Interior of N. C.

College

and Station Dairy Barn, Designed by the Author.

Twin Concrete

Silos

on "Michels' Stock Farm."

Dairy Farming
BY

JOHN MICHELS,
Editor: "Butter,

B. S. A.,

M.

S.

Cheese & Egg Journal" and "The Milk Dealer.' Author and Publisher of "Creamery Buttermaking" and "Market Dairying." Formerly Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry in the North Carolina
State College of Agriculture.

THIRD EDITION, REVISED

ILLUSTRATED

MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
Published by the Author

1911
All Rights Reserved

COPYRIGHT, BY JOHN MICHELS

1907 and 1911

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

In the preparation of this work, the endeavor has been
to arrange in a concise and systematic form the essential facts relating to the science and practice of dairy farming.
It

embodies the Author's twenty years' experience,

both as a practical dairyman and as a student and teacher of dairy husbandry. Technical terms have been avoided
as far as possible, in order that the book may not only meet the needs of the class-room, but also serve as a convenient and useful handbook for farmers not versed
in the sciences.

In preparing the third edition of Dairy Farming, a thorough revision has been made of the entire book and about one hundred pages of new matter added. The addition of the large

amount of important new matter should

materially increase the usefulness of the book. The general adoption of the book as a text and refer-

ence book in American Dairy Schools and the warm reception that has been generally accorded it, naturally has

been a source of

much

satisfaction to the author

to leave nothing

prompted him more than ever

and has undone

in the present revision to make the book worthy of the confidence in which it is being held.

304797

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
I.
I.

THE DAIRY HERD.

Page.
7

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

II.

III.

IV.

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

IX.

Dairy Farming a Profitable Business... Evolution of the Dairy Cow Selection of Dairy Cows Selection of Dairy Sires Building Up a Dairy Herd Breeds of Dairy Cattle Feeding the Dairy Cow Silos and Silage Method of Keeping Herd Records
Milking

n
17

20 25
33
52

X.

60 68
73 82

XL
XII.
XIII.

Herd Management
Rearing the Dairy Calf Dairy Barn Handling Farm Manure Pow.er on the Farm Diseases and Ailments of Dairy Cattle..
II.

86
101

XIV.

XV.
XVI.
PART

106

no

MILK AND

ITS PRODUCTS.

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

Chapter Chapter Chapter

XVII. XVIII.

Milk

123
135

The Babcock Test

Bacteria and Milk Fermentations

XIX.

146
155 165

XX.
XXII. XXIII.

Sanitary Milk Production

XXL Farm
XXIV.

Butter-Making Farm Cheese-Making

Starters

187 193

XXV.
XXVI. XXVII.
XXVIII.

Soft and Fancy Cheese-Making Cooling and Aeration of Milk

199

and
205

Cream

How

Good Market Marketing Milk and Cream Ice Cream Making

to Secure a

213 217 228

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page.

Chapter Chapter Chapter

XXIX.

XXX.
XXXI.

Skimmilk-Buttermilk Certified Milk Relative Market Value of Milk and Products

PART
III.

233

236
Its

239

SUPPLEMENT.
244
253

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

XXXII. XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.
XXXVI. XXXVII.
XXXVIII.

Valuing Dairy Stock Legumes (Alfalfa and Clovers) The Dairy House Washing and Sterilizing Milk Vessels. Keeping Accounts Water and Ice Supply
Dairy By-Products Machine Milking Pasteurization of Milk and Cream

256
.263

269 274 280 282 284 287

XXXIX.
XL.
!

Appendix Index

293

PART

I.

THE DAIRY HERD.

CHAPTER
I.

DAIRY FARMING A PROFITABLE; BUSINESS.

That dairy farming is a profitable business is fully attested by its unprecedented growth during the past decade and a half. No other branch of agriculture has
ever witnessed such rapid development in a similar period of time. Its growth has not been confined to any particular section or sections of the country, but has

been

noticeable in

all sections.

The profits that have prompted this rapid and general expansion of the dairy business have been derived from
two sources: (i)
direct profits realized

from the

sale of

milk, cream, butter and cheese; (2) indirect profits accruing from an increased fertility of the land and the con-

sequent increased productiveness of the same. It is pretty well conceded that in genDirect Profits. eral dairy cows yield greater returns for feed consumed

than either swine, sheep or beef animals. A good cow will yield not less than 300 pounds of butter a year, which,
at 25 cents per

pound,

is

worth $75.
7

Adding

to this the

value of 6,000 pounds of skim, milk at 20 cents per 100,

DAIRY FARMING
calf,

and $10 as the value of the

we have

total

income

of $97 a year. Subtracting from this $50 as the average cost of the feed, we have $47 remaining to pay for the labor and interest on investments.

Where good milk and cream markets are available the income from the sale of milk and cream may be actually double that from butter at 25 cents per pound. Moreover, with cows of a higher productive capacity than that here considered, the profits would be more than proportionally increased.

Indirect Profits.

The marvelous growth

of the dairy

industry has in part been necessitated by the need of conserving and increasing the fertility of lands that have

been cultivated without due regard to maintaining soil The selling of raw products from the farm, fertility.
such as hay and grains, has been a constant source of soil impoverishment. This method of robbing the soil of its natural plant food has made farming in many of the New
out the aid of commercial
states as

England and Southern States well nigh impossible withIn some of these fertilizers.

much

as $7,000,000

is

expended annually for

these fertilizing materials. By feeding the raw materials of the farm to dairy cows, we are not only manufacturing high priced products as

compared with the value of the raw material, but we are upon the farm that valuable by-product, the manure, which contains about 75% of the fertilizing conretaining
stituents originally present in the feed.

Where

only but-

ter is sold, practically all of the fertilizing ingredients of

the feed are recovered, since butter contains scarcely any Even where cream is sold about fertilizing material.

95%

of the fertilizing value of the feed

is

retained

upon

the farm.

CHAPTER

II.

EVOLUTION OF THE: DAIRY cow.

The dairy cow is one of the most useful as well as one of the most profitable of all our domestic animals. Her products not only supply an indispensable want in the

human dietary, but they are also the source of to her owner.
tors a

much

profit

Comparing the modern cow with her primitive ancesmost interesting and instructive evolution in her

milk giving function is noted. In the wild or primitive state her milk production was confined to a short period
following parturition and was barely sufficient for the support of the calf. In her present form the amount of

milk necessary for the support of the calf constitutes but

a small part of her total possible production and
tion
is

its

secre-

almost incessant.

Like the race horse, the dairy cow has been bred and handled for a specific purpose for a number of centuries.

Continued specialization has resulted not only in an enormous increase of milk and butterfat production, but
as a result of such increased production there has been created a specific conformation known as the dairy type. At no period in the development of the dairy cow have

made as in the past half a centhe period of general and systematic imIndeed, tury. provement in the common stock may be said to date from
such great strides been
the invention of the Babcock

average butter production

test. Fifteen years ago the was approximately 125 pounds

10
per cow.

DAIRY FARMING
To-day the average production appoximates
of

175 pounds per cow. There are hundreds

herds

scattered

over

the

country that average

many

300 pounds of butter per herds exceed even the 400 pound mark.

cow and
Scores

of individual cows could be mentioned that have reached

the 600

cow holds

and 700 pound mark, and the world's champion the phenomenal record of an even 1,000 pounds
the
factors

of butter in one year.

Among

that

have been instrumental

in

bringing about the remarkable evolution in the milk producing function of the cow, the following are the most
important:
best

(i)

selection,

milkers; (2) liberal proper milking; (4) suitable environment, including con-

or breeding only from the and judicious feeding; (3)

ditions as to housing and sanitation; (5) good care and These factors will always continue the management. most important in the improvement of our modern herds, and will be discussed in the chapters which follow.

CHAPTER

III.

SELECTION OF COWS.
Success in dairying depends in a large measure upon one's ability to select the right animals in starting and Unless adapted by nature for building up the herd.
dairy purposes, cows will remain unprofitable in spite of the best feed and management. The first lesson the

criminate

dairyman has to learn, therefore, is to know how between good cows and poor cows.

to dis-

The
:

cardinal points to consider in the selection of a cow are (i) butter fat production; (2) type; (3) purity of breed-

ing; (4) pedigree; and (5) health.

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION.

The

best guide in the selection of

tester.
It

cows

is

the actual

butterfat record as determined by a pair of scales

and a

not enough to simply know the quantity of milk yielded by a cow; one must also know its fat content, for it is this that measures the value of

Babcock

is

milk for commercial uses as well as for butter and cheese

production.

The method
of cows
is

of determining the butterfat production

treated in detail in chapter IX.

CONFORMATION OR TYPEwith
All dairy experts recognize a definite type as associated The judge in the economical milk production.
his

show ring bases

judgment
11

entirely

upon type or con-

12
formation.
ion

DAIRY FARMING
While there still may be differences of opinbreeders as to minor points, these are really

among
little

The points that go to make up consequence. the ideal type will be treated under six heads: (i) dairy
of

temperament; (2) feeding capacity; (3) constitution; (4) milk organs; (5) quality; and (6) pelvic region.

23

Fig. 1. Points of a Dairy Cow. 6. Loins. 5. Back. 3. Neck. 4. Withers. 2. Forehead. Muzzle. 12. Chest. 11. Shoulder. 10. Pin bone. 9. Rump. 8. Pelvic arch. Hip. 17. Milk well. 18. Milk 16. Flank. 15. Belly. 14. Side. 13. Heart Girth. vein. 19. Fore udder. 20. Udder. 21. Teats. 22. Hind udder. 23. Thigh.
1. 7.

Dairy Temperament. This is indicated by a rather form large, bright, expressive eyes, far apart and placid a rather long, clean face slightly dished forehead wide and rather long; wide juncture of head and neck; a large, straight, prominent backbone with well defined spinal processes; ribs and vertebrae wide apart sharp withers spare, incurving thighs and a high arching flank all of which indicates strong nerve development, or power to do work.
spare, angular
;

Feeding Capacity.
deep, capacious barrel,

indicated by a long, broad, showing well sprung ribs diverging

is

This

toward the rear; a broad muzzle; and a strong jaw.

THE DAIRY HERD

Constitution.
eyes
;

13

This

is
;

large, open development; strong abdominal walls; absence of extreme refinement; and a soft, pliable skin with plenty of
;

nostrils

indicated by large, bright, clear wide, deep chest strong navel

secretion

all

heavy milker

of which indicates strength and vitality. is one of the hardest worked of

all

animals, and unless possessed of a strong constitution, she can never do her maximum work and an early break-

down may

be expected.

Milk Organs. These

elastic udder,

large,

include a large, evenly quartered, well forward and well up behind; running tortuous milk veins running well forward and
;

branched

medium

numerous, large, capacious milk wells ; and sized teats, squarely placed, and far apart. Large, fleshy udders are undesirable, as they possess a

relatively small milk elaborating capacity,

and are more

subject to disorders than moderately large, elastic' udders. The milk veins, which carry the blood away from the

udder, are deserving of careful attention. When the orifices (milk wells) through which they enter the body are
large, the size of the

milk veins

may

be taken as a

fair

amount of blood they carry. large flow of blood away from the udder presupposes a large flow into it, and since milk is secreted from
indication of the

the blood, the quantity which flows through the veins must be some indication of milk producing capacity. Quality. This is indicated by a soft, oily, pliable skin,

of medium thickness
refined ears

short, soft silky hair yellow secretion in the ears; fine textured bone; rather small and
; ;

horns

and horns yellowish wax at the base of the and a general absence of coarseness in any part.
;

Pelvic Region.

This should be large to afford room

its

for the calf, especially during

delivery.

good pelvic

14
region
hips
is

DAIRY FARMING
indicated by a high, long, broad rump, broad and good width between the pin bones.

and

loins,

Additional observations on type should be directed

to the following: Shoulder, free from flesh and rather sharp at the withers tail, long and refined hocks, clean,
; ;

well apart, and pointing straight backward, giving roominess for the udder front legs, straight and well apart,
;

with toes pointing directly forward.

The

escutcheon, which refers to the rear portion of the

animal where the hair turns up, was the subject of considerable study by a Frenchman named Quenon, who

regarded the size and shape of it as the chief indication of merit in dairy cows. At the present time, however,
very
little

importance

is

attached to this point.

PURITY OF BREEDING.
Selection
like."
is

based upon the law that "like produces

to this law the characters of the parents are transmitted to the offspring with a greater or less degree of certainty. The purer the breeding of the

According

parents the greater the certainty of such transmission.

Thus, for example, one can figure with much certainty that the progeny of pure-bred parents of the same breed
resemble its parents in all essential characteristics. the other hand, there is no certainty whatever that the off-spring of parents of promiscuous breeding will resemwill

On

ble

its

lars.

It

parents, either in important or unimportant particumay be like them or it may be totally unlike them.

It is the long period of breeding along one line without admixture of foreign blood that gives the pure-bred animal the superior power of transmitting its qualities to
its offspring, a power which is known as prepotency. In the building up of a dairy herd it is of the highest im-

THE,

DAIRY HERD

15

portance to have animals which transmit their qualities to their offspring with a high degree of certainty, and it
is

for this reason that pure-bred animals are so

much

pre-

ferred to those of promiscuous breeding.

PEDIGREE.

A
an

of pedigree is a recorded statement of the ancestry in many cases simply as a It is furnished animal.

guarantee of purity of breeding. Its real value, howev'er, is determined by the merit of the animals which it represents. 300 pound butter cow with an unbroken list of noted dairy performers back of her is much to be pre-

ferred to a 300 pound cow among whose ancestors some inferior individuals are found, and especially if the inferior individuals are near ancestors.

While, generally, pedigreed animals are much to be preferred to those of promiscuous breeding, it by no means follows that all pedigreed animals are desirable. Far from it. There probably are now-a-days as many poor
pedigreed dairy animals as good ones.

"Scrubs" are

found among pedigreed cows

among common
less frequently.

they are found or native cows, though of course far

just, as

The reason of among pure-bred

the

existence of
is

inferior

individuals

dairy animals

found
is

in the fact that

eligibility to registration in

most cases

not based upon

production or individual excellence, but upon purity of This fact has made it possible for many breeding.
animals to enter the herd register which, by nature, were In the purchase of pure-bred fit only for the shambles. stock, therefore, no judicious selection can be made from
a mere
this list
list
is

of

names of

individuals,

or

how "high sounding"

the

no matter how long names it contains

16

DAIRY FARMING
be.

may

One must know

the production and individual

excellence of the animals represented in the pedigree. The greatest stress should be laid upon the near or

immediate ancestry of the animal under consideration. Fortunately there is what is known as an advanced registry, or register of merit, the basis of admission to
which, in addition to pure breeding,
is

the merit of the

individuals as dairy performers. It is much to be hoped that this method of registration will soon replace entirely the common method whose sole requisite for registration
is

purity of breeding.

HEAI/TH OF ANIMALS.
contagious abortion, imperative to make the matter of health an important consideration in the selection of Indeed diseased animals, no matter how dairy animals.

The prevalence

of

tuberculosis,
it

and other

diseases,

makes

valuable in other respects, should be rigidly excluded from

the herd.
It is

making rigid inquiry culosis and contagious

less

the height of folly to select dairy animals without as to their freedom from tuber-

abortion. Yet there are many who do not even inquire about these and other diseases, much

make

investigation such,

for example, as a tuber-

culin test.

CHAPTER

IV.

SELECTION OF DAIRY SIRES.

of the dairy sire is recognized in the ''The bull is half the herd." Usually, howexpression, ever, the bull is more than half the herd, either for good

The importance

or bad.

In the case of

common

or grade cows, for

example, the pure-bred bull may count for three-quarters or more of the herd, by reason of his greater prepotency.

To

ment or

so great an extent does the bull determine the improvedeterioration of the herd as to call for the utmost

caution in his selection, which should be based upon the (i) purity of breeding; (2) pedigree; (3) following:
type; (4) prepotency; and (5) health.

Purity of Breeding.

Under no circumstances should

anything but pure-bred sires be used. The value of purity of breeding has already been discussed under the selection
of the dairy cow. It should be understood, however, that purity of breeding is of greater consequence in bulls than in cows, for the reason that improvement in the herd
is

usually expected to be brought about through the dairy

sire.

In the case of a dairy bull, especially a value is determined by the performance of his ancestry. The points of greatest importance

Pedigree.

young

bull, his chief

to consider in his pedigree are the following: (i) the merit of his mother and his sire's mother; (2) the merit

of the daughters of his sire and grand sire; (3) the value of the daughters of his dam and his grand-dam;

17

18

DAIRY FARMING

(4) the value of his sisters, if he has any; and (5) the value of his own progeny, if he has any. The further back consecutively good records can be
traced the

more valuable the animal. It should always be remembered, however, that near ancestors count for a great deal more than those more remotely related.
Type.

The

external qualities of a good sire are indi-

cated by a masculine head and neck; bright, prominent eyes, far apart; a strong, sinewy jaw; broad muzzle;

wide open
barrel
;

nostrils

soft, loose, oily hide,

deep, broad chest deep, capacious of medium thickness clean

;
;

bone; large rudimentary

;

teats,

squarely placed and

far

apart and a general spareness of flesh, especially in the region of the shoulders, thighs, and hips. Indeed, from the shoulders backward, the dairy bull should have the same general outline as that possessed by the dairy cow. He should have a strong, resolute appearance and an active style, showing that abundance of vigor so neces-

sary in a good breeder. Prepotency. It has already been stated that this term signifies the power which an animal possesses of trans-

mitting its own qualities to its offspring. The possession of this power is of the highest importance in a dairy bull, for it matters little how good a pedigree or how fine an individuality he may have, if he lacks in the power of
transmission he
is a failure. Prepotency in an animal with the purity and closeness of breeding, and increases

is

indicated to

some extent by a
a

appearance,

reflecting

strong

strong, resolute, vigorous constitution and an

abundance of nerve development. The full extent, however, to which a sire is prepotent can be determined with certainty only from his offspring.

THE DAIRY HERD

It is for this

19
is

reason that a middle-aged bull

so

much

more

desirable than a young, untried bull. bull with descendants is always the safest animal

for the purchaser to buy.

Nothing can speak more for a

bull than the satisfactory performance of his offspring. Health. Everything that has been said with reference
to health in the selection of

cows

(p.

16) applies with

equal force to dairy sires.

CHAPTER

V.

BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD.

I.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED.

II.

III.

STARTING THE HERD. BREEDING UP THE HERD.

I.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED.

Underlying Law. The success in building up a dairy herd depends to a great extent upon one's ability to select individuals with reference to the points considered in the
preceding two chapters; that is, the ability to make a To emjudicious selection of both males and females.
phasize more fully the importance of rigid selection it should be remembered that all selection is based upon
the law that "like produces like," or that the offspring will be like the parents. The essence of this law is that

good milkers
will

will

produce good milkers and poor milkers^

produce poor milkers.

:

this law operates is dependent upon three things ( i ) purity of breeding (2) closeness of blood relationship; and (3) similarity of parents.
;

The uniformity with which

Purity of Breeding.

The purer

the breeding the

greater the certainty with which animals will transmit their own characteristics to their offspring. See p. 14.

Closeness of Blood Relationship.

The

characters of

parents of the same strain will reappear in the progeny with greater regularity than those of parents of different strains in the same breed. This fact is recognized in
in-and-in breeding, which
is

an attempt to secure and

20

THE DAIRY HERD

21

Inspeedily fix desirable characters by close breeding. and-in breeding can be practiced with success, however, only in the hands of skilled breeders.

In the case of crossing one breed upon another as, for example, a Holstein-Friesian upon a Jersey, it is often mistakenly supposed that the progeny of such a cross
partakes equally of the characters of both parents. This may occur in some instances, but more often the offspring
will resemble either

one parent or the other, or neither.

is

But even where the offspring does partake equally of the

characters of both parents, such a cross

undesirable

because the offspring is not capable of transmitting its characteristics with any degree of certainty. In the hands
of the average dairyman transmission in crossing is uncertain and unsatisfactory, and for this reason crossing

should not be attempted. When a cow of nondescript or promiscuous breeding is bred to a pure-bred sire, the progeny will largely partake
of the characters of the
sire,

by reason of

his greater

prepotency. With what degree of regularity and to what extent this occurs depends upon the degree of prepotency. The offspring of a highly prepotent sire and a common or native cow will take on nearly all the essential characteristics

of the

sire.

In such a case

it is

plainly seen that the

sire

counts for a great deal more than half the herd. In the case of grade cows the influence of the pureless the closer the

bred bull becomes

grade approaches

purity of blood. But only in the case where the cows are pure-bred, or more strictly of equal prepotency with the bull, can it be said that the bull is only half the herd.

Similarity of Parents. In mating animals it should always be remembered that the greater the similarity of all
their characteristics the greater the certainty of trans-

22
mission.

DAIRY FARMING
Where animals

of great extremes of size, conformation, function, disposition, or nervous organization, are mated, somewhat the same results may be looked for
that are obtained in crossing animals of different breeds. Mating animals of highly dissimilar characteristics is

spoken of as violent mating and should be avoided.

is much similarity in the parents there is a satisfactory transmission of qualities and the usually mating is often referred to as good "nicking."

Where

there

II.

STARTING THE HERD.

the average satisfactory way of startto select as foundation stock good

Grade Cows and Pure=bred farmer, the cheapest and most

ing a dairy herd
is

Sires.

With

grade cows and a pure-bred bull of one of the strictly dairy breeds. The grading up will be most rapid when
the predominant blood in the grades corresponds with the blood of the sire.

foundation of this kind, of course, does not produce stock that can be registered, but by continuing the use of good, pure-bred bulls of the same blood, stock is soon
obtained which, so far as milk and butter production is concerned, very closely approaches in value that of pure
breeding.

Pure=Bred Cows and

bred herd
is

Sires.

To

start

with a pure-

beyond the means of the maFurthermore, there is an objection jority of farmers. to placing well-cared-for, pure-bred cows under average conditions as to feed, care, and management, because under any such change the attainment of satisWhere factory results would be practically impossible.
practically

there

is

a gradual

infusion

of pure blood,

as

in

the

case

of grading

up a

herd

with pure-bred sires the

THE DAIRY HERD

new blood

23

is gradually accustomed to the change of environment and the herdsman is given the necessary time to change his methods to meet the requirements of

pure-bred

cattle.

Where

the

dairyman

understands

the

management

of pure-bred stock and has the means with which to purchase the right kind, a pure-bred herd may be started
to

good advantage.

One

of the chief
is

bred herd
of animals.

dangers in starting with^a purethe lack of funds to procure the right sort

Instead of purchasing a pure-bred bull and

a number of pure-bred cows of

policy to

common

merit,

it is

better

buy

relatively cheap,

grade cows, and to add the

money

This extra money

thus saved to that originally set aside for the bull. is likely to be the means of securing a

bull of outstanding merit.

III.

BREEDING UP THE HERD.

Sire.

Importance of

Whether the cows be grades or

pure-breds, it is of the highest importance in building up a dairy herd to secure a pure-bred bull of outstanding

dairy merit.
ers
it is

Unless the bull

is

descended from good milk-

folly to

matter
It
is,

how

expect him to produce good milkers, no fine or ideal he may be as an individual.

furthermore, of importance to remember that a herd cannot be successfully built up unless the bulls that If the are successively used belong to the same breed.

grading up is begun with a Jersey bull the process must be continued uninterruptedly by the use of Jersey blood.
In the selection of a herd bull the points discussed in the preceding chapter should be carefully considered. Selecting the Best Calves. With a first-class bull at
the head of the herd, rapid improvement
is

effected

by

24

DAIRY FARMING

selecting and retaining calves from only the best milkers, at the same time culling out those cows whose records

have not been satisfactory. This work cannot be done to best advantage unless records are kept of the quantity and quality of .milk from each cow for a whole lactation

cows in the foundanone of the calves, of course, can be registered. It is desirable, therefore, to add to the herd from time to time, as means permit, some good pure-bred cows of the same blood as the bulls that have been used. This has the advantage of enabling the owner
tion stock are grades,
to dispose of his calves to better advantage.

period, as discussed in chapter IX. Buying Cows. Where all of the

The purchase of cows, however,

'

is

always attended with

the danger of introducing contagious diseases into the herd, especially tuberculosis and contagious abortion.

For this reason the purchasing of cows should be carried on in a limited way only. It is, of course, always in order to buy cows when the object is to add to the herd purebred individuals of exceptional dairy merit. But the of buying cows should never be carried to the practice
point of
herd,

making

it

especially

since

the principal means of replenishing the the latter can be accomplished

much more
best cows.

satisfactorily

by raising the calves from the

CHAPTER

VI.

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE.

JERSEY CATTLE.

The native home

of this breed

is

the Island of Jersey,

situated off the coast of France,

and comprising 28,717

26
acres.
soil is

DAIRY FARMING
very mild and healthful, and the very productive. Here the Jersey cattle have been
climate
is

The

bred pure for a number of centuries.

shade of fawn.

The color of Jerseys is usually some Cream, dun and yellow are common, and these are frequently mixed with white. In form Jerseys
Characteristics.

THE DAIRY HERD

27

are spare, possessing a rather large barrel, a refined head and neck, and fine, clean-cut limbs. In size they are small to medium, the average weight of cows being probably

somewhat less than 900 pounds. The quantity of milk produced by Jerseys is, as a rule, not very large, but the milk is very rich, making them excellent butter producers. The color of the milk and butter is a pleasing, rich yellow.
GUERNSEY CATTLE.

The native home

of this breed

is

the Island of Guernit, is

sey, situated near the Island of Jersey, and, like

one

Fig.

4.

Typical Guernsey Bull.

Benjamin.

of the group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In size the Island of Guernsey ranks next to that of Jersey.
Its climate is

very mild and healthful and the

soil is

pro-

28
ductive.

DAIRY FARMING
Guernsey
cattle

have been bred pure for a long

period of time.

Characteristics.
in

Guernsey cattle are larger, stronger frame and constitution, and in general more rugged

noted characteristic of this breed is the very rich, yellow color 'of the milk and skin. Their predominant color is a reddish fawn, with more or less white

than Jerseys.

Fig.

5.

Typical Guernsey Cow.

Dolly Dimple.

markings. Colors bordering on a yellowish or brownish fawn with white markings, are also common. The cows average probably somewhat more than 1,000 pounds
in weight.

which
tion.

They average a fairly large yield of milk, practically as rich as that produced by Jerseys. Guernseys are also noted for their quiet, gentle disposiis

THE DAIRY HERD

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE.

has existed for

The native home of this breed is Holland, where it many centuries. The low, level, rich lands

reclaimed from the sea, furnish an abundance of grazing

30

DAIRY FARMING

and have given rise to a large breed of cattle. The winters of Holland are rather cold but not severe.
Characteristics.

The

Holstein-Friesian

cattle

are

white and black in color, have large, strong frames, and

easily

stand at the head in size and quantity of milk

The average weight of the cows approximates 1,300 pounds. While rioted for their phenomenal milk yields, the milk averages rather low in per cent of
yielded.

THE DAIRY HERD

butterfat, being lower than that of

31

any other dairy breed.

The udders and milk veins in this breed are conspicuously The shoulders are rather prominent and the hind large.
quarters as a rule, are rather thick and straight. AYRSHIRE CATTLE.

The native home

land,

of this breed

is

Ayr

county, Scot-

from which place the breed derives

its

name.

The

pastures are good, but the climate is rather severe and rough, giving this breed a high degree of hardiness.

32
Characteristics.

DAIRY FARMING

The Ayrshire cattle are a rather hardy, rugged breed, of medium size, the average weight being about 1,000 pounds. They have a deep capacious
barrel,

and the hind quarters are inclined to be fleshy. In color they may be red, white, or brown, or a mixture of The cows give a these, each color being well defined. milk containing an average per cent of good yield of
Their udders possess a high state of perfection.

butterfat.

CHAPTER

VII.

THE DAIRY cow.

I.

II.

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. PRACTICE OF FEEDING.

III.

FEEDING TABLES.

i.

PRINCIPLES OE FEEDING.

No phase of the dairy industry has received so much attention in recent years as that relating to the principles and practice of feeding. have come to learn that

We

certain underlying principles must be observed if anything like a full measure of success is to be achieved.

lesson of the student in stock feeding concerns with the following particulars regarding feeds i ) ( composition; (2) digestibility; (3) succulence and palfirst

The

itself

atability;

(4)

proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitro-

genous nutrients; (5) proportion of roughage* and concentrates! and (6) fertilizing constituents.
;

Composition.
feeds
is

knowledge of the composition of

:

First, to enable the necessary for two reasons feeder to determine the relative value of the feeds at his

disposal;

and secondly, to
of

assist

in

determining what

quantity

feed

is

necessary

to

supply the required

amount of
all

nutrients.

In studying the composition of feeds we must first of familiarize ourselves with three important groups of

*Roughage includes the coarser and less nutritious feeds, such as hay, straw, corn fodder, corn silage, etc. {Concentrates include the more nutri tious feeds, such as corn, wheat bran, cotton teeed meal, etc.

33

34
nutrients found in

DAIRY FARMING
all

feed stuffs; namely, protein, car-

bohydrates and ether extract. Protein is the nitrogenous part of feeds and is by far the most valuable of the different groups of nutrients.
Its characteristic
is

element

is

nitrogen.

The white

of egg

almost pure protein.

Cottonseed meal and linseed

meal are very rich in protein, and so are leguminous hays, such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay. Carbohydrates contain no nitrogen but are made up
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, containing the latter two elements in the proportion to form water. Sugar and
starch are almost pure carbohydrates. Crude fiber is another carbohydrate, which constitutes the woody, fibrous

part of plants.

Ether extract is the part of feeds extracted by means of ether, and consists largely of fats or oils. This group of nutrients bears a close similarity to carbohydrates,
both in composition and in function; but owing to its higher carbon content, its fuel value is 2.25 times that of
carbohydrates.

Cotton seed and flax seed are very rich

as the

in ether extract.

Dry matter,
water.

term

signifies, is the feed

minus

its

The variation

in nutrients in different feeds

is illus-

trated in the following table:

TABLE
feeds.

I.

Showing

variation in nutrients in different

THE DAIRY HERD

35

The table shows that feeds differ very widely in the amount of nutrients they contain, especially in protein, the most valuable portion of feeds. While the total nutrients give some Digestibility.
idea as to the relative value of different feeds, it is of far greater importance to know the total digestible nutrients
as

determined

animals.
ibility is

by actual digestion experiments with That feeds differ widely in degree of digestshown in the following table which contains the
of feeds given in Table
I.

same

list

TABLE

II.

Showing

variation in the digestibility of

different feeds.

Comparing

this table

with Table

I,

we

note that the

digestibility of the protein, for example, in corn stover, clover hay and cottonseed meal is 44%, $$% and

88%

respectively. of knowing, not so

These figures

suffice to

show

the need

much

the total nutrients, as the total

digestible nutrients in feed stuffs.

ible nutrients

Succulence and Palatability. The amount of digestdoes not always measure the feeding value

36
of feed
stuffs.

DAIRY FARMING
Palatability

must

also

be considered.

Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that for best results in milk production, a certain amount of suc-

must be fed as a part of the ration. Corn which is so highly prized by dairymen, probably silage, owes its high rank as a dairy feed nearly as much to its succulence and palatability as to the nutrients which it
culent feed
contains.

Proportion
Nutrients.

of

Nitrogenous

to

Non=Nitrogenous

In the production of milk, only the protein or nitrogenous part of the feed can be utilized for the

production of the protein or nitrogenous part of the milk. The non-nitrogenous constituents of the milk are largely,
if

not entirely, produced from the non-nitrogenous constituents of the feed, namely, the carbohydrates and ether

extract.

From

this

it

must be obvious that the best

results in

feeding can be obtained only from a proper balancing of the nutrients fed. Moreover, since the different nutrients
are largely to be converted into milk, it is evident also that the quantity which can be advantageously fed must

be gauged by the quantity and quality of milk produced.

Hence feeders have come to adopt what balanced rations or feeding standards.
Feeding Standards.
digestible

is

known

as

These refer to the amount of

required per 1,000 pounds of live weight in twenty-four hours. They recognize that the .nutrients fed must be in proportion to the quantity and
quality of milk yielded.

nutrients

This

is

shown by

the Wolff-

Lehman

standards presented in the following table:

THE DAIRY HERD

37
stand-

TABLE
ards.

III.

Showing Wolff-Lehman feeding

The standard
by feeders
is

that has generally been used as a guide

that formation

No.

3.

Researches during

recent years have shown, however, that the Wolff-Lehman standard calls for too much protein. These researches make it quite clear that the amount of protein

required for 22 pounds of average quality milk is nearer two pounds than two and a half pounds, and until the matter is definitely settled, it may be well to adopt two and one-fourth pounds of protein as the standard
for the milk yield referred to.

Feeding Standards as Guides. Standards for balanced rations should always be used with considerable flexibility. They should be looked upon only as guides
and as such are exceedingly
feeder
useful. Every practical that the influence of individuality counts for in the feeding of dairy cattle. ration that may be

knows

much

satisfactory for

one cow

may

not be suited to another.

We
It is

have also to consider the source of the nutrients.

that the digestible nutrients in coarse feeds pound for pound, than those in

known

yield smaller returns,

38
grains.

DAIRY FARMING

Then again the matter of proportioning the quantity of nutrients to the weight of the animal can at The
actual milk and

best give only approximate results.

butterfat production must always remain the principal factor in determining the quantity of nutrients required

by the dairy cow. Calculating Rations. By a ration is meant the amount of feed required by an animal in twenty-four hours. The method of compounding rations consists in selecting from the feeds at our disposal such quantities as will contain the

amount of
us

To

illustrate, let

make up

nutrients called for by the standard. a ration for a cow yielding

pounds of milk of average quality, using the Wolff-Lehman standard (p. 37). The feeds at our disposal are wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn meal, corn silage, corn stover and clover hay.

daily 22

By

number of
nutrients

trial

calculations

we

find

that the

required

wheat bran, 4 Ibs. of corn stover, 5

silage.

are obtained by selecting 9 Ibs. of corn, i Ib. of cottonseed meal, 5

Ibs.

of
Ibs.

the

The manner shown below

of clover hay and 30 Ibs. of corn calculation is made from Table II (p. 35) in
:

Protein in 9

Ibs.

bran
corn
corn silage

Protein in

1 Ib.

cotton seed meal

Protein in 4

Ibs.

Protein in 30

Ibs.
Ibs. Ibs.

Protein in 5
Protein in 5

corn stover
clover hay

DAIRY HERD
Amt.
100
in

39

Ibs.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

in 9 Ibs.

in 1 Ib.
in in

in

bran s. meal 4 Ibs. corn 30 Ibs. corn silage 5 Ibs. corn stover
c.

in 5 Ibs. clover

hay

= = = = = =

39.2
16.9

66.7
11.3

32.4
35.8

x x x x x x

.09 .01 .04

.30 .05
.05

= = = = = =

3.528 Ibs. 0.169 Ibs.

2.668 Ibs.
3.390 Ibs.
1,620 Ibs.

1.790 Ibs.

Total

carbohydrates

Standard

=13.165 =13.00

Ibs.

Ibs.

Ether Ether Ether Ether Ether Ether

extract in 9 extract in extract in

extract in

extract in 1

bran s. meal 4 Ibs. corn 30 Ibs. corn silage 5 Ibs. corn stover
Ibs.
Ib.
c.

extract in 5

Ibs.

clover hay

To make

the above calculation perfectly plain

it

should

be noted that the table on page 35 says that 100 Ibs. of bran contain 12.2 Ibs. of protein. If 100 Ibs. contain 12.2
Ibs.,

Ibs.

of bran will contain nine hundredths of 12.2

Ibs.

or .09
is

12.2,

method

the

which equals 1.098 Ibs. of protein. same in the remaining computations.

The

Nutritive Ratio. In speaking of rations, the terms "wide" ration and "narrow" ration are frequently used. The terms refer to the proportion of nitrogenous to nonThis proportion is nitrogenous matter in the ration.

spoken of as the nutritive

ratio,

which

is

obtained by
(heat ether

dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus 2.25 equivalent of carbohydrates) times the digestible

40
extract,

DAIRY FARMING

by the digestible protein. In the ration calculated above the nutritive ratio equals 13.17 (2.25 X -87) -j2.48

6.1

that

is

the nutritive ratio in this case

is

is i :6.i.

When

the

amount of nitrogenous matter

small as
is

compared with the non-nitrogenous matter, the ration

said to be ''wide."
is

When

the reverse

is

true, the ration

said to be "narrow."

