The Original Model

Dierential Equations and the Parachute Problem

Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

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Abstract The parachute problem is a classical rst semester dierential equations problem often introduced when rst learning to solve particle motion problems. The idea of this application is based on a model for the motion of a skydiver when the coecient of air resistance changes between free-fall and the nal steady-state descent with the parachute fully deployed. The authors will present an analysis of this problem, as well as explain why many of the models posed in basic DE textbooks are not physically realistic. We will also propose an improved model that is based on real-life information about skydiving.

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1.

The Original Model

The basic model of the parachute problem can be expressed as an initial value problem for the position, x, or the (vertical) velocity, v, of a skydiver under the forces of gravity and air resistance. The force due to air resistance in this basic model is considered proportional to the velocity. The mathematical model for motion is provided by Newtons second law, F = ma, with a skydiver of mass m and an acceleration a. F is the sum of a gravitational force Fg and a drag force Fd due to air resistance. Therefore, Fg + Fd = ma, where a = dv/dt and v = dx/dt. Fg = mg with g 9.81 m/s2 . Assuming the force due to friction, Fd , is proportional to the velocity, we have Fd = kv. The force due to air resistance, k, will be considered in more detail later in the article. For now, it has one value, k1 , when the skydiver is in free-fall and a second value, k2 , when the parachute is fully deployed. If the deployment occurs at time t0 , then we have two cases for drag, k= k1 , 0 t < t0 k2 , t t0

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At this point the problem can be expressed as either a second-order dierential equation (ODE) for position or as a rst-order system of ODEs for the velocity and position. The rst order is much simpler to solve. During free-fall, the velocity satises the initial value problem dv = mg kv, v(0) = 0, (1) dt with k = k1 . This equation can be solved either as a rst-order linear ODE or as a separable ODE. We will present a solution using an integrating factor. Arranging in the form dv/dt = a(t)v + f (t) yields k1 v = v g. m m

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Finding the integrating factor: u = e u=e

u = ek1 t/m

Multiplying by the integrating factor and then integrating we nd k1 ek1 t/m v + ek1 t/m v = gek1 t/m m (e
k1 t/m

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v) dt =

ge

k1 t/m

dt
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ek1 t/m v =

mg k1 t/m e + C. k1

Solving for C with the initial condition v(0) = 0, we nd ek1 (0)/m (0) = mg k1 (0)/m e +C k1
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mg . k1 Returning C to the equation and simplifying yields C= e

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mg k1 t/m mg v= e + k1 k1 mg mg k1 t/m v(t) = + e k1 k1 mg k1 t/m v(t) = (e 1), k1

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0 t < t0 .

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The position can be obtained by integrating the velocity with the initial condition x(0) = 0. Therefore,
The Original Model

y(t) =

v(t)dt,

y(0) = y0

Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics

mg mg k1 t/m + e dt y(t) = k1 k1 mg m2 g y(t) = t 2 ek1 t/m + C. k1 k1

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With the initial condition y(0) = y0 , the solution becomes m2 g mg (0) 2 ek1 (0)/m + C k1 k1 m2 g y(0) = 2 + C. k1 y(0) = Therefore, C = y0 + Substituting C into the equation above yields mg m2 g y(t) = y0 t 2 (ek1 t/m 1), k1 k1
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m2 g 2 . k1

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0 t < t0 .

(2)
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2.

Chute Deployment
The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

At times greater than t0 the chute has been deployed and the drag increases to the value k2 . The solution is essentially the same for the second interval except that the value of drag is now k2 and the initial condition will be the velocity at time t0 , the solution to the rst interval. The solution for the velocity can can be found by solving m dv = mg k2 v, dt v(t0 ) = mg k1 t/m (e 1). k1

Arranging in the form dv/dt = a(t)v + f (t) yields v = Finding the integrating factor: u = e u = e
a(t)dt k2 /m dt

k2 v g. m

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u = ek2 t/m
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Multiplying by the integrating factor and then integrating we nd ek2 t/m v + k2 k2 t/m e v = gek2 t/m m gek2 t/m dt mg k2 t/m e + C. k2
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(ek2 t/m v) dt = ek2 t/m v =

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Therefore, velocity for t t0 is v(t) = mg + Cek2 t/m . k2

Recall that the velocity for our rst interval, (t t0 ), is v(t) = mg k1 t0 /m (e 1). k1

