SEMINAR ON CANCER

SUBMITTED TO
MRS. ASHA KUMARI
ASST.PROFESSOR
MAMATA COLLEGE OF NURSING
NURSING
KHAMMAM

SUBMITTED BY
MRS.UDAYA SREE.G
M.Sc. (N) II YEAR
MAMATA COLLEGE OF
KHAMMAM

Master plan ON CANCER

SUBMITTED TO
MRS. ASHA KUMARI
ASST.PROFESSOR
MAMATA COLLEGE OF NURSING
NURSING
KHAMMAM

SUBMITTED BY
MRS.UDAYA SREE.G
M.Sc. (N) II YEAR
MAMATA COLLEGE OF
KHAMMAM

CANCER
INTRODUCTION
Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth.
There are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the
type of cell that is initially affected.
Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form
lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia
where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in
the blood stream). Tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive,
nervous, and circulatory systems and they can release hormones that
alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited
growth are generally considered to be benign.

ALTERNATIVE NAMES
Carcinoma; Malignant tumor

CAUSES
Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not
die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division,
and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this
process breaks down, cancer begins to form. Unlike regular cells, cancer
cells do not experience programmatic death and instead continue to grow
and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grows out of
control.

There are many causes of cancer, including:

 Benzene and other chemicals

Drinking excess alcohol
Environmental toxins, such as certain poisonous mushrooms and a
type of
poison that can grow on peanut plants (aflatoxins)
Excessive sunlight exposure
Genetic problems
Obesity
Radiation
Viruses

However, the cause of many cancers remains unknown.

The most common cause of cancer-related death is lung cancer.
The three most common cancers in men in the United States are:
Prostate cancer
Lung cancer
Colon cancer

In women in the United States, the three most common cancers are:
Breast cancer
Colon cancer
Lung cancer
Some cancers are more common in certain parts of the world. For
example, in Japan, there are many cases of stomach cancer, but in the
United States, this type of cancer is unusual. Differences in diet or
environmental factors may play a role.

FACTORS

1. Genes - the DNA type

Cells can experience uncontrolled growth if there are damages or
mutations to DNA, and therefore, damage to the genes involved in cell
division. Four key types of gene are responsible for the cell division
process: oncogenes tell cells when to divide, tumor suppressor genes tell
cells when not to divide, suicide genes control apoptosis and tell the cell
to kill itself if something goes wrong, and DNA-repair genes instruct a cell
to repair damaged DNA.
Cancer occurs when a cell's gene mutations make the cell unable to
correct DNA damage and unable to commit suicide. Similarly, cancer is a
result of mutations that inhibit oncogene and tumor suppressor gene
function, leading to uncontrollable cell growth.

2. Carcinogens
Carcinogens are a class of substances that are directly responsible for
damaging DNA, promoting or aiding cancer. Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic,
radiation such as gamma and x-rays, the sun, and compounds in car
exhaust fumes are all examples of carcinogens. When our bodies are
exposed to carcinogens, free radicals are formed that try to steal
electrons from other molecules in the body. Theses free radicals damage
cells and affect their ability to function normally.
3. Genes - the family type
Cancer can be the result of a genetic predisposition that is inherited from
family members. It is possible to be born with certain genetic mutations
or a fault in a gene that makes one statistically more likely to develop
cancer later in life.

4. Other medical factors

As we age, there is an increase in the number of possible cancer-causing
mutations in our DNA. This makes age an important risk factor for cancer.
Several viruses have also been linked to cancer such as: human
papillomavirus (a cause of cervical cancer), hepatitis B and C (causes of

liver cancer), and Epstein-Barr virus (a cause of some childhood cancers).

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - and anything else that suppresses
or weakens the immune system - inhibits the body's ability to fight
infections and increases the chance of developing cancer.

SYMPTOMS
Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is
located, where it has spread, and how big the tumor is. Some cancers can
be felt or seen through the skin - a lump on the breast or testicle can be
an indicator of cancer in those locations. Skin cancer (melanoma) is often
noted by a change in a wart or mole on the skin. Some oral cancers
present white patches inside the mouth or white spots on the tongue.