Proportion of Roughage and Concentrates. According to our feeding standard, a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk requires a ration containing 16 pounds of digestible nutrients and a total of 29 pounds of dry matter (digestible and indigestible). This amount of dry matter means Where that the ration must have a fairly definite bulk.
the ration contains a great deal of rich concentrates in proportion to roughage, it is apt to lack in bulk. On the

other hand a ration containing a large proportion of corn stover, oat straw and similar roughage, is likely to make
the ration so bulky as to make it impossible for a heavy producer to consume enough of it to obtain the required
nutrients.

roughage and concentrates

conditions a

In the ration calculated on page 38 the proportion of is about right. Under average

cow yielding 22 pounds of milk should have a ration composed of about two-thirds roughage and oneFor greater yields it is best, as a third concentrates.
meet the requirements of the additional flow of milk, thus making the prorule, to increase only the concentrates to

portion of concentrates to roughage greater the larger the yield of milk.

These are nitroand potash. Feeds rich in these gen, constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich in them. In the selection of feeds, therefore, some attenFertilizing Constituents of Feed.

phosphoric acid,

THE DAIRY HERD

41

tion should be given to their manurial value, especially since feeds differ so widely in this respect.

An

illustration of the extent to

which feeds
is

differ in

their fertilizing or manurial constituents

table,

given in the

which shows the amount of nitrogen, following acid and potash contained in corn and cotton phosphoric seed meal. The table also shows the value of these constituents, which was obtained by rating the nitrogen at 15 cents per pound, and the phosphoric acid and potash
at
l 4 /2 cents per pound.

TABLE

IV.

Showing

fertilizing

constituents

in

corn and cottonseed meal.

The

table

shows that the

fertilizing value of a ton of

cottonseed meal exceeds that of a ton of corn by $17.30, an amount that certainly must appeal to the man who is

dairying on a business basis.

n.

PRACTICE

otf

FEEDING.
part of the ration
desirable to feed

Frequency

of Feeding.

The main
;

should be supplied in

two feeds

one in the morning and

It
is

the other in the late afternoon.

some dry roughage at noon, in the morning and evening

especially

when

the

roughage

consists of silage.

The cow,

42

DAIRY FARMING
is

on account of her large store room, the paunch,

ca-

pable of storing up a large quantity of feed and, therefore, does not require as many feeds as some other farm animals.

Order of Feeding Concentrates and Roughage.

a rule
it

As

best to feed the concentrates just previous to milking and the roughage immediately thereafter. The grain helps to attract the cows to their stalls, and, by feedis

ing the roughage after milking, we avoid tainting the milk with undesirable odors when the roughage contains these.

When

corn silage, for example,

is

fed immediately before

milking, its odor is always perceptible in the milk. fed after milking, the odor is never detected.

When
It
is

believed also that feeding the concentrates by themselves will result in a more thorough mixing of saliva with

them and thus increase

their digestibility.

Furthermore,

a great deal of dust can be avoided by feeding the roughage after milking, particularly when the roughage consists

of hay or dry fodder.

prevailing opinion that heavy concentrates will form an injurious, pasty mass in the cow's stomach does not seem to be well founded. When the concentrates are fed directly before milking and the roughage directly after, there will be sufficient mixing in the paunch before the contents pass into the stomach proper. The author for
several years, has successfully followed the practice of feeding concentrates and roughage separately when the

former consisted of as
seed meal per day.

much

as five

pounds of cotton-

Feeding Before and After Calving.

Toward

the

close of the lactation period, the grain ration should be gradually reduced, either because of the reduced flow of

milk, or on account of the desirability of drying

up the

THE DAIRY HERD

cow
so that she

43

a month's rest before calving. It should be remembered, however, that even while the cow goes dry she still requires nutritious feed to properly nourish the foetus within her. The requirements as to

may have

feed at this time call for plenty of succulent roughage, and some grain which is rich in ash and protein, at the

same time laxative

If the

in character.

feeding on good pasture the grain may be entirely withheld a month previous to calving. Indeed, if pasture is luxurious, it is desirable to restrict the time
is

cow

and

during which she is allowed to graze lest she overfeed invite milk fever. When no pasture is available, a ration consisting of corn silage, good hay and about four
will
is

pounds of grain
able grain ration

answer very

satisfactorily.

desir-

of linseed meal, wheat bran and ground oats, using these feeds in the proportion of about one pound of linseed meal and one and a half

made up

pounds each of bran and

plies

This ration not only supoats. the proper nutrients for the development of the foetus, but owing to its laxativeness, keeps the cow in

the best physical condition. few days before and after calving the grain erably supplied in the form of a warm mash.

is

pref-

Warm

water should also be freely supplied at this time. Three to six days after calving the grain should be gradually increased until the maximum amount consistent with economical production has been supplied.
If

the

calving, she will have stored reserve material which she calving, thus

cow has been properly nurtured previous up a considerable amount

draws on immediately

to

of

after

making a heavy grain

ration at this time

not only not desirable but entirely unnecessary.

Feeding Silage.

The cheapest and most

satisfactory

44

DAIRY FARMING

roughage that can be produced upon most farms, is corn Its succulence and palatability make it an ideal silage. feed for milk production. This feed should be available upon the farm the larger portion of the year. In winter
it

takes the place of

fall it is

summer pasturage; during

the late

needed to supplement the shortage of pasturage which usually occurs about this time. An average cow in full flow of milk will consume 40 pounds of silage daily to good advantage. This amount
of silage combined with 8 or 10 pounds of dry fodder or hay makes a good combination of roughage for a dairy

summer and

cow.

Feeding Grain.

It

should be remembered that silage

contains a large amount of water, and where this feed constitutes the main part of the roughage of the ration,

a considerable amount of grain must be fed to supply the The required nutrients of a heavy milk producer. amount of concentrates to be fed is, of course, largely

dependent upon the amount of milk and butterfat pro.duced by the cow.

abundance of pure water is a prime necesThis is to be expected from the sity with a dairy cow. fact that milk is largely composed of water. Where cows have no access to flowing water, they should be watered regularly morning and night; and during hot weather a third watering at noon is desirable. The fact that milk is composed so largely of water should emphasize the importance of supplying only pure water.

Water.

An

We

may

reason-

ably expect the same bad effect on the health of the cow and the flavor of the milk from stale, impure water which
is

Salt.

noticeable from the feeding of stale, odoriferous feeds. Cows should have daily access to all the salt they

THE,
care to
will
lick.

DAIRY HERD
granular
salt or

45
rock
salt

Either

common

answer the purpose satisfactorily. Feeding According to Flow. In the economical production of milk, it is absolutely essential to feed cows according to their productive capacity. Just what this productive capacity is can be determined only by keeping a careful account of the feed consumed and the milk and butterfat yielded by each cow individually. Such a record will soon show to what extent cows will profitably
respond to the feed given them. Importance of Feeding a Full Ration.
the

According

to

German feeding

standard,

pounds requires for

digestible protein, 8

cow weighing 1,000 body maintenance 0.7 pound of

a

and

pounds of digestible carbohydrates This shows digestible ether extract. that about half the nutrients called for in a ration for an
o.i

pound of

average milker are used to sustain the body so that it will neither gain nor lose in weight the other half being used to form milk. Returns for feed can, therefore, be
;

expected only from about 50% of the total nutrients required by the cow. This means that a cow on a full

would on

ration will yield practically twice as much milk as she Yet there are thouthree- fourths of a ration.

sands of dairymen who fail to supply the last quarter of a ration and thus bring ruin upon themselves and
their business.
in.

TABLE: GIVING COMPOSITION OF

At the beginning, it was stated that a knowledge of the composition of feeds was necessary for two reasons: First, to enable the feeder to determine the relative value
of the feeds at his disposal and second, to assist in determining what quantity of feed is necessary to supply the
;

46
required nutrients.

DAIRY FARMING
To
afford the feeder as wide a choice

as possible, a long table of feeds is herewith presented, showing not only the digestible, organic nutrients, but also the fertilizing constituents. This table is taken from

Henry's
author.

''Feeds

and Feeding," by permission of the

TABLE

V.

Average

digestible nutrients

and

fertiliz-

ing constituents in American feeding stuffs.

THE DAIRY HERD

TABLE
V.

47

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-G?#.

48

DAIRY FARMING
V.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-C<?.

TABLE

THH DAIRY HERD

TABLE
V.

49

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing const \tuents.-Con.

50

DAIRY FARMING
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-G?.

TABLE V.

THE DAIRY HERD

TABLE
V.
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.

51
Con.

CHAPTER
SILOS

VIII.

AND

silo is an air-tight receptacle for preserving green feeds in a succulent condition. Feed thus preserved is

known as silage. Clover, cow-peas and other forage crops have been successfully made into silage, but experience has shown that the cheapest and most satisfactory
silage
stage.
is

made from corn

cut in the denting or glazing

Silage is now universally recognized as one of the cheapest and most indispensable feeds in economical milk production. With the studious dairyman, it is no longer

a question of, "Can I afford to build a afford to be without one?"

silo," but,

"Can

Advantages of Silage.
s'lage
1.

may
It

The advantages of feeding be briefly stated as follows

:

furnishes the cheapest roughage available upon

the farm.
It furnishes roughage, 'which, in degree of suc2. culence and palatability, more nearly approaches green pasturage than anything else to be had upon the farm.
3.

Owing
it

to

its

kinship to grass in succulence and

latter

palatability,

can readily be substituted for the

during periods of drought and during late

fall

summer and
profit-

when pasturage is nearly always inadequate. It has made winter dairying a feasible and 4.

able business, because the silage readily takes the place of summer pasturage.
5.

It

furnishes a uniform feed and

makes uniformly

52

THH DAIRY HERD

good feeding a
6.

53

possibility the year round.

permits the storage of a large amount of feed in a comparatively small space.

It
7.

Where
It

the silo adjoins the barn

it

makes feeding

easy.

permits housing the corn crop regardless of the condition of the weather.
8.

9.

There

is

practically

no waste

10.

It yields

the largest

amount

in feeding. of feed possible from

the corn plant. Size of Silo.

the

The size of the silo is determined by number of cattle to be fed. In general, a cow will consume about 40 pounds of silage daily and, if fed silage 1 80 days in the year, she will consume a total of 7,200 pounds. At this rate 20 head of cattle would consume 72 tons. But it should be remembered that it re;

quires a silo of not less than 80 tons' capacity to hold cylindrical silo of this 72 tons of well made silage.

capacity will

measure about 14
(See appendix.)

feet in

diameter and 28

feet in height.

A
is

rule to follow in determining the size of a silo to estimate the amount of silage that is to be fed dur-

good

ing the year and assume a weight of 40 pounds for every

cubic foot of silage.
Silos should not be built too large.

Where

150 to 200

tons of silage are required, it is far better to put this amount of silage into two silos than into one. The height
of the silo should be limited to thirty feet. Too much power is required in elevating the silage higher than this and those who have climbed high silos will be able to
testify to the fact that
it is

not an agreeable task.

it

Where

a silo

is

built with a reasonable capacity,

is

54
also

DAIRY FARMING
more
restricted in diameter

which permits a deeper

This has the adlayer of silage to be removed daily. vantage of keeping the silage fresher in summer and re-

ducing the amount of freezing in winter. Where only one silo is used, silage is* frequently carried over from one year to another until the bottom part may be three to

For convenience of feeding, the silo should be as near the manger as possible. It is to the barn at one end by means of a preferably joined
chute, so that one can step into the silo without leaving the barn. Where the silo is thus located, it is necessary
to prevent the escape of silage odors at milking time, by providing doors for closing up the chute leading to

eight years old before Location of Silo.

it

is

finally fed.

the

silo.

Silos should be located to give

them

as

much

protection

from cold as
concrete
silos.

possible.

This

is

especially necessary with

The

location of silos with regard to keeping the silage

little

from freezing has been given too

silo builders.

consideration by

Construction of Silo. Silos should be round, having the appearance of a cylinder whose height is about twice its diameter. They may be built of wood, stone, brick,
concrete, or a combination of

two or more

of these.

As

rule, the choice is determined by the relative cost and availability of the materials mentioned.

In building a silo four things must be kept in mind. First, it must be air-tight. Second, it must have sufficient and rigidity to enable it to withstand the presstrength
sure of the silage without yielding. Third, it must have a smooth inside surface to permit the silage to settle

DAIRY HERD
readily.

55

And,

fourth,

it

must be deep so that the weight

of the silage will give compactness sufficient to expel the air which is held between the particles of silage.
It

least

desirable that the total depth of the silo be at 30 feet. Where the ground is dry, five or six feet
is

of this depth may be underground. When '30 feet is as the fixed depth, the silo can be made of the selected
desired capacity by selecting the proper diameter, which may vary from 12 to 24 feet.

CONCRETE; SILOS.

Concrete has
of an ideal silo

all

when handled

the qualities sought in the construction in the proper manner. There

time.

are various forms of concrete silos built at the present Some are built of hollow blocks, some with a
single solid wall,

and others with a double wall and an

air

space between.

where
tection

tiie

single solid wall has proven popular silo can be so located as to give it good pro-

The

The following
silos

from the cold of the winter. is a description of two single solid walled built on "Michels' Stock Farm." (See Fig. 9^.)
silos

The

(inside) and

are each fourteen feet, ten inches in diameter The walls up to within thirty feet high.

three feet of the doors are six inches thick; from this point they gradually increase in thickness to eight inches
at

the doors.

The doors

are of the continuous kind,

extending from top to bottom. The break in the silo caused by the continuous door is strengthened by running
three-quarter inch iron rods horizontally across the opening at intervals of twenty-four inches. The ends of these

rods are embedded in the concrete wall a distance of four

inches and fastened to

them are the ends of No.

5 rein-

56

DAIRY FARMING

forcing wire. reinforcing wire is laid every foot. The roof is made of lumber and covered with prepared roof-

ing paper. It took three men six days to put up the wall including the concrete bottom.

silo

Cost of One Silo.

as follows:

The

itemized cost of each

silo is

Labor, digging foundation

$16.00
. . .

Labor, putting up the concrete wall.

barrel

65.00

Thirty-nine barrels cement at $1.20 a

46.80
one-half rolls No. 5 wire at
2.47

One and

$1.65 a roll Twenty loads gravel (distance hauled 300 yards) at 40 cents a load

8.00
35-

Roof
Binding irons run horizontally across door openings
Total cost of
silo,

2.75

without doors

$176.02

up the concrete work was perwho were paid by the day and they furnished their own molds and concrete mixer. The latter was run with a one and one-half horsepower gasoline engine. No account was taken of the cost of the gasoline which, however, was small. Flowing water was
labor in putting' formed by silo builders

The

inside, right at the edges of the continuous opening for the doors, a depression, two inches deep and two inches wide, is made to receive the doors. This depression is made by putting a 2x2-inch stud in the

run right up to the Doors. On the

silo.

mold.
wide.

The doors

To

consist of pieces of planks twelve inches prevent entrance of air where the planks join,

THE DAIRY HERD

57

58

DAIRY FARMING

a layer of heavy building paper is placed between the silage and the doors when filling the silo. Advantages of Twin Silos. Two silos, if built together at one side of the barn, have an advantage also in dispensing with the building of a chute, as shown in the

accompanying

illustration.
filled

shown here can be machiner

Both silos when placed as with a single setting of the

Ground Plan of Silos.

The chute acts as an exit for the foul air from the barn. The door which connects the barn and chute is tight-fitting and slides up and down so that it can run to within
a foot of the floor; or, if desired, can be closed entirely. Using the chute as an exit for the barn air will help to

keep the silage from freezing because of the comparative

warmth
silos

of this air.

Sufficient light

is

provided in the

and chute by putting a window horizontally over

part of the top of the chute. Where two silos are used one can certainly be emptied every year so that silage in no case needs to be kept Two silos are longer than eighteen to twenty months.
desirable also for best results in feeding silage during the summer or early fall, as well as during the winter.

CONCRETE-LINED
Fig. 10

SILO.

shows a

vertical section

through such a

silo.

THB DAIRY HERD

59

'^M^ O

*srM*i$S

;-vGLJL

Tzo:

JLJUWs

Fig.

10,

5Qa

DAIRY FARMING

The 2 by 4 studding are set 12 inches apart on a circular foundation, and the l 2 inch sheeting is nailed on The inside, horizontally as shown in the illustration.

including the floor,

to one of cement.

is

cemented, using two parts of sand

Ventilation of the wall

This

is

is necessary to preserve the silo. secured by leaving a small open space at the top

holes near the

on the inside between the lining and the plate, and boring sill through the outside sheeting, covering them with wire gauze to keep rats and mice out. Any roof that sheds water is suitable for a silo, as the top need not and should not be tight. In fact, it is well to have a small opening in the roof to provide ventilation. For convenience the door of the silo should be conShort pieces of tinuous, extending from top to bottom. matched planks are commonly used for a continuous door. These are put in one by one as the filling of the silo progresses the ends being, however, first covered with a paste of clayey mud to assist in rendering the door airtight. Heavy building paper tacked on the inside of the
;

door will also help to exclude the air. The break or weakness in the silo wall caused by the continuous door is overcome by running iron rods horizontally across the door at short intervals, fastening the ends to the studding on either side of the door. Cutting the Corn. Corn for the silo should not be cut until nearly mature. This is desirable for several reasons. First, and most important, is the fact that corn at
maturity contains about five times as much dry matter as This rapid increase in it does at the tasseling stage.
nutrients

from the tasseling stage on

:

is

forcibly

shown

by the following figures obtained (Geneva) experiment station

at

the

New York

THE DAIRY HERD

Table

595

VI

Showing

nutrients in corn plant at different stages

of growth.

Dry matter,
Stage of growth.
per acre
(tons)

Fully tasseled Fully silked

0.8 1.5
full

Kernels watery to Kernels glazing

milk

2.3

3.6 4.0

Ripe

This table teaches an important lesson, and should dis-

courage farmers

from cutting young, immature corn,

either for silage or soiling purposes. Postponing the cutting until the corn has reached the

denting or glazing stage also makes silage of better qual-

At this stage the plant is less watery and the sugar has been largely converted into starch, thus preventing excessive fermentation and the formation of an undue
ity.

amount of acid

in the silage.

When the corn reaches the right Filling the Silo. stage of maturity, it should be cut at once and hauled
from the field to the silo, where the entire plant, ears and run through an ensilage cutter or shredder, cutting l The ensilage cutit into pieces from / to I inch long. 2 ters are provided with carriers which carry the silage to
all, is

any height desired

in the silo.
filled,

Where

silos

are rapidly

not less than two

silo,

men

leveling and disthe silage. This is necessary to insure uniform tributing The silage should also be silage and an even settling. the edge of the silo where, owtramped, especially along

should remain constantly in the

ing to the friction of the wall,

as elsewhere.

it

will not settle as readily

In case of rapid

filling it is best also to

leave the silage

59c
to settle a

DAIRY FARMING
day or two and then
refill.

After such settling

there will be

room

for considerably

more

silage.

and walls of the silo are air tight by construction, and where the silage has been thoroughly packed, none should spoil at these places. At the top, however, where the silage is exposed to the air and where it is less solidly packed some of it will

Covering for Silage.

The

floor

naturally spoil.

To

reduce this loss of silage to a mini-

mum, some cheap material that will' pack well, such as old, wet hay, for example, should be placed on top of the silage immediately after filling, and this should be followed by a thorough wetting so as to hasten the settling and matting process. Usually a dozen barrels of water

may

be run over the top of the silage to good advantage.

S/LAGE: TRUCK.
Depth of Silage that Must Daily Be Removed from
Top.

Owing

to the constant contact of the air with the

top layer of silage, it is necessary to remove a horizontal l layer of silage to a depth of not less than i 2 inches daily

kept in mind when building a silo, its diameter can be made such as to make possible the feeding of a layer of this depth daily.
to prevent

any from

spoiling.

If this fact

is

THE DAIRY HERD

5Qd

varies with the cost of materials

struction.

The cost of silos Cost of Silos and Machinery. and the method of con-

An Soton

silo of

for about $150.

Other

silos

the Curler type can be built of the same capacity, but

made

of different materials may cost double this amount. moderate sized ensilage cutter that would answer for an 8o-ton silo would also cost about $150.

power must be purchased a gasoline engine is recommended because of the many other uses it may serve on a dairy farm. (See Chap. XV.)
of

Where some form

moderate sized ensilage cutter when not too heavily fed can be operated satisfactorily with an eight horse power gasoline engine. The cost of such an engine is
about $250.

CHAPTER

IX.
INDIVIDUAL, COWS.

METHOD OF KEEPING RECORDS OF

Necessity of Keeping Records.

Through

the efforts

of experiment stations, private individuals, and Hoard's Dairyman in particular, tests have been made of hundreds

of herds throughout the country, only to find that in practically all of them some cows are kept at an actual loss to their owners. The failure on the part of the owners to detect the unprofitable cows may be traced
i it may be the result of reckoning ( ) with the herd as a whole, rather than the individual members composing it; (2) it may be the result of ignor-

to three causes

ing the quality of the milk; or (3) it may be due to attempts to estimate the value of the individual members by guessing at the flow of milk for a week or two when
the cows are doing their best. The lack of business method in reckoning with the herd as a whole, rather than with the individuals com-

posing

it,

is

The same may be

too apparent to need further explanation. said with reference to the practice

of ignoring the quality of the milk. Where the owner guesses the annual yield from the. quantity of milk produced for a week or two during the lactation period,

he

is

likely

to

err

in

three

guessing

in itself is

bound

to lead

( i ) important respects more or less frequently

:

to grossly erroneous estimates; (2) yearly estimates based

upon a few weeks' production ignore the fact that some cows yield milk eleven or twelve months of the year,
60

THE DAIRY HERD

61

while others produce only seven or eight months; and (3) estimates of this kind fail to consider that some

cows that
off

yield heavily for a short time

to

medium

flow,

may

and then drop be exceeded in total pro-

duction by others that never yield heavily at any period, but whose flow is quite steady from beginning to end
of the lactation period.
It is

evident from what has been

is

said that there

which we can

tell

but one method by with certainty the

value of the individual cows in a

herd, and that

method consists in and testing the milk and weighing

keeping a record of the feed con-

sumed
tion.

for the entire period of lacta-

Daily Record of Milk.

Keep-

ing a daily record of the weight of the milk of each cow is a very simple
is

and inexpensive task. All that necessary is to have some form of scales and a ruled sheet of paper upon which to record the weights of milk morning and night. Fig. n shows a cheap and convenient scales which weigh from one-tenth pound
to

30 pounds. record sheet is

convenient milk

shown below.

Weigh

Pier. 11. 0.1

Milk Scales. to 30 pounds.

The daily weighing of the milk from each cow is valuable also in serving as a check upon the work of

the milkers.

rapid shrinking in the milk is easily detected on the milk sheet and may be entirely due to

62

DAIRY FARMING
Milk Record for Month
of-

190

DAIRY HERD

63

careless milking. Great daily fluctuations in the yield of milk are also in most cases the result of indifferent

and

inefficient milkers.

Collecting Samples of Milk for Testing. The milk from each cow should be tested about once a month during the whole period of lactation.

doing

this

is

to collect

what

is

known

satisfactory way of as a composite

sample, which consists in securing about one-half ounce of milk from each of six consecutive milkings and placing this in a half pint composite sample jar (Fig. 12) con-

Fig.

13.

Test Bottle Rack.

taining a small
of
butterfat

amount of
will

composite sample
for

test of this preservative. the average per cent represent

the

period

during which the sample

was taken and

average

will serve with sufficient accuracy as the

test for the entire

month.

Each composite sample jar should be carefully labeled by placing the name or number of the cow upon it. A convenient rack for these jars is shown in Fig. 13.

64

DAIRY FARMING
Sampling and Samplers.
Immediately after milking pail into another several

the milk

is

poured from one

times and then sampled at once.

The sampling may be

( I )

done by either of two methods half or one ounce dipper shown

:

in Fig.

by means of a one14; or (2) by

means of a narrow tube shown

in Fig. 15.

Fig.

14.

Dipper Sampler.

Fig. 15.

Thief Sampler.

The dipper furnishes the simplest and easiest means of sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed and where the quantity is practically the same morning
and
night, this

With

the tube

tionate to

method of sampling is accurate. method the sample is always proporthe quantity of milk and it will draw a reo-

THH DAIRY HERD

resentative sample even

65

when

the milk has stood undis-

turbed a few minutes.

This method of sampling should

be employed, therefore, where there is much variation in the quantity of night's and morning's milk, or where
the milk
ling.
is

not apt to be thoroughly mixed before samp-

Preservatives.
after
it

Milk can not be

satisfactorily tested

has soured, owing to the difficulty of securing an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to place a

amount of preservative in the composite sample before the sampling is begun. jar The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive
small
All of sublimate, formalin and bichromate of potash. these are poisons and care must be taken to place them where children and others unfamiliar with their poisonous For conveproperties, can not have access to them.
nience, the bichromate of potash

and corrosive sublimate

from

have been put up

one to two weeks.

in tablet form, each tablet containing

enough preservative

to keep a pint of milk sweet

of potash can be from all druggists, and a quantity not to exceed procured the size of a, pea should be added to each pint composite the larger quantity is liable to interfere with jar.

The bichromate

testing.

Testing With the Babcock Test. The method of in chapoperating the Babcock test is explained in detail ter XVIII. Calculating Butterfat and Butter Yield. The monthly butterfat yield of each cow is determined by for the month by multiplying the total pounds of milk For example, if the per cent of butterfat it contains.

cow No.

produced 850

Ibs.

of milk testing

4.2%

fat,

the

66
total fat in

DAIRY FARMING
this

milk would equal 850X4.2, or 35.70

salt,

pounds. Since butter contains

83%

butterfat,

it

is

to

water, casein and only about be expected that the yield of

butter will exceed that of butterfat, provided the losses in skimming and churning are normal. The general
rule in estimating the butter yield is to increase the butterfat by one-sixth. Thus the estimated butter yield

of the 35.70 pounds of fat given above would equal 35.70 Xi 1-6 or 41.65 pounds. The difference between the butterfat and the actual butter yield is known as the

"overrun."

Estimating the Cost of Feed. The final test of the cow is the economy of production. In addition, to knowing the butterfat yield, we must also therefore, know the cost of the feed she consumed in producing it.
value of a

Obviously a daily weighing of the feed, especially as concerns roughage, is not practical upon most dairy farms. If the feed which each cow receives is weighed about
twice a month an approximate estimate of the feed consumed can be obtained by considering the weighed amount of feed as the average daily consumption for the month. To illustrate, let us suppose that cow No. X is doing full work on a ration consisting of 8 pounds of

wheat bran, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, 40 pounds of corn silage and 8 pounds of corn stover. By carefully observing the volume of the weighed amounts of each feed, approximate quantities may be measured for two weeks, after which a day's feed is again weighed and the measuring continued for the remainder of the month.
In this
feed

way an approximate estimate of the quantity of consumed for the month can be obtained with a small
labor.

amount of

By

of the different feeds

multiplying the total quantities fed during the month, by their

THH DAIRY HERD

67

respective values per ton, we obtain an approximate cost of the feed fed each cow during that period. Yearly Record of Milk, Butterfat and Feed. At the

test,

end of each month a record of each cow's milk, butterfat and butterfat production, as well as an estimate
should be entered upon a yearly

of the cost of feed, record sheet like that

shown below.
190
.

HERD RECORD FOR YEAR

CHAPTER
MILKING.

X.

Importance of the Milking Process. The profits from a dairy herd are far more largely dependent upon the conditions under which the milk is drawn than dairymen are commonly led to believe. For example, hundreds of instances could be mentioned where milk drawn under cleanly conditions has been sold for one hundred per cent more than that drawn under uncleanly conditions. But milking from the standpoint of cleanliness is in on sanitary milk prodiscussed the chapter duction and will, therefore, not be considered here.

The

conditions

that

will

be treated in the

following

pages are those which have a direct bearing upon the yield of milk and butterfat, and which are no less important in determining the profits from the herd than are those

concerning cleanliness. Milk Function Controlled by Nervous System. The various factors bearing upon the secretion of milk are
readily understood when it is remembered that the production of milk is closely associated with the nervous organization of the cow. Whatever reacts upon her nerv-

ous system will react in like degree upon the secretion

of milk.

Value of Kind and Gentle Treatment.

It is

owing

to her high nerve development that a cow is so very sensitive to excitement, boisterousness, unkindness, rough

treatment and other allied abuses which always

react

68

THE DAIRY HERD

69

so unfavorably upon the production of milk and butterfat. Especially disastrous are the effects of abuses admin-

during milking. Yet how freare dogs allowed to chase the cows to the stable, quently and how often are attendants seen with clubs which they
istered just previous to or

use as aids in getting the cows into their proper places In addition, the language and boisterousness that accompanies all this leaves no doubt that the animals are
!

mothers

treated as offending brutes, instead of willing, sensitive who are scarcely any less sensitive to harsh

words than are human mothers. Make pets out of your cows by kind treatment, for kindness is never without compensation, no matter how, when or where applied. Elaboration of Milk During Milking, If, in addition to what has been said, it will be remembered that
the larger portion of the milk is secreted during the process of milking, the importance of giving a cow the very best care and treatment at this time will be fully

apparent.
is

Furthermore, the fact that most of the milkformed during milking, materially assists in explaining

different milkers secure such varying quantities of milk and butterfat from the same cow.

why

Effect of
said
it is

Change

of Milkers,

From what

has been

easily seen that frequent changes of milkers are certain to react unfavorably upon the milk and butterfat

cow that has become thoroughly accusproduction. tomed to a certain milker will feel restless and uneasy
with a new milker, which is nowhere more plainly indicated than on the milk sheet. change of milkers, furthermore, always means a change in the manner of

milking, and, therefore, a change in the stimulation of the udder. Since the stimulation of the udder by the

milker

is

the cause of milk secretion,

it

is

evident that

70

DAIRY FARMING

a change in the method of stimulation will result in a reduction of milk and butterfat production. The wise dairyman will therefore avoid changing milkers as far
as possible, and will insist that the milk the same cows.

same milker always

Fast Versus Slow Milking. The larger yields are secured from fast milking. This may possibly be exThe fast plained upon the basis of udder stimulation.
milker will stimulate the udder to a greater degree than the slow milker, and the extra stimulus thus given evidently favors the secretion in the milk glands, as indicated

by the actual increased production. Importance of Withdrawing All the Milk. One of the most important factors in milking is securing all
the milk at each milking; that is, milking a cow dry. Whatever milk is left in the udder from one milking
to

another
as

is

acts

check

not only lost to the milker, but actually upon further secretion, so that the

habitual practice of not milking cows "clean" or "dry" results in a gradual shrinking of the milk flow and an
early "drying up" of the cow. Furthermore, the loss of the strippings means the loss of the very best milk.

The
than
as

first

i%

fat,

milk drawn from a cow usually contains less while the strippings may contain as much

14%.

Regularity of Milking and Feeding. The man who looking for satisfactory returns from his dairy must make regularity a watchword. Cows must be milked regularly at a fixed time morning and night. Milking half an hour sooner or later than the fixed time interferes much more seriously with the milk yield than is comis

monly supposed.

Not only does irregularity of milking reduce the yield of milk and butterfat, but irregularity in

THE DAIRY HERD

feeding leads to the same result.
that
If,

71
for example,

cows

have been accustomed

to receive their concentrates

before milking, should receive them at times after milknoticed. ing, a reduction in the yield would be at once

This is just what might be expected. Withholding the concentrates occasionally, will make the cows restless and
discontented, which will sufficiently jar their nervous system to cause a perceptible drop in the milk flow. Sudden

changes of feeds will act in a similar manner. Time Between Milkings. The periods between milkings should be as nearly equal as possible. For example,
if

cows are being milked

at six o'clock in the

morning,

they are also preferably milked at six o'clock at night. The more uniform the periods between milkings, the more

uniform the secretion of milk,

and consequently the

greater the production. The time between milkings also If the two milking influences the richness of the milk.
periods are not equal, it will be found that the milk of the shorter period will be the richer. Frequency of Milking. As a rule nothing is gained

by milking a cow three times instead of twice

the case of

daily.

In

exceptionally heavy milkers whose udders become unduly distended, there is, however, a distinct advantage in milking three times daily. The fact that

milk from the shorter intervals between milkings has been found richer than that from the longer intervals,
has driven some to the practice of milking average producers three times a day, with the hope of permanently increasing the test. While under such circumstances the
test

may

be raised somewhat, the raise

of a

is

only a temporary

one.

The Value
been
said,

it is

Good Milker. From what has already evident that the milker plays an important

72

DAIRY FARMING
The

part in the milk and butterfat production of cows. following data secured by H. B. Curler from his

importance of a good milker. tests, Mr. Curler found that the cows milked by the poorest milker had fallen off 9.5 pounds per head in three months, while the shrinkage
a
result

herd fully

illustrate the

own As

of two winters'

of the cows milked by the best milker during the

same

period was only 1.88 pounds per head, a difference at the end of three months of 7.62 pounds of milk per cow This fully explains daily in favor of the best milker.

why some

milkers are cheap at $40 per month, while

others are really expensive at less than half this amount.

The Milk Scales and Babcock Tester

as a Teacher

of Correct Milking. The strongest searchlight used for the discovery of leaks in the dairy herd consists of a pair of scales and a Babcock tester. These will not only tell

which cows are profitable and which are not, but, if rightly employed, will also tell which milkers are paying for their salaries and which are not. Milkers should be
paid according to the quality of their work, and not, as is commonly the case, according to the number of hours'
service.

Whether the milking machine be considered an unqualified success can not be posimay tively stated at the present time. More time and tests are
Milking Machines.
needed to warrant a positive statement. It may be stated, however, that many of our foremost dairymen have endorsed the milking machine as a successful milker,

and

this, too, after

over periods of

apparently thorough tests extending many months. Experiment stations also

report favorable results from machine milking.

CHAPTER XL
HERD MANAGEMENT.

Winter Dairying.

Producing the bulk of milk during

:

i the winter has four distinct advantages ( ) prices for butter and cheese are higher at this time of the year (2) cows will milk longer when calving in the fall than
;

in the spring;

(3) labor is more plentiful at this time of the year; and (4) it is possible to feed cows cheaper during the winter than summer.

As a rule prices for butter are from 50 to 75 per 1. cent higher in winter than in summer. Prices for cheese Indeed average about 50 per cent higher in winter.
prices for milk in general are higher in winter than summer. It is evident that from the standpoint of higher
prices alone,
it

is

the part of

wisdom

to

produce the
they
usually

bulk of the milk during the winter.

2.

When cows

calve

in

the

spring,

have pasturage enough for a good flow of milk until about August. At this time pastures as a rule get short

and cows rapidly

fall

off in milk.

By

the time stable

feeding begins they have dropped off so much that they can not be brought back to a fair flow of milk even on

good

feed.

The

result

is

a reduced yield of milk and an

early "drying up" of the cows. When cows calve in the fall the expectation is to produce the main flow of milk during the winter and conse-

quently the cows are well supplied with feed until they are turned out on good pasturage in the spring. In this

73

74

DAIRY FARMING

the cows maintain a good flow of milk until the best The inevitable result is an period of grazing is over.

way

extension of the period of lactation and a greater total An increased production is also production of milk. favored by the fact that cows yield the greater share

with
3.

of their milk during a time when they are least troubled flies and excessive heat.
It is

of the milking
attention.

an important advantage to be able to do most when other farm duties demand least By having the cows calve in the fall, most of

the milking is done during the winter. An acre of land planted to corn ordinarily yields 4. as much feed as two or three acres in pasturage. When
the

cows calve

in the fall there

is

bound

to be

more

silage

produced than when the cows calve

the
case

in the spring,

and
In

in so far as this is true, the cost of feed is lessened.

of high priced land, the saving effected by the acreage one-half or two-thirds by feeding reducing a great deal of silage in place of pasturage must be evident.

Feeding the Bull.

During the

early life of the bull

when he is reasonably tractable, there is no better place for him than a strongly enclosed pasture. This will supply him with the right kind of feed, give him plenty of
fresh air and sunshine,

and afford him needful

exercise.

When

stall-fed,

he

is

preferably supplied with nitrogenous

When the roughage, such as good clean clover hay. consists of corn stover or oat straw, the bull roughage
should be given a fair allowance of wheat bran, oats or
similar concentrates.
stall-fed bull a
It is always desirable to supply a moderate amount of succulent roughage, such as roots and silage.

Management

of Bull.

bull should never be allowed

THE DAIRY HERD

to

75
is

run with the herd, but

is

preferably kept where he

in

He should have a ring placed in his sight of the cows. As a rule it is nose when ten or twelve months old.
him by the ring, but to give him the freebox stall. He should be given enough exercise to keep him tractable and in good breeding condition. By all means have him dehorned. Never trifle with a bull. He should be treated gently He must know he has a master. It is imyet firmly. to teach him early to be led with a staff fastened portant
best not to tie

dom

of a

to the ring in his nose.

