam
tonnes each. Technology for these products is totally indigenous based on in-house R and D work. Steps have been taken for setting up a pilot plant for establishing technical viability of the project. The company also holds a 'letter of intent' for manufacture of marine, boards for an annual capacity of 3,200 tonnes. As a leader in the field of thermosetting plastics in India, the company has made rapid technological advances with assistance of 'Bakelite Xylonite and Bakelite UK, both of London. The company has an impressive past record of performance with sales rising from Rs 4.55 crore in 1971 to Rs 15.07 crore in 1977 and to Rs 26.78 crore in 1981. Its reserves increased from Rs 82 lakh in 1971 to Rs 3.31 crore in 1981 (after a 2: 3 bonus issue). It has been quite consistent in paying dividends too.- According to the Chairman, J N Guzder, taking into account the repid growth and earning potential of the company the management takes an optimistic view of its future. / The public issue is managed by J M Financial and Investment Consultancy Services.