Since the velocities cannot change instantaneously, the velocities must be the same just prior to and just after t0 . Therefore, vt0 = vt0 + . Then mg k1 t0 /m mg (e 1) = + Cek2 t0 /m k1 k2 mg mg k1 t0 /m + (e 1) = Cek2 t0 /m k2 k1 mg k2 t0 /m mg k2 t0 /m k1 t0 /m C= e + e (e 1). k2 k1 Substituting C into the equation for velocity yields v= mg mg k2 t0 /m mg k2 t0 /m k1 t0 /m 1) + ek2 t/m e + e (e k2 k2 k1 mg mg k2 t/m k2 t0 /m mg k2 t/m k2 t0 /m k1 t0 /m + e e + e e (e 1) v= k2 k2 k1 mg mg k2 t/m k2 t0 /m k1 t0 /m v= (1 + ek2 t/m ek2 t0 /m ) + (e e )(e 1) k2 k1 mg k2 (t0 t)/m mg k2 (t0 t)/m k1 t0 /m v= (e 1) + (e )(e 1). k2 k1 mg k2 (tt0 )/m mg k2 (tt0 )/m k1 t0 /m (e 1) + (e )(e 1), k2 k1

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Therefore, the equation for velocity is

v(t) =

t t0 .
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Velocity and acceleration for first 30 seconds of the jump. 20

0 20 40 60 80 100 velocity acceleration 0 5 10 15 taxis 20 25 30

Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

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Figure 1: Velocity and Acceleration for Simplied Model Integrating the equation for velocity ,will of course, yield the equation for position. The velocity at any time t of the two stages of the jump are easy to compute from the equation above as well. The terminal velocity, vt , is even easier to nd by setting dv/dt = 0. With zero acceleration, vt = mg/k. Figure 1 is a graph of the model of a parachute jump with only two values for drag, k1 and k2 , where k2 occurs at the time the parachute is deployed (ripcord pulled) at t0 10 s. As one can see from looking at gure 1 there is a discontinuity at t0 . Therefore, at t0 the acceleration is innite, which realistically cannot be the case. As a result, this simple model is not a very accurate depiction of a real life skydiving jump. Therefore, we will develop a new model that will more accurately describe the motion of a skydiver.

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3.

Skydiving Physics
The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

To develop a more realistic model of a parachute jump we will need to consider some basic principles of uid mechanics, principally the relationship between drag and velocity. Essential in this relationship is the connection between viscous and pressure forces. In uid mechanics this is often accomplished with a non-dimensional variable, called the Reynolds Number. In general Re = dv/, where is the uid density, d is the length normal to the ow, v is the characteristic velocity, and is the uid viscosity. When viscous forces dominate, we have low Reynolds number ows (Re < 1), and the drag is linear in velocity. However, when pressure forces dominate (Re > 103 ), the drag is quadratic in velocity.[7] To determine which of these relationships is most appropriate for a skydiver, it is necessary to estimate the Reynolds number. For this model we will assume that the density and viscosity are essentially constant at altitudes appropriate for skydiving. Therefore, 1 kg/m3 , and 1.5 x 105 kg/m/s.[4] The characteristic velocity will be dened by the terminal velocity. With the chute fully deployed, it is frequently said to be equivalent to v 5.3 m/s.[5] During free-fall vt 45m/s 100 mile/hr. The fully deployed parachute presents a cross section of A 44 m2 giving d 7.5 m. A skydiver in a horizontal position presents a cross-section to the ow of A 0.5 m2 giving d 0.8 m. Thus, Re > 106 before and after chute deployment and the force due to the drag can be estimated by 1 Fd = (Cd Av 2 ).[1] 2 Cd , the coecient of drag, is determined by the shape of the body and is usually found experimentally. Table 1 provides the necessary values for our model. Drag forces are produced by the skydivers body, the suspension lines, and the canopy. Parachute deployment is accomplished by various methods. We will, however, model the lines-rst release where the parachute remains in a deployment bag until the risers and suspension lines are fully extended. This can be modelled in four distinct stages. First, the ripcord is pulled at t = t0 . In between t0 and t1 is the period it takes for the extension

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Shape Hemispherical Shell Flat Strip Cylinder

Reynolds Number Re > 103 Re > 103 Re > 5 x 105

Cd 1.33 1.95 0.35

The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics

Table 1: Drag Coecients of common Shapes. lines of the parachute to extend to their full length. The snatch force, the force created by the opening parachute, occurs at t = t1 . This force pulls the skydiver from the horizontal spread eagle position to the up right vertical position. At time t = t2 , the parachute is fully inated. Between the times t2 and t3 , during the deceleration of the skydiver, the parachute experiences over ination due to the force of the surrounding air. Finally, at t3 , the parachute reaches its steady-state area, a1 , for the remainder of the jump. Throughout the multiple stages of the jump it is important to realize that both the skydivers body and equipment generate separate drag forces. The total drag force is
b e Fd = Fd + Fd =

Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

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1 b e (Cd Ab + Cd Ae )v 2 2

where the superscripts b and e are used to denote the dierent drag coecients and crosssectional areas of the skydivers body and equipment. In order to nalize the model we need estimates of the parameters discussed in the model. We will be representing an average skydiver with a height of 5 10 (h = 1.778 m) weighing 190 lbs. The weight of the parachute and suspension lines is 13.85 lbs and the harness is 10 lbs, creating a total mass of 97.2 kg. In the horizontal position, experienced during free-fall, the body can be modelled as a at rectangular strip with area b0 = 0.5 m2 . In the vertical position, after the parachute opens, the body can be modelled as cylinder with area b1 = 0.1 m2 . The remaining cross-sectional areas and information for the equipment are provided in Table 2, and are taken from real life information. It is now important to discuss the length of each time interval for the multiple stages of the jump.

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a1 43.8 m2

b0 0.5 m2

b1 0.1 m2

h 1.78 m

l 8.96 m

m 97.2 kg

t0 10 s

t1 10.5 s

t2 11.5 s

t3 13.2 s
The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics

Table 2: Parameter Estimates for a Typical Skydiver and Equipment. The times are based on averages taken from real life jumps performed by the United States Air Force Academy at an altitude of 4000 ft. The free-fall lasts for a total of 10 seconds making t0 = 10 s. Independent of the value of t0 the Snatch force occurs around t1 t0 which is 0.5 s after the ripcord is pulled at t0 . The force of the opening parachute occurs at t2 t1 = 1.0 s. The complete time for this type of deployment to occur after the ripcord is pulled is 3.2 s. Therefore, t3 t2 = 1.7 s. The entire jump from free-fall to steady-state of the parachute lasts for 13.2 seconds. The following is a summary of the denitions of the cross-sectional areas and drag coecients for the body and equipment at any specic time during the jump. As well as a piece-wise function for k, a compilation of the summary of drag forces, we have also included gure 2 and 3 to help correlate the information found in the cases with the dierent stages of the jump. The area of the body of the skydiver is dened by the following cases: b0 , t t0 b0 , t 0 < t t1 b A (t) = b1 , t 1 < t t2 b1 , t 2 < t t3 b , t > t3 1

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The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

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t0

t1

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Free Fall

Lines Extend

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Jump Begins

Ripcord Pulled
Figure 2: Time-line for Initial Stages of Jump.

Snatch

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The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

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Ae 1,2 t1

a1 t2

Ae 2,3

a1 t3

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Parachute Inates

Parachute Overinates

Final Desent

Snatch

Parachute Fully Inates

Parachute Ination Reaches Steady-State

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Figure 3: Time-line for Final Stages of Jump.

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The coecient of drag for the body is dened by the following cases. 1.95, t t0 1.95, t 0 < t t1 b Cd (t) = 0.35h, t 1 < t t2 0.35h, t 2 < t t3 0.35h, t > t3 The area of the equipment for each case is as follows. Note that between the periods t1 and t3 , the area of the parachute is changing while it inates and is therefore dependent on time. 0.0, t t0 b1 , t 0 < t t1 Ae (t) = Ae (t), t 1 < t t2 1,2 e A2,3 (t), t 2 < t t3 a , t > t3 1 The coecient of drag for the equipment is as follows. Note that from t0 to t1 , Cd is a function of time, as the lines increase in length as the parachute is deployed. 0.0, t t0 0.35l tt0 , t 0 < t t1 t1 t0 e Cd (t) = 1.33, t 1 < t t2 1.33, t 2 < t t3 1.33, t > t3 Now that we have established all the necessary parameters we can apply them to a new model.

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4.

Improved Model
The Original Model Chute Deployment

The improved model for the velocity of the skydiver is the nonlinear initial value problem: m dv = mg + kv 2 , dt v(0) = 0

Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

b e where k = (1/2)(Cd Ab + Cd Ae ) 1.95b0 , t t0 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l tt0 , t 0 < t t1 t1 t0 1 e k = 0.35b1 h + 1.33A1,2 (t), t 1 < t t2 2 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t), t 2 < t t3 1,2 0.35b h + 1.33a , t > t3 1 1

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To solve the initial value problem analytically for velocity on (0, ) we would rst have to solve the IPV on (0, t0 ) and then use this solution as the initial condition for the next time interval (t0 , t1 ). The