TREAD
POWff?
e'mc'

STALL
BfiEED/MG PEN.
o'xto'

ELEVATED

ill

B
Bull

Pen

SOXSO*

Breeding Pe/t

''

p table ''

Fig.

16.

Bull Pens.

76
It
is

DAIRY FARMING
a great misfortune
to

have so many valuable

bulls disposed of at the first signs of unruliness. When a bull has proven his value as a breeder by his own

offspring, he should be,

his disposition

and can be, retained even though becomes threatening, by quartering him as

shown

in Fig. 16. represents a pen which the author has successfully used a number of years. It consists of an enclosure with stable and breeding pen as shown in the preceding illus-

tration (B). The bull run is fifty feet square, including the stable, and is enclosed by a solid board fence six and

one-half feet high. The cow is bred in this pen by tying her to the front end and then letting in the bull by openThe latter closes the pen when ing the stable door.

opened as shown in the cut. While a bull can be managed

in

a pen such as

is

here

described without coming in contact with him, it is best to lead him out occasionally with a stick snapped into the
ring of his nose. represents a yard or pen essentially as recommended by the Illinois Station. At one end of the yard is located

a box

stall in
is

which the

bull

is

fed and sheltered.

The

other end

divided into two compartments, one containing a tread power, the other serving as a breeding pen. The gate may be turned to the right or to the

left,

closing either of the

two compartments

as

may be

desired.

The
rope
leads
is

the bull.

tread power furnishes the means of exercising When he is wanted on the tread power, a

the attendant,

attached to his ring while he is at the manger and who walks over the elevated narrow walk,
be-

hind

him.

him onto the power and shuts the gate While the bull is taking his exercise
stall.

the

attendant cleans and prepares his

When

the bull

THE DAIRY HERD

is

77

wanted

in the

breeding pen he

is

the other side of the yard. supplied from the outside.

It is

Water and

similarly led along feed can be

evident that a yard of this kind guarantees absolute safety, provides good exercise for the bull, which
at the

same time furnishes the power to pump water, separate the milk, and do other useful things.

An
is

important matter in the management of a bull bull should be over to prevent excessive service.

one year old before he

the
first

is

allowed to serve and the services

upon the strength and vigor of the

season should be limited to 10 or 15, depending The second bull.

season he may serve 25 cows. And while some bulls have apparently successfully served as many as 40 or more cows in a season, it will be found good policy,
as a rule, to restrict the

number of

services as

much
is

as

possible, especially if the usefulness of the bull

to be

preserved for a long time.

Breeding Rack.

When

heifers or small

cows are bred

This to heavy bulls, a breeding rack should be used. Place two posts in the may be constructed as follows
:

high and about 1^/2 feet apart. In a line parallel with these posts and 8 or 9 feet away, place two more posts ,i l 2 feet high and 20 to 22 inches apart.

ground

3^

feet

Connect the short and long posts with 2x12 inch planks, leaving a space of 18 inches wide between the planks at the higher end, and 20 to 22 inches wide at the lower end, which serves as the entrance. This space will fit most
cows, but it is desirable to have the planks adjustable so that the space between may be increased or decreased according to the size of the cows. The arrangement as
described

permits the bull's

service.

front

feet

to

rest

on the

planks during

The planks should be

pfovidecl

78

DAIRY FARMING

An

with cleats and must be strongly supported at the middle. adjustable stanchion is used to hold the cow in posi-

tion.

Age

to

Breed Heifers.

Heifers should be bred to

years old.

drop their calves

when about two

In cases

where there is a particular lack of development in growth and general vigor, it .would doubtless be a distinct
advantage to have heifers drop their calves even 30 months of age.
Early breeding has the
of the animal, and thus
impossible.
at 26,

28 or

effect of stunting the growth making maximum development

The heifer that is bred at one year of age obliged to turn a portion of the feed that is naturally intended for her own development to that of the foetus.
is

After the calf

is

intended for her

dropped a still larger portion of the feed own development is utilized for the

production of milk.

While the stunting

drawback, there
too long.
It is
is

effect from early breeding has its also danger in delaying the breeding doubtless correctly maintained that early

breeding has the advantage of early stimulating the milk

giving function of the animal, and that heifers that drop
their calves at, say three years old, are apt to develop a beefy tendency at the expense of the dairy tendency. It is evident that this matter calls for a great deal of

judgment.
doubtless
it

If a heifer leans
is

toward the beefy tendency,

on

If, policy to breed her rather young. the other hand, there is a complete absence of a beefy

tendency and an indication of a slow development and delicacy, no one would question the wisdom of breeding
such an animal relatively late. Record Date of Service and Calving. This is important for three reasons ( i ) it enables one to confine cows
:

THE,
in

DAIRY HHRD

79

about a week before calving; (2) it enables the exact length of time cows have carried their calves, and therefore makes possible the detection
stalls
tell

box

one to

of premature births and abortions; (3) one knows the exact length of the lactation period of each cow.
1.

Where

the date of service

is

not known,

it

fre-

quently happens that cows are obliged to calve in their stalls or stanchions. Such unfortunate occurrences should

be prevented by confining cows in roomy box stalls not less than a week before they are due to calve. 2. In case the date of service is not known, it is
perfectly possible for cows to drop living abortions which Where the the owner may mistake for mature calves.

abortion

is

of this kind
3.'

of a contagious nature the danger of mistakes is too evident to need further explanation.
of persistent
tell,

Most dairymen appreciate the value

milkers, yet comparatively few are able to

even

approximately, the length of the lactation period of the The only certain way of different cows in the herd.

knowing how long each cow produces milk

is

after calving

to record the date of calving.

"Drying Off" Cows. have cows "go dry" at

As
least

a rule a

it

is

desirable to

month before

calving.

This has the effect of increasing the supply of nutrients for the development of the foetus, as well as enabling
the

cow

to store

up some reserve energy which

will

put

her in better physical condition for the act of parturition

and the period immediately following.

desirable to hasten the "drying off," the following method will be of value. Start drying off by This will quickly reduce not milking the cow clean.
it

Where

is

the flow to a point where it is safe to skip every other After a few days, or perhaps a week, the milking.

80

DAIRY FARMING

milk will be sufficiently reduced to warrant milking only every other day. very short time after this, as a

rule,

be found safe to stop milking entirely. In case of very persistent milkers, it is better to milk
it

will

them

close

up

to,

if

not up

to,

calving,

rather than

force the "drying off" process too

much.

Dehorning.

The advantage

generally recognized.

of dehorning is now pretty The. absence of horns makes cows

more

quiet and docile, and saves them many tortures that are ordinarily inflicted when the horns are retained. The horns may be removed either by sawing them
off or

by cutting them

off

with an instrument

known

as

simplest and most humane method of horns, however, is the use of caustic potash removing soon after the calf is born. The Author has dehorned

a clipper.

The

a great many calves by this method which described as follows

:

is

briefly

is 24 to 36 hours old, clip the hair horns or buttons and rub them with a The potash should be kept in an stick of caustic potash.

When

the calf

from the

invisible

air-tight bottle until ready for use.

As soon

as

removed

bottle, the upper part of the stick should be with a piece of paper to prevent its burning wrapped the hand. After a few minutes' exposure to the air

from the

the stick becomes moist.

As soon

as this

becomes notice-

able, rub the exposed end of the stick over each button for a minute or two, or until the spot begins to look

reddish or sore.

If the calf is

later, a scab will be found

examined twelve hours where the potash was applied,

showing that the potash has gradually eaten its way Care should be into the button and thus destroyed it.
exercised not to allow the potash to touch any part but

THH DAIRY HERD

the miniature horn, as a drop on the flesh

81

would cause

unnecessary pain. Cleanliness, Regularity and Kind Treatment.

The

subject of cleanliness is fully discussed in the chapter on Sanitary Milk Production. The importance of regularity

and kind treatment are

fully

considered in the

chapter on Milking.

Housing. On account of their general spareness of flesh, cows have little protection for their vital organs and are therefore peculiarly susceptible to cold.. For this reason, warm housing during the winter season
is

Warm

how good a she may be

factory
if

It matters little a matter of the highest importance. dairy machine a cow may be or how well

fed,
is

the returns from her will be unsatis-

she

compelled to shiver in her stable the

larger portion of the winter and is possibly even denied the protection of a stable during the cold drizzling rains

which usually precede and follow the severe cold of the

winter.

Cows in Heat. Cows, while in heat, should be kept separate from the rest of the herd to avoid the usual disturbances incident to keeping them with the herd.

CHAPTER

XII.

REARING THE DAIRY CALF.

Prenatal Development. The making of a strong, vigit is born. Unless the mother is furnished with a sufficient amount pregnant of good, wholesome feed, rich in ash and protein, the
orous, healthy calf begins before
foetus

must necessarily

surfer retarded development.

Not

supplied with the proper nutrients for the development of bone and muscle in the foetus, but the ration should be such as will keep her
in the best physical condition, which requires some succulent roughage and grain rather laxative in character.

only should the pregnant

cow be

(See page 42.) Time the Cow Should Suckle the Calf.
it

As

a rule

is

best to

remove the

is

three days old.

from its mother before it The early removal of the calf has
calf
:

several important advantages ( I ) it prevents to a great extent the excitement attendant on separating an older
calf

from

its

calf to drink

mother; (2) it renders it easier to teach the from a bucket; (3) it permits regularity

of milking from the start; and (4) it makes possible at the outset to milk the cow "clean" at each milking. Calves never feed regularly, nor do they suck heavy

milkers
the

dry

at

any time.

The

result

is

continual

residue of milk in the udder which acts as a check to

secretion

of this

substance and leads to an early

it is best, howcow longer than

shrinkage in the milk yield. In cases of caked and inflamed udders

ever, to allow

the calf to suckle the

82

THH DAIRY HERD

83

the time stated, since this has a tendency to hasten the disappearance of such trouble.

Feeding the Young Calf.

for the purging of the calf.
that the calf receive this milk

The
It is

first

milk drawn after

calving has purging properties which nature has provided

important, therefore,
is

which

known

as colos-

trum.

As soon
in this for
in
its

as

taught to drink

removed from the cow, the calf should be from a clean bucket. It should be aided a day or two by holding the tip of a finger

mouth.

The milk should be

fed as near body

first two weeks During temperature as possible. less than three times a day, the calf should be fed not

the

receiving eight to ten pounds of milk daily the first week, and ten to twelve pounds the second week. After the

be gradually substituted for whole milk, bringing the calf to a full skim milk

second week skim milk

may

Fig.

17.

Calf Stanchions.

84
feed
at

DAIRY FARMING
the end

of

four weeks.

Beginning with the

substitution of skim milk, the calf should be fed a hand-

corn meal, or linseed meal after each age of one month, when feeding wholly on skim milk, one-half pound of grain may be fed daily to good advantage, and access should be given to
ful of

ground

oats,

milk feed.

At

the

good clean hay. The feed should be gradually increased with the growing needs of the animal.
Calf Stanchions. The feeding of milk to calves becomes a comparatively easy task when the calves are
confined in cheap, rigid stanchions like those shown in When so confined one person can feed half a Fig. 17.

with

dozen or more calves at the same time, and can do this less labor than is ordinarily required to feed one calf.
It is well,

however, not to keep the calves in the stanch-

ions too long at any one time, because of the rigid confinement. Calves that have formed the "sucking" habit

confined to advantage in these stanchions during the night, especially when no small separate pens are

may

-be

available.

Importance of Correct Feeding. A young calf has a which is peculiarly liable to be upset by the injudicious feeding of milk and skim-milk. In this The respect it differs little from the very young child.
delicate stomach,
effect that usually follows the injudicious feeding of
is

milk

a case of scours.

This trouble can be obviated in a

large measure by strictly observing the following precautions First, never feed calves cold milk, but have it as near blood heat as possible second, feed milk as fresh as
:

possible and under no circumstances feed it when sour; third, feed milk only from vessels that have been thor-

oughly cleaned and scalded; and fourth, carefully avoid over-feeding. Scours or diarrhea is one of the common-

THE DAIRY HERD

est ailments of calves effect

85

and one that leaves a great stunting

upon While great importance attaches to the correct feeding of the calf in its early life, an ample allowance of feed
all

their development.

of the right kind should be supplied at ing feeds should always be avoided.

times.

Fatten-

General Care of the Calf.

all

the outdoor exercise, fresh air

Calves should be given and sunshine possible.

During cold and rainy weather they should be confined

in clean,

dry stables with plenty of bedding. All the comfort possible should be provided for calves at all

times.

much

important also to see that they are not too When annoyed by flies during the summer.
It is

changed from dry feed to pasture the change should be made gradually, or trouble from scouring is likely to be encountered. Plenty of good, pure water should be provided.

The skim-milk feeding may be continued with

months.

profit for at least six

When no

pasture

is

avail-

amount of good, nitrogenous hay and only a small amount of grain. This
able,
it

is

desirable to feed a liberal

will furnish the necessary nutriments for

growth, at the
to de-

same time the large amount of roughage tends velop a" large paunch in the young animal.

CHAPTER

XIII.

DAIRY BARN.

Place

Where Human Food

is

Prepared.

In build-

ing a dairy barn it should be remembered that one is providing a place where human food is to be produced. Sanitary features should, therefore,

have

first

consideration.

Among the most important of these are abundance of light, ample ventilation and general regard to cleanliness.

Contrary to general belief, a sanitary barn is not necIndeed where everything is essarily an expensive barn. barn is certain to prove actually considered, a sanitary
cheaper in the long run than one in which sanitation
is

made an

entirely secondary matter.

General Plan of Barn. The plan shows two box

This

is

illustrated in Fig. 18.

stalls at the north end, which are intended primarily for confining cows that are about The front end to calve, but may also be used for bulls.

of the barn contains a milk and separator room, and a feed room. The latter contains stairs leading to the sec-

ond story, which is used as a storage for hay and fodder, and also contains storage boxes for concentrates, which communicate with the feed room below by means of 8x8 inch shafts. The stalls are arranged to have the cows face out, that is, away from each other. This has several advantages over the

common

plan of having the feeding alley

86

THH DAIRY HERD

87

.r

Q O
cc

88
in the

DAIRY FARMING
middle of the barn.

In the first place it is more two rows of cows face each other sanitary. the foul breath from each must necessarily pass from one side to the other, thus causing the cows to breathe more or less impure air. When the cows face out the exhaled air is more equally distributed through the barn and in so far reduces the amount of impurities in it immediately in front of the cows. Another advantage in facing cows

Where

the

out is the fact that the head is placed nearest the wall where the temperature is lowest, leaving the portion of the animal that must be most protected from the cold in
the

warmer part of the stable. The silo is placed where it is most convenient
Fresh
air outlets are placed in the

for feed-

ing.

air inlets are built in the wall of the

barn
stalls,

and two main

two box

with a third at the ceiling in the middle of the barn. The driveway is such as to permit a team and wagon to enter one end of the barn and pass out at the other.

Founda'tion and Floor.

The barn should

rest

upon a
it

substantial foundation constructed of stone or concrete.

On

the outside of the foundation and a

tile

little

below

should be placed

working its way For sanitary reasons, only concrete floors should be permitted in a dairy barn. While the original cost may be somewhat high, in the long run they are cheapest. Aside from being easily cleaned, they also make possible
the saving of all the liquid manure, an important item to consider in the management of a dairy. To prevent the

drains to prevent any water from under the foundation.

dampness commonly associated with a concrete floor it should be constructed on a cobble stone and cinder foundation underlaid with drain
tile.

The

finish of the floor

it.

should be rather rough to prevent cows slipping on

THE DAIRY HERD

The feeding
alleys,

89

that

is,

the part of the floor be-

tween the mangers and the walls, should be about three inches higher than the platforms on which the cows stand. Moreover they should slope slightly toward the mangers. The platforms and driveway should also slope very slightly toward the gutters.
Light. Sunlight, because of its disinfectant action, is of prime importance in making a stable sanitary. There should be not less than four square feet of window space
per cow.

Walls. Cheap and reasonably air-tight walls are secured by nailing matched lumber over good building paper on both the inside and outside of the studding, From the floor to a except the lower inside six feet.
feet, nail cheap one-inch lumber over buildand put lath and concrete on this as a finish. ing paper This makes the lower portion of the wall readily cleanable as it should be. The portion of the wall above the

height of six

concrete,

as

well as the entire ceiling,

should be fre-

quently whitewashed. The air space in the wall should be filled with some good non-conducting material. Dry

straw answers this purpose very satisfactorily. This should be boarded on the inside with Ceiling.

matched lumber.
be built of

The outside, or hay floor above, may common, cheap lumber. When, however, no
is

hay

is

stored above, the ceiling should have a dead air

space,

which

secured by using matched lumber and

paper, both inside and outside, and filling the space between with dry straw.

Stalls

and Ties.

These should be arranged ana con:

I structed with the following points in view keep( ) ing the cows clean; (2) giving them as much comfort

as possible; (3) preventing

cows from stepping on each

90

DAIRY FARMING

Fig.

19.

Iron Stall.

other's teats; (4) giving the milker comfort during milking; (5) having a minimum amount of surface for lodg-

ment

of dust;

and (6) saving of time

in tying.

Fig.

20.

Iron

Stall.

THE DAIRY HERD

To
keep cows clean the
stall

91
as

must be of such length

In to place the hind feet near the edge of the gutter. to have comfort, cows should not be confined in order
rigid

stanchions,

nor should the

stalls

be too narrow.

The stepping of cows on their neighbors' teats can be prevented only by using some form of partition between

Fig. 21. -Half Stall.

them.

To

the milker the stalls

provide a reasonable amount of comfort for must have ample width and the end

posts of the partitions should be set about one foot from the edge of the gutter. Solid wood partitions or closely meshed wire and iron partitions, afford too much surface for

lodgment of dust.

Moreover,

solid

titions obstruct a

free circulation of air.

wood parThe simpler

the partition the

Stalls

more

desirable.

and
all

answer

shown in Figs. 19 and 20 the requirements in a satisfactory manner.

ties

like those

92

DAIRY FARMING

with

The stall shown in Fig. 21 is used by many much satisfaction, but is somewhat open to the objection of having too much surface for lodgment of
dust.

Fig.

22.

A Cheap and Satisfactory Cow Stall and Manger.

therefore never be used.

stanchions,
like

Rigid stanchions mean rigid confinement and should Various forms of swinging
those

with

much

satisfaction.

shown in the figures, Movable halter ties,

are used
like that

shown

in Fig. 23, are

used in

many

leading dairy barns.

THE,

DAIRY HERD

93

The rope or chain is so fastened as to prevent forward or backward movements by the cows but permits free movement up and down.

Fig.

23.

Movable Halter

Tie.

Stalls like those shown in Figs. 19 and 20 have the advantage of being adjustable. The stanchion is movable, thus permitting the stall to be shortened or lengthened, according to the size of the cow. Furthermore, the swing stanchions, in dispensing with the front end, reduce the

amount of

stall

surface,

which
19,

is

particularly noticeable

in the stalls

shown

in Figs.
it

20 and 22.

In a cold climate,
floor

is

desirable to cover the concrete

form.

on which the cows stand with a movable wood platThis may be the means of preventing udder

94
troubles

DAIRY FARMING
and
is

certain to increase the comfort of

cows

during the cold season. Size of Stalls. An average-sized cow requires a stall In nearly all herds, 3^2 feet wide and 4^/2 feet long.
however, there are some cows larger and some smaller than the average. It is important, therefore, that one row of stalls be made to taper somewhat from one end

For example, the stalls at one end may to the other. have dimensions 3 x3 io which would nicely accommoFrom this end the date two-year-old Jersey heifers.
/ /

//

dimensions
4'x4'io"
at

may
the

be gradually increased until they reach The latter dimensions opposite end.

would accommodate large Holstein-Friesian cows. Mangers. These should be constructed with four
in view: (i) they should be easily cleanable; (2) they should be provided with movable partitions so as to prevent cows from stealing feed from each other;

points

(3) they should be large enough to prevent cows from scattering their feed over the barn floor; and (4) the top should be below the cows' noses so as not to interfere
too

much with

the circulation of the air in front of the

cows.
All of the above features are embodied in the
illustrated in Fig. 22.

manger

placed in

This manger the Author has had the college dairy barn and has found it highh
all

satisfactory in

respects.

The aim was

to

secure a

thoroughly

efficient

manger with as small an outlay of

Its construction is as follows:
floor.

capital as possible.

lower three inches are built into the concrete

at the floor

The The

superstructure, which is 20 inches high, 18 inches wide and 36 inches wide at the top, is built of -inch matched lumber, except the partitions which are 24
i

built of

^ -inch lumber.

Both sides of the lumber are

THE DAIRY HERD

planed.

95

The partitions fit snugly into the 3-inch concrete depression, and the entire manger is built in movable sections, each 21 feet long. The sections are held in place by means of a small hook at each end, which is

fastened to the stanchion supports.

IP

L
*siM-M*i
Cf*3S<S-<SCT/OM

siTO'? (INLET)

SHOW//V6

Fig. 24.

The
to

three-inch concrete depression

stalls.

makes
it

it

water the cows in their

When

is

possible desired to

clean the manger, the hooks are unfastened and the. sections turned over, thus leaving the entire for cleaning.

manger

clear

Gutters.

These should be about 15 inches wide and

four inches deep.

greater depth

is

liable to injure the

cows when they happen to slip into the gutter. Moreover any extra depth means just so much more lifting

96
in

DAIRY FARMING
removing the manure.
Ventilation.
Gutters should be perfectly

tight to prevent loss of liquid

manure.
stable ventilation
essential

The
F.

best

method of

features by method are the admission of the fresh air near the ceiling, and the withdrawal of the impure air from near the floor, as illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25. The
is

that devised

H. King.

The

of this

object of admitting the cold, fresh air near the ceiling is to warm it before reaching the cows, by contact with the warm air at the ceiling. By having the main air
exits near the floor, less heat will be lost than

would be

the case

if

the exits

were placed

at the ceiling; besides

it is argued that a considerable amount of the impurities of the air are found at the floor to which the cows' breath

is

Recent experiments seem to inconstantly directed. that at least so far as carbonic acid gas dicate, however,
concerned, most of this gas
is

is

found

at the ceiling.

Whether most of the

ing or at the
floor,
it

impurities are found at the ceilseems advisable to reinforce the

by placing a ventilator opening provided with a register at the middle of the ceiling so that some air may be withdrawn from this point. During very cold weather it may be desirable to reduce this exit to a minimum by closing the register, but during warm weather, or when it is desired to lower the barn
it should be opened entirely. By having one large opening at the middle of the ceiling, there is less likelihood of removing any fresh, incoming air than would be the case if numerous smaller exits were placed near the wall and opening into the same shaft that takes

exits at the floor,

temperature,

up the

floor air,

an arrangement not infrequently recomlocation of inlets

mended and used. The number and

and

outlets (except

THE DAIRY HERD

97

the outlet at the ceiling) are shown in Fig. 18. Numerous small inlets have the advantage of causing a better
distribution of the cold, incoming air than could be secured by fewer, but larger openings. On the other hand, the outlets should be few and com-

paratively large, which will aid in creating draft. The fresh air intakes consist of air-tight shafts with
cross-sectional

areas of about

50 square inches.

The

are built right in the wall, and open near the floor on the outside and near the ceiling on the inside.
shafts
It
is

at least several feet

absolutely necessary to have the outside openings below the inside openings, otherwise
inside air
in.

the

warm

would rush out instead of the

cold,

outside air going

may be placed where they are In the barn plans herewith presented, they are placed in the box stalls and communicate with the main barn floor by means of registers in the wall.
air outlets

The main

least troublesome.

The

size of these registers

is

that of the cross-sectional

area of the shafts.

To

secure

effective

work with

the
:

King system
( i )

of

ventilation three things are essential

to

have the

ventilating shafts air-tight; (2) to have the outlet shafts extend to the highest point of the barn; and (3) to have the barn as nearly air-tight as possible.

Hay Loft. With a perfectly tight ceiling and with the hay chute in the feed room, there is no objection whatever to having a loft above the stable for the storage of roughage.
:

Indeed such a

loft

has two distinct

warm and readvantages duces the labor in feeding. Doors. Two doors should be provided at either end of the barn, as shown in Fig. 18. The outside doors
it

helps to keep the stable

98

DAIRY FARMING
be of the roller type, but on the inside
it

may

is

desir-

able to have
aid in

swing doors. The latter fit tighter and thus making the barn warmer during the winter.
MISCELLANEOUS.

Combination Barn.

(From Hoard's Dairyman.)

"Switch" Board. This is an invention of Michels on whose farm it has proven an absolute
tion to the milker against the cow's switch (tail)
fly

Math.
protec-

during
runs

season.
feet

It consists

of an inch board, 8 inches wide

and 4

long suspended from a wire.

the

The

latter

close behind

cows and

above the

floor.

The

fastened about 6^2 feet board slides on the wire and is

is

pushed right opposite the milker. Any farmer can fix up a board of this kind at a trifling expense and positively protect himself from any annoyance from the cow's switch during milking.

A Cheap Home Made Stall. Stanchion supports are made by running two 2x6-inch planks along both the bottom and top of the stanchion and supporting the whole
structure by placing 2x6-inch planks upright, in front of each partition. The lower end of these upright planks is

THE DAIRY HERD

embedded
in the concrete floor

99
end
is

while the upper

fastened to the ceiling.

Fig.

26.

A Cheap Home-made Stall.

Partitions

are

made

of

^4 -inch

gas pipes cut into

of the pipe
is

proper lengths and then bent. double threaded and fastened

One end
is

to the upright planks

by

means of

locknuts.

The

other end

embedded

in the

concrete floor.

See Fig. 26.

100
12'

DAIRY FARMING

A Good

Milk Stool.

Showing Board Platform Fastened

to 2X4's

Embedded

in the Concrete.

Cross-Section of Barn Floor.

CHAPTER

XIV.

HANDLING FARM MANURE:.

The value of the Value of Manure Per Cow. manure from a cow depends primarily upon the charFeeds rich in fertilizing produce manure correspondingly rich in them. On an average 75% of the fertilizing constituents in feeds are recovered in the manure. The
acter of the feed supplied her.
will

constituents

Cornell station finds that the value of the

manure from

cows averaging 1000 pounds

cow per
average.

year.

This

may

is $29.27 per be regarded as a very fail-

live weight,

Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure.

urine, as a rule,
is

The

than the dung.

richer in fertilizing constituents It contains more than half the nitrogen

much

and nearly
all

all

of the potash voided by the animal.

Prac-

of the phosphoric acid, however, is found in tically the solid excreta. The fact that the larger portion of

the fertilizing constituents is found in the urine, emphasizes the importance of carefully saving all this portion of the voidings.

How
manure,

to
it

Save the Urine.

is

To

save

all

necessary, in the first place, to

of the liquid have water-

tight gutters and floors. than concrete.

Nothing
is

is

better in this respect

,

The next requirement

porous

bedding to
if

a sufficient amount of clean, absorb all of the liquid. Straw,

especially

cut up somewhat,

makes

excellent bedding

101

102
material.

DAIRY FARMING

It is clean and holds a great deal of moisture. Planer shavings also answer the purpose satisfactorily. In addition to this it is desirable to use some powdered absorbents like ground phosphate rock and gypsum.

ammonia

These materials not only absorb moisture but also absorb as it is liberated from the manure, thus saving valuable volatile manurial constituents and at the same
Losses

time purifying the air of the barn. Sources of Loss of Manurial Constituents.
of manurial constituents

may

be considered under two

heads:

caused

(i) those occasioned by leaching, and (2) those by bacterial action or fermentation processes.

Where no
are taken,
easily lost.

precaution against leaching and fermentation more than half the value of the manure is

that

Loss Through Leaching. Experiments have shown manure as ordinarily placed in a pile will lose about
of
its

$0%

value

when

left

exposed to the weather for a

period of six months. Every rain washes a certain percentage of the soluble manurial constituents away from

That heavy losses occur in this way is evident pile. from the dark liquor which runs away from a manure heap that has been exposed to the rain. Frequently for
the

convenience of handling, the manure is piled close to the barn and directly under the eaves, where the amount
of water that pours over
it becomes very considerable Losses from leaching can be entirely avoided by placing the manure in a shallow concrete pit provided with a roof.

the concrete floor may be done away with if the ground is clayey, closely packed and so sloped that no water from without can drain into the pit. No farmer can afford to be without a covered storage for manure.

Even

THE DAIRY HERD

Losses Through Fermentation.
exceedingly rich in bacterial*
teria are at
life.

103
is

Manure

medium

Many

species of bac-

work decomposing the organic matter, breaking up higher compounds into lower compounds and

accomplishing what is ordinarily designated the rotting of the manure. In the fermentation or rotting process
the nitrogen

compounds are broken up into ammonia, which readily escapes from the manure pile. Evidence of such escape is found in the ammoniacal odors that emanate from loosely packed manure, such, for example, as that procured from horses. This ammoniacal fermentation can be largely reduced
by packing the manure tight so as to exclude the
as
air

much

as possible.

the liberation

Most of the bacteria concerned in of ammonia must have air for their devel-

opment, and hence their action is reduced in proportion as the air is excluded from the manure heap. On the other hand, some species of bacteria concerned in the liberation of nitrogen, namely, the denitrifying bacteria,

require

no

air

for
this

their

growth and

development.
is

Yet the

loss

from

class of bacteria

relatively

so small that,

while the exclusion of air

favors their development, every effort should be made to keep the manure heap as air-tight as possible, so as to
loss from the air-loving bacteria. or Nitrogen "Fixers." While the loss of ammonia from the manure heap can be materially reduced

minimize the

Ammonia

by tight packing, more or less of under the best packing possible.

of this

it is

bound to be formed

prevent the escape necessary to add to the manure something which will "fix" or hold the ammonia. Materials used for this purpose are known as nitrogen or am-

To

ammonia

it

is

For

definition of bacteria, see

page

146.

104

DAIRY FARMING
fixers.

monia

Ground phosphate rock and gypsum

are

excellent materials to use for this purpose. These materials should be added to the gutter in the barn, since

they not only act as ammonia fixers, but are also excellent absorbents. On the whole the ground phosphate rock
is

preferable to the gypsum.

The

latter

is

sulphate of

commonly known as land plaster. Dry earth containing a great deal of humus is also valuable as an absorbent and ammonia fixer. Hauling Manure Directly Ufion the Land. If the manure can be hauled upon ground where there is no danger of its being washed away, the most economical
lime,

and

is

plan is to spread it upon the land as quickly as it is formed. Under such conditions there \vill be practically

no loss from leaching and fermentation, and, moreover, what is of no little importance, the manure is handled with the least amount of labor. As a rule it is safest to spread the manure upon some growing crop. Manure Carriers. A convenient and labor-saving piece of apparatus upon a dairy farm is an elevated manure carrier like that shown in Fig. 27. This carrier

27.

Litter

Carrier.

THE DAIRY HERD

is

105

hand

suspended from a steel rope, and by a push of the it can be sent a distance of several hundred feet The to unload itself and to return unaided to the barn. unaided return is made possible by slanting the rope

somewhat toward the barn.

It

dumps

itself

by means

of an automatic attachment placed at the point where it is expected to unload. The convenience afforded by such
a carrier
stable
is

especially great during the winter,

when

the

may be cleaned without leaving the barn. The carrier cable should be placed between the two rows

of cows extending the full length of the stable. Manure Spreaders. No dairy farmer can afford to be without a manure spreader. It quickly pays for itself

saving of labor and has the additional advantage of insuring an even distribution of manure on the field.
in the

CHAPTER

XV.

POWER ON THE FARM.

The use
of

some form of power upon farms has

fre-

quently been recommended in the past, but never before has its use been more urgent than at the present time. The increasing scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of

hand separators and silos, and the general convenience it affords, have made power an actual necessity upon
progressive dairy farms. The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for
exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for separating milk, pumping water, and doing other light work. Where a milk house is used and butter is made upon the

farm a small steam engine may be made to do any light economically. But the use of either the tread power or the small steam engine fails to provide the necessary power for cutting corn for the silo, sawing wood, grinding feed, or doing other heavy work. Every modern dairy farm must have a silo, and it is

work

at silo filling est

time that

we

usually experience the great-

we

need for some form of power. With none of our own are obliged to hire or borrow, a practice which often

compels us to wait till the corn is past its prime. Moreover it is frequently impossible to hire power, no matter
the proper time, and this can be done with certainty only when we own the power. Where power for the heavier work can not be con-

how much we may wish to do desired it should be made at

so.

Where good

silage is

106

THH DAIRY HERD

107

veniently hired or borrowed, it is believed that the best solution for the farm power problem is the gasoline enSuch an engine can be used for a great variety of gine.

purposes and practically every day of the year. Besides running the ensilage cutter, cream separator and possibly a milking machine, the engine may be used
water, to run the washing machine, corn sheller, grindstone, saw, churn and grist mill. When placed as
to

pump

MILL

Fig.

28.

Possible Uses of Gasoline Engine.

shown
at the

in Fig.

28 several of these machines

may

be run

same

time.

Many dairy farmers have felt justified in going to the expense of purchasing gasoline power solely for running the cream separator. For this purpose a two-horse power engine suffices; but it would be greater economy to increase the original outlay somewhat and secure an eighthorse power engine, one that could be used for the heavier

108

DAIRY FARMING
of cutting ensilage and corn stover, as well as run-

work

ning a saw and grist mill. This is an age of machinery, and

is

we

believe the time

not far distant

when

the farmer will

make use

of

power whenever this can be made to take the place of hired labor. Power will not only afford greater convenience but will curtail the running expenses of the farm.
for example, we assume that one hour is required daily in running the separator, and another in pump-ing water for stock, the total time consumed in
If,

this

work

in

10 hours each.

one year would be 730 hours, or 73 days of At $i a day, the cost of separating and
to

pumping would amount

engine running
time, this

the

pump

$73 a year. With a gasoline and separator at the same

in 365 hours. Allowing 6c per hour for gasoline and oil, which is a high estimate, the cost of doing the above work with an engine would be $21.90, or less than one-third of what it can

work could be done

be done for with hired labor.

to about 25 per cent

This saving is equivalent on the investment of the engine, if used for no other purpose than separating milk and

pumping water. At silo filling time

main only during the
of the year
illustration.
it

the engine should be mounted on a suitable base near the silo, where it is expected to rerilling

of the

silo.

The remainder

may

be placed as indicated in the above

There are plenty of simple and smooth-running gasoengines upon the market, and in purchasing care should be taken to get one in which these two qualities are most conspicuous.
line

possible objection to the use of gasoline engines for

THE DAIRY HERD

dairy purposes
is

109

any tendency to laxness

Where

the trouble from gas odor where there in the care of machinery. precautions are taken against leakage of gas or
is is

gasoline, and where the exhaust away, there should be no trouble

properly conducted

from gas odors.

The
stated
gallon,

fuel cost of

as

running a gasoline engine may be When gasoline is worth IDC per power will cost ic per brake horse gasoline
follows:

power per hour.

CHAPTER
DISEASES

XVI,

AND AILMENTS OF DAIRY CATTLE.

tion

Prevention. The old adage, "An ounce of prevenis worth a pound of cure," is as true to-day as

ever.
afflicted

The common

ailments

with

which

cattle

are

can be largely prevented by correct feeding, comfortable and sanitary housing, gentle treatment, and

by using every precaution possible against infection from

contagious diseases.
Digestive disorders are the result of injudicious feedand these may be the forerunner of a retinue of
rains,

ing,

various other disorders.

cold

Exposure to severe cold and and confinement in foul and unventilated

stables are predisposing causes to various diseases. Many ailments are caused, either directly or indirectly, by allowing cows to lie on cold concrete floors, by chasing

with dogs and by compelling them to walk and stand on

slippery, highly inclined floors.

Great aid has been rendered in the prevention of diseases through the rapid development of medical science in pointing out the nature and causes of the various diseases with

should

have
the

which cattle are afflicted. Every dairyman an intelligent understanding of the role
definition of bacteria see p. 146) dissemination of diseases which could be

which bacteria (for

play largely avoided
disinfection.
in

by proper quarantine and methods of

Quarantine and Disinfection. By quarantining is meant the separation of the diseased from the undiseased
110

THE DAIRY HERD

animals.
If

111

an animal
disease,

is

known

to be affected with
will

some

transmissible

usually spare the rest of the animals in the herd from the dis-

its

prompt removal
is

ease, especially if

such removal

accompanied by proper

methods of

disinfection.