The following symptoms can occur with most cancers:

Chills
Fatigue
Fever
Loss of appetite
Malaise
Night sweats
Weight loss

TYPES

Brain cancer
Cervical cancer
Hodgkin's lymphoma
Kidney cancer
Leukemia
Liver cancer
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
Ovarian cancer
Skin cancer
Testicular cancer
Thyroid cancer
Uterine cancer

CLASSIFICATION
There are five broad groups that are used to classify cancer.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Carcinomas are characterized by cells that cover internal and

external parts of the
body such as lung, breast, and colon cancer.
Sarcomas are characterized by cells that are located in bone,
cartilage, fat, connective
tissue, muscle, and other supportive
tissues.
Lymphomas are cancers that begin in the lymph nodes and immune
system tissues.
Leukemias are cancers that begin in the bone marrow and often
accumulate in the bloodstream.
Adenomas are cancers that arise in the thyroid, the pituitary gland,
the adrenal gland,
and other glandular tissues.

Cancers are often referred to by terms that contain a prefix related to the
cell type in which the cancer originated and a suffix such as -sarcoma,
-carcinoma, or just -oma.

Common prefixes include:

Adeno- = Gland

Chondro- = Cartilage
Erythro- = Red Blood Cell
Hemangio- = Blood Vessels
Hepato- = Liver
Lipo- = Fat
Lympho- = White Blood Cell
Melano- = Pigment Cell
Myelo- = Bone Marrow
Myo- = Muscle
Osteo- = Bone
Uro- = Bladder
Retino- = Eye
Neuro- = Brain

How is cancer diagnosed and staged?

Like symptoms, the signs of cancer vary based on the type and location of
the tumor. Common tests include the following:

Biopsy of the tumor

Blood tests (which look for chemicals such as tumor markers)
Bone marrow biopsy (for lymphoma or leukemia)
Chest x-ray
Complete blood count (CBC)
CT scan
Liver function tests
MRI scan

Early detection of cancer can greatly improve the odds of successful

treatment and survival. Physicians use information from symptoms and
several other procedures to diagnose cancer. Imaging techniques such as
X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, PET scans, and ultrasound scans are used
regularly in order to detect where a tumor is located and what organs

may be affected by it. Doctors may also conduct an endoscopy, which is a

procedure that uses a thin tube with a camera and light at one end, to
look for abnormalities inside the body.

How is cancer treated?

Cancer treatment depends on the type of cancer, the stage of the cancer
(how much it has spread), age, health status, and additional personal
characteristics. There is no single treatment for cancer, and patients often
receive a combination of therapies and palliative care. Treatments usually
fall into one of the following categories: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy,
immunotherapy, hormone therapy, or gene therapy.
1. Surgery
Surgery is the oldest known treatment for cancer. If a cancer has not
metastasized, it is possible to completely cure a patient by surgically
removing the cancer from the body. This is often seen in the removal of
the prostate or a breast or testicle. After the disease has spread, however,
it is nearly impossible to remove all of the cancer cells. Surgery may also
be instrumental in helping to control symptoms such as bowel obstruction
or spinal cord compression.

2. Radiation
Radiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys cancer by
focusing high-energy rays on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the
molecules that make up the cancer cells and leads them to commit
suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energy gamma-rays that are emitted
from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a
special machine. Early radiation treatments caused severe side-effects
because the energy beams would damage normal, healthy tissue, but
technologies have improved so that beams can be more accurately
targeted. Radiotherapy is used as a standalone treatment to shrink a

tumor or destroy cancer cells (including those associated with leukemia

and lymphoma), and it is also used in combination with other cancer
treatments.

3. Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy utilizes chemicals that interfere with the cell division
process - damaging proteins or DNA - so that cancer cells will commit
suicide. These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not necessarily
just cancer cells), but normal cells usually can recover from any chemicalinduced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is generally
used to treat cancer that has spread or metastasized because the
medicines travel throughout the entire body. It is a necessary treatment
for some forms of leukemia and lymphoma. Chemotherapy treatment
occurs in cycles so the body has time to heal between doses. However,
there are still common side effects such as hair loss, nausea, fatigue, and
vomiting. Combination therapies often include multiple types of
chemotherapy or chemotherapy combined with other treatment options.

4. Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy aims to get the body's immune system to fight the tumor.
Local immunotherapy injects a treatment into an affected area, for
example, to cause inflammation that causes a tumor to shrink. Systemic
immunotherapy treats the whole body by administering an agent such as
the protein interferon alpha that can shrink tumors. Immunotherapy can
also be considered non-specific if it improves cancer-fighting abilities by
stimulating the entire immune system, and it can be considered targeted
if the treatment specifically tells the immune system to destroy cancer
cells. These therapies are relatively young, but researchers have had
success with treatments that introduce antibodies to the body that inhibit
the growth of breast cancer cells. Bone marrow transplantation
(hematopoietic stem cell transplantation) can also be considered
immunotherapy because the donor's immune cells will often attack the
tumor or cancer cells that are present in the host.

5. Hormone therapy
Several cancers have been linked to some types of hormones, most
notably breast and prostate cancer. Hormone therapy is designed to alter
hormone production in the body so that cancer cells stop growing or are
killed completely. Breast cancer hormone therapies often focus on
reducing estrogen levels (a common drug for this is tamoxifen) and
prostate cancer hormone therapies often focus on reducing testosterone
levels. In addition, some leukemia and lymphoma cases can be treated
with the hormone cortisone.

6. Gene therapy
The goal of gene therapy is to replace damaged genes with ones that
work to address a root cause of cancer: damage to DNA. For example,
researchers are trying to replace the damaged gene that signals cells to
stop dividing (the p53 gene) with a copy of a working gene. Other genebased therapies focus on further damaging cancer cell DNA to the point
where the cell commits suicide. Gene therapy is a very young field and
has not yet resulted in any successful treatments.

How can cancer be prevented?

Cancers that are closely linked to certain behaviors are the easiest to
prevent. For example, choosing not to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol
significantly lower the risk of several types of cancer - most notably lung,
throat, mouth, and liver cancer. Even if you are a current tobacco user,
quitting can still greatly reduce your chances of getting cancer.
Skin cancer can be prevented by staying in the shade, protecting yourself
with a hat and shirt when in the sun, and using sunscreen. Diet is also an
important part of cancer prevention since what we eat has been linked to
the disease. Physicians recommend diets that are low in fat and rich in
fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains.
Certain vaccinations have been associated with the prevention of some
cancers. For example, many women receive a vaccination for the human

papillomavirus because of the virus's relationship with cervical cancer.

Hepatitis B vaccines prevent the hepatitis B virus, which can cause liver
cancer.
Some cancer prevention is based on
detect small irregularities or tumors as
no clear symptoms present. Breast
testicular self-examination, and Pap
methods for various cancers.

systematic screening in order to

early as possible even if there are
self-examination, mammograms,
smears are common screening

Support Groups
The diagnosis and treatment of cancer often causes a lot of anxiety and
can affect a person's entire life. There are many resources for cancer
patients.

Outlook (Prognosis)
The outlook depends on the type of cancer and the stage of the cancer
when diagnosed.
Some cancers can be cured. Other cancers that are not curable can still
be treated effectively. Some patients can live for many years with cancer.
Other tumors are quickly life threatening.

Possible Complications
Complications depend on the type and stage of cancer. The cancer may
spread.

References
Moscow JA, Cowan KH. Biology of cancer. In Goldman L, SchaferAI,
eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;
2011: chap 185.

 Thun MJ, Jemal A. Epidemiology of cancer. In Goldman L, Schafer AI,

eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;
2011: chap 183.

American Cancer Society

Cancer Research, UK
Wikipedia