The

latter refers to the destruc-

tion of the causal agents of the disease by the use of germicides or disinfectants, substances which have the power of killing bacteria and allied organisms.

Disinfectants.
disinfectants
:

The

following

is

list

of well-known

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

6.
7.

8.

A A A A A A A

Boiling water applied for 20 minutes. 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid.
2 per cent solution of zenolium. 2 per cent solution of chloro-naptholeum. 5 per cent solution of copper sulfate.
solution of 1-2000 of mercuric chloride.

2 per cent solution of creolin. i-iooo solution of chlorid of zinc

Purgatives. A purgative is a substance used to induce action of the bowels. Among the common purgatives the following

may

be mentioned:
I

to 2 pints of

raw and

pound of Epsom salts i to 2 ounces of ginger dissolved in 2 pints of warm water; I pound of Glauber salts dissolved in water; or I pint of castor oil.
linseed
oil
;

a mixture of

As

a rule the best thing to do at the first signs of

ill-

ness, such as loss of appetite, failure to chew the cud, dull eyes, dry muzzle, parched skin, rough coat, etc.,

to administer a good purgative. This alone quently sufficient to relieve the trouble.
is

is

fre-

112

DAIRY FARMING
MILK

Overfeeding, lack of exercise, impure air, constipation, and drinking cold water are common causes of milk fever. Withdrawing all the milk from the udder

Causes.

during the first 24 hours after calving is claimed to be conducive to the disease. Furthermore, heavy milkers are far more subject to the disease than medium or small
milkers.

Symptoms.

Restlessness followed by a weakening of

the muscles, causing the animal finally to stagger and fall. The cow usually lies on her breast bone with her

head completely drawn around to one side. The- udder becomes soft and empty, pulse weak and rapid, the temperature falls below normal, and the animal completely unconscious.
simple, sure,
air

may become

Treatment. Fortunately there is available now a very and inexpensive treatment for milk fever.

The treatment consists in filling the udder with sterile by means of a syringe which draws the air through a tube containing absorbent cotton. Such a syringe can
be obtained at very small cost from the manufacturers

who
to

advertise extensively through the dairy press, and

every dairyman should possess one so as to be prepared

meet emergencies promptly. Before injecting the air, the hands, teats, udder, and the tube that is to be inserted into the teats, should be
carefully
disinfected.

This done, each quarter of the

udder

thoroughly inflated with air, kneading and rubbing the udder as much as possible during the process
is

to secure a

thorough and rapid diffusion of the air. As soon as each quarter is filled, a wide band is tied around
the top of the teat to prevent leakage of
air.

These

THE DAIRY HERD

113

bands should not be drawn any tighter than necessary and may be removed soon after the cow gets on her feet.

Repeat the treatment if necessary. The treatment above described usually brings relief within a few hours. In a number of emergencies cows have been successfully treated by pumping unfiltered air into the udder with a bicycle pump; but this is liable to result in serious infection of the udder and should be
practiced only in an emergency. The injection of a gallon of
the rectum
is

also desirable.
is

warm, soapy water into Never administer drenches

when

the animal

partially unconscious.

ABORTION.

Ry

abortion

is

meant the premature

this

birth of the calf.

(i) contagious abortion caused by bacteria; and (2) accidental abortion caused by a serious nervous shock. The latter
of

Two

forms

ailment

are

common:

may

result

from external or internal

injuries,

drinking

cold or stagnant water, bad nutrition, exposure to inclement weather, impure atmosphere, and various constitutional

diseases.

Whenever
This

abortions occur apparis

ently without cause, they should be treated as contagious.

Contagious Abortion.
ease
find

a very menacing dis-

among dairy cattle. It is caused by bacteria which The disease their way into the reproductive organs.

can be successfully combatted only by rigid methods of

animals.

and prompt quarantining of the aborting offspring, afterbirth, and stable litter should at once be burned, or buried and covered with quick lime. The stalls and walls should be washed with
disinfection

The dead

a i-iooo solution of corrosive sublimate, while the floor may be disinfected with a liberal amount of quick lime.

114

DAIRY FARMING

The vagina and

uterus should be thoroughly disinfected with chlorid of zinc, creolin, or corrosive sublimate daily
solution of proper strength until the
ing.

The same

cow ceases dischargtreatment should be applied antiseptic

frequently to the external genitals and adjacent region of uninfected cows. If the afterbirth is retained longer than 24 hours it should be removed by hand.

Cows that have aborted should not be bred until they have ceased discharging, and it is important to keep them from the rest of the herd until they have dropped a fullgrown
calf.

A
ease
will

prolific
is

means of spreading

the infection of this dis-

cows his penis and sheath have been thoroughly disinfected. .One to two quarts of 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant worked up into the sheath will answer the purpose satisfactorily.
the bull.
bull that has served infected

infect other

cows he serves unless

GARGET.

Causes.

to severe cold,

Injuries of the udder, overfeeding, exposure overcrowding of the udder by skipping a

milking, and

milk, frequently containblood; swelling and hardening of one, two, or all ing quarters of the udder, which has a more or less reddish, inflamed appearance and the formation of pus in the
;

germ infection. Symptoms. Watery, stringy

Give i% pounds of Epsom salts and i ounce of ginger, dissolved in a quart of tepid water. Support the udder by means of a wide bandage tied at the top line of the animal, and pack a layer of bran between the bandage and the diseased portion of the udder. Heat the bran by pouring hot water over it. The hot water

more advanced Treatment.

stages.

THH DAIRY HERD

115

treatment should be repeated at short intervals and should be followed by thorough rubbing of the udder with lard
or raw linseed
oil,

a treatment which

may

be continued

to advantage for 20 minutes. The rubbing materially relieves the swelling and stimulates the secretion of milk.
It is

ters clean at short intervals.

important also to milk the diseased quarter or quarThe air treatment for milk

fever has also been

recommended

for garget.

NON-INFECTIOUS

"CAI<tf

SCOURS."

Causes. Feeding cold, dirty, old, or too much, milk; drinking cold or impure water irregularities in feeding feeding from unscalded buckets and confinement in dark,
;

cold, or filthy stalls.

Treatment. Reduce the amount of milk; feed the milk fresh and at body temperature; feed not less than three times a day, and use only clean, sterilized milk
buckets.

Give only pure water at body temperature, and add formalin to the milk in the proportion of one part
"scours"
formalin to 4,000 parts of milk until the diarrhea or is checked. The scouring is usually due to the

action of fermentative or putrefactive bacteria which are killed or checked by the action of the formalin.

INFECTIOUS
This disease
is

CALF SCOURS'
as white scours

is

commonly known

and

caused by bacteria. It affects calves usually from a few hours to a few days old, and is very fatal. The discharges are usually of a rather light color and have an
offensive odor.

Medicine

is

of

little

avail.

The

disease

must therefore be combatted by methods of prevention.

Washing

the vagina of the

cow with

disinfectant solu-

tion shortly before calving, disinfecting the navel of the

116

DAIRY FARMING
calf at short intervals for a
stall,

new-born

ing the calf in a disinfected

prevention.

are

few days, and placgood measures of

INDIGESTION.

gestible feed

Overfeeding; feeding too much coarse, indisudden changes of feed stale, moldy, frosted or decomposing feeds; irregularities of feeding; and lack
Causes.
;

of exercise.

Symptoms.
dull, sickly

Loss of appetite, suspended rumination, appearance, and usually constipation.

Treatment.

Feed

light ration containing laxative

and

green feeds, such as linseed meal, pasture, roots, silage, l etc. Supply plenty of water and give i to i 2 pounds of Epsom salts and I ounce ginger, or i to 2 pints of

raw

linseed

oil,

according to the degree of constipation.

RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH.
If the afterbirth does not
it

come away within 48 hours

Carefully disinfect the

should be removed by hand.

hand and arm, grease the same and insert into the womb, where the afterbirth must be carefully loosened from the As soon button-like projections to which it is attached. as removed, flush out the vagina and womb with warm
disinfectant solution.

When cows are provided with laxative feed and warm water shortly before and after calving, the afterbirth will almost always drop away in due time. If the bowels are
not perfectly loose at calving time, administer a purgative.

The
off,

48 hours

retention of the afterbirth for a longer period than /ill cause it gradually to decompose and slough
seri-

causing a foul discharge from the vagina and

THB DAIRY HERD

ously impairing the health of the animal.

117

ing

may

also result

Blood poisonfrom the prolonged retention of the

afterbirth.

INVERSION OF THE WOMB.

Severe straining after calving may cause the further portion of the womb to protrude through the opening leading into it, thus causing an inversion of the organ.
In this inverted condition a portion or all of it may pass out of the vagina. As soon as this is noticed, wash and disinfect the protruded portion and push it back into its normal position. This done, apply a truss or pessary to
hold the
sive

womb

in position until the straining or expul-

movements

cease.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Cause.

This disease

is

caused by a specific organism

known

as the tubercle bacillus.

The germs

are

commonly

though they may also be taken into the body through the food. Unsanitary stabling, lack of nourishment, and inherent constitutional weakness, are greatly
inhaled,

responsible for the prevalence of this disease. short cough, enlargement of the Symptoms.

lymph

glands at the throat, emaciation, and a general unthrifty appearance. In its early stages it is difficult, however, to
detect the disease except

by the tuberculin

test.

The Tuberculin

Test.

The

usefulness of this test as

a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact that when a substance called "tuberculin" is injected under the skin of

an animal, the injection

is

followed by a rise of tempera-

ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the temperature remains the same. It must be added, however, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails

118

DAIRY FARMING

as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by

a physical examination. Method of Making the Tuberculin Test.

this test the following particulars
1.

In making must be observed: Secure the necessary tuberculin from the govern-

ment.
2.

Secure a

clinical

thermometer,

sharp,

hollow
deal-

needle,

and a graduated, hypodermic syringe from

ers in veterinary instruments.

3.

Make

4.
5.

Do not test cows shortly before Do not test cows that are in heat,

the test during the cooler season of the year. or after calving.

or suffering from

garget or other diseases. 6. Do not allow cows to drink very cold water. 7. Keep the animals in a normal condition as to feed,
confinement, etc., during the test. 8. Do not test animals which

show a temperature

as

high as 103

F.

Proceed with the test as follows: First ascertain the normal temperature of the cows by holding a clinical thermometer in the rectum for about five minutes. Three
observations are necessary: noon, and the last at 6 p. m.
inject

One

at

a.

m., another at

At 10

p. m., the

same day,

under the skin

of
live

at the

centimeters

tuberculin

neck or shoulder, 2 cubic for animals of about 1,000

pounds
cows.

At 6

weight and proportionally more for heavier o'clock the next morning take the tempera-

ture again as before, but at intervals of two hours until If the maximum five or six readings have been taken.

temperature after the injection is two or more degrees higher than it was before the injection of the tuberculin,
the animal
is

considered tuberculous.

If the rise of tern-

THH DAIRY HERD

perature is one and a half degrees, the case sidered suspicious.

119

may

be con-

needle and place of injection should be disinfected, and care should be exercised not to excite the cows dur-

The

ing any period of the test. Do not retest for tuberculosis within 60 days. As a rule every cow in the herd should be tested once a year for tuberculosis.

BARRENNESS.
Causes.

Lack of

exercise,

in breeding, closing of the

mouth

improper feeding, in-andof the womb, and an

acid condition of the vagina.

Treatment.
closed,

If over fat reduce the If the

give plenty of exercise.

solid extract of

amount of feed and mouth of the womb is

open by inserting the forefinger or by applying Belladonna to the part. An acid condition of the vagina may be overcome by thorough syringing with 2 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda a

few hours previous to

service.

treatment

much recomand
is

mended

lately

is
:

known

as the yeast treatment

used as follows

Dissolve an ordinary compressed yeast cake in a cup of warm water and allow to ferment. Add this to a quart of warm water and use to wash out the vagina some hours before service. The vagina should

be washed out with soapy water just previous to the injection of the yeast solution.

BLOAT OR HOVEN.
Overeating, suddenly turning cows on rich, green feed, like clover pasture, and fermentation of the feed. There is as a rule a great deal of gas produced,

Causes.

causing a great distention of the

left side.

Treatment.

Immediately place a gag

in the

mouth,

120

DAIRY FARMING

and in mild cases, give an ounce of spirits of turpentine and one-half pint of raw linseed oil. Keep the animal moving and pour cold water on the loins. When relief
comes, administer a purgative. In severe cases tap the left side (paunch) with a slender knife or a trocar. Tap at a point equidistant

from the point of the

column.

hip, the last rib,

and the

spinal

TEAT TROUBLES.

Hard Milkers.
an opening
teat bistoury

Hard milking

is

caused by too small

in the teat.

Enlarge the opening by using a

cold,

when the cow is in full flow of milk. Sore or Chapped Teats. Due to exposure to

wet weather and rough handling.

vaseline.

Treat with lard or

May be removed by applying lunar caustic. Closed or Obstructed Teats. Caused by injury or clotted milk. Keep open by inserting a milk tube. Leaky Teats. Prevent unusual distention by milking
three or four times daily.
If this
is

Warts.

not sufficient, a fairly

tight fitting bandage, like the finger of a glove,

may

be

placed around the

teat.

STRINGY OR ROPEY MILK.

which find udder through the teats. These bacway into the teria are associated with filth and the trouble must be overcome by keeping cows away from filthy places.
This
is

due

to certain species of bacteria

their

This trouble should not be confused with garget.

BLOODY MILK.
usually due to an injury to the udder. the udder with hot water and apply lard.
is

This

Bathe

DAIRY HERD

121

SELF-SUCKING COWS. Prevent by putting a halter on the cow with a strong, Fill this stiff piece of leather running over the nose.
strip of leather

with sharp

nails.

Two

for killing

per cent coal tar disinfectants are usually used The Oklahoma station recommends a lice.

"kerosene emulsion," which is made by using 2 pound hard soap, 2 gallons of a cheap grade of kerosene and i Cut up the soap and dissolve in hot gallon of water. Bethen add the kerosene and thoroughly mix. water;
fore

applying to the animals dilute this mixture with

7 gallons of water. or spray pump.

Apply by means of a sponge, brush,

WARBLES OR GRUBS.
cattle

These are found just below the skin in the backs of and constitute the larval form of the ox bot-fly

or heel-fly. As they develop they cause swellings in the back and are thus easily recognized. Wherever there
is a swelling there is also an opening in the skin through which the grubs may be easily squeezed and killed. They may also be destroyed by the application of kerosene.

PART
MILK AND
ITS
CHAPTER
MILK.
Milk, in a broad sense,
secretion of the
their young.
all

II.

PRODUCTS.
XVII.

may

be denned as the normal

mammary

It is

glands of animals that suckle the only food found in Nature con-

the elements necessary to sustain life. Moretaining over it contains these elements in the proper proportions and in easily digestible and assimilable form.

bacteria.

Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and Russell's Pairy Bacteriology.

Physical Properties.

Milk

is

a whitish opaque fluid

possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive of cows' breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is,

123

124
it is

DAIRY FARMING
both acid and alkaline.

This double reaction

salts

largely to acid

and alkaline

is due and possibly to small

quantities of organic acids.

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 and 1.033. After standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character.
Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the
casein,

and part of the ash are

is

in suspension.

In consistency milk

slightly

more viscous than water,

the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature.

It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of placing milk in clean pure surroundings. Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is

very complex and variable, as will be seen from the

fol-

lowing figures:
Average Composition of Normal Milk. A compilation of figures from various American Experiment Stations.

Water .................................
Butter fat .............................

Casein

................................

87.1* 3.9^ 2.9^

.5^

Albumen ...............................
Sugar ............ ....................
.

4-9*

Ash

......................... ... .7* ................................ Trace. Galactase ...... . ............ . .......... Trace.
......
.

Fibrin

The great variations in the composition of milk shown by the figures from Koenig, given below
:

are

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

Maximum. Minimum.
Water
Fat Casein
.
.

125

90.69

80.32
1.67

6.47
4.23
1-44

1.79
.25
2. ii

Albumen
Sugar

6.03
i.

Ash

21

.35

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum and minimum composition of milk except that the maximum for fat is too low. The author has known cows to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests
even higher than
this.

BUTTER FAT.
This
is

the most valuable as well as the most variable

It constitutes

constituent of milk.

about

83%

of butter

and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and
cheese production.
in the

Butter fat is suspended in milk Physical Properties. form of extremely small globules numbering about 100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con-

siderably in size in any given sample, some being five times as large as others. The size of the globules is affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the
size decreases

and the number increases with the advance

of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are sometimes so small as to render an efficient separation of the

cream and the churning of same impossible.

The
breeds.

size of the fat globules also varies with different

In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule

126
is

DAIRY FARMING

one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is about one ten-thousandth.
Night's milk usually has smaller globules than mornThe size of the globules also decreases with the age of the cow.

ing's.

The
is

density or specific gravity of butter fat at 100

F.

and is quite constant. Its melting point varies between wide limits, the average being 92 F. Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond,
.91

butter fat has the following composition

Butyrin
3.85

Caprcin
Caprylin

3 .60 I Soluble or

volatile.

55

Caprin Laurin
Myristin Palmitin
Stearin
Olein, etc

90
Insoluble or
non-volatile.

7.40 20 20
.

25.70 1 80
.

35-OO

This shows butter

fat to

be composed of no

less

than

nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, butyrin

compound of glycerine and butyric acid compound of glycerine and palmitic acid,
is

palmitin,

etc.

The
and

most- important of these acids are palmitic, oleic,

butyric.

Palmitic acid

is

insoluble, melts at 144

F.,

and forms

(with stearic acid) the basis of

Oleic acid
is

hard

fats.

insoluble, melts at 57

F.,

and forms the

basis of soft fats.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

127

at

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 2 F. and melts again at 28 F. Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in

elucidating the variability of the churning temperature of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter

Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning temfat.

perature

is

such a variable one.

The

relative

amounts of hard and

soft fats are influ-

enced by:
1.

Breeds.
Feeds.

2. 3.

Period of lactation.
Individuality of cows.

4.

The

butter fat of Jerseys

is

harder than that of Hoi-

high churning temperature, the difference being about six degrees. Feeds have an important influence upon the character
of the butter

steins and, therefore, requires a relatively

Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, fat. Gluten materially increase the percentage of hard fats. feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft butter fat.

With the advance of the period of lactation the percentage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, together with the physical change which butter fat undergoes,

makes churning

difficult in

the late period of lac-

tation.

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent It is inherent influences the character of the butter fat.

128
in

DAIRY FARMING
to produce a soft butter fat, in others to

some cows

produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. Soluble Fats. The soluble or volatile fats, of which
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only
in butter fat and distinguishes and other animal fats.
this

from

all

vegetable

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbohydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This

may
June
It

partly account for the superiority of the flavor of

butter.

may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to
and butter by weeds like garlic and wild and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, parThese flavors are undoubtedly tially spoiled silage, etc. due to abnormal volatile fats.
milk, cream,

onions,

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly before milking. When this is done the odors are sure to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking.

Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the casein and albumen being by far the most important. Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissueforming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an
almost endless variety of cheese.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

The
in

129

an extremely

larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk It is finely divided amorphus condition.

intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with
this.

Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its exact composition still undetermined. Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not

identically the same.

It is not coagulated by heat. In composition albumen very closely resembles casein, differing from this only in not containing

Albumen.

It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which sulphur. causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170 F.
It is in their

behavior toward heat and rennet that casein

radically differ.

and albumen

sugar, commonly called lactose, has the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste.
It readily

Milk Sugar. This

changes into

lactic acid

when

acted upon by

the lactic acid bacteria.

This causes the ordinary phenom-

enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked or killed before this amount is formed. There is therefore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. All of the milk sugar is in solution.

Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most
Ash.
is

important constituent. It is upon this that the action of For when milk is heated rennet extract is dependent. to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble

and rennet

will

no longer curdle milk.

It

seems also that

130

DAIRY FARMING

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be "whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores
inal viscosity.

made
its

to

orig-

The ash

is

the least variable constituent

of milk.

Colostrum Milk.
parturition.

This

is

the

first
its

milk drawn after

by peculiar odor, yelbroken down cells, and high content of albumen which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and causes it to coagulate on application of heat.
low
color,

It is characterized

According to Eugling the average composition of trum milk is as follows

:

colos-

Water
Fat Casein

71. 69^

3-37 4.83
15.85 2 48
.

Albumen
Sugar

Ash

1.78

tion.

secretion of colostrum milk is of very short duraUsually within four or five days after calving it assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases,

The

however,

it

does not become normal

till

the sixth or even

the tenth day, depending largely the animal.

upon the condition of

is

A
its

good

criterion in the detection of colostrum milk

peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. appearance of these characteristics determines
for butter production.

The

dis-

its fitness

Milk Secretion.
stituents

of

understood.

Just how all of the different conare secreted is not yet definitely But it is known that the secretion takes

milk

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

131

the place in the udder of the cow, and principally during of milking. Further, the entire process of milk process elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous

system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production It is therefore of the greatest of milk and butter fat.
practical

importance to milk producers to treat cows

as gently as possible, especially during the process of

milking.

How

Secreted.

The source from which

is

the milk con-

stituents are elaborated

the blood.

It

must not be sup-

posed, however, that all the different constituents already exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in
is practically free from fat, casein, These substances must then be formed in the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the

milk, for the blood

and milk sugar.

power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Similarly,

the formation of lactose

is

the result of the action

is

of another set of cells

tose.

whose function

It is believed that the casein is

to produce lacformed from the

albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known
as osmosis.

Variations in the Quality of Milk.

ferent

Milk from

dif-

sources

may

vary considerably in composition,

particularly in the percentage of butter fat.

Even the

132

DAIRY FARMING
may vary a great deal in compoof these variations may be assigned
:

milk from the same cow

sition.

The causes

to
II.

two sets of conditions Those of an artificial

I.

Those natural to the cow.

nature.

I.

QUAUTY OF MILK

AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDITIONS.

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes a change with the advance of the period of lactation. During the first five months the composition remains prac-

tically the

same.

After

this,

however, the milk becomes

"dries up."

gradually richer until the

figures

cow

The following

from Van Slyke

illustrate this

change:

It

will

be noticed from these figures that the milk

actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first three months of the period. But just before the cow dries

up,
2.

it

may
The

breeds.

high as 8%. quality of milk also differs with different Yet breed differences are less marked than those
test as

of the individual cows of any particular breed. Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

milk.

133

The following data obtained

at the

New
:

Jersey

Experiment Station

illustrates these differences

Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 3. to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature
has

made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful selection and breeding for a number of generations.
II.

QUALITY OF MILK AS
DITIONS.
1.

BY ARTIFICIAL CON-

When cows

are only partially milked they yield

poorer milk than

when milked

clean.

This

is

largely

explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as high as 14%.
2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers are so much preferred to slow ones.

134
3.

DAIRY FARMING
The
richness of milk

is also influenced by the length of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for

the differences

we

and night's milk.

richer,

often find in the richness of morning's Sometimes the morning's milk is the

at other times the evening's,

upon the time of day the cows are milked.

in stead of twice a day.
4.

depending largely Milk can not,

however, be permanently enriched by milking three times

of milk.

Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk

stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 5.

this

and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the
richness of milk, but only temporarily. So long as cows are fed a full ration,
to
it is

not possible

change the richness of milk permanently, no matter what the character of feed composing the ration.
Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity
7.

and the quality of milk produced.

CHAPTER

XVIII.
TEST.

THE BABCOCK

This is a cheap and simple device for determining the percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M.
tion,

Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Staand ranks among the leading agricultural inventions

of

modern
1.

times.

The

chief uses of the

:

Babcock

test

may

be mentioned as follows
It
its

has

made

possible the

payment for milk accord-

ing to
2.

quality.

It

has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect

undue

losses in the process of manufacture.

It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 3. by locating the poor cows. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac4. tice of watering and skimming milk. The separation of Principle of the Babcock Test. the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made

possible
1.

By

the difference between the specific gravity of

butter fat
2.

and milk serum.

the centrifugal force generated in the tester. burning the solids not fat with a strong acid.

for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing

By By Sample
3.

cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires
135

136
too
is

DAIRY FARMING

much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob-

Fig. 29

Two

styles

of Babcock testers.

tained by measuring which

is

the

method universally em-

In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest ployed. importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance
to be tested.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

137

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following A, Babcock tester B, milk bottle C, cream bottle D, skim-milk bottle E, pipette or milk measure F, acid measures; G, cream scales; H, mixing cans; I, dividers. A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 29,
parts
: ;

tion

consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posiand provided with swinging pockets for the bottles.
is

This wheel

rotated by

means of a worm wheel (lower

When the tester stops the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up. As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing
machine)
at the top of the" tester.

the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover.

is

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each
large
division
is

subdivided

into

five

smaller

ones,

making each subdivision read .2%. neck from the zero mark to the 10%
two cubic centimeters.

is equivalent to Since the Babcock test does not

The mark

contents of the

give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold

In other words, if the scale were filled would hold two grams but fat being only nine.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% tenths of two grams
1.8

grams of

fat.

with water

it

of

8 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. milk bottle is shown in Fig. 30.
1

C.

Cream

Bottles.
bottle

These are graduated from

is

30%

to

55%.

A 30%

shown

in Fig. 31.

Since cream

usually tests more than 30%, the sample wher. the 30% bottles are used.

must be divided

138

DAIRY FARMING

SI

Fig.30.-Milk
bottle.

Fig.

31.

Cream

bottle.

Fig. 32. Skim-milk bottle.

D. Skim=milk Bottle.
is

This

bottle,

shown

in Fig. 32,

provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The
entire scale reads one-half per cent.

ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. bottle is also used for testing buttermilk.

Being divided into The same

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

139

Acid me as*
ure.

Fig.34.-

\
in

E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c., as shown Fig. 33. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will adhere to the inside of the pipette it is exis

pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c., which lent to 1 8 grams of normal milk.
F.
Fig. 33.

equiva-

Acid Measures.

Pi-

pette.

test equal quantities,

In making a Babcock by volume, of acid and

milk are used.

Fig. 34, holds 17.5
test.

The
35
is

acid measure,

c.c.

of acid, the

shown in amount needed for one

The one shown

in Fig.

divided into six divisions,

each of which holds 17.5

c.c.

or one charge of acid.

Where

140

DAIRY FARMING
tests are

many
H.

made

in rilling, but

should be

a graduate of this kind saves time made to hold twenty-five charges.

cream

scales

commonly used
is

is

illustrated in

Fig. 36.

Acid.

The

acid used in the test

commercial

sul-

Fig. 36.

Cream

scales.

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not

properly burned and particles of curd may appear in the fat. On the other hand, an
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has a tendency to blacken or char the fat.

The
the fat

sulphuric acid, besides burning the

solids not fat, facilitates the separation of

medium
tles

by raising the specific gravity of the in which it floats. Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass botprovided with glass stoppers.

Exposure
different

Fig.37.- Showing manner of

emptying
pette.

pi-

to the air materially

weakens

it.

Making
1.

a Babcock Test.
:

The

steps

are

indicated as follows

Thoroughly mix the sample. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the
2.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

top and allow the milk to run down to the relieving the pressure of the finger.
3.

141
slowly

mark by

Empty

the milk into the bottle in the

manner shown
which the milk

in Fig. 37.
4.

Add

the acid in the

same manner

in

was emptied

into the bottle.

Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 5. slow rotary motion. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 6.
7.

Shake or mix again and then place the

bottle in

the tester.
8.

Run

tester four

minutes at the

proper speed.
9.

Add

contents
bottle.

moderately hot water until come to the neck of the

10. 11.
til

Whirl one minute.

Add

moderately hot water un-

contents of the bottle reach about

the

8%

mark.

12.
13.

Whirl one minute.

Read

test.

How to

Read the Test. At

is

of the fat column

the top usually quite a

pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. A less pronounced one is found 38. at the bottom of the column. The fat should be read from the extremes of the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4,

when its temperature is about 140 F. Too high a temperature gives too high

Fig.

38. Fat column show ing meniscuses.

142

DAIRY FARMING

a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. Precautions in Making a Test. I. Be sure you have

a fair sample.
2. The temperature of the milk should be about 60 or 70 degrees. 3. Always mix twice after acid has been added.

4.
5.

Be sure your tester runs Use nothing but clean,

Be sure the

at the right speed.

soft

water in

filling

the

bottles.
6. 7.

tester does not jar.

is

'Be sure the acid

of the right strength.

is

8.

Mix

as soon as acid

added to milk.

not allow the bottles to become cold before reading the test. 10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading.
9.

Do

The water added

to the test bottles after they

have been

whirled should be clean and pure.

much

be used, however, when

sulphuric acid.

lime seriously affects the test. first treated with a few drops of

Water containing Such water may

As

stated before, skim-milk, buttermilk,

and cream are

tested in the

same way
is

as milk, with the exception that

the cream sample

Testing Cream.

weighed, not measured. Accurate tests of cream cannot be

secured by measuring the sample into the bottle as is done in the case of milk. The reason for this is that
.

the weight of cream varies with its richness. The richer the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. This is illustrated in the following table by Farrington and Woll
:

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

Weight of
fresh separator

143
c. c.

cream delivered by a 17.6

pipette.
Per cent, of fat in cream.
10
15

2O 25 30 35 40 45 50

With cream

testing below

30%

the full 18

grams may

Where be added to one bottle and tested in the usual way. the cream tests above 30% better results are obtained by
using only half the full sample of cream (9 grams) and adding to this 9 grams of water. To this mixture the full amount of acid is added. Obviously in this case
the test

must be multiplied by 2 to get the correct reading. General Pointers. Black fat is caused by
1.

2.
3.

Too strong acid. Too much acid. Too high a temperature

of the acid or the milk.

4.
5.

Not mixing soon enough. Dropping the acid through

top of fat
is

the milk.

Foam on

caused by hard water, and can

be prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to the water.

Unclean or cloudy
1.

fat is

caused by

Insufficient mixing.

2. 3. 4.

Too low speed of tester. Too low temperature. Too weak acid.
by

Curd

particles in fat are caused

i.

Too weak

acid.

144
2.

DAIRY FARMING

Not enough acid. Too low temperature. 3. Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon
the bottles are emptied by shaking as to remove the white sediment.

as the test

is

read,

hot water containing some alkali, with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed

them up and down so Next wash them in and finally rinse them

with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dissolving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one
pint of sulphuric acid.

small brush should also ocbottle.

casionally be run

up and down the neck of the

Tests.

Making and Reading Cream

The

different

steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in testing milk. However, as already stated, the cream must

be weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore, special precautions must be used in reading the test.
It is well

known

column gives too high a reading.

that reading the extremes of the fat This error is due to

the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington

and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus. This is the method commonly employed in reading tests. Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus
by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red) to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests addof fat-saturated alcohol to the top of ing a few drops
the fat as a

means of removing the meniscus.

solvent
action

alcohol has a

on butter

fat,

Ordinary hence the

necessity of using fat-saturated alcohol. Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub*Bulletin 145, Indiana

Experiment Station.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

ject,

145

has found "glymol" best suited for the removal of the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white
is used for typewriters, sewing machines, give satisfactory results without the addition of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by placing a small cheese cloth bag containing "alkanet root"

mineral
etc.

oil

and

It will

in a bottle of

glymol for a day or two.

One ounce

of

alkanet root will color one quart of glymol. few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should

be carefully added to the top of the

reading
the
test.

fat

column before

To get accurate readings the bottles should be read while the temperature of the fat is between 135 and 140 F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed
in a

water bath having a temperature of 140 F. and kept there several minutes, or long enough to cool the F. The water in the vessel should extend fat to 140
a
little

to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably

above.

Accurate readings cannot be obtained by

reading the bottles directly from, the tester; the first bottles removed have too high a temperature while those

removed

last

have too low a temperature.

Where hand
to the

testers are used, the bottles are usually too cold for sat-

isfactory reading and, therefore,

must be heated

proper temperature.

CHAPTER

XIX.

BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS.

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter
dark; his is chance work. Much attention will therefore be given to the study of these organisms in this work.
in the
I.

BACTERIA.
applied to the smallest of living

The term
plants,

bacteria

is

which can be seen only under the highest powers of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a These plants are so small that it would single cell. require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found in the air, water, and soil; in cold, hot, and temperate climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic
matter.
rapidity. single bacof reproducing itself a million times capable in twenty- four hours. They reproduce either by a simple division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells,

Bacteria
is

grow with marvelous

terium

or by spore formation in which case the contents of the mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore.

These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to
endure a temperature of 212
F. for several hours.

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in
146

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

which an exceedingly varied and active life In nature and in many of the arts and
f

147
is

possible.

industries,

bacteria are of the greatest utility,

They play a most important

if not indispensable. part in the disintegration of

vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into their elemental constituents in which form they can again

be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot
flourish without them.
ii.

MiivK FERMENTATIONS.

Definition.
says that,

In defining fermentation processes,

Conn

"In general, they are progressive chemical changes taking place under the influence of certain
organic
substances which are present in very small quantity in the fermenting mass." With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result of the growth and multiplication of various classes of
bacteria.

The souring of milk illustrates a typical fermentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic
acid.

Here the chemical change

is

conversion of sugar
of milk are the fol-

into lactic acid.

The most common fermentations

lowing
:

f
I

Lactic.

Normal

-{

Curdling and Digesting.

[ Butyric.

Milk Fermentations

r
-Q.

Slimy or Ropy.
Gassy. Toxic.

Abnormal.

-^

Chromogenic.

143

DAIRY FARMING
NORMAL FERMENTATIONS.

We

speak of normal fermentations because milk always

contains certain classes of bacteria even

when drawn and

kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will be discussed in the following pages.
i.

LACTIC FERMENTATION.

This

is

the most

common and by
Indeed
it

far the
is

most important

fermentation of milk.

indispensable in the
quality.

manufacture of butter of the highest

causing

The germ
It
is

this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi.

non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth temperature between 90 and 98 F. At 40 its growth ceases.

Exposed
it is

to a temperature of 140

for fifteen minutes

killed.

of milk and cream, as already mentioned, due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the
is

The souring

sugar

is

never

all
is

duction of acid

converted into acid because the proWhen the acidity reaches limited.

about .9% the

killed

lactic acid bacteria are either

checked or
to the

and the production of acid

ceases.
it is

Owing

universal presence of these bacteria to secure milk free from them.

almost impossible

Under

cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria

always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which
give rise to the numerous .taints often met with in milk. Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker.

Creamery

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

149

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery
in a

sweet condition. They are therefore expected to thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the

abnormal species that might have gained access to the

milk.

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in cream made into butter they are indispensable. The
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the growth of these organisms in the process of cream There are a number of different species of ripening.
bacteria that have the
2.

power of producing

lactic acid.

CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION.

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps

next to the

lactic acid type.

Indeed

it is

very

difficult to

obtain milk that does not contain them.

It is not often,

however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their inability to thrive in an acid medium.

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria two enzymes, one of which has the power of The former curdling milk, the other of digesting it.
secrete

has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin.

"As a

rule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein in a manner comparable to rennet."

only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms a great minority, or when for some reason their action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria
It is
,ire in

itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in

manfests

being soft and slimy.

150

DAIRY FARMING

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes
attributable to the digesting

and curdling organisms.

3.

BUTYRIC FERMENTATION.
that

It

was mentioned

many

bacteria have the

power

of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fermentation is probably caused by a single species. So it
is

with the butyric acid bacteria.

While a number of

different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation

of milk and cream

is

due to a single species belonging

to the anaerobic type. The butyric acid produced

chief cause of rancid flavors in

by these organisms is the cream and butter. These

bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particularly abundant in filth. They are almost universally

on account of

present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate It is on account their resistant spores.

of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been
excluded.

mainly overripened cream. The possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened cream possesses conditions favorable for their developin butter

The

influence of the butyric acid bacteria

is felt

and

in

latter frequently

ment.

Overripening
against.

should,

therefore,

be

carefully

guarded

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

151

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent development in a highly acid cream is explained by
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the presence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid

organisms." Butter that

will

apparently good in quality when freshly made, usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary temperatures a short time. The quickness with which
is

this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid

consistent with

good

possesses poor cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria,

flavor has been developed, usually This seems to indikeeping quality.

while light and

this end.

air,

doubtless, also contribute

much

to

ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS.

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermentaThe tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated
with
milk.
filth,

and

dairies that

become

show a

lack of cleanliness in the care

infested with them and handling of the

Since milk

is

frequently infected

with one or

another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discussion will be given of the most important.
i.

BITTER FERMENTATION.

Bitter milk

several

and cream are quite common and there are which this bitterness is imparted it may ways
in
:

152

DAIRY FARMING

be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class

we know

of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but a great deal about it in a practical way. In

milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitterness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is

When the temperature such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever,
almost certain to be noticeable.
is

present.

It

is

quite evident

from

this

that the bitter

organisms are capable of growing at much lower temperatures than the lactic and that so long as the latter
are rapidly check.

growing the

bitter fermentation is held in

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 60 F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened and then held at a temperature of 45 for twenty-four hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while the same cream held sweet at 45 for twenty- four hours and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This
indicates that the lactic acid
is

unfavorable to the develop-

ment of the

bitter fermentation.

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting This accounts for the bitter the boiling temperature. taste that often develops in boiled milk.
2.

SUMY
not
a

OR ROPY FERMENTATION.

This

is

common

fermentation
is

causes trouble where cleanliness

and rarely practiced in the dairy.

The

bacteria that produce

water, dust, and dung.

it are usually found in impure These germs are antagonistic to

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

153

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected with them sours with great difficulty. The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the
viscosity of milk,

which in mild cases simply assumes a slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be
strung out in threads several feet long. Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and
is

therefore

worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk sliould

drawn from

not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class

are easily destroyed as they do not form spores.

3.

GASSY FERMENTATION.

is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in making and is also the cause of much poor flavored butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in

This

cheese

the lactic acid bacteria and do not

germs, they are antagonistic to grow during the rapid development of the latter. They are found most abunwinter.
bitter

Like the

dantly in the barn, particularly in dung.

4.

TOXIC FERMENTATIONS.

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most commonly found in milk that has been kept for some time at low temperature.
in
5.

CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS.

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of imparting to milk various colors. The most common of

154
these
is

DAIRY FARMING
blue.
It is,

however, not often met with in dairy

practice since the color usually does not appear until the milk is several days old. The specific organism that

causes blue milk has been

known

for

more than

half a

century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other
colors are produced such as yellow, green, these are of very rare occurrence.

and

black, but

v_y ^J Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk B, after standing in a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides tl*** frt rt-I^Kiil^o -m o xr -Trtt-tnc rf Haot^ri^ ^VToorf*.
;
4-

CHAPTER

XX.

SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION.

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in

which contamination from

is

filth,

bad odors, and

bacteria,

reduced to a minimum.

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of is one of the most important subjects that conFurfronts the American dairyman at the present time. ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must With the largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk.
clean milk

by the public of the great nutritive value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milkbetter appreciation

produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for practically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less, So great is the clamor for cleaner slip-shod conditions. milk that any extra efforts expended in producing it are
certain to be richly compensated. The Necessary Conditions for the production of sanitary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani-

tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, wholesome feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10)

dust-free stable air;

with dry hands;

(11) clean bedding; (12) milking (13) thorough cooling of milk after

milking; (14) sanitary milk room.

Healthy Cows.

The

health of the

cow

is

portance in the production of sanitary milk.

of prime imAll milk

155

156

DAIRY FARMING

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general
unfitness of such milk there

danger of the disease proIt has been ducing organisms getting found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms.
is

into the milk.

of this disease among cows at present makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or not cows are affected with the disease, by the application

The prevalence

of the tuberculin

test.

Any
used.

feverish condition of the

cow tends

to impart a

feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be

Especially important is it that milk from diseased udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be
discarded.

Light, ventilation, and ease of cleanare essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfecting ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro-

Sanitary Barn.

viding a large number of windows,

portance.

is

of the highest im-

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secured by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great

need of pure air. permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed

To

daily,

ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. also be cleaned after each feed.

and care should be taken to keep the walls and The feed boxes must
stalls

The

afford as

little

should be of the simplest construction, to chance for lodgement of dust as possible.

latter to

Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut-

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

ter,

157

a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows

clean.

walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means

The

of a coat of whitewash.

The

latter

gives the barn a

striking sanitary appearance.

Clean Barn Yard.

an
essential

clean, well drained

barn yard

is

Where cows

factor in the production of sanitary milk. are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is

easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields,
it

should be placed where the cows cannot have access

it.

to

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are saniYet tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of When we consider infecting milk to no small degree. that every dust particle and every hair that drops into the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions
of bacteria to
it,

we

realize the

importance of taking every

this

precaution
source.

to

guard against contamination from

as free as possible

To keep cows

from loose hair and

dust particles they should be carded and brushed reguThis should be done after milking to larly once a day.

avoid dust.

Five to ten minutes before the cow

is

milked

her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks
sufficiently

moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles

158

DAIRY FARMING
milking time. This practically means that must always have one or two cows washed He should be careful to wash his hands in clean
at

and hairs
ahead.

the milker

water after each washing.

Under ordinary conditions source of milk contamination.

the cow is The rubbing

the greatest of the milker

against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing
instructions are rigidly followed. Attention should also be given to the cow's switch,

which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual switching during milking is no small matter in the contamination of milk

when

the switch

is

not clean.

Clean Milkers.
fields are

Clothes which have been

worn

in the

not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con-

Such clothes can be sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently
laundered,
will

materially

aid

in

securing clean milk.

Fig. 42.

Unflushed seam.

Fig. 43.

Flushed seam.

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during
milking.

Clean Vessels.

All utensils used in the handling of

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

milk should be
possible.

159

made of good tin, with as few seams as Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed
Unflushed seams are
difficult to clean,

with solder.

and,
Fig.

as a rule, afford

good breeding places

for bacteria.
;

42 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam Fig. 43 shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. The Fig. 44 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail.
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the reduced opening, which serves to keep out many of the

micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the

pail

during

Fig. 44.

Sanitary Milk Pail.

While such a pail is somewhat more difficult milking. to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs
this disadvantage.

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as very desirable method of nearly sterile as possible.

cleaning them
First, rinse

is

as follows:

with

warm

or cold water.

Second, scrub

160

DAIRY FARMING
sal

with moderately hot water containing some

soda.

The washing should be done with brushes

cloth because the bristles enter into

rather than

any crevices present which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it
to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the thoroughly water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding,
is

very

difficult

the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without

to use.

wiping and allowed to remain in This will leave the vessels

this place until

ready

in a practically sterile

condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays.

Clean,

Wholesome Feed.
feeds, like

Highly

fermented

and

aromated

sour brewers grains and leeks should

be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like So readily does milk good flavored milk is sought. absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the animal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous When fed to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. after milking, however, no objection whatever can be
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors Aromatic feeds of any kind is then found in the milk. should always be fed after milking.

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to expect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored water. The need of pure water is further evident from the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of
milk.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

The water

161

of ponds and stagnant streams is especially Not only is such water injurious to the health dangerous. of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may
later find their

way

into the milk.

Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This
operation
is
it

long as

frequently done under the delusion that so 'removes all visible dirt the milk has been

The real harm, however, that comes entirely purified. from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is
not so

much

in the hairs

as in the millions of bacteria

will

These bacteria are remove them.

of the dirt, because

A
cloth

good

strainer

and dust particles themselves which they carry with them. so small that no method of straining Straining can not even remove all some of it will go in solution. consists of two thicknesses of cheese

The with a layer of absorbent cotton between. strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milkers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would

be more than off-set by greater carelessness in milking; especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who
are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any carelessness on their part. cheese cloth strainer on

the milk pail milker.

is

worse than useless with any kind of

New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized. Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once. Dust=Free Air. Great precaution should be taken not

162
to create
this
is

DAIRY FARMING
any dust
in the stable
its

about milking time, for

certain to find

way

into the milk.

Cows

should,

therefore, never be

bedded or receive any dusty feed just

before or during milking. Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed before or during milking may so charge the air with dust as to make clean milk an impossibility.

Moistening the floor and walls with clean water previous to milking materially minimizes the danger of getmistake not infrequently made ting dust into the milk.

even in the better class of dairies

is

to card

and brush the

cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than offset by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later,
materially increases the

germ content

of the milk.

The

carding and brushing should be done at least thirty minutes before the milking commences. Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw

and lying on

should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping dirty bedding will soil themselves and create
a dusty barn
air.

Milking With Dry Hands.

milk contamination
is

prolific

source

of

the milking with wet hands. Where the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound

to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or millions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness

of the milker's hands and the cow's udder.

There

is

no
it

excuse for the

is

filthy

practice of wet milking:,

since

just as easy to milk with dry hands. Fore=Milk. Where the purest milk

is

sought,

it is

de-

sirable to reject the first stream or

two from each

teat,

as this contains

many thousands

of bacteria.

The reason

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

for this rich development of

163

germs

is

found in the favor-

able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access. Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a

dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests of the worst description and their presence in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414
visit places
flies

examined by the

'Bacteriologist of the Connecticut

Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly excluded from all places where they are apt to come in

contact with the milk.

Experimental Data.
bacterial

content of milk

To show to what extent the may be reduced by adopting

the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few experimental data are herewith presented.

In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment

Station, Stocking reports the following
1.
:

When

number

the cows were milked before feeding the of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im-

mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656, or three times as many.
2.

When

the udder and flanks of the

with a

damp cloth, the number of bacteria per 716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or
3.

cows were wiped c. c. was

ten times

as great.

When

the cows were not brushed just before milk-

ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or
nearly twice as great. When students 4.

who had

studied the production of

clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per c. c. was 914; when the milking was done by regular

164

DAIRY FARMING

number of bacteria was 2,846, or three times as great. Wiping or washing udders before milking not only very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk,
unskilled milkers the

but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent. Frazer has shown that "the average weight of dirt which
falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times as great as that which falls from the same udder after washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is

eighteen times as great."

Fig. 45

- Clean

Milking.

(From Da.

Div., U. S. Dept. of A.)

CHAPTER XXL
FARM BUTTER-MAKING.
CREAMING.
Cause.
fic

Creaming

is

gravity of the fat

due to the difference in the speciand the milk serum. The fat being

light and insoluble rises, carrying with it other constituents of the milk. The result

some of the
is

a layer of

cream at the surface. Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk is creamed I ) ( may be divided into two general classes That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four
:

known as natural or gravity creaming; (2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal
hours, a process

creaming.

The

centrifugal force has the effect of increas-

ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force
is

generated in the cream separator.

best
results

ShaIlow=Pan Method. The method are secured by straining

with this

the milk directly after milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain

to 65 F.) for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it

undisturbed at room temperature (60

has been carefully loosened along the sides. The average loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%.

165

166

DAIRY FARMING

this

Deep=Cold=Setting Method. The best results with method are secured by using a can like the Cooley
This can is provided with a cover which allows it to be submerged in
water.
It also

illustrated in Fig. 47.

has a spout at the

bottom by which the skim milk is gently removed, thus preventing the partial mixing of cream and skim milk incident to skimming with a
conical dipper.
t

put into the cans diafter milking and cooled to rectly

is

The milk

as low a temperature as possible. To secure the best results with this

method the water should be

iced.

Where
Fig. 47.- Cooley Can.

will
it

done the skim milk show only about 0.2% fat. It

this is

desirable to allow the milk to set

twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen
hours.

One of the most methods of creaming is the addition of unsatisfactory water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic separators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal
Dilution or Aquatic Separators.
real separators at a

separators are often lead to believe that they are buying low cost when they are investing five,

ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are no more entitled to the term separator than are the com-

mon

shallow pans. system of creaming

is

The average loss about i /2%.

l

of fat with this

MILK AND
Centrifugal

ITS

PRODUCTS

167
Dairies hav-

Method (Hand Separator).

ing four or more cows should cream their milk by the centrifugal method, the hand separator. The saving of butter fat

arator.

with this method soon pays for the cost of a sepMoreover it has the additional advantages over

the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of

any desired richness.

Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under favorable conditions a separator should not leave more
fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency of skimming and these must be duly considered in making a separator test. The following are some of these con-

than .05%

ditions

A.
B.
C.
1

Speed of bowl.
Steadiness of motion.

Temperature of milk.
of heating milk. of milk skimmed per houtAcidity of milk. Viscosity of milk.

D.
E.
F.

Manner Amount

G.

H.
I.

Richness of cream.

Stage of lactation.

(Stripper's milk.)

A.

The

greater the speed the

more
It is

efficient the

cream-

ing, other conditions the same.

important to see that

the separator runs at full speed during the separating

process. B.

slightest trembling

separator should run as smoothly as a top. The will increase the loss of fat in the

skim milk.

Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of

(i) loose bearings, (2) sepa-

the following conditions:

168

DAIRY FARMING

rator out of plumb, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) unstable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. The best skimming is not possible with any sepaC.

the temperature falls below 60 F. temF. is the most satisfactory for to 98 ordinary skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest skimming is obtained at temperatures above 100 F. The
rator

when

perature of 85

reason milk separates better at the higher temperatures that the viscosity is reduced.

is

D.

Sudden heating tends

to increase the loss of fat

is

in skim-milk.

The reason

for this

that the fat heats

more slowly than

milk
is

the milk serum, which diminishes the

difference between their densities.

When, for example, suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera-

ture to 85 F. by applying live steam, the loss of fat in* the skim-milk may be four times as great as it is under

favorable conditions.

E.

Unduly crowding
is

of fat in the skim-milk.

a separator increases the loss On the other hand, a marked

underfeeding
F.

The higher the acidity of milk creaming. With sour milk the loss of
milk becomes very great.

apt to lead to the same result. the poorer

fat in the

the

skim-

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase
its

very unsatisfactory creaming. increase the viscosity of milk temperatures which accounts for the poor skimming at these temperaviscosity.

This results
also

in

Low

tures.

H.

satisfactory

Most of the standard makes of separators will do work when delivering cream of a richness of
richer

$0%.

cream

is

liable to result in

a richer skim-

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

milk.

169

The reason
is

for this

is

that in rich

cream the skim-

milk
is

taken close to the cream line where the skim-milk

to the very small size of the fat globules in

richest.
I.

Owing

stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream than that produced in the early period of lactation.

The richness of Regulating Richness of Cream. cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepaWhen a rich cream is desired the screw is rator bowl. turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream it is turned away from the center. To separate a rich Advantages of Rich Cream. cream at the farm results in mutual benefit to producer and manufacturer. The main advantages are as follows: (i) Less bulk to handle; (2) less cream to cool;
(3) less transportation charges; (4) more skim-milk for the farmer; (5) better keeping quality; (6) allows more starter to be added; (7) gives better results in churning, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, especially with sour cream.

Best Time to Separate Milk. The best results with a separator are obtained by running the milk through the machine immediately after milking. That the Saving of Butter Fat with a Separator. owner of four good cows can afford to invest $50.00 in a small cream separator is shown by the following: Four good cows will yield not less than 24,000 pounds of milk a year. By the common shallow pan method of
creaming, the loss of butter fat will average 0.7 pound for every 100 pounds of milk. With the centrifugal separator the loss of fat will not average over 0.05 pound, hence there will be effected a saving of 0.65 pound of

170

DAIRY FARMING

separator.

butter fat in each 100 pounds of milk by the use of the At this rate, the total saving of butter fat an-

nually on the 24,000 pounds of milk will be 156 pounds. Since each pound of butter fat will yield approximately i 1-6 pounds of butter, 183 pounds of butter will be saved

by the process, which, at 25 cents per pound, amounts to This saving in butter fat alone will almost pay $45.75. for the separator in one year. To secure steady motion, Fastening a Separator.
the

separator must be fastened to a solid

is

foundation.

There
floor,

nothing better in this respect than a concrete

with which every dairy should be provided.

of the best methods of fastening separators to conis the use of expansion bolts.

One

crete floors

These consist of lag screws with tapering points provided with malleable shields, having threads on their inner sides to fit the threads of the lag screws and projections

on

their outer sides to catch

and hold

in holes

made
screw

in
is

the concrete.

The

shields

expand

as the lag

screwed

in.

CREAM RIPENING.
a process of fermentation in which the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day
is

Cream ripening

language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream.

the butter

So important is this process that the success or failure of maker is largely determined by his ability
it.

to exercise the proper control over

In

common

practice

the time

consumed

in the ripening of

cream varies from

its prime obdevelopment of flavor and aroma in butter, two In addiqualities usually expressed by the word flavor.

twelve to twenty-four hours. The ripening of cream has for Object.

ject the

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

tion to this,

171

cream ripening has several minor purposes,

;

namely: (i) renders cream more easily churnable (2) obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in churnm S> (3) permits a higher churning temperature; (4)
increases the keeping quality of butter. Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation.
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im-

portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as In practice the degree or intensity of flavor secondary.
is

easily controlled

by governing the formation of

lactic

the flavor develops gradually with the increase in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter,
acid.
is,

That

for example,

is

almost entirely devoid of flavor, while

cream with an average richness possesses the maximum amount of good flavor possible when the acidity his
reached .6%.

Churnability.

cream

is

more

experience shows that sour churnable than sweet cream. This easily
Practical

is explained by the fact that the development of acid in cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion produced in churning causes the little microscopic fat globules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the

small granules of butter visible in the churn. high It is viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. that anything that reduces the viscosity evident, therefore,
of cream, will facilitate the churning. As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream the
'smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk.

Experience shows that ripened cream is foaming than unripencd. This is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream and the consequent greater churnability of same.
Frothing.
less subject to frothing or

172

DAIRY FARMING

Sour cream can be churned at higher than sweet cream with less loss of fat in temperatures the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance

Temperature.

since it is difficult to get low enough temperatures for the successful churning of sweet cream. Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with

the best keeping quality

is

obtained from well ripened

cream.

It is true,

however, that butter

little

made from cream

that has been ripened a

too far will possess very

poor keeping quality.

as the limit

An

acidity of

.5% should be placed

is

when good keeping

quality

desired.

CONTROL OF THE RIPENING PROCESS.

We

aroma of

have learned that the highly desirable flavor and butter are produced by the development of the

In the following discussion we shall take up the means of controlling this fermentation and treat of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This
lactic fermentation.

will include:

(i)

the ripening temperature;

(2)

time

in ripening; (3) agitation of

cream during ripening.

Since the lactic acid bac-

Ripening Temperature.
teria develop
it

90 to 98 F. would seem desirable to ripen cream at these temBut this is not practicable because of the peratures.
best at a temperature of

unfavorable

effect

of

of the cream and the butter.

high temperatures on the body Good butter can be pro-

duced, however, under a wide range of ripening temThe limits may be placed at 60 and 80. peratures.

Temperatures below 60 are too unfavorable for the Any check development of the lactic acid bacteria. the growth of these germs increases the chances upon But for the development of other kinds of bacteria. it be added that when cream has reached an may

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

173

acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a temperature between 55 and 60 with good results. In general practice a temperature between 60 and 70 gives

the best results.

This means that the main portion of the

at this temperature.

ripening

is

done

The ripening

is

always finished at temperatures lower than this. Time in Ripening. As a rule quick ripening gives better results than slow. The reason for this is evident.

Quick ripening means a rapid development of the

lactic

fermentation and, therefore, a relatively slow development of other fermentations. Practical experience shows us that the growth of the undesirable germs is slow in

proportion as that of the lactic

is

rapid.
at 55

For instance,
F.,

when we attempt
teria,

to ripen

cream

a tempera-

ture unfavorable for the

a
is

more

growth of the lactic acid bacor less bitter flavor is always the result.

This

so because the bitter

germs develop

better at

low

temperatures than the

lactic acid bacteria.

Stirring Cream.
ing to agitate the
ripening.

When

time the fat rises

It is very essential in cream ripencream frequently to insure uniform cream remains undisturbed for some in the same way that it does in milk,

though in a less marked degree. The result is that the upper layers are richer than the lower and will sour less
rapidly,

since

the

action

of

the

lactic

acid

germs

is

greater in thin than in rich cream. This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear coarse

and curdy when poured from a dipper. The importance of stirring frequently during ripening should therefore
not be underestimated.

The Use of Sour Milk (Starter). Cream produced under cleanly conditions ordinarily contains many kinds

174
of bacteria

DAIRY FARMING
good, bad, and indifferent
is

and

to insure a

large predominance
process,
it

of the lactic acid type in the ripening

necessary to reinforce the bacteria of this type already existing in the cream by adding large quantities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with undesirable species. Clean flavored sour milk or skim milk at the point of curdling is practically a pure culture of lactic acid organisms, and the addition of about 10 pounds

of such milk to every 100 pounds of cream will result in a better and more uniform quality of butter.

Amount

of Acid to Develop.

Cream

of average ricn-

ness should have an acidity of from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent. when churned. rich cream requires less acid than a thin cream.

Sweet and Sour Cream. In small dairies, where only a few churnings are made weekly, care should be taken never to mix sweet and sour cream just before churning.
This always results in a heavy loss of fat in the buttermilk on account of the difference in the churnability of sweet and sour cream.
ACID TEST FOR CREAM.
Butter makers do not find
it

safe to rely

upon

their

noses in determining the ripeness of cream for churning. They use in daily practice tests by which it is possible to determine the actual amount of acid present. The method
of using these tests
titration,

based upon the simplest form of in neutralizing an acid with an alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines when the point of neutrality has been reached. In the tests for acidity of cream the alkali used is
is

which consists

sodium hydroxide.

This

is

made up

of a definite strength

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

so that the

175

amount of

acid can be calculated from the

amount of
alkali

alkali used.

Harrington's Alkaline Tablet Test. In this test the is used in a dry tablet form in which it is easily

handled.
.034

Each

tablet contains

enough

alkali to neutralize

gram

of lactic acid.

Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in Fig. 48, and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. pipette, and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered, graduated glass cylinder.

PIPETTE
Fig. 48.

Farrington Acid Test Apparatus.

Making the

Solution.

The

solution

is

made

in the

graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough water to make 97 c.c. solution. the tablets are dissolved,

When

which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution should be well shaken and is then ready for use. The solution
of the tablets

may

be hastened by placing the graduate in

a reclining position, as

shown

in the cut.

176

DAIRY FARMING

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution,
rotating the cup after each addition.

As soon

as a per-

manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number of
hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream.
if it

Thus,

required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From
this
it

will

be seen that with the Farrington

is

test

no calcu-

lation of

any kind

necessary.

CHURNING.
Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat was mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form

it

of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,ooo per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in-

creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration of the fat globules during the separation of the milk.

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat remains in this finely divided state without any tendency whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules
remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed presence of a membrane around each globule. Later researches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory and we know now that this condition of the fat is due
to

to the surface tension of the globules layer of casein that surrounds them.

and to the dense

Any

disturbance great enough to cause the globules to

break through this caseous layer and overcome their surface tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process which we call churning. In the churning of cream this

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

177

process of coalescing continues until the fat globules have united into masses visible in the churn as butter granules.

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING.

tant bearing

There are a number of conditions that have an imporupon the process of churning. These may
:

be enumerated as follows
1.

2.

Temperature. Character of butter

Acidity of cream. Richness of cream.

fat.

3. 4.
5.

Amount

6.
7.

of cream Speed of churn.

in churn.

Abnormal fermentations.
Temperature.

i.

To have

unite in churning they ness or fluidity, which

ture.

must have a

the miscroscopic globules certain degree of soft-

is greater the higher the temperathe higher the temperature, within certain To secure the best relimits, the quicker the churning. sults the temperature must be such as to churn the cream

Hence

in

from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought about in different creams at quite different temperatures. The temperature at which cream must be churned is

determined primarily by the character of the butter fat and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. Most cream is churned between 55 and 60 degrees Fahr. Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to follow with regard to temperature is this When the cream enters the churn with a richness of 30 per cent and an
:

acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should be such that the cream will churn in from thirty to fortyfive

minutes.

and leave the butter

This will insure an exhaustive churning in a condition in which it can be

178

DAIRY FARMING

handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the buttermilk can then be easily removed, so that when a plug
is

on

taken with a trier the day after it will be perfectly clear.

it is

churned the brine

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in cream from different sources and at different times have

the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. This is so because of the differences in the relative amount

of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat

is

composed.

When

the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat

have a high melting point. Such fat may be quite hard at a temperature of 60, while a butter fat of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at
will, of course,

this

temperature.

For a study of the conditions

is

that

influence the hardness of butter fat the reader

referred

to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the

chapter on milk. 3. Acidity of Cream.

This has a marked influence on

the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid

The ease with which the fat cream becomes greater the less the viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a quickly higher churning temperature than sweet, which is of great practical importance where it is difficult to secure low
renders
it

less

viscous.
in

globules

travel

churning temperatures.
4.

Richness of Cream.

It

may

naturally be inferred

that the closer the fat globules are together the more quickly they will unite with the same amount of concussion.

which renders

In rich cream the globules are very close together, it more easily churnable than thin cream.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

The former can

179

therefore be churned in the same length of time at a lower temperature than the latter. The ideal richness is about 30%. cream much richer

than this will stick to the sides of the churn, which reduces the amount of concussion. The addition of water
to the

churn

will

overcome

this stickiness

and cause the

It is bet-

butter to
ter,

come

in a reasonable length of time.

however, to avoid an excessive richness when a exis

haustive churning Amount of 5.

est

to be expected.

Cream

in

churning
this,

is

one-third

full.

than

the

The best and quickwhen the churn is With more or less cream amount of concussion is reChurn.
secured
in

duced and the length of time

correspondingly increased. 6. Speed of Churn.
est

churning
the

The speed of

churn should be such as to produce the greatcream.

the
possible agitation or concussion of the Too high or too low a speed reduces

for each particular

amount of concussion. The proper speed churn must be determined

by experiment.

Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy 7. or ropy fermentation sometimes causes trouble in churning by rendering the cream excessively viscous.

Cream from

become so viscous
possible.

single herds may as to render churning im-

Dairy Thermometer.
tials in
*Dairy'
eter.

One
is

of the essen-

like

Thermom-

watch the temperature of the cream during ripening, and to secure uniform and exhaustive

,1,1

making good butter that shown in Fig. 49.

r

a thermometer

It is
,

necessary to

180

DAIRY FARMING

churnings the temperature of the cream must always be

definitely

known

before

it

enters the churn.

CHURNING OPERATIONS.
Churns. Of the numerous styles of churns upon the market there is none better than the barrel churn. For large dairymen, however, who have 50 or more cows, a combined churn and butter worker is recommended. Such churns, or course, require some form of power to run
them, and no large dairy
is

expected to be without power. Preparing the Churn.

Before adding the cream,

the churn should be scalded

with hot water and then

thoroughly
cold water.
''freshen"
fill

rinsed

with
will

This

the churn and

with

the pores of the wood water so that the

will not

cream and butter

stick.

Straining Cream. All cream should be carefully

strained
,

into

the
i

churn.

This removes the possibilr r Fig. 50. Barrel Churn. ity of white specks in butter which usually consist of curd or dried particles of cream.
i
,

Adding the Color.

The amount

of color to be added

dependvS upon the kind of cream, the season of the year and the market demands.

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color than Holstein because it contains more natural color.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

181

pastures the

During the summer when the cows are feeding on amount of color needed may be less than half that required in the winter when the cows are feeding on dry feed.
Different markets

demand

different shades

of color.

The
to

butter

must therefore be colored

shipped.

to suit 'the

market

which

it is

In the winter time about one ounce of color

is

required

per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. In case the color is not added to the cream (through an oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of

working by thoroughly mixing

it

with the

salt.

When

the

colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter the color will also be uniform throughout.

Gas

in

Churn.

During the

hrst five minutes of churn-

ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure

according to Babcock, "is chiefly due to the air within becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free from the cream."

Size of Granules.

Butter should be churned until the

granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and

When smaller, some of the fine grains are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the perWhen the centage of water in the butter is reduced.
distribute the salt.

granules have reached the right size, cold' water may, be added to the churn to cause the butter to float better. Salt
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off.

Washing
wat^r
is

Butter.

One washing

in
is

which as much

used as there was cream

usually sufficient.

182

DAIRY FARMING
butter churns very soft

When
as
it

two washings may be adis

vantageous.

Too much washing

dangerous, however,
butter.

removes the delicate flavor of the

laid

Too much emphasis cannot be

of using clean, pure water for of butter.

upon the importance Experiments washing.

have shown that impure water seriously affects the flavor When the water is not perfectly pure it should be filtered or pasteurized.
Salting. It is needless to say that nothing but the best grades of salt should be used in butter. This means salt readily soluble in water and free from impurities. If there
is

much

foreign matter in

salt, it will

leave a turbid ap-

pearance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumbler

of clear water.
Salt adds flavor to butter

Object of Salting.

and ma-

Very high salting, terially increases its keeping quality. however, has a tendency to detract from the fine, delicate
aroma of butter while
at the

same time

it

tends to cover

up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter maker will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his butter
rather high. Rate of Salt.

salted, other conditions the

which butter should be is dependent upon marThe butter maker must cater to the market demands. kets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he does
rate at

The

same,

with regard to color. The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine For instance it is perthe amount contained in butter.

under certain conditions to get a higher of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one percentage ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions
fectly possible

by salting

means
lost

one and a half ounces. under some conditions of salting more than under others.
at the rate of

This
salt is

that

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

The amount
upon
1.
:

183
is

of salt retained in butter

dependent

Amount

2.
3.
1.

of drainage before salting. Fineness of butter granules. of butter in churn.

is

Amount

When

the butter

salted before the

wash water

has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is

good

practice,

however, to use a
it

little

extra salt and

drain less before adding under these conditions.

2.

as the salt will dissolve better

ones.

Small butter granules require more salt than large The reason for this may be stated as follows The
:

surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of
ones, the
is greater than that of a pound of larger amount of water retained on them is greater. Small granules have therefore the same effect as insufficient drainage, namely, washing out more salt.

small granules

3.

Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large

churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in butter is one ounce per pound.

WORKING BUTTER.
Object.

The

incorporate the plus moisture.

salt.

chief object in working butter is to evenly It also assists in expelling any sur-

How

to
is

Work

Butter.

Where

only a small amount

made, the butter may be worked with a ladle in the churn. For larger amounts it is desirable, however, to have a separate worker like that shown in Fig. 56.
of butter

184

DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 51. -Butter worker.

distributed.

salt has been evenly Just when this point has been reached can not always be told from the appearance of the butter immediately after working. But after four or six hours'
is

Butter

worked enough when the

standing the appearance of white streaks

or
that

mottles
the

indicates

butter

has

not

been
is

sufficiently

worked.
follow
butter

The rule to to work the

enough to

just

prevent the appearance To avoid of mottles.

mottles
it

is

best

to

work
Fig. 52. -Butter Printer.
fi rst

butter twice.
t;

The

me>

jt

WO rked

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

just

185

enough to fairly incorporate the salt. It is then allowed to stand six or eight hours, after which white
a string.
streaks are usually noticeable on cutting the butter with The second working should cease as soon as
Difficult

these streaks or mottles have been removed.

Churning.

The

causes of trouble in churn-

be enumerated as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) ing low temperature, (3) sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of cream, (5) churn too full, (6) too high or too low speed

may

of churn,
lactation,

(7)

colostrum milk,

(8)

advanced period of

and (9) abnormally rich cream. Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of
the cream.

When

caused by these conditions foaming

can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn too full, in which case the cream should be divided and

two churnings made

instead of one.

Cleaning Churns. After the butter has been removed, the churn should be washed, first with moderately hot water, next with boiling hot water containing a little If the final rinsing is alkali, and finally with hot water. done with cold water the churn dries too slowly, which This daily washing should is apt to give it a musty smell.
be supplemented occasionally with a washing with lime
water.

Nothing

is

ec[ual to the cleansing action of well preits

pared lime water and

not so treated.

frequent use will prevent the

is

peculiar churn odor that

bound

to develop in churns

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned with moderately hot water containing a small amount of
alkali.

186

DAIRY FARMING
MARKETING BUTTER.

For fancy ment paper

made
print

one-pound prints wrapped in parchthe most popular. These prints are with a small hand printer (Fig. 54) which should
trade,

are

have the dairyman's monogram cut into

of the
of

it.

The imserve as

monogram
its

in

the butter will

It
is

a
to

guarantee

genuineness.

also

desirable

Fig. 53.

Print Butter Box.

have some neat lettering on the parchment wrapper, such, for example, as Fancy Dairy Butter, Cold Spring Dairy Prints must be kept Butter, Golden Jersey Butter, etc.
cold to preserve their attractive rectangular appearance. The best prices for butter are realized by selling it
direct to the consumer.

With dairymen who

retail

milk

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

186a

and cream, this method of marketing not only yields the best prices, but is also the most convenient, because the butter can be disposed of at the same time as the milk

and cream.
covered box like that shown in Fig. 55 is best adapted for carrying print butter to market. Ice may be packed in the box with the butter during warm weather.
the small butter producer the greatest trouble is finding a suitable market for his product. It is customary with most of these producers to sell their butter to

With

the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimination in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor

No producer of selling for practically the same price. good butter can afford to market his butter in the country stores. Those who have made farm butter-making a success have invariably catered to private trade, or have sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12
or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, private customers who are willing to pay for a good product, and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to

reach them by

rail.

Composition of Butter. According to analysis reported by various experiment stations, American butter
has the following average composition:

Per

cent.

Water
Fat
Proteids
Salt

13

83
I

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,

186b

DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 54.-Butter Ladles.

Fig.

55.

Butter Carton for

Wrapping One-pound
Butter Prints.

CHAPTER

XXII.

FARM CHEESEMAKING.
10 to 75 cows, the following heating cheese vat boiler i
; ;

Apparatus and Materials Needed. For dairies from list is recommended Steam
:

%
;

inch press screws

cheese

hoops; horizontal and perpendicular cheese knives; one gallon dipper; curd scoop; whisk broom; 100 cubic centimeter graduate acid test dairy thermometer rennet
;
;

extract

cheese color

cheese

salt

bandages

press cloths

cheese cloth circles, and a small scales. Ripening the Milk. Place the night's and morning's milk in the cheese vat and heat to a temperature of 86 F.

Next determine

the acidity of the milk with the Far-

rington test described on page 175. (Other tests may be If less than 0.18% acid is found, the milk should used.) be held to develop more acid. If very sweet it is desirable to add one or two pounds of good flavored, sour milk
(starter, see p. 173) per 100 pounds. good starter will not only hasten the ripening but will improve the flavor of the cheese.

Adding Color and Rennet Extract.

As soon

as the

milk shows an acidity of o.iS% to 0.2% add color at the rate of one ounce (30 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk and thoroughly mix. The amount of color to be used depends

upon the season of the

kind of milk.

year, the
is

market demands and the

thoroughly incorporated,

After the color

add rennet extract (curdling agent) at the rate of about four ounces (120 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk. The
rennet extract should be diluted with water to the extent

187

188

DAIRY FARMING
its own volume before adding it to After the rennet extract has been thoroughly the milk should be allowed to stand undis-

of four or five times

the milk.
stirred in,

The temperaturbed until sufficiently curdled to cut. ture at the time of adding the rennet should be 86 to
90
F.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

1$9

The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a quick ripening cheese is wanted, add 6 ounces per 1,000 pounds of milk. If a slow ripening cheese is desired, add 3 ounces for T,OOO pounds. Cheese color and rennet extract are usually placed upon the market in liquid form. They are, however, also procurable in dry, tablet form in which they are preferred for

making cheese on a small

scale.

Cutting the Curd.

To

determine

when

the curd

is

ready to cut, insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of the break and parallel to, and half an inch below, the
surface.
If the

whey

in the

break

is

clear, the

curd

is

ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed far enough. First cut The cutting is done as follows
:

the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the
;

perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about threeeighths of an inch on a side.

Warming and
cutting, stir

Stirring the Curd.

Immediately after

the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent the particles from matting together. Run the palm of

the

hand along the

sides

and bottom of the vat

to

remove

After 10 minutes stirring, gradually heat and bring the temperature to 100 F. in about apply 30 minutes. After this temperature has been reached,

any adhering curd.

the curd

may

be stirred at intervals of 10 minutes until

It is

ready to

remove the whey.

important to keep the

temperature as close to 100

F. as possible.

When a bunch of curd is between the two hands and on relieving the prespressed sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for
Drawing Off the Whey.

190

DAIRY FARMING

the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached, the whey should show about 0.17% acid. When the milk
set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firmness and amount of acid indicated above are reached in about two and one-half hours after adding the rennet 'extract. Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a Place a perforated wooden rack about two siphon.
is

inches high at one end of the vat and cover

it

with a

piece of muslin or cheese cloth. Scoop the curd upon the rack and stir. The rack has the advantage of drain-

ing the curd quickly and also permits the use of hot water under the curd to assist in keeping the temperature at 98 F., a temperature which should be maintained up
to within 10 or 15 minutes of salting. If a rather moist, open textured cheese
is

desired, stir

30 minutes after the removal of the whey and salt. In case a firm, close-textured cheese is wanted, the curd must be stirred at frequent intervals for a period of about

two hours before

develop.

salting,

so as to allow
is

more

acid to

firm cheese

especially

desirable

during

warm weather

because of
is

its

superior keeping quality.

When
when an
This

the milk

not of uniformly good quality, and

especially close-textured and uniform cheese is the curd should be allowed to mat upon the racks. desired,

As soon as removed is accomplished as follows: from the whey the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread about six inches deep upon the rack, and then allowed to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about 8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 minutes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15 minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep. Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

191

ready to cut into little strips the size of a finger. This done, the curd is stirred about 30 minutes and then
salted.

If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at Salting. the rate of 2j4 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of curd. When a slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of

2^4 pounds.

Use only

the curd at a temperature of about 90

salting.

the best grade of salt, and have F. at the time of

Molding and Pressing.

Twenty
:

to

thirty

minutes

after salting, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds) which are prepared as follows Place a piece of muslin
in the

bottom of the hoop and on top of

this a cheese

cloth circle

somewhat

less

in diameter than

the hoop.

place the bandage on the bandager so that when the latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over
the cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next put in the curd. This done, cover with a piece of muslin

Now

and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure very gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure (about 20 Ibs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30
minutes' pressing.
applied,

remove

bandager.
cheese.

cloth circle over the top, replace the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure for about 12 hours, when the cheese is taken out of the

Turn Next place a

Shortly after full pressure has been the follower, the muslin cloth, and the projecting bandage over onto the

hoop,

any folds or
out,

irregularities

in

the

bandage are
off

straightened

the

cheese

is

washed

with

hot

water, and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about ten hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop and put it into a suitable place for curing. Leave the cheese cloth circles on the cheese.

192

DAIRY FARMING

Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample ventilation. Keep the temperature as near 60 F. as possible. The curing or ripening process, which consists of the transformation of insoluble into soluble casein, re-

quires from two to eight months, according to the amount of rennet extract and salt used, amount of moisture in

and the temperature at which it is ripened. the temperature and moisture, the quicker the cheese will ripen. During the first three weeks the cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and if any
the cheese,

The higher

it is not covered with cheese cloth, grease should be applied to prevent cracking. If the curing room is dry, the cheese should be covered with a thin

portion of

layer of paraffine about a

week

after

it is

made, to pre-

vent excessive loss of moisture.

Composition.
teids,

Cured cheddar cheese has the followWater,

ing average composition:

34%

fat,

36.5%

pro-

26%; and

ash,

3.5%.

CHAPTER

XXIII.

STARTERS.
Definition.Starter is the general term applied to cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been selected artificially in a laboratory, or at dairies by picking out milk that seems to contain these organisms to

the exclusion of others.

good
its

starter

may

be defined

as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour skim-milk.

The word
a starter
is

starter derives

name from
assist the

the fact that

used to "start" or

development of
ordinarily con-

the lactic fermentation in

cream ripening.
good, bad, and indifferent

Object of Starters.
tain

Cream and milk

many

kinds of bacteria

lactic acid type necessary to reinforce the bacteria of this type already existing in the cream or milk by adding large quantities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with undesirable species.

and

to insure the

predominance of the
it

in the ripening process

is

cream may be aptly comIn both we find of a garden. The plants of a desirable and undesirable character. weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations
bacterial or plant life of
life

The

pared with the plant

If the weeds get the start of the cultivated the growth of the latter will be checked or vegetables, So with the bacterial fermentations of suppressed.

of cream.

cream.

When

fermentations

will

the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other The be checked or crowded out.

193

194

DAIRY FARMING

use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority the better the product.

NATURAL STARTERS.
Natural starters are those obtained by allowing milk or skim-milk to sour in the ordinary way. If the milk or skim-milk is produced and handled under cleanly conditions, it will have a fairly good flavor when soured to
the point of thickening. But it is difficult, even under cleanly condition, to get uniformly good flavored sour milk or skim-milk by allowing it to sour in the usual

way and for this reason the following method of preparing natural starters should be given preference. Selected Natural Starters. The most satisfactory
natural starters are selected and prepared in the following manner: Secure, say, one quart of milk from each
of half a dozen healthy cows not far advanced in lactaand fed on good feed. Before drawing the milk, brush the flanks and udders of the cows and then moisten
tion,

them with water, or preferably, coat thinly with vaseline to prevent dislodgment of dust. Then, after rejecting the
few streams, draw the milk into sterilized quart Now allow the milk jars provided with narrow necks. to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure atmosphere at a and 90 .F. When loppered temperature between 65 pour off the top and introduce the sample with the best
first

flavor

into about
at a

forty

pounds of

sterilized

skim-milk

and sour

temperature of about 70 F. starter thus selected can be propagated for a month

or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteurized milk with a small amount of the old or mother

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

starter.

195

Usually three or four pounds of the mother starter added to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skimmilk will sour it in twenty-four hours at a temperature
of 65
is

F.

Under

certain

conditions

of weather this
little,

amount may possibly have

well

to be modified a

for

it

that on hot sultry days milk will sour more quickly at a given temperature than on cooler days. The best rule to follow is to use enough of the mother
starter to sour the milk in twenty-four

known

hours at a tem-

perature of 65 F. In the heating process

all

of the active bacteria in the

field

skim-milk have been destroyed, thus leaving a clean

for the development of the lactic acid bacteria it from the bottle.

added

to

From what has been said it will be seen that the method of using the lactic acid bacteria is similar to The original the use of yeast germs in bread making. obtained in the way above described, or from the germs manufacturer, may be propagated for weeks by daily transferring a small amount of the thickened skim-milk
to

newly pasteurized skim-milk.

COMMERCIAL STARTERS.
Commercial starters usually consist of a single species of lactic acid organisms. These starters are prepared in laboratories where the utmost precautions are taken to

The methods which the good bacteria are separated from the bad by are quite complicated and of too little practical value to permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to say that
keep them free from undesirable germs.
such separation
teriologist.
is

possible only with

the

skilled

bac-

196

DAIRY FARMING

Most of the commercial cultures are Preparation. out in one-ounce bottles which are hermetically sealed. The method of making starters from them is
sent

the

same

for all whether they are obtained in the liquid

or in the dry form. In making the first batch of commercial starter, the
entire contents of the bottle
is
it

milk, sterilized
F. for

by keeping

at a

put into a quart of skimtemperature of 200

to

two hours, and then cooling

80

which tem-

perature should be maintained until the starter has thickened. new starter is now prepared by introducing the quart of starter into about forty pounds of skim-milk,

pasteurized by keeping

it

at a

temperature of 170

to 185

F. All subfor thirty minutes and then cooling to 65 sequent starters are prepared in the same way except
that the

amount of mother
little

starter for inoculation

must

few days because the germs become more vigorous after they have propagated several
be reduced a
for a

days.

The

first

and second

starters

prepared from a new

culture seldom have the good flavor produced in subThe cause of this in all probability sequent starters. is the inactive condition of the germs and the peculiar
flavor of the

medium

in

which they are sent

STARTERS.
it

out.

RENEWAL OF
Under
renew the
a

average

farm

conditions

is

policy

to

starter at least once a

It will

month by purchasing

new

bottle of culture.

be found that after the

been propagated for two or three weeks bad germs will begin to, manifest themselves as a result of imperfect pasteurization, contamination from the air, or
starter has

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

from overripening, so that
its

197
flavor

original

good

may

be seriously impaired at the end of one month's use. It is only where the utmost precautions are taken in pasteurizing the milk and ripening the starter, that it is
possible to propagate a starter for maintain a good flavor.

many weeks and

still

POINTERS ON STARTERS.
1. Starters give best results when added to cream or milk immediately after they have thickened. 2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same

effect in butter as

overripened cream.

Curdy

flavors are

usually the result of such starters.

3.

To

prevent overripening, starter cans or starter

must be used in which the temperature can be kept under perfect control. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 4.
vats
since
this

has undergone the cleansing action

of

the

separator and is free of lactic acid bacteria.

from

fat,

which hampers the growth

5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to insure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable

odors to escape.
6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before inserting it into pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing process becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are

used for observing temperatures. 7. Always use a sterilized can for making a
starter.
8.

new

Keep
it.

the starter can loosely covered after the milk

has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting

into

198

DAIRY FARMING

Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after g. inoculation to insure uniform ripening. 10. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick-

ening until ready to use. 11. When a new bottle of commercial culture
the
first

is

used,

two

starters
is

from

it

should not be used in cream

usually inferior on account of the slow growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted by the medium in which the cultures are sent out.
as the flavor

commercial starter
propagated a week.
12.

is

usually at

its

best after

it

has been

Always

sterilize the

neck of a new bottle of culture

before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk.

CHAPTER XXIV.
SOFT

AND FANCY

CHEESE;

MAKING.

a rapidly growing demand everywhere for the soft varieties of cheese such as cottage, Neufchatel and cream, and the manufacture of this class of cheese

There

is

becoming a very remunerative branch of dairying. The soft varieties of cheese are deservedly becoming popular because of their wholesomeness and palatability.
1

is

COTTAGE CHEESE MAKING.

Cottage cheese, which is made from skim-milk, may be manufactured in either of two ways, namely, with
or without rennet extract.
the use of rennet extract
is

The
finer

cheese resulting from

grained though somewhat more acid than that obtained without rennet.

Rennet Method.

When

rennet extract

is

used, the

night's separator skim-milk is held at a temperature of about 65 degrees F. until the following morning when The temperature it should show about 0.2 per cent acid.
is

then raised to 75

degrees

F.,

and rennet extract

added to the skim-milk at the rate of one-twentieth of an ounce (about one-half teaspoonful) per hundred pounds To insure an even distribution of the rennet, 'of milk.
it it

should be diluted with a cup of water before mixing with the milk. As soon as the rennet has been thorlatter

oughly mixed with the milk, the

199

should be allowed

200

DAIRY FARMING

to stand quietly at a temperature of about 70 to 75 degrees F. for 24 hours, when a firm curd will have formed.

The curd
strainer

is

now

and allowed

carefully dumped into a cotton bag or to drain until all free moisture

has escaped. Salt is next added at the rate of one and one-half ounces per ten pounds of cheese. The palatability of the cheese is

much improved by adding

to
it.

a small

amount of
Fairly
rennet.

rich

cream
results

good

may

be obtained by omitting the

Starter Method. This method yields the highest quality of cheese when fine flavored starter is used. Put the skim-milk into a vat and sour it with a good starter
at a

temperature of between
starter used,

.90

and 95 degrees F.

The

up to 25 per cent, the better the quality of the cheese. Thoroughly mix the starter with the skim-milk and allow to remain undisturbed until firmly
curdled.

more

When
in

this stage is reached, cut the curd, the

same

cheddar cheese making, and at once begin hand. Raise the temperature to 104 degrees stirring by F., keeping the curd constantly stirred during the heatas

ing process.

After this the curd should be stirred occa-

sionally for about

40 minutes, when the whey may be

drained

off.

is best accomplished in a tin strainer covered with a piece of cheesecloth. The curd must be hand-stirred as soon as it has been dumped into the

The draining

strainer, but the stirring should be done very gently at the start to prevent loss by mashing the curd particles. Continue the stirring until the curd is firm enough to prevent the particles sticking together, which usually re-

quires about five minutes.

As

soon as the curd has been

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

stirred dry

201

wrapped in the cloth strainer and squeezed with the hands until most of the free whey has been removed, that is, until it is dry enough to permit granulating it to fine particles by rubbing with the

enough

it

is

hands.

dry enough and by rubbing and stirring with the thoroughly granulated hands, it should be salted at the rate of about one and
the curd has been squeezed

When

After one-half ounces of salt per ten pounds of curd. the curd is soaked with skim-milk or milk; or salting

where a high quality of cheese

should be used.

is

desired a thin cream

Packing Cottage Cheese. The same packages will answer for cheese made by either of the two methods. For simplicity and cheapness there is no better method of With an ordinary butter packing than the following:
printer, print the cheese in one-pound blocks and then cut the blocks in two. This will make packages weighing one-

pound each. The half-pound blocks are wrapped parchment or oiled paper in a manner similar The sheets of to wrapping one-pound butter prints. or oiled paper for this purpose should be six parchment inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Any dealer
half
in

thin

in dairy supplies can furnish this paper at a very small If the cheese is to be sold in one pound packages cost.

the wrapping paper should be eight and one-half inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Cottage cheese may also be packed in water-proof packages such as are

'used for carrying ice cream, oysters, etc. The fiber butter boxes, made of pasteboard and lined with parchment paper, will also be found satisfactory for this purpose.

Both of the above

styles of

package should be lined with

202

DAIRY FARMING

parchment paper before putting the cheese into them. Some use wide-mouthed, single service milk bottles for
packing cottage cheese.

Marketing.

When much

cheese

is

made,

it

should

be marketed at fancy grocery stores and meat markets. If made on farms that operate daily milk routes in the
city,

much

cheese can be sold on these .routes to con-

sumers
average

direct, thus
retail price

saving the middleman's profits. The of the cheese is ten cents per pound.

The yield of cottage cheese, when made according to the methods herein described will approximate 15 pounds
of cheese per 100 pounds of skim-milk.

MAKING NEUFCHATEL CHEESE.

cheese

There are two methods by which American Neufchatel may be made, namely, with and without the use

of starter.
starter
is

The method
:

of

making the cheese without

Place the night's milk preferably in cans and cool to a temperature as near 70 deshotgun grees F. as possible. Next add at the rate of about one
as follows

teaspoon ful of rennet extract for each hundred pounds of whole milk. The rennet should first be diluted in a cup
If of water and then thoroughly mixed with the milk. milk is kept at 70 degrees F. it the temperature of the will be thoroughly curdled in from 15 to 20 hours, when

The actual it should be perceptibly sour to the taste. amount of acidity at this stage should be about 0.3 per The curd is now poured onto a strainer rack covcent.
ered with a cotton strainer cloth, or it may be poured or dipped into cotton bags, to drain. After the curd has

drained an hour, light pressure should be applied to it which may be gradually increased to hasten the draining.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

As
a rule,
it

203

is

desirable to have the draining

com-

pleted in about three hours, the temperature during this process being maintained at about 70 degrees F. Apply-

recommended

ing moderate pressure will hasten the draining and is As soon as the curd has for best results.
sufficiently drained, salt is

added

at the rate of

one ounce

pounds of cheese. The cheese should be thoroughly kneaded with the hands to distribute the It is salt evenly and to give it a smooth consistency.
to every five or six

now molded

into cylindrical packages,

1^x2^

inches,

weighing masses of cheese are

oiled

one-fourth

of
first

pound.

wrapped in paper and then wrapped in tin

These cylindrical thin parchment or foil. These pack-

ages usually retail at five cents each. Starter Method. When starter is used a better flav-

ored and more uniform cheese

is

possible.

The

starter

may

consist of well

thickened whole milk allowed to

sour in a natural way, but whole milk soured with pure

culture of lactic acid bacteria

Where pure is preferable. cultures are used the whole milk intended for starter
should be pasteurized before inoculating
it

with the culas follows:

ture.

When
Add

starter

is

used the cheese

is

made

one pound of starter to four pounds The mixture should have a temof fresh whole milk. Next add at the rate of about 80 degrees F. perature of one-half tablespoonful of rennet extract per hundred
at the rate of

pounds of milk, mixing the rennet with the milk as previously explained. When thoroughly curdled, which
usually requires about one hour, the curd is ready to drain. The rest of the process is carried out the same as when no starter is used.

'

204

DAIRY FARMING

Neufchatel cheese yields from 18 to 20 pounds per

100 pounds of milk.

CREAM CHEESE.

Cream cheese

is

made from milk containing about

;

ten

per cent butter fat

that

is,

milk reinforced with cream.

Like Neufchatel cheese, this cheese may be made with and without starter, and the processes are the same as
with Neufchatel cheese, except that it will be found advantageous to have the temperature from three to five degrees higher. Much butter fat is saved when making

cream cheese by the starter method. Cream cheese is molded in rectangular forms, 1^4x2)4x224 inches, holding about one-quarter of a pound. These packages usually retail at ten cents each.

CLUB CHEESE.
Another kind of cheese that
that
is

very
is

made by anyone, cheese. The method "potted"

can be
:

much relished and known as "club" or

this cheese
is

of

making

Grind up with an ordinary meat grinder five of old, well-ripened cheddar cheese of good flapounds The vor, and mix this with one pound of good butter.
as follows

mixing is easily accomplished with a bread mixer. The mixing should be continued until the cheese has a uniform consistency, free from lumps. Running the mixture through the grinder a second time and working it with the hands will assist in reducing the lumps. This
cheese can be packed in small tin-top jelly tumblers, covering the top of the cheese with parchment paper. This
palatable cheese which retails, as a rule, at forty cents a pound. The cheese may also be packed in the same manner as Neufchatel.

makes an exceedingly

CHAPTER XXV.
COOLING AND AERATION OF MILK AND CREAM.

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always contains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bacteria increase

with marvelous rapidity; at low temperagrowth practically ceases. The effect of temperature on bacterial development is graphically shown
tures their
in Fig.
57.

Fig. 57.

Relation of temperature to bacterial growth.

b, its

milk kept at

a represents a single bacterium;

50
F.; c, its

progeny

in twenty-four

progeny in twenty-four hours in hours in milk kept at 70 F.

(Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.)

At a temperature of 50 F. the bacteria multiplied five times; at 70 F. they multiplied seven hundred and fifty
times.

Roughly speaking,

at

98

F. bacteria multiply one hun-

205

206

DAIRY FARMING
F.

dred times faster than at 70

practically ceases.

At 32

F. bacterial de-

velopment Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40 to 45 F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop

growing

at

these

temperatures.

But there are other

at these temperatures,

classes of bacteria that can

grow

as evidenced

Such
hours.

flavors usually

by the production of undesirable flavors. become noticeable after thirty-six Where milk and cream are to be kept in the best

possible condition, it is necessary to reduce the temperature to within a few degrees of freezing.

Lack of thorough cooling necessitates two deliveries of milk per day, and, what is still worse, requires many dairymen to milk their cows shortly after midnight and
upon the whole milk
financial loss

shortly after midday, a drudgery which casts a damper business. Lack of cooling also means

through souring of milk and leads to many

dissatisfied customers.

Prompt Cooling.
as possible after
it is

Milk should be cooled as quickly

drawn.

taken directly from the

cow

Indeed, the milk should be to the cooling room and

promptly cooled. To do this conveniently it is necessary to have the cooling room located as near the barn as is
consistent with freedom

from barn odors. allowed to remain in the barn until all the cows have been milked, and this may require from two to three hours, depending upon the number of cows milked by each milker. A few hours delay in

Too

often the milk

is

cooling reduces the keeping quality of milk to a far greater extent than is commonly supposed. Milk not only conImportance of Aeration.
tains

bacteria

immediately

after

it

is

drawn, but
is

it

also contains gases, chief

among

which, perhaps,

car-

COOLING AND AERATION

bonic acid gas.

207

as possible after milking sheets to the atmosphere.

These gases should be removed as quickly by exposing the milk in thin

is

of

modern

coolers

Fortunately the construction such as to make it possible to do

the cooling and aerating in one operation. Formerly it was customary for dairymen to aerate
their milk before cooling.

Such practice is known to give somewhat better aeration than is possible where the cooling and aerating are performed in the same operation;
is

yet the difference

it.

so slight that consumers cannot detect

first

is

practice of aerating therefore being abandoned.

The

and cooling afterward

Coolers.
water.

All

modern
this

Without

coolers permit cooling with ice a sufficiently low temperature can-

not be obtained to stop practically all bacterial growth. To meet the requirements of dairies of different sizes, several styles of coolers are

herewith described and

illus-

trated.

Corrugated Cooler.

This style of cooler

is

shown

in

Fig. 58, which also shows a desirable method of fastening It is especially adapted to dairies having from fifteen it.

The cooler consists of to thirty cows. upper section which is used to cool milk
uniced water, and a lower section
is

two parts An and cream with through which ice water

:

circulated.

storage tank for well water may be placed above the ceiling. From this the water is admitted to the upper section through the valve which is used to regulate
the flow.

As shown by

section at the bottom

the arrows the water enters the and discharges at the top. The

waste water
it

may

be conducted to the feed water tank of

the boiler, to a watering trough, or other places where

may

be useful.

208

DAIRY FARMING

MILK RESERVOIR

KJ

.FLOOR
Fig. 58.

Showing Corrugated Cooler and Method of Support.

at the
left,

By means of the pump

tains finely crushed ice.

the ice water

is

forced back into the small tank at the right, which con-

COOLING AND AERATION

Cone=Shaped Cooler.

209

For dairies having fewer than cows a cheap cooler like that shown in Fig. 59 may be used to advantage. The water enters the bottom of the cooler and discharges at the top, while the milk
fifteen

flows in a thin sheet over the outside.

Ice

may

be placed
if

inside the cooler,

desired.
is

The can
milk

at the top

the

receiver,

which

has

Small openings at the bottom near the outside,

through

which

the

milk

discharges in fine streams, directly upon the cone below.

cial

Cooling Without SpeCoolers. When no

special coolers are at

Fi g 59.-cone shaped cooler,
.

hand
by

milk and cream should be

cooled
in

small

cans

placing them in a tank or an oil barrel cut in two. Cold water is pumped into the tank or barrel in such a way
that the cold water drops into the bottom of the tank, thus forcing out the warm surface water.

Water should be pumped

tervals until the milk or

into the tank at frequent in-

cream has nearly reached the

temperature of the water. The time of cooling is materially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very essential part in cooling milk and cream in cans.

Where milk
farmers lose
ticles

is

placed in large cans and stirred

little,

of

having the test lowered by hard parcream forming at the top. Where milk is
in

properly cooled, hard flakes of cream or churned cream will not be found on top of the milk.

210

DAIRY FARMING

Precautions in Cooling. While cooling milk or cream, room should be kept damp, especially the floor. This will keep down any dust that may be in the room and thus keep it from getting into the milk. Draughts
the
son.

should be avoided during cooling for the same reaIn this connection it is well to remember that

the real

harm

is

not so

much

in the dust particles

them-

selves as in the

many

bacteria which usually adhere to

them.

Where

coolers are left exposed to the air of the

room

after they have been cleaned and sterilized, they should be rinsed off with boiling water just before using.

important also to use a reliable thermometer. Ordinary cheap thermometers often read two to six deA standard thermometer grees too high or too low. should be on hand, by which the cheaper ones may be
It
is

standardized.

Never Use
rectly to milk

Ice in

Milk or Cream.
is

Adding

ice di-

and cream

common,
and
distilled

practice.

The

a pernicious, though not unbest of natural ice contains dirt

bacteria.

ice made by mechanical means from water often contains considerable quantities of

Even

impurities.

Ice also

is

an adulterant just as

much

as

water.

In case of cream cooled with ice the body is unsatisfactory, even if the cream contains the required
fat.

amount of

COLD STORAGE.
Cold storage of some kind is indispensable to a well equipped dairy. Many, however, lack this essential, either bcause they do not appreciate its importance, or

COOLING AND AERATION

211

because of the rather high price of commercial refrigerators.

The

construction of this box,

shown

in Fig. 60, con-

~ j|"T.&.G.

BOARDS
STRIPS

RAPER
.GALV.JRON
<

Fig. 60.

Cross-Section of Cheap Ice Box.

of two boxes separated by one-inch strips placed at intervals of about one foot. Double thickness of building paper is placed on both sides of the strips
sists essentially

212

DAIRY FARMING

and tacked to the boxes.

one-inch

strip,

two inches

wide, covers the upper space between the one-inch strips, thus making a dead-air space between the two boxes.

The
front

construction of the cover

is

the same as that of the

is

bottom, with the exception that there

a flange at the

and

sides

of the cover.

The

sides,

bottom and

cover of the refrigerator are built of three-quarter-inch tongued and grooved lumber, five and a half inches
inch
are constructed of one and one-eighth and grooved flooring three and a half tongued The inside of the ice box is lined with inches wide.

wide.

The ends

galvanized iron.

CHAPTER XXVI.
HOW
TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET.

As a rule it is easy enough to secure some Quality. kind of a market, but to secure the best frequently refirst

quires considerable effort. To get fancy prices requires of all that the product be of superior quality. This

The extensive agitation in is particularly true of milk. recent years for clean, pure milk has had the effect of putting a high premium upon such milk. The public is
becoming aware of the dangers which lurk in dirty, unsanitary milk and is willing to pay a good price for milk whose wholesomeness is unquestioned. To obtain big prices it is not Value of Advertising.to have products of superior quality, but whatenough ever particular merits they have must be forcibly brought
to the attention of consumers.

In other words, a certain

amount of advertising is necessary. It is good policy to furnish prospective customers a few free samples and to distribute leaflets describing the conditions under which the products are produced and
handled.
If the milk is
stables,

whitewashed

produced in clean, ventilated, and from cows which are regularly

if
is

tested for tuberculosis;

.

the milk

is

handled by clean,

healthy attendants and

thoroughly cooled and aerated

immediately after milking; and if, in addition, all this is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in prices and patronage is certain to follow when such facts
are placed before the public.

213

214

DAIRY FARMING

The majority of city consumers have little conception of the conditions under which average milk is produced.
For
find
this reason the
it

man who

is

producing clean milk

will

highly profitable to place in contrast vivid pictures of the conditions that yield average milk and those that
yield sanitary milk.
ets offer better prices for

Often outside markInvestigate Outside Markets. milk and cream than does the
This
is

home market.
side markets

especially true of cream.

This

product permits of long distance shipping and

the

home

may be glad to get it at fancy prices market may be entirely overstocked.

many outwhen

Dairymen must not expect the market to come to them, however; they must seek the market. A visit or correspondence with managers of cafes, hotels, restaurants, drug stores and ice cream manufactories in different
cities, is

frequently the
prices.

means of securing more business

and better

Where one is just starting in the dairy business or trying new markets, it is good policy, as a rule, not to ask very high prices at the start. First demonstrate the
merits of your products.
If these are of a high order

consumers

gradually respond to demands for increased prices rather than lose the products. Too high prices at the start are likely to discourage prospective
will

buyers, and thus deprive you of an opportunity to prove the value of your goods.

One of the essentials in building up a Uniformity; good market is uniformity of product. Where this is lacking, improvements in other directions will be of little avail. On the other hand, products which are uniformly the same, week after week, and month after month, are

TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET

likely to

215

command good

prices even

when

of only

medium

quality.

Another essential in building up a good Punctuality. market is punctuality. If your customer expects his milk at 7:30, do not deliver it at 7:40; deliver early rather than late. If you are shipping cream or milk you cannot even a single time. It genafford to miss your train means greater disappointment at the other end of erally
the line than one would anticipate. Try to Please. Always put yourself in an attitude
to please.
If criticisms come concerning your products, cannot afford to resent them. Usually there is reason you

for the criticism.

it.

Try

to discover the trouble

and remedy

Delivery Outfit.
cans, bottles, drivers,

Cleanliness and neatness

acterize the dairy business throughout.

etc.,

must charMilk wagons,

must present a clean appearit

ance.

Where

they do not,

is

usually an easy matter

to surmise the condition of milk.

Use a Trade Mark.-

The name

or

monogram

of the

dairy, placed upon guarantees genuineness and will materially assist in seIt is one curing a better and more extended market.

the products and delivery wagons,

ways of advertising a superior product. Secure Your Market Early. If it is intended to sell cream for manufacture into ice cream, it is important to get a market early in the spring. It is difficult to find one in the flush of the ice cream season, because ice cream
of the best
dealers, as a rule, contract considerably in

advance of

the time they need the cream. If it is intended to supply winter resorts, apply for the market early in the fall. What has been said here with reference to cream applies
also to milk.

216

DAIRY FARMING

are shipped
is

Secure Reliable Customers; Where milk and cream some distance, it is important to determine
reliability

beforehand the

of the buyer.

As

a rule

it

good policy not to make more than three shipments before the first has been paid for. It is well, even where milk and cream are sold locally, to investigate the standings of customers before their accounts have run up very
high.

Selling Direct to Consumers. No argument is needed to show the advantage of selling dairy products direct to consumers wherever this is possible. It means the
elimination of the

middleman whose
It
is

profits are

saved to

the dairyman.

Letterhead Stationery.

not only businesslike

it

to use stationery with a suitable letterhead, but The following serves to advertise the business.

also

is

sub-

mitted as a suitable form of letterhead:

Springdale Sanitary Dairy. J. C. Boone, Prop. Dealer in

Pure, Bottled, Jersey Milk and Cream from Tuberculin Tested Cows.
Reidsville,

N.

190.

CHAPTER

XXVII.

MARKETING MILK AND CREAM

RETAILING.

method of hauling milk to the and removing each allowance by means of a dipper or faucet, has patron's
Dip Method.
old
city in five, eight or ten gallon cans

The

been found so objectionable that the practice has been The principal objections to this largely abandoned.

method are: (i) The admission of dust and bacteria to the milk while
measuring it; (2) the use of unsterilized milk vessels by consumers; (3) exposure of the vessels to dust while on the steps of the consumer (4) the
;

use of unclean vessels by milkmen in measuring each customer's share; (5)

lack of uniformity in the milk, especially if removed from the cans by

means of a faucet, in which case the first drawn milk is likely to be lowest in fat content; and (6) the possibility

of drivers tampering with the

Fig.
61.

milk.

Milk Bottle. re-

The Use
tail

of Bottles.

Milk and cream intended for

trade should be put into pint or quart bottles, like that shown in Fig. 61. The advantages of this method

are
tled

apparent

from

the

fact

that

the

milk
it

is

bot-

immediately

after

cooling

and

that

may

be

217

218
kept
there
in

DAIRY FARMING
bottle until it is to be consumed. changed from one vessel to another always more or less contamination from dust and
is

the

same

Whenever milk
is

bacteria.

For dairies having from ten to twenty Bottling.a can or vat provided with a sanitary faucet will cows,
do satisfactory work in filling bottles. A pouring can with a slightly curved spout may also be used for this
purpose.

Fig.

62.

Filling Bottles with

Machine.

(From Da.

Div., U. S. Dept. of A.)

For large
bottles at the

dairies a bottle filler like that

shown

in Fig.
fills

62 will be found advantageous.

This machine

six

same

had

if

desired.

Larger or smaller fillers may be In selecting a bottle filler secure one of

time.

simplest construction and preferably without rubber attachments. This is important for sanitary reasons.

Whatever method of

filling is used, it is
filling,

important to

keep the milk well stirred while uniform quality in all the bottles.

so as to insure

RETAILING MILK AND CREAM

219

Immediately after filling, the bottles should be capped with paraffined caps made for this purpose. Fig.
facilitates its

63 illustrates a cap provided with a removal

it

little

handle which

and leaves

intact.

During bottling the room should be kept

damp
free

to keep the air

from
should
to

dust

and
al-

bacteria.

No

air cur-

rent

be

lowed

sweep

in

from

the

outside.

Only clean laundered

white suits should be

worn
and

by those in Charge Of the COOling

bottling.

pig

Bottle

Cap with Handle.

Milk Bottle Delivery Cases. On delivery wagons the bottles are carried in cases holding twelve or more

Fig. 64.

Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle Case.

bottles each.

These cases are made of galvanized iron

or wood, or of both, and have light removable partitions inside, separating the bottles to keep them from breaking. Galvanized iron cases, like that shown in Fig. 64,. are

220

DAIRY FARMING

the most sanitary and also permit putting crushed ice around the bottles. Fig. 65 shows a galvanized iron milk bottle case, enclosed by a box made of one-inch boards and pro-

vided with a tight fitting cover. Cases of this kind should be used in warm weather to keep the milk cool during

Fig.

65.

Insulated Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle Case.

delivery.

On

especially

warm

be used around the bottles.

This style of case

days, crushed ice should is also

recommended where

bottles are shipped.

is

A
be

great deal of milk

spoiled while in transit to the

consumer.

The
road

last

milk delivered on the route

or
six

may

on

the
its

five

hours

before

it

finally

reaches

destination.

If carried in open, uniced cases,

on warm days, an exposure of such duration may easily shorten the keeping quality of the milk by eight or more
hours.

bottles

matter of prime importance in delivering milk in is to have them thoroughly sterilized before using. Unless this is done milk will not keep long and, what is
is

worse,

likely to disseminate disease

along the route.

RETAILING MILK AND CREAM

This danger
to another

221

is due to the bottles' passing from one home and eventually reaching a home in which there

Ir such cases there is always is some cantagious disease. a probability that the bottles may become infected with the disease germs.

Frequency of Delivering Milk. When milk

to 45 F.

is

cooled

or below immediately after milking and is held at this temperature until it reaches the consumer, one

If it is desirable, however, delivery a day is sufficient. to make two deliveries a day, these should be made inde-

pendent of the milking; that is, the night's milk should be delivered in the morning and the morning's milk in
the afternoon.

In some sections, especially in the south, milk is sold little or no cooling whatever. Hence, the practice of delivering the morning's milk before breakfast, and

with

This practice requires the night's milk before supper. done shortly after midnight and the first milking to be the second milking shortly after midday, a drudgery
wholly unnecessary and easily obviated by thoroughly
cooling the milk.

Delivery Wagons.

These should be

clean, covered,

well painted, and provided with good springs. The name of the dairy should be printed on each side. neat and at-

tractive delivery

wagon

is

essential in building

up a good

trade.

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM.

a process by which milk and cream are brought Cream producers are to a definite percentage of fat.

This

is

called

upon

to furnish

cream of a

definite richness,

and

be demanded by different buyers. meet such demands is to have the separator deliver cream somewhat richer than the richest grade called for and to reduce this to the required richness by adding skim-milk.
different grades

may
to

The

simplest

way

222

DAIRY FARMING
definite

Reducing Cream with Skim=milk. When a

quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves -the
separator)
:

required according to the following rule:

Rule Multiply the number of pounds of standardized cream called for by its test and divide the product by the
test of the original

cream.

The

difference between the

amounts of original and

standardized cream represents the amount of skim-milk

required.

Problem:

How many

pounds each of

45% cream and

of

skim-milk (zero

test) are required to

make 60 pounds

iS% cream?
Applying the above rule we
(60
get,
Ibs.

18)

-f-

45

= 24= No.
Ibs.

of original cream.

60

24

= 36 =: No.

of skim-milk.
in the

Milk may be standardized

same way.

Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding two formulas the test of the skim-milk was considered zero. When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the calculation becomes more difficult. Pearson, however, has devised a method by which calculations of this kind are very much simplified. This method is as follows:
a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below. hand corners place the tests of the milks or creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness

Draw

At the

left

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM

desired.

223

At

the right

hand corners place the differences

in
line

between the two numbers

with these corners.

The number at the upper right hand corner represents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the
Likerichness indicated in the upper left hand corner. wise the number at the lower right hand corner represents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with
the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner.

Example: How many pounds each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream?

3.5

%
30%
between 3.5 and 25, is the number cream needed; and 5, the difference
is

21.5, tne difference

of pounds of

between 25 and 30, milk needed.

the

number

of pounds of

3.5%

From

the ratio of milk and cream thus found, any

definite quantity is easily

made

up.

If,

for example,

300

pounds of
each of lows
:

25% cream is desired, the number of pounds 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol=26.5

21-5

21-5
26.5
5

X X

300

= =

243.4, the

number of pounds
of

30%
3.5%

cream.

300

56.6, the

number
of

of

pounds
milk.

26.5

224

DAIRY FARMING
SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM.

and cream are and low temperature. It is possible to keep milk and cream in good condition for two or three days, if produced and handled under cleanly conditions and
essential things in shipping milk

The

cleanliness

Fig. 66. -Milk Can.

Fig. 67.

Felt Jacket on Can.

cooled directly after milking to 40 F. or below. This low temperature must be maintained when long keeping
quality is desired. Every dairy should be provided with a good ice box or refrigerator, into which milk and cream

SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM

225

be placed immediately after cooling and in which they may be kept until ready for shipment. Shipping in Cans. Various insulated cans are now

may

upon the market and a number of these have been tested by the author. The tests showed that these cans possess about the same insulating- effect as the felt jackets that

are

commonly
ordi-

wrapped around
nary milk cans.
the latter,
as

Since
a rule,

more durable and more easily handled,

are

they

will

be

found

more
when
felt

satisfactory wrapped with a

called

jacket than the soinsulated ship-

ping cans.

When milk and cream are cooled close to freezing and placed
in ordinary

milk cans

wrapped
ets,

in felt jack-

they

may

be safeto

ly

shipped
that

any
be

point

may

reached within hours even 24

i

Fig. 68.

Screw Top Can.

warm

weather.

temperature of the milk and cream at the time of shipment is 50 F. or higher, then long distance shipIf the

ment

is

best accomplished by the use of an ordinary can

placed inside of a covered ice

taining
ice.

Such a tub has

cream shipping tub conpractically the same in-

226

DAIRY FARMING
is

sulating effect as a felt jacket, but

rather heavy and

cumbersome and should not be used except in cases where it is necessary to pack ice around the cream or milk. The best results from the ice are secured by packing it in
large lumps around the neck of the can. Where milk and Shipping in Bottles.

cream

are

shipped
ice.

in bottles, the latter

delivery cases (Fig. 65) The cases should have the owner's address on
in transit.

should be placed in insulated and surrounded with crushed

them

and must be kept locked while

Mode
gage

of Shipping.is

The

and cream

by express.

rates are available.

usual way of shipping milk In the main dairy sections bagThese rates are lower than ex-

press rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by special arrangement with the railroad companies.

Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A considerable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly adhering to this practice.
rates possible.
Insist

upon getting the lowest

the

Pointers on Shipping.

Have

name and address

of your dairy permanently marked in brass upon every can and cover also have it sewed or stitched on the felt
;

is necessary to insure the return of your goods. The name and address will be put upon the cans and covers by the dealer from whom they are pur-

jackets.

This

own

chased, if so requested; or, in case unmarked cans are already on the premises, the brass plates with the name and address may be purchased from dairy supply firms

and placed upon the cans and covers by a

local tinner.

labeled as indicated above, cans will occasionally get lost. Empty cans are usually returned free of charge and, for this reason, express receipts are com-

Even when

SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM

monly not taken
for them.

227
If the

This

is

a mistake.

purchaser of your products will take a receipt for the empty cans, th^ express company becomes responsible for

them
is

Without the receipt it in the event they are lost. next to impossible to claim damages for lost goods. The empty cans should be washed before they are re-

This should be done for sanitary reasons as well as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived unless washed and dried immediately after use.
turned.

Another matter of importance

the cans full to prevent churning.

in shipping

is

to have

Fig.

69.

Lead Seal and Seal

Press.

It is

necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent

tampering with the contents. The sealing is easily accomplished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 69). In delivering the cream or milk at the station the delivery

man

should see to

it

that the cans are put in as

cool a place as possible.

CHAPTER
ICE!

XXVIII.

CREAM MAKING.
cream

Kind of Cream.

Select the best flavored sweet

To secure the best containing about 20% butter fat. bodied ice cream and the proper swell, cream should be
kept as near the freezing point as possible for twentyfour 4iours previous to freezing. Freezing Process. With an initial temperature of
F., the time required to freeze ice cream should about twelve minutes, and to get the best conaverage

about 35

temperature at the close of the freezing process should be approximately 28 F. Too quick freezing causes the water to separate from the cream, which results in a granular ice cream. Freezsistency the

ing too slowly reduces the overrun and tends to

ice

make

the

cream smeary.
reduce the temperature of a mass of cream below

To

the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture of a low temperature. Such a mixture is secured by mixing salt

and crushed

ice in the

six to twelve of ice.

The purpose

proportion of one of salt to about of the salt is to lower

the freezing point of the melting ice and to hasten the

melting.

To melt one pound of ice at 32 same temperature requires 142 heat

ing
ice,

F. into water at the

units.

Rapidly melt-

therefore, absorbs a large quantity of heat which

228

ICE
in the

CREAM MAKING
is

229

freezing of cream

largely extracted

from the
start-

cream.

The temperature

of the ice cream mixture

when

ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible to prevent churning the cream. The tendency to churn is
also lessened

by revolving the freezer slowly the

first

few

minutes

in freezing.

In packing the
container,
ice
fill

freezing mixture around the cream the freezer about half full of finely crushed

and finish the filling by using salt and ice in the As the ice mixture proportion of about one to three. works down during the freezing process, continue adding
salt

more

and

ice as

needed.

If the freezer is started

while the cream

is

still

warm

F.), the speed of the freezer must be kept down until a temperature of about 35 F. is reached. After this the speed is increased to 150 to 200 revolutions

(about 60

per minute until the cream

is

frozen.

This speed insures

the proper incorporation of air and the desirable smoothness of the finished product.

The

comes too

freezer should be stopped before the cream bethick, else it will lose some of the air that has

been incorporated as well as show a tendency to coarseness in texture. Yield and quality therefore demand that
the freezer be stopped while the cream is still a trifle soft. Vanilla Ice Cream. To make three gallons of finished ice cream, requires about two gallons of cream to which

should be added about three pounds of sugar, or one and one-half pounds to the gallon. The sugar should be well mixed with the cream and allowed to dissolve before Next add at the rate of about twostarting the freezer. thirds ounce of vanilla extract and freeze.

230

DAIRY FARMING
This can be made by adding

Chocolate Ice Cream.

chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream.

Where a regular batch of chocolate ice cream is made, the chocolate is added before starting to freeze. Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice
signs of decay.

cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from any Wash the lemons lightly in cold water

off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind, careful not to grate off any of the white portion being which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with sugar, using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. Next cut

and grate

the lemons in

two and squeeze out the

juice,

removing

any seeds that may have dropped in from the squeezer. Mix the juice with the sugared rind and add orange juice
to the mixture, using

one orange to every three or four

Allow the mixture to stand for about one hour, it occasionally, and then strain. Use at the rate stirring of cream. The flavor is added of one-half pint per gallon to the cream -when nearly frozen to prevent curdling it. Use two pounds of sugar per gallon of cream. Walnut Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, three pounds of sugar, one and one-third ounces vanilla extract and one and one-third pounds of ground walnut meats. Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream. Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut, pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be prepared
lemons.
essentially as

walnut
Ice

ice

cream.

Use two gallons of cream, Strawberry three pounds of sugar and two-thirds quart of crushed The fruit should be added to the cream strawberries.
Cream.
after
it

is

partially frozen so as not to curdle the

cream

or to have the fruit settle to the bottom.

CREAM MAKING
Other Fruit Ice Creams.
apple,

231
raspberry,
pine-

Cherry,

peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry ice creams are made the same as strawberry, except that the amount of sugar is varied according to the acidity of
the fruit.

Packing Ice Cream.

freezer while
still

Remove

the ice cream from the

in

rather soft condition and put the

same in packing cans which have been thoroughly chilled by having the ice and salt packed around them about ten minutes before receiving the ice cream. Most of the
salt

The

should be put near the top, the same as in freezing. ice cream should be held in the packing cans at a
F.
the brine and repack often enough to prevent In the melting process the water separates and

temperature below 20

Remove

melting. forms undesirable crystals

when

the cream

is

refrozen.

Always repack with a

new

freezing mixture just before

the ice cream leaves the dairy.

The Overrun or Swell.

ice

This refers to the excess of

cream over cream. Anything that tends to incorporate and hold air in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus excessive beating of the cream during freezing mixes a great deal of air with it, and hence, increases the overA high viscosity of the cream holds the air incorrun. porated during freezing. Fresh separator cream has a low viscosity, that is, does not whip well, hence will not swell up so much in freezing as cream that has been kept cold for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping the cream at a low temperature a number of hours before
freezing.

An

overrun of from 50 to 60 per cent

is

large enough.

232

DAIRY FARMING

Overruns approximating 80 to 90 per cent are obtained expense of quality. Marketing Ice Cream. Hardly any attempt has yet been made by cream producers living within driving distance of cities to convert their cream into ice cream and sell this product direct to consumers. This is somewhat surprising, since the largest profits in the cream business have hitherto been made by what may be called the middleman, the city ice cream manufacturer. It is a vital matter with producers to reach consumers direct wherever this is possible, and thus save the middleman's profits. With those who retail milk and cream, the marketing of ice cream would entail no extra expense. The essential thing in building up a good ice cream trade is to make the best product possible. The market is glutted with cheap, inferior ice cream, and the call
at the
is for a high grade product. Fortunately the public beginning to realize that there is positive danger in eating ice cream made from old, stale milk or cream, and

now
is

the public also seems to begin to understand that the

bulk of

ice

cream

is

made with

so-called thickeners, like

gelatine, corn starch, tapioca, arrow root, and others. Many so-called ice creams contain no cream whatever.

The highest

quality of ice

cream contains nothing but

flavoring.

good, pure cream, sugar and

CHAPTER XXIX.
MAKING AND MARKETING
Souring the Skim=milk.
SKI MM ILK-BUTTERMILK.

As soon
is

as the skim-milk
at the rate of

leaves the separator, whole milk

added

one gallon to twenty gallons of skim-milk. This gives the mixture a fat content, which approximates that of ordinary
buttermilk. large quantity of pure culture of lactic acid bacteria (starter, see p. 193) is next added and the temperature brought to 70 F. Enough starter is added to

curdle the skim-milk in about six hours at the temperature mentioned. This requires about one pound of culture for

every three pounds of skim-milk. When a temperature above 70 F. is employed, there is a tendency for whey to separate after the skim-milk has curdled.

When thoroughly curdled, the skim-milk placed in a churn and churned for about thirty minutes in the same way that cream is churned in making butter.
Churning.
is

process thoroughly breaks up the curd clots, resulting in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be distinguished from ordinary good buttermilk.

The churning

Cooling.

Immediately after the buttermilk leaves the

churn, the temperature should be reduced below 50 F. to prevent further development of acid and the separation of the whey. Ordinary milk and cream coolers with

enlarged holes in the distributing receptacle will answer very satisfactorily.

Straining.

As soon

as cooled, the buttermilk should

233

234

DAIRY FARMING

be run through a strainer consisting of one thickness of cheese cloth to remove any unbroken curd clots.
Bottling. After it is strained the buttermilk is bottled or put in tin cans holding from one to five gallons, after which it is placed in the refrigerator where it is held until

In trying to sell necessary in the first place, to explain that this product, when made as herein described, is almost identical with the highest grade of natural butterskimmilk-buttermilk
it is

ready for delivery. Marketing Skim=rnilk Buttermilk.

milk, both in composition

therefore, in palatability

and physical properties, and, and wholesomeness. Indeed, it is not thought possible under average conditions to secure natural buttermilk of as uniform a quality or as fine a flavor as can be obtained from skim-milk. When these facts are explained to dealers and consumers, any prejudices which might exist against this so-called artificial

product are certain to vanish.

The

dealers

in

buttermilk should be furnished with

attractive

product all soda

is

signs, calling attention to the fact that the for sale by them. Buttermilk is not found at

fountains,

and unless conspicuous signs are

posted at these places, the public

may

not

call for

it.

may readily be sold to drug stores, restaurants, hotels and boarding houses at from ten to thirty cents per gallon, averaging about twelve cents per gallon.
cottage cheese, the most satisfactory way of of buttermilk is to sell it direct to the milk disposing and cream customers along the dairy route. Where buttermilk is intended to be used as a beverage,
it is

Buttermilk

As with

important to keep

its

temperature below 50

F. until

it is

consumed.

Food Value of Buttermilk.

When

used as a bever-

SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK
age, buttermilk
bility.
is

235

Aside from

usually appreciated only for its palatathis, however, it has a high dietetic,

In certain diseases, well as high medicinal, value. those affecting the alimentary tract, buttermilk especially
as
is

considered indispensable.

Its nutritive

value

is

high,

two

quarts being approximately equal to

one pound of

good beefsteak. Buttermilk From Pasteurized Skim=milk.

buttermilk skim-milk.
is

The

best

obtained by adding the starter to pasteurized Under such conditions the entire skim-milk

becomes virtually a
bacteria.

starter or pure culture of lactic acid This not only means a better flavor but also

tion also lessens the tendency for the

insures freedom from pathogenic organisms. Pasteurizawhey to separate.

CHAPTER XXX.
CERTIFIED MILK.
Definition.
Certified

milk

is

milk produced under

conditions imposed by medical milk commissions, which usually employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a

chemist to look after the production of the milk.

It

must

Fig. 70.

Sanitary Dairy Barn.

(Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.)

be free from disease germs and preservatives, must have a known chemical composition, and must be so produced

and handled as

to insure a

minimum numoer

of bacteria.

236

CERTIFIED MILK
If the
is

237

producer has complied with all the requirements furnished a certificate by the commission, which permits him to use the "certified" label on his products.
he

The term

"certified

milk"
its

is

registered in the United

is

States patent office

and

use

legally permitted only

on milk approved by medical milk commissions. Certified milk is now largely used for infants Uses. and invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increasing

Fig. 71.

Truman Sanitary Milk

Pail.

(Storrs,

Conn. Station.)

of this milk by the better informed people who realize the unsanitary condition of average market milk.

use

made

Certified milk

is

the

means of saving the

its

lives of

thou-

sands of infants and

opportunities meet the requirements laid

increasing use offers splendid for dairymen who are in a position to

Production and Handling.

aown by medical commissions. The general conditions

called for in the production of "certified" milk are essentially the same as those stated in the chapter on "sanitary

milk production."

238

DAIRY FARMING
milkers and premises are regularly inspected, is regularly subjected to chemical and bac-

The cows,
and the milk
different

teriological tests.

of bacteria permitted by commissions varies from 10,000 to 30,000 per cubic centimeter of milk and the fat content ranges from about 3.5 to 4.5 per cent.
;

The number

The milk bottles are sealed preferably with metallic caps bearing the date of bottling and the name of the commission. Delivery should be made within twentyfour hours after the milk

during

is drawn and its temperature time should not exceed 45 F. In the dairy house arrangements must be such as to

this

reduce contamination to a minimum.

placed in an ante-room
their pails,
is

receiving can

and from

this

used by the milkers to empty the milk is conducted into the

milk room.

with doors at both ends is prebetween the milk room and the wash room, ferably placed
sterilizer

so as to enable the milkers to get their pails without entering the milk room and, at the same time, to allow the
sterilized bottles to

be removed without entering the wash

room.
Profits. Obviously it costs more to produce certified than average market milk, but the additional cost is less, as a rule, than the increased price realized. Certified
failed to make money have almost inmore money in buildings and equipment than was actually necessary. It has been shown that" this

dairies that

have

variably invested
class of

be successfully produced in quite ordiand with moderately cheap equipment. nary buildings What is of greatest importance is extreme cleanliness, which is achieved mainly through intelligent care and management of every detail of the work from start to

milk

may

finish.

CHAPTER XXXI.
RELATIVE MARKET VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.
milk producers are so situated as to make it posthem to sell either milk, cream, butter, cheese or ice cream. To those so situated the question naturally

Many

sible

for

what method of disposal will yield the largest reThis, of course, will depend to a great extent upon the relative market prices of these products. To show how dairymen may determine for themselves in what form they can realize most for their milk, a simple method of calculation is here presented, in which, for purposes of illustration, the following prices have
arises,

turns?

been adopted: Milk, seven cents per quart; 30% cream, one dollar per gallon butter, twenty-five cents per pound and ice cream, made cheese, thirteen cents per pound from 15% cream, one dollar per gallon. Using these as
;

average prices for a given locality, determine the relative returns from one hundred pounds of milk containing 4% (4 Ibs.) butterfat, (i) when retailed as milk, (2) when
sold as cream, (3)

when

sold as butter, (4)

when

sold

and (5) when sold as ice cream. 1. Value of Milk. Since milk weighs 2.15 pounds per quart, 100 pounds of 4% milk are equal to 46.5 quarts, which, at 7 cents per quart, are worth $3.25. 2. Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk
as cheese,
will

make

13.33

pounds of

30%
239

cream, as determined by

the following rule:

240
Rule:

DAIRY FARMING
To
find the

number

of pounds of cream that

can be obtained from a given amount of milk, multiply the milk by its test and divide the product by the test
of the cream.

Thus

the

amount of 30% cream from

100 pounds of milk testing loo

4%
4

equals
=

13.33 pounds.

Since a gallon of 30% cream weighs practically the same as a gallon of water (8.35 Ibs.), the 13.33 pounds of cream are equal to 1.6 gallons which, at $1.00 per gal-

worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound we have 43 cents as the value of the 86 pounds of skim-milk, which gives a total value of $2.03 for the loo pounds of 4% milk. 2. Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk will yield 4 2-3 pounds of butter, because where up-todate methods of creaming and churning are followed
lon, are

for skim-milk,

butter.

every pound of butterfat will make I 1-6 pounds of Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 cents per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk at the

same price as skim-milk (one-half cent per pound) 48 cents should be added to the $1.17 as the value of the
skim-milk and buttermilk, making a for the loo pounds of 4% milk.
4.

total value of $1.65

Value of Cheese. Since one pound of butterfat yields approximately 2.6 pounds of cured cheddar cheese, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 4 X 2.6, or 10.4 pounds of
cheese, which, at 13 cents per pound, are worth $1.35. Allowing 10 cents as the value of the whey from the 100

pounds of

4%

milk,

we

get a total value of $1.45.

VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

5.

241

Value of Ice Cream.

Since a gallon of

15% cream

weighs 8.45 pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see formula for calculatingcream,
p.

240)
this

or,

allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2

At $1.00 per gallon this is worth must be added the value of 73 pounds of $4.20. skim-milk which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth
gallons of ice cream.

To

37 cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds of milk made into ice cream.

Summary.
pounds of

The preceding
milk are worth
sold as cheese, sold as butter, sold as cream,

calculations

show

that 100

4%

$1.45
1.65

2.03
3.25

4.57

when when when when when

retailed as milk, sold as ice cream.

It is to

be remembered that the above figures show the

relative gross returns at the prices given.

The

net re-

turns will vary greatly, depending largely upon the nearness to market -and the quantity of milk handled; also to some extent upon the use to which the skim-milk is put.
If fed to pigs

and calves the value of skim-milk

;

is less

than one-half cent per pound if made into buttermilk or cottage cheese its value may range from one to two
cents per pound.

Table of Values.

The

following table of values has

been prepared for handy reference. The price of milk is used as a basis, and the table shows at what prices cream

and butter must be sold

to give the

same returns

as milk

242

DAIRY FARMING

In calculating the above values, skim-milk and buttermilk have been rated at 30 cents per 100 pounds. The weight allowed per quart is as follows Milk, 2.15 pounds
:

20%
The

cream, 2.1 pounds; and

cost of handling

30%

cream, 2.0 pounds.

as the cost of

and making the

it

retailing these products, as well

butter, has not been considered.
sells

From
quart,

the table

will

be seen that when 3.5% milk

at 5 cents per quart,

20%

cream must

sell at

25 cents per

30% cream at 36 cents per quart, and butter at 50 cents per pound, to yield equivalent returns. Similarly, when milk sells at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must

5%
1

sell

at

8 cents per quart,

30%

cream
pound.

at 25 cents per

quart, and butter

at 35 cents per

table emphasizes the importance of selling milk the basis of its fat content.

The

on

PART

III.

SUPPLEMENT

CHAPTER

XXXII.

ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF DAIRY STOCK.

Valuing Coivs.

To put dairying on a business basis requires that a record be kept of each cow individually. This is important not only to determine which cows are paying for
their keep, but also to demonstrate to

owners that high

low in comparison with poor producers. cow must be valued acEvery cording to the net returns obtained from her; that is, every item of expense must be deducted from the total receipts in order to know whether a cow has been kept
producers, as a rule, are valued too
at a profit or a loss.

In the following paragraphs data are presented to show the method of determining the net profits as well as to give some idea of the relative value
of cows of different productive capacities. The figures are based upon pure bred herds containing presented
thirty

cows and one

all

that

all

Furthermore, it is assumed concentrated feeds are purchased at market prices

bull each.

and that

roughage

is

at actual cost of production.

raised on the farm and charged To furnish the necessary

allotted to each cow, one-half of

roughage and pasture, one and one-half acres of land are which is devoted to pasture and the other half to hay and forage production. Eight years has been allowed as the period of usefulness
244

of a cow.

VALUING DAIRY STOCK

245

Three cows have been selected whose annual butter fat production is 200, 300 and 400 pounds respectively. The receipts, expenditures and net profits from the three different producers, as follows
:

Cow

I,

Cow

II

and

Cow

III, are

shown

EXPLANATION OF ABOVE FIGURES.

Price of Butter Fat. Prevailing prices of butter and cheese have been such as to yield farmers having their

246

DAIRY FARMING

milk made into these products, an average price for the year of 27 cents per pound of butter fat. Value of Calf. calf from a cow producing only 200 pounds of butter fat a year must be valued at beef prices, which amounts to about $3.00 at birth. When the produc-

tion reaches

300 pounds of butter fat and up, the value of the calf rapidly increases, as indicated in the tables. The price placed upon the calves from the larger producers it is believed, is a fair average market value. Their
actual value
is

considerably greater than

this.

Value of Skim=Milk. For the purpose of this calculation, the amount of skim-milk credited to each cow is
based upon a 4% fat content of the milk and represents the total milk minus the butter fat it contains. While rating the value of skim-milk at 30 cents per 100 pounds be considered too high by some, it must be remembered that skim-milk has a fertilizing value which alone

may

amounts
poultry,

to at least 10 cents per 100 pounds,

is

and

fully

three-fourths of this

recovered in

the

manure.

For

young

calves,

and young

pigs, the combined feed-

ing and fertilizing value of skim-milk is higher than 30 cents, especially when fed in a small quantity.

Value of Manure.
in the preceding table

The manure from cows considered

is

valued according to

its

content

of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, which according to their present commercial ratings are worth 19, 5> an d The fertilizing ingredi5 cents per pound respectively.
ents vary with the kind and amount of feed supplied, and this again varies according to the productive capacity of

cows and, to some extent, the section of the country in which the cows are fed. Largely because of these condi-

VALUING DAIRY STOCK

tions, the values

247

here obtained are intended to be used

as general averages only. In fixing the value of the

manure from cows of

different

productive capacities, $15 is allowed as the value of the manure from the feed required for maintenance and for

In this connection it the development of the foetus. should be remembered that the one and one-half acres of

cow are intended to supply all of the needed, and this should contain nutrients suffiroughage cient for maintenance requirements. On one-half of this
land allotted per
land there
is

grown,

say,

one ton of red clover hay and

three tons of corn silage, which contain fertilizing ingredients to the value of $13.62. If one-half of this amount

allowed as the value of the fertilizing ingredients contained in the pasture from the other half of the land, the
is

total value of the fertilizing constituents contained in the

feed required for maintenance

is

$20.00.

Some
but

of the ferit

tilizing constituents enter into the foetus,

is

safe

to say that three- fourths of them, or $15 worth, pass into This maintenance feed, and its value as a the manure.
fertilizer, is quite constant for cows of different productive capacities. Additional manurial value is, therefore, obtained from the amount of concentrated feeds supplied

for milk production.

According

to

European and Ameri-

can figures, this amount is approximately 800 pounds for each 2,500 pounds of 4% milk, or for each 100 pounds of
butter fat, produced.

The manurial value of each pound

centrates varies

of the

common

con-

from three-eighths cent

for corn to about

one and one-fourth cents for cottonseed meal and linseed meal, with intervening values of three-fourths cent for wheat bran, dried brewers grains and gluten feed, and

248

DAIRY FARMING

about one cent for gluten meal. From these values it is safe to assume an average of five-eighths cent per pound

which gives the 800 pounds of concentrates a manurial

value of $5.00. Since milk has a manurial value of about 10 cents per 100 pounds, the manurial value of the 2,500 pounds of milk is $2.50, which leaves $2.50 as the value
of

manurial
for

constituents

that

actually

enter

into

the

each 2,500 pounds of milk, or each 100 pounds of butter fat, produced. For each 100 pounds of
butter
fat
is

manure

which

produced, therefore, $2.50 is added to $15 the estimated value of the manure from feed

required. for maintenance. The value of the manure from cows of different productive capacities, as obtained in the above calculation, is

based upon the assumption that all of the manure is saved. Unfortunately, however, many dairymen allow one-half or more of it to go to waste, but such carelessness on the
part of dairymen should not be charged against the cow. While the value of the manure has been based solely

upon its content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, manure has values outside of these ingredients. Its mechanical effect
plies,

upon the

soil

through the humus

effects

as

well as
it

the beneficial

it supof the hosts of

bacteria

contains, should not be underrated.

Value of
the butcher

Cow

for Beef.

The

final

value of a

cow

to

may be placed at $24. Since the cow may milked on an average eight years, one-eighth of the $24, or $3, should be credited to her annual receipts.
Cost of Feed.
to be

be

remembered

On arriving at the cost of feed, it that one and one-half acres of land

is is

allotted to each cow.

will

This land, valued at $80 per acre, undoubtedly furnish enough pasture and other rough

VALUING DAIRY STOCK

feeds to meet the usual maintenance requirements.

249
In

determining the cost of the forage grown on this land, $6.60 is charged as the interest and taxes on the value of
the land, $3.40 as the cost of fencing, and $10 as the cost of the labor and seed required to raise the roughage on

three-fourths acre of land.

the cost of maintenance.

This makes a

total of $20,

800 pounds of grain or pounds of milk testing 4 per cent butter fat. This grain has an average market value of about $10. To the $20, the cost of maintenance, must therefore be added $10 for each
stated above, approximately
is

As

its

equivalent,

required to produce 2,500

2,500 pounds of milk, or for each 100 pounds of butter

fat,

produced.
Profits.

Net
is

The market value

placed upon the cows

is obliged to the cows are valued

assumed

to be the

average price that one

pay when purchasing them.

Where

according to the actual cost of raising them, the net profits would be considerably higher than those shown in the

preceding table, especially from the higher producers, as witness the following table in which the "net profits when
the

cow

is

raised," are based

upon the

cost of the

cow

as determined under "valuing calves," page 250.

The higher

net profits

from cows raised upon the farm

;

are due to their lower cost to the dairymen, reducing the following expenses based upon the cost of the cow risk,
taxes, interest

and depreciation.

250

DAIRY FARMING
VALUING CALVES.

a rule, calves from high-class cows are sold at prices considerably below their actual value. This is so because

As

few dairymen appreciate the full value of calves from high producers. Not until such calves have grown into young cows is it possible to realize anywhere near their full market value, and hence the wisdom of selling young milch cows instead of calves. In the receipts from cows of different productive
245, the values assigned to the calves from the higher producers are low as compared with the market price of cows of similar productive
capacities

shown on page

This is best shown by first calculating the capacities. approximate cost of raising calves from cows of different productive capacities,
first calf,

up to the time of dropping their namely, two years old, as follows:

VALUING DAIRY STOCK

251

This table shows that the cost of raising an ordinary two-year-old heifer may be taken on an average to be

$37 and that

class heifers.

this cost is

not materially increased for high-

The following table shows that the market value assigned to calves from the higher producing cows is low in comparison with the market value of the cows themselves
:

The

table

shows that

it

is

able to keep heifer calves until

unquestionably more profittwo years old than to sell

them as

calves.

VALUING BULLS.
In estimating the relative value of bulls capable of pro-

ducing cows yielding annually 200, 300 and 400 pounds of butter fat respectively, it is assumed that each bull will

produce
nually.

fifteen heifer calves

and

fifteen bull calves an-

The
is

relative value of the heifers

from the

differ-

ent bulls,

based upon the relative net profits obtained from the cows as determined under "Valuing Cows,"
bull calves

page 244. The

from the different

bulls are

252

DAIRY FARMING

given values corresponding to those given the calves in

the calculation just referred
to.

Since cows producing only 200 pounds of butter fat a year are maintained at only a small profit, bulls capable
of producing such cows will not be considered here. By referring to the figures showing the net profits from cows

of different productive capacities it will be found that cows yielding 400 pounds of butter fat a year will produce annually $16.70 more net profit than those yielding 300 pounds of butter fat. The immediate increased value of
the fifteen heifer calves from the 4OO-pound bull will, therefore, amount to $16.70X15, or $250.50.

Since these heifers will produce for a period of eight years, the real annual increased value represented by the
fifteen heifer calves

from the better

bull will

amount

to

$250.50X8 or $2,000.00. Adding to this $180 as the increased value of the fifteen bull calves, we have a total
of $2,184 which represents the total annual increased value of the offspring from the 4OO-pound bull over that of the

3OO-pound one.

Allowing six years as the period of use-

fulness of bulls, we get a grand total of $13,104 in favor of the 4OO-pound bull during his six-year period of usefulness.
If we value the 3OO-pound bull at forty dollars and the 4OO-pound bull at $150, it will be necessary to deduct from the above the difference in the interest, taxes, risk and depreciation of the two bulls. These items, if figured the same as for cows, will amount to $172.68 for six years,

leaving a net profit of $13,031.32 in favor of the 400pound bull during his period of usefulness.
If

we

obtained from cows

value heifer calves according to the net profitswhen the latter are raised upon the

farm, the differences found above will be considerably

greater.

CHAPTER
LEGUMES
(

XXXIII.

ALFALFA AND CLOVERS).

One of the greatest factors in successful dairying at the present time is the growing of an ample supply of leguminous crops, such as alfalfa and clovers. There are
several reasons for this:

(i) legumes improve the

soil

by adding

store of nitrogen; (2) legumes are rich in protein and can, therefore, take the place, to a great extent, of high priced commercial feeds rich in protein. The bacteria that live upon the roots of alfalfa and
to
its

clovers have the

air

power of taking the nitrogen from the and putting it into the soil in a form in which it becomes available for plant growth. Nitrogen when purchased in the form of commercial fertilizers, has a value

of about twenty cents per pound. The dairyman who a sufficient quantity of clover and alfalfa gets the grows nitrogen absolutely free and in sufficient quantity not only
to maintain the

supply of nitrogen already in the soil, but by feeding the clover and alfalfa to stock the nitrogen content of the soil can be materially increased.
the increasing cost of commercial feeds rich in protein, manifestly is a matter of economy for the dairy farmer to raise crops upon his farm which can take the
it

With

place of expensive commercial feeds. There is no home grown feed which can take the place of grain or concentrated commercial feeds to so great an extent as alfalfa.

This will be readily understood when

it

is

known

that

253

254

DAIRY FARMING
have shown that good alfalfa hay pound for pound, the same value for milk producas wheat bran. It is generally known that red clover

practical feeding trials

has,
tion

and other kinds of clover are

is still

rich in protein, but alfalfa richer in protein. Where conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa,

there

is perhaps no general farm crop that yields so great returns from an acre of land as alfalfa, especially when

considering

its

localities alfalfa

favorable effect upon the soil. In favored can be cut four times during each seafive tons

son, yielding

from four to

per acre.

The
and

roots of alfalfa penetrate the soil to great depths for this reason, when once established, alfalfa will

flourish

during dry seasons when ordinary crops fail. Moreover, the deep root system of alfalfa enables it to obtain plant food from such soil depths as are entirely
plants.
all

beyond the reach of ordinary farm

Alfalfa
is
it

a plant highly relished by

classes of live

cannot be as successfully grazed, perhaps, stock, though as red clover, at least not until it has passed through the

second season; but, unlike red clover, alfalfa will continue to yield good crops of hay many years without reIt is well to remember that alfalfa does not planting. thrive everywhere. It requires a well drained soil rich

in lime and containing the right kind of bacteria. In limestone regions where sweet clover flourishes, alfalfa probably grows at its best. This plant is so valuable to

dairymen that none can afford not to try to grow

it.

LEGUME HAY AND CORN

SIIyAGE.

Where

a liberal allowance of rich legume hay

is

fed

in conjunction with corn silage, little grain or concen-

LEGUMES
trates

255

is required, except for heavy producers. Silage to balance the legume ration and supplies the suchelps The two feeds, culence which the legume hay lacks.

therefore, nicely supplement each other, not only so far as succulence is concerned, but also with respect to protein

and carbohydrates. For economical milk production

it

may
is

be stated with-

out fear of contradiction that there

no combination of

winter feeds equal to legume hay and corn silage, supplemented with grain or concentrates according the yield
of milk.
It is

economy

also to feed silage

and legume
'

hay during periods

important is matter which
it

when

pastures are short.

Especially

is

have silage for summer feeding, a recognized now-a-days by leading dairyto

men

everywhere.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE; DAIRY HOUSE.

Location. In selecting a site for a dairy house, convenience and sanitation should be given first consideration. well drained spot, free from rubbish and bad

odors,

should be selected.

and within reasonable distance from the barn An abundance of good, pure water

must be available. Floor Plans Designed by the Author. Dairymen who sell milk and cream occasionally have a surplus of these products on their hands, which is usually made into butter. Floor plans for dairy houses must therefore provide for
small buttermaking outfits in addition to all the necessary apparatus for the handling of milk and cream. The floor plan shown in Fig. 72 is designed to meet the needs of small dairymen. Figs. 73 and 76 illustrate

plans which will answer the needs of dairymen having from twenty to fifty cows. The first two plans provide for retail milk; the last provides for farm buttermaking.

There

is no question that refrigerating machinery can be employed very advantageously in a great percentage of

the larger dairies. Details of Construction.

The foundation

for

the
It

walls

may

be constructed of stone, brick or concrete.

should rest upon firm, solid ground below the frost and the top must be at least one foot above ground.

line,

In building the walls, place the studs two feet apart

256

DAIRY HOUSE

257

Extreme

length,

16

feet.

Extreme width,

12 feet.

Fig. 72

Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk.

and
board

tack
the

building paper on outside and finish

both
the

sides.

Weather
as

inside

follows:

Board

up preferably with tongued and grooved lumber, and cover the boards with two thicknesses of

258

DAIRY FARMING

Fie. 73.

Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk Trade, Suitable for Fifty

Cows.

18'x24'.

roofing paper. Next put on furring strips, one foot apart, and to these fasten wire lathing. If the lathing is provided with one-inch steel ribs the furring strips are not

DAIRY HOUSE
needed.

259

Next apply one and one-half inches of cement

Press the

plaster consisting of one part cement, three parts clean,

coarse sand, and one part slacked lime paste.

COLD WATER

TANK

(OR ICE BOX)

Fig.

74.

Milk House for Cream Patrons.

concrete partly through the wire lathing. Finish with one off as smoothly part cement and one part sand and trowel
as possible.

This construction provides one three- fourths inch and one four-inch dead air spaces.

260

DAIRY FARMING

BUTTER
PRINTING

TABLE

Fig. 76.

Floor Plan of Dairy House for

Farm Buttcnnaking.

DAIRY HOUSE

261

Construct a four-inch concrete floor upon a well tamped foundation consisting of gravel, cobble stones and cinders.

TEST TABLE

5X10

WATER TANK
o

7X10

Fig. 75.

Milk House Whole Milk Patrons.

These materials afford good drainage and thus prevent the cold and dampness usually associated with concrete floors.
In preparing the concrete
for

the floor use one part

262

DAIRY FARMING

cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts gravel or crushed stone. Finish with one part cement and two parts sand.
All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor

with concrete to make them more easily cleanable. The ceiling should be about twelve feet high and built of the best ceiling lumber. Keep the ceiling well painted.

Enough windows must be provided

light

to afford

ample

and

to

admit sunshine to

all

parts of the building.

Provide ventilation in the milk and wash rooms by

running tight ventilating shafts from the ceiling through

the top of the roof.

Sewerage.

Effective sewerage
is

must be provided

at

the time the floor

should be placed in the center of each room and carefully connected with
laid.

bell trap

the sewer.

Conduct the sewage far enough away to

keep Screening.

its

odors a safe distance from the dairy house.

Where proper

sanitation

is

expected

it

is

and this can guard against be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies easily are a prolific source of milk contamination and must therefore be rigidly excluded from the dairy.
absolutely necessary to
flies,

CHAPTER XXXV.
WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK
VESSELS.

Wash
which

Sinks.
is

matter of importance in washing

milk vessels

to have the right kind of sinks, three of are needed for the most satisfactory work: One

Fig.

77.

Wash Sinks.

for rinsing before washing, one for

final rinsing.

washing and one

for

For convenience the wash sink should be

263

thirty-six

264

DAIRY FARMING

The bottom should be round and two

inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. feet from the floor.
closer to the floor than this too

When

much

stooping

is

required.

Fig. 79.
Fig. 78.

Milk Bottle Brush.

A Good Cleaning Brush.

Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable materials for the construction of wash sinks. They should

be provided with steam (or hot water) and cold water

pipes as

shown
of

in Fig. 77.

Method
oughly

Washing.
in
re-

All

vessels

should be thor-

rinsed
water
small
to

warm
move
of

residues

milk

and

cream.
is

The

rinsing

fol-

lowed washing by with moderately hot water to which a

handful

of

some
has
be

cleaning powder been added.

The

washing

should

done

with

brushes

rather than cloths be-

cause the bristles enter into crevices

which

Fig.

80.

Bottle Washer.

a cloth could not possibly reach. in clean water.

Finally rinse the vessels

in Fig. 80, saves

A bottle washer,

like that

shown

much

WASHING AND STERILIZING

labor and does very efficient work. be either steam or water.

265

The motive power

man-

may

Sterilizing.

Vessels that have been washed in the

ner described above

still

may look perfectly clean, but may be far from being free from bacteria. These can be

destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling temperature for some time.

Fig. 81.

Cheap Arrangement for Securing Hot Water.

The
in

simplest

method of

sterilizing is to place the vessels

boiling water for

five minutes.

This method com-

mends
steam.

itself especially

to small dairymen

who have no

is available, the best means of prohot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 81. curing The hot water tank is that commonly used in residences

Where no steam

for heating water for the bath tub

and can be obtained

266

DAIRY FARMING

Fig. 82.

Sterilizing

Truck and Front of Brick

Sterilizer.

from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater. The best method of sterilizing is to place the vessels

WASHING AND STERILIZING

in a

257

sufficient strength to withstand a ten or more pounds to the square inch. These pressure of sterilizers are usually constructed of concrete or brick and

steam chamber of

Fig. 83.

Cross-Section of Concrete Sterilizer.

are provided with a heavy iron door which is large enough to admit a truck bearing the pails, cans, bottles, etc. Other
sterilizers of this

The

principal drawback

type are constructed of galvanized iron. to some of these sterilizers is

268
their high cost,

DAIRY FARMING
which renders
their use

by small dairy-

men

almost prohibitive.
Sterilizers.
is

Cheap

cross section through a cheap

concrete sterilizer

in Fig. 83. It is essentially a rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover which is lined with zinc. The sides and bottom are five inches

shown

thick

and are

built of concrete,

which

is

made up

of one

part cement, two parts sand, and two parts coarse gravel. thin coat, consisting of one part cement and two parts sand, is used as an inside finish.
sterilizer

Fig. 84 shows a common galvanized iron which answers the purpose for small dairymen.

Fig.

84.

A Cheap

Sterilizer.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
KEEPING ACCOUNTS.
in keeping accounts with but nearly all of them involve the use of tickets, patrons, route book, and some form of ledger. The method here

Various methods are followed

described

recommended because of Most customers prefer Tickets.

is

its

simplicity. to settle their milk

and cream accounts

daily.

This they do by purchasing a

quantity of tickets from the milkman and handing them out every time milk or cream is purchased.

they are repeatedly used they become dirty and a real source of danger. Passing from one household to another they
tickets should be

The

used but once.

Where

are likely to become contaminated with disease germs and thus become the means of disseminating disease. The coupon ticket presented on the next page is one of The the most satisfactory in use at the present time.

portion of the ticket above the perforations is retained by the milkman. If the ticket is paid for at the time of purchase, this must be indicated on the stub retained by the

dairyman as well as on the customer's ticket. Coupon tickets are also used for cream and buttermilk. Tickets for different products should have different
colors.

Tickets are not absolutely necessary

indeed,

many

cus-

tomers prefer to do without them.

Where no

tickets are

269

270

DAIRY FARMING

To TICKETS $1.00.

MILK.

MILK.
No.

190

Mr.

To SPRING
J. L.

VALLEY DAIRY,
Prop., Middleton, N. Y.

Dr.

JONES.

To

TICKETS $1.00.
Received Payment.

Coupon Ticket.

KEEPING ACCOUNTS
used, an account
is

271

rendered at the end of the month

similar to that rendered

Route Book.
delivery

It

is

by the grocer. evident that if customers were

always supplied with tickets and regularly paid for each of milk or cream, no further record would be necessary. But customers will run out of tickets occasionally as well as forget to regularly hand them out, it is necessary for drivers to carry with them a
is

hence

record or route book in which each transaction

at the time
is
it is

recorded

made.

form suitable for

this

purpose

shown below.

CREAM

Form

of Route Book.

the

route book consists of loose leaves, upon which names of customers are arranged alphabetically. The leaves are renewed each month, the old one being placed on file for future reference. The letters B. M. stand for

The

buttermilk.

Ledger.

As

a rule

all

The

ledger form

shown below

accounts are settled monthly. serves satisfactorily as a

permanent monthly record.

On

the debit side are recorded the sales and the total

value of the tickets purchased.

On

the credit side are

272
recorded

DAIRY FARMING

The balance all the receipts for the same period. represents the difference between the debits and credits.

Dr.

Cr.

DATE
1908

too
2.00

/a

/o

*tf/o

Form of Ledger.

Monthly Statement.

At

the end of each

month a

statement should be rendered to customers showing their form like that herewith shown answers indebtedness.

the purpose satisfactorily.

SPRINGDALE SANITARY DAIRY,
REID8VILLJC, N.
H.

.on

MA.

roSPRINGDALE SANITARY DAIRY, DR.

.1

C.

BOONK.

Proprietor

Monthly Statement.

KEEPING ACCOUNTS
Order Book for Supplies.
as for
all

273

For convenience as well

orders should be

made in permanent record, The in a book specially made for the purpose. duplicate the order book are alternately marked "original" leaves in and "duplicate," the duplicate being made at the same time as the original by using carbon paper between the
two.

A suitable

form of order blank

is

shown below.

Original

Springdale Sanitary Dairy. J. C. Boone, Prop.

Reidville,

Order

No

N.

190.

To
Dear
Sir:

Please deliver by

the following:

Invoice and ship to

Springdale Sanitary Dairy, H. J. C. Boone, Prop., Reidville, N.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
WATER AND
ICE)

SUPPLY.

WATER SUPPLY
Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease farm homes is directly traceable to infected water.

in

Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by polluted well water that physicians at once look to this as the probable cause wherever this disease is found to exist.

Where
ist

wells infected with disease

germs happen

to ex-

on dairy farms that supply milk

to neighboring cities,

is not limited to the dairyman's own family, but be spread along the entire milk route. Many typhoid may fever epidemics have been positively traced to milk which

disease

has become infected through water containing the disease germs. Nowhere is pure water so important, therefore,
as

upon dairy farms. disease germs usually find their way into the milk through milk vessels which have been washed with in-

The

of such water for washing cows' udders previous to milking may also be the means of infecting the milk supply. Location of Well. The most satisfactory location for
fected water.

The use

the well

is

at the dairy

house where the coldest water

is

required and where it will be most convenient. Here the water for both the dairy, the home, and the stock can be

pumped with

the dairy engine.

Further, the well, like

274

WATER AND

ICH SUPPLY

275

the dairy house, should stand on slightly elevated so as to insure drainage away from it.

ground

In a properly constructed should enter, it except near the bottom. well, no water This compels the water to pass through a thickness of earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a
reasonable depth. Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the

Construction of Well.

Fig. 85.

Soil Strata.

(From Harrington's "Practical Hygiene.")

water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well, commonly known as the Abyssinian tube well, is the
cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower end of which is pointed and perforated.
In case rocks and hard clay must be penetrated, or great

depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight
iron pipes, will be found

most

satisfactory.

276

DAIRY FARMING

the upper pervious stratum should be avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind
described. Especially is this necessary where the wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sinking the well through an impervious stratum, like that
just

Water from

shown in Fig. 85. The most dangerous

well

is

the

common dug

well with

pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into it from outhouses, Wells of barnyards and cesspools.
this type are altogether too

common on

dairy farms.

Fig. 86.

Sources

of Well

Water Contamination.
Exp. Sta.)

(From

Bui. 143

Kan.

All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent the entrance of impurities into the shaft.
ICE SUPPLY.

Necessity of

Ice.

Where

there

is

no equipment

for

WATER AND

ICE

SUPPLY

277

mechanical refrigeration, ice is indispensible in furnishlow enough ing the best quality of milk and cream.

temperature cannot be secured with water alone, neither can the cooling be accomplished as quickly as is desirable
for best results. Furthermore, a satisfactory cold storage cannot be had without the use of ice. Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can

be done with a comparatively small amount of

is

ice.

This
to

due

to the latent or

"hidden" cold in

ice.

Thus

convert one pound

of ice at 32

F. into water at the

same

temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words, enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of 142 pounds of water one degree Fahr.

Construction of Ice House.

three things are necessary,
(

To

keep

ice satisfactorily

tom, (2) good insulation,

at the top.

good drainage and (3) abundant

i

at the bot-

ventilation

Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be sesured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole One foot of sawdust being underlaid with drain tile.

should be packed upon the cinders and the upon the sawdust.

ice laid directly

Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched on the outside of the studs and common rough on the inside, leaving the space between the studs The ice should be separated from the walls by one

boards boards empty.

foot of

sawdust.

Where no solid foundation walls are provided, earth must be banked around the ice house to prevent the entrance of air along the base. The space between the sawdust covering on top of the ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the

278

DAIRY FARMING

gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts projecting through the roof should be provided to insure a
free circulation of air

remove the hot

air

under the roof. This will not only which naturally gathers beneath the

roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust.

The

ice

except at the sides

must be packed solidly, using no sawdust and bottom of the ice house and on

top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice. Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house will

depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used. For a herd of 25 cows, in the North, an ice house 10 These feet square by 14 feet high will usually answer.

dimensions provide storage for 22 tons of ice, allowing In the one-foot space all around the ice for sawdust. about 50% more ice is required than in the North. South
In calculating the amount of storage space needed for ice, it is necessary to know that one cubic foot of ice at 32
F. weighs 57.5 pounds. As a matter of convenience in filling

and emptying the

ice house, doors should be provided in sections from, the sill to the gable at one end of the building.

General Uses of Ice. cooling milk and cream,

Aside from the use of

it

ice in

vantage in several other ways.

be overestimated.
Ice

can be employed to good adIts value in the house-

hold, in preserving meats, vegetables,

and

fruits

cannot

so refreshing as cold drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months!
is is

And what

Cost of Making

also frequently necessary in case of sickness. Ice. Where ice can be obtained with-

in a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling,

and

packing should not exceed $1.50 per ton.

Source of

Ice.

Always

select the cleanest ice available.

WATER AND
Where
the source of ice
is

ICE

SUPPLY

279

at too great a distance from should be made upon ground pond with a reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural concave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded

the dairy, an artificial

with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply of ice will be available in a very short time.

CHAPTER

XXXVIII.

DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS.

COMPOSITION OF BY-PRODUCTS.

Skim=Milk as a Feed.
dairymen
Feeding
should
take
rule, the feeding value of
trials

This

is

greater

interest
is

a question in which because, as a

skim-milk

underestimated.

show

that five

pounds of skim-milk are

equal to about one

They
will
five

also

show

of grain (corn, barley, oats). that on an average four pounds of grain

pound

produce one pound of gain with young pigs, while pounds will produce the same gain with pigs from

six to twelve

months

old.

On

this basis

twenty pounds

of skim-milk are required to produce one

pound of gain

with young pigs and twenty-five pounds with older pigs. With pork at eight cents a pound, one hundred pounds of

skim-milk will produce 40 cents worth of pork with young pigs and 32 cents worth with older ones.
of veal

The amount of skim-milk required to produce a pound is shown by feeding trials to range on an average
fifteen to

from

twenty pounds.

Taking the

latter figure

280

DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS
and valuing veal

281

at 7 cents a pound, skim-milk is worth 35 cents per 100 pounds for veal production. The highest returns from the feeding of skim-milk

are secured
tests

fed to poultry. Careful experimental as 75 cents per 100 pounds may be realized for skim-milk when fed to poultry

when

show that as high

Skim=milk as a

Fertilizer.

Many who

are selling

the skim-milk off the farm do not sufficiently appreciate the fertilizing value of this material. At the lowest esti-

mate skim-milk has a fertilizing value of ten cents per hundred pounds. Buttermilk as a Feed. Buttermilk has essentially the same composition as skim-milk. It contains a little more fat, but less sugar, part of which has been changed
into lactic acid. For pig feeding, except in the case of very young pigs, it has practically the same feeding value as skim-milk, as shown by numerous feeding ex-

periments.

It is also

a good poultry feed.

calf feeding,

It

can not be
it

recommended, however, for

been used with
fair success in

though

has

some

instances.

Whey

as a Feed.

Whey when

properly cared for has

practically one-half the feeding value of skim-milk.

CHAPTER XXXIX.
MACHINE MILKING.
Recent results secured by experiment stations and numerous large dairymen indicate that the milking machine may become an important factor in future dairying. The testimonials from these sources show that machines milk quite as satisfactorily as average hand milkers and since one attendant can milk four to six cows at the same time,
;

there

is

a material saving in labor, besides making labor

more

agreeable.

Many, however, have pronounced ma-

chine milking unsatisfactory. Principle of Operation. Milking by machine is acsuction similar to that produced by a suckcomplished by

ing
is

calf.

The

suction
is

intermittent and

created by producing a partial vacuum in a

system

of

pipes

to

which the milking machines are attached

during milking. Apparatus.
necessary
for

The

apparatus
milker,
tin
;

machine milking
Fig.
87.

consists of a

-Milking Machine

in operation.

which includes a
pail,

teat
;

cups,

etc.

power

vacuum

reservoir

some form of vacuum pump two vacuum gauges a safety

;

282

MILKING MACHINES
valve; and about 150 feet of gas pipes. milks two cows.

283

Each machine

Cost of Apparatus. The following may be considered an approximate estimate of the cost of a milking outfit for about 30 cows: Two milkers, $180; vacuum pump,
$50; vacuum reservoir, including two vacuum gauges and a safety valve, $35 a two horse power gasoline
;

The cost of and pipes and piping, $50 pipes depends largely upon the distance of the power from the barn. It is not necessary to have the power in the barn or even near it. (See Chapter on Farm Power.) Operating Machine. When ready to begin milking start the vacuum pump and place a milker between two cows and open valve on main vacuum pipe. Bend over teat cups and attach one by one to one cow and then Similarly attach proceed to do the same with the other. one or two more milkers, so as to keep four to six cows milking at the same time. A short glass tube at the machine shows when the milking is completed. The mouthpieces on the teat cups must be of a size to correspond with the size of the^teats. They must be
engine, $85
; ;

neither too small nor too large. It is important, also, that the piping system be kept air tight and free from

moisture.
Details concerning the
installation

and operation of

the machines

may

be had for the asking by writing to

the manufacturers.

CHAPTER

XL.

PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM.

The

process

known

as pasteurization derives

its

name

from the eminent French scientist Pasteur. It consists in heating and cooling milk and cream in a manner which
will destroy the

bulk of bacteria in them, but which will

leave their chemical

as far as possible.

and physical properties unchanged

The advantages to Advantages of Pasteurization. be derived from pasteurization vary with the conditions under which the milk is produced and the efficiency with
which the work
dairies
is

conducted.

If the

milk comes from

prevail, pasteur-

where disease and uncleanliness

ization will prolong the keeping quality of the milk and also materially lessen the danger from disease germs.
If,

ceive the exacting attention

on the other hand, healthfulness and cleanliness rewhich prevails on certified

dairy farms, nothing can be gained by subjecting milk to the pasteurizating process. Disadvantages of Pasteurization. The principal dis-

advantages are as follows: (i) the cost of pasteurizing apparatus; (2) the cost of pasteurizing; (3) the tendency

promote uncleanliness on the part of the producer; (4) the tendency to reduce the cream line on the milk
to

lessening of the whipping property of the cream; and (6) the tendency to impart a "cooked" flavor to the

(5)

milk and cream.

Methods

of Pasteurization.

Two

general methods

284

PASTBURIZA TION
are

285

now

in

vogue

i) the

discontinuous method by which

every particle of milk and cream is heated from ten to or thirty minutes according as the temperature is high

low; (2) the continuous method by which milk and cream are permitted to pass in a constant stream through the pasteurizer and are subjected on an average less than

one minute to the pasteurizing temperature.

with the
In general the most efficient pasteurization discontinuous method.
is

obtained

Pasteurizing Temperatures. Obviously where milk is heated only a minute or less, a higher temperature must be employed than where it is heated for a much
longer period
the

of

time.

With

the

continuous method

With temperature varies from 160 to 180 F. the method the temperature varies discontinuous from 140 to 155 F. Exposing milk or cream to
a

temperature of

145

F.

for

in very satisfactory pasteurization.

twenty minutes results The temperature and

time of exposure should always be such as to insure the destruction of the tubercle bacillus, which is one of the

most resistant of the disease bacteria most commonly found in -milk. In pasteurizing the heating must be Quick Cooling. quickly followed by thorough cooling. This is an extremely important part of the pasteurizing process. It is desirable that the temperature be reduced at once to 45
F. or below.

Thorough pasteurization reduces the visor whipping property of cream. To restore the cosity original viscosity a solution of sucrate of lime is added,
Viscogin.

known as viscogin. This solution is made by an excess of slaked lime to three parts of sugar adding dissolved in five parts of water. The mixture is alwhich
is

28G

DAIRY FARMING

lowed to stand twenty-four hours, after which the clear liquid at the top is poured from the sediment and preserved in a stoppered bottle.

Add

one part viscogin to about 150 parts of cream.

Never add so much as to render the cream alkaline. While viscogin is entirely harmless, it is nevertheless an adulterant and cream treated with it must be so
labeled.

Inefficient Pasteurization.

Milk that has been un-

derheated

more dangerous than that which has not been heated at all. The reason for this is that inadequate
is

heat in pasteurizing may destroy the lactic acid bacteria (which are easily killed) and by so doing actually better the conditions for the growth of the more resistant and

obnoxious kinds.

Lactic acid organ sms are antagonistic to other classes of bacteria and are therefore a real safe:

guard

to milk.

This makes

it

plain that unless milk

is

at a temperature which will destroy the pathogenic and non-acid bacteria as well as the acid bacteria, it is far better not to heat it at all.

pasteurized

Pasteurization should be
ject
is

condemned where
Its real object

to keep milk sweet.

all

its only obshould be to

all

destroy

actively

growing bacteria and

especially

disease-producing organisms such as the tubercle bacillus which is among the most resistant.

Pasteurizing in the
teurized to render
this
it

Home.
it

If

safe, there is
is

than in the

home where

milk must be pasno better place to do The to be consumed.

pasteurizing is very easily and satisfactorily accomplished by the use of a small double milk or rice boiler which

can be procured for about one dollar from hardware dealIt is essential to stir the milk while ers everywhere.
heating and to use a reliable thermometer.

APPENDIX.
Period of Gestation. This refers to the time which The average elapses between conception and calving.
period of gestation of a Frequency of Heat.
will

come

283 days. a rule non-pregnant cows in heat every 21 days. The period of heat lasts

cow

is

As

from 2 to 3 days. This Metric System of Weights and Measures. was devised by the French people and has very system extensive application wherever accuracy in weights and measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in ordinary and measures are given in the following table weights
:

Ordinary weights and measures.

Equivalents in metric system.

ounce (av
quart
gallon
fluid

) ..

28 35

grams.

1 1
1 1

9464 liter.
.

ounce.

pound
grain
foot..
.

(av.).

linen
1

3.7854 liters. 29.57 cubic centimeters (c.c.) 0.4536 kilogram. 64.8 milligrams. 2 54 centimeters. 0.3048 meter.

ADDRESSES OF DAIRY CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS.

287

288

DAIRY FARMING
The Connec-

Rations According to Yield of Milk.

ticut (Storrs.) standard rations for

varying yields of milk

are

shown

in the following table

FEEDING STANDARDS.

Scale of Points for Judging Butter. Butter is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for flavor, 25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 for package,
total 100.

rule, is

Scale of Points for Judging Cheese. Cheese, as a judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for

flavor,

30 for texture, 10 for

salt,

10 for color, and 5 for

appearance, total 100. Milk Solids. The solids of milk include everything If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling but the water.

temperature until
solid residue that
It is

all the water is evaporated, the dry, remains constitutes the solids of milk. convenient to divide the solids into two classes, one

including all the fat, the other all the solids which are not In referring, therefore, to the different solids of fat. milk, we speak of the ''fat" and the "solids-not-fat"

which, together, constitute the "total solids."

APPENDIX

289

Relationship of Fat and Solids=not=Fat. In normal milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat

and the

solids-not-fat.

For example, milk

rich in fat

is

the other hand, milk Hence the juspoor in fat is also poor in solids-not-fat. tice of paying for milk, delivered to cheese factories, on
likewise rich in solids-not-fat.

On

the butterfat basis.

See table on page 133.

Composition of Cream.
stituents

Cream
to

contains

all

the con-

found

in milk,

though not

in the

The

fat

may

vary from
it

8%

68%.

same proportion. As the cream grows

Rich:

richer in fat

becomes poorer

in solids-not-fat.

mond

reports the following analysis of a thick cream

Per

cent.

Water
Fat

39.37
56.09
2.29
1.57

Sugar
Proteids

Ash
Capacity of Cylindrical Siloes.

38

The approximate

capacity of cylindrical siloes for well-matured corn silage is shown in the following table:

TABLE

CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOES, TONS.*

Inside diameter of
silo,

feet.

*From Modern

Silage Methods.

290

DAIRY FARMING
Where no
ice is available,

Pasteurization of Milk.

the keeping quality of milk may be materially prolonged by a process of heating and cooling known as pasteurization. This process consists in exposing milk to a tem-

perature of about 150 degrees F. for thirty minutes, after which it is immediately cooled to the lowest temperature

This treatment destroys practically possible with water. all of the bacteria in milk and thus not only materially inits keeping quality, but also renders harmful or disease-producing bacteria.

creases

it

free

from

Definition of Technical Terms.

list
is

of technical

terms not specially defined in the text low

:

presented be-

Substances rich in albumen, like the white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen. ANAEROBIC. Living without free oxygen.

ALBUMENOIDS.

That force by which a body movfly off from the axis of motion. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. This refers to the elements or substances of which a body is composed.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.

ing in a curve tends to

Resembling glue or jelly. CONCUSSION. The act of shaking or agitating. CUBIC CENTIMETER (c. c.). See metric system p. 203. EMULSION. A mixture of oil (fat) and water containing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. ENZYMES. Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do
COLLOIDAL.
FIBRIN.
not possess life. substance

forms a

fine

which at ordinary temperatures network through milk which impedes

few streams of milk drawn from

the rising of the fat globules.

FOREMILK.
each

The

first

teat.

APPENDIX
GALACTASE.

291
di-

An

unorganized ferment in milk which

gests casein.

MAMMARY GLAND. The organ which secrets milk. MENISCUS. A body curved like a first quarter moon. MILK SERUM. Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk
nearly pure milk serum.

is

NEUTRAL.
erties.

Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop-

NON-CONDUCTOR.
OSMOSIS.

material

which does not conduct

fluids

heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty.

The tendency

in

to

diffuse

or

pass

through membranes. RENNET EXTRACT. The curdling and digesting principle

of calf stomach.

SECRETION. The act of separating or producing from the blood by the vital economy. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The weight of one body as compared with an equal volume of some other body taken as
a standard.

SPORE.

The

resting or non-vegetative stage of certain

all

kinds of bacteria.

STERILIZATION.

The process of destroying the application of heat near 212 F. by

germ

life

STRIPPERS' MILK.

The milk from cows

last

far

advanced

in

the period of lactation.

STRIPPINGS.
each
teat.

The
The

few streams of milk drawn from

being held mechanically in a

SUSPENSION.

state of

liquid, like butter fat in milk.

TUBERCULIN.

sterile glycerine extract of the growth of the tubercule bacillus. products VACUUM. Space devoid of air.

VEGETATIVE BACTERIA.
actively

Those bacteria

that are in

an

growing

condition.

O/

/O

World's Creameries Use

of the

DE LAVAL
CREAM SEPARATORS
Ten
rators in use.

years ago there were a dozen different makes of creamery or factory sepaToday over 98 per cent of the world's creameries use DE LAVAL

separators exclusively.
It

means a

difference of several thousand dollars a year

whether a
is

DE LAVAL
used
in

or some other

make

of separator

creamery.
Exactly the same differences exist, on a smaller use of farm separators. Owing to the

scale, in the

fact however, that most farm users do not keep as accurate records as the creameryman, they do not appreciate just what the difference between a good

and a poor separator means

cents.

to

them

in dollars

and

Nine times out of ten the farmer can't tell whether or not he is wasting $50 or $100 a year in
quantity and quality of product through the use of

an

inferior
If

cream separator.

you were in need of legal advice, you would go to a lawyer. If you were sick you would consult a doctor. If you had the toothache you would see a dentist. Why? Because these men are all

judgment and

specialists in their line, and you rely upon their comes to buying a separator why not profit by the experience of the creameryman ? His experience qualifies him to advise you corHe knows which separator will give you the best service and be the most rectly.
skill.

When

it

economical for you to buy.

the

That's

why

98 per cent of the world's creameries use

DE LAVAL

exclusively.

There can be no better recommendation for the DE LAVAL cream separator than the fact that the men who make the separation of milk a business use the DE LAVAL to the practical exclusion of all other makes.

THE DE LAVAL SEPARATOR

165

CO.
Sts.

NEW YORK
173-177 William Street

Broadway

29 E. Madison Street

Drumtn

&

Sacramento

CHICAGO
14

SAN FRANCISCO
1016 Western Avenue

&

16 Princess Street

MONTREAL

WINNIPEG

SEATTLE

INDEX.
Abortion Acid, measures
Acid, test
Afterbirth, retention Ailments of cattle

of

Air of stable

Albumen
Alfalfa

of milk
fixers

Ammonia

Appendix Ash of milk

Ayrshire cattle
characteristics

of

Page 113 130 174 .110 110 161 129 253 103 287 129 31 32

Bull, prepotency of

Babcock

test

apparatus for method of making

method
pointers
principle

of

reading

on
of

making

sample for Babcock testers

Bacteria,

discussion
. .

of

Barn,

Barn

dairy yard, clean

Barrenness

Bedding for cows

Bitter

fermentation

Bloat

Bloody milk
Breeding, purity of Breeding rack Building up' herd
Bull,

selection

of

feeding
pedigree

of of

management of
pen

135 137 140 141 142 185 135 136 146 86 157 119 162 151 119 120 14 77 20 17 74 74 17 75

Page 18 18 type of 251 valuing of 199 Butter boxes 186 cartons 186 composition of 186 marketing of 182 salting of 183 working of 281 Buttermilk, feeding value 233 Buttermilk, skimmilk 125 Butterfat 126 composition of method of estimating ..... 60 125 physical properties of
.

production
testing
for
1

11

Buttermaking
Butter prints
Butter, working of

Butyric

fermentation

35 165 184 183 150 85 82 82

1J 5

Calf, care of

prenatal

development

of. ...

rearing scours

stanchions
Calves,

feeding of selection of

valuing of weaning of

83 83 23 250 82
-34

Carbohydrates
breeds of dairy Certified milk
Cattle,

Cheese, amount of color in amount of rennet in composition of

curing

25 236 187 187 192 192

293

294

INDEX
Page 187 204 199 204 202 199
Cream, standardizing of
stirring

Cheesemaking, Cheddar
club
cottage

testing

cream
Neufchatel.
soft

Creaming, centrifugal
deep,

cold

and fancy Chromogenic fermentations ....153 180 Churning 253 Clover 204 Club cheese 205 Cold storage 130 Colostrum milk 63 Composite sample jar 11 Conformation of cows of bulls 18 166 Cooley can 52 Corn for silage when to cut 56 199 Cottage cheese 12 Cow, dairy, points of Cows stalls and ties 89 24 Cows, buying clean 157 79 drying off evolution of 9 33 feeding of 287 gestation period of 16 health of 73 management of
milk organs of
points of selection of
7
.

dilution,

method of

efficiency of

gravity

methods of shallow pan Curdling fermentati jn

Dairy barn

Page 222 173 142 165 106 166 167 165 165 165 149

86 100 87 ground plan for method of constructing .... 88 ventilation of 96 280 Dairy by-products 82 Dairy calf, rearing of 287 Dairy cattle associations 20 Dairy herd, building up of 22 starting of 256 Dairy houses 37, 288 Dairy rations 12 Dairy temperament
cross-section of
1

Dairy type
Dairying, direct profits in
indirect profits in

winter

type

of

valuing

Cream

bottle

Cream, churnability of
churning, temp, of composition of
cooling

13 12 12 11 244 195 171

Dehorning
Diseases of cattle
Disinfectants

11 7 8 73 80

110
Ill 34
14 34

Dry

matter, definition of

Escutcheon Ether extract

172 289 205

.171

Farm buttermaking
Farrington acid test apparatus for

frothing of

marketing of
pasteurizing

of

reading test of
ripening
scales

separators

shipping

217 284 144 170 140 167 224

method of making
Fats insoluble
soluble

Feed, estimating cost of

Feeding calves Feeding cows

according to flow

165 175 175 176 127 128 66 83 33 45

INDEX
Page
Feeding cows before
calving

295
Page 148 253 121

and

after

Lactic fermentation

frequency of
practice

of
of

principles

Feeding silage Feeding standards Feeding tables

Feeds, composition of digestibility of
palatability of

succulence of

Foaming of cream
Garget
Gasoline engine Gassy fermentation
Gestation,

42 41 41 33 43 36 46 33 35 35 35 185
114 107 152 287 136 121 27 28 95 167 97 16 287 78 73 60 29 30 119

Legumes
Lice, treatment
for

Mangers

Manure
carrier

fermentation
leaching of
losses
in

of

Marketing milk and cream Markets

Metric system Milk and its products relative value of
Milk,

colostrum

period

of
test

bottle
certified

Glassware for Babcock

Grubs

cooling

Guernsey

cattle

creaming of
fever

characteristics of

Gutters for barn

Hand separators Hay loft

Health of cows
Heat, frequency of Heifers, age to breed

fermentations houses keeping account of

marketing of organs
sanitary pasteurization of
pail,

Herd management Herd records

Holstein-Friesian cattle
characteristics of

physical properties of quality of record sheet

records

Hoven
Ice cream Ice house Ice

room, sanitary
sanitary
scales
.

making

supply

Indigestion Inversion of

womb

228 277 276 116 117

25
of

secretion

shipping standardizing straining of

Milk sugar
Jersey cattle
characteristics

Judging butter Judging cheese

26 288 288
95

testing vessels

wells

94 101 104 103 102 102 217 213 287 239 239 130 195 236 205 165 112 146 256 269 217 13 159 284 123 132 62 60 164 155 61 130 224 222 160 129 135 158 12
71

Milkers, value of good effect of change of

69
..158

King

ventilator

clean

296

INDEX
Page 08 70 70
71

Milking
clean
fast vs.

slow frequency of machines treatment of cow during. with dry hands

282 68 158 202 39

35 284 15 13 106 107 18 135 33 34 Ill
14

Neufchatel cheese making

Nutritive
ratio

Palatability of

feeds

Pasteurization

Pedigree
Pelvic region

Power on farm
possibilities

for

Prepotency denned Principle of Babcock

Principles of feeding Protein, definition of

test

Purgatives Purity of breeding

Page 165 233 280 Skimmilk, feeding value of Silos 52 57 advantages of twin 289 capacity of concrete 55 concrete lined 58 construction of 54 59a cutting corn for 59b filling of location of 54 Michels' twin 57 size of 53 152 Slimy fermentation Stalls 89 94 Stalls, size of Standardizing milk and cream.. 222 formulas for 222 Starters 193 263 Sterilizing vessels Sterilizers 266, 267, 268 120 Stringy milk
Shallow pan creaming Skimmilk-buttermilk
;

Quality of milk, variations in.. 132

Teat troubles
Technical terms, definition
of.

120
..290

Quarantining
Ratio,

110
39 38 38 37 152
44 182
64 64 155 61 130 11 17 121

Thermometer, dairy
nutritive

Test

bottles

Ration, definition of Rations, method of calculating.

standard

Ropy fermentation
Salt for stock

Testing Toxic fermentation Tuberculin test Tuberculosis

179 138 135 153 117 117 101

Urine, saving of
Ventilation
Ventilation,

Salting butter

Samplers, milk

of

barn

Sampling milk
Scales,

King system

96 95
121 263 44 265 274

Sanitary milk milk

of of

Warbles

Secretion
Selection Selection

milk
sires

of cows

Self-sucking

cows

Washing vessels Water for stock Water heater Water supply

Everything
for the

Farm Dairy
Here
is

a book every

man

in

the business of producing milk for profit should have. It is our

catalog of equipment and supplies for the farm dairy.

Use Modern Equipment

Run
Don't
let

Model Dairy
Things have moved

your equipment "run down."

Invest in

rapidly in the dairy business.

modern

utensils for

your dairy and barn and reap a big return in the way of added We handle everything that the modern dairy, creamery, profits. cheese factory or milk dealer requires. Most of the modern machines used by large dairy establishments are of our invention. Every article we offer is reliable and backed by the strongest kind of a guarantee. We make silos, cow stalls and stable equipment, churns and Butter workers, testers, tinware, vats, and, in short, everything of a special dairy nature.

This

is

a Complete Dairy Supply

House

No matter what your connection with the dairy business is as producer, manufacturer, milk dealer or ice cream maker we can serve you to our mutual advantage. make a complete

We

line

and

feel free

you have any equipment problems coming up please to make use of our long experience and countrywide
if

organization.

The Creamery Package Mfg. Company

Chicago,
Minneapolis, Minn.
111.

Kansas City, Mo.

Omaha, Neb.

Albany, N. Y. Waterloo, la.

Dairy Cleanliness
Dairy Cleanliness
necessity.
it

Made Easy
is

is

no longer a theory, but a

And

the only question

how

best

may

be accomplished.

leges,

Dairy and Agricultural ColCreameries, Cheese Factories and Large

Dairymen almost without exception are using

Wyandotte
Dairyman's Cleaner
Its

&
list

Cleanser

use does not end here, but the

includes thousands

of small dairies, milk

men and farmers.

With such endorse-

ment

it

is

easy to determine that Wyandotte Dairyman's

Cleanser
use
it,

Cleaner

&

is

the right article for the dairy trade.

tried
it

Do you
much

and know because you have

how
to

real cleaning,

how much sweetening

of staleness
it

of sour places

and how freshening

Indian in Circle

does for you?

If
it

Or

is it

you a new you

these

article?

the latter, can

afford to leave

to others to

have

advantages

while

you work
other cleanfor a

harder trying to use

ing material?

some

Ask your dealer

small sack of this cleaner, or for larger

In every Package

quantities, kegs or barrels, order from your dairy supply house.

The

J.

B.

Ford Company
S.

sole

Mf rs

Wyandotte, Mich., U.
This Cleaner has been

A.
Wherever Exhibited

Awarded

the Highest Prize

CUTS

WORK
IN

HALF

The James Sanitary Barn Equipment has patented features that reduce barn expenses by cutting squarely in two the labor and time required in cleaning stalls and caring for the cows. And in addition to cutting the work in half, the cleaner stalls and barn possible with Jrmes Sanitary Barn Equipment increase the yield and improve the quality of the milk. This equipment is designed expressly to meet the needs of businesslike dairy farmers.

JAMES SANITARY BARN EQUIPMENT

The five patented features of the James Sanitary Barn Equipment save enough on feed and labor to pay for the whole equipment in a year.
Is
the

The Sure Stop Swinging Post prevents cow putting her head into the wrong

A Money

Maker

After this equipment has paid for itself the first year, it makes money by saving for you every year thereafter.

The Lock Open Device, together with the Sure Stop, when in position, forces the cow to put her head into stanchion; saves time and trouble. The Double Chain Hanger makes possible a high level curb, thus preventing waste of feed; saves labor and material
in building. The Self Cleaning Manger enables you to feed cows according to their individual need; prevents waste of feed and lessens labor. It is made without a bottom, and when raised trough can be swept and used for watering.

place.

medium cows evenly on the and cow are kept clean. Greatest improvement ever made on stanchions.
long and
gutter; the stall

Five Patented Features The Alignment Device lines up short,

We guarantee everything we make to the fullest extent. Money refunded if the test in your barn does not prove the truth of all our claims.

Guarantee

chions, Bull Pens, and Calf Pens or Box If you want Stalls, ask for Book No. 8.

Two Valuable Books Free

If

information about Litter, Feed or Milk Can Carriers or Feed Trucks, ask for book entitled "Barn Work Made Easy." Ask for either one or both of these free

you are interested

in Stalls, Stan-

books and

state

number of cows owned.

KENT MFG.

CO.

3420 Cane

St.,

Fort Atkinson, Wis.

The Champion
Milk Cooler
Used and Recommended

by Leading Dairy
Authorities

A high

quality cooler at a very low price within reach of all. Can be used with and It is without running water; also with ice. as easy to clean as a milk pail, and will do

the

work as well as the most expensive

Save money by
insisting

coolers.

on the

GENUINE CHAMPION

The Champion
Milk Pail
This
pail is the

Sanitary

TRUtype.

MAN
The

or

LOY

simplest and best. Price $1.50

The Champion Milk Cooler

Box M,
Cortland,

Co,

New York

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF

25

CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE.

LD

21-100m-7,'40 (6936s)

304797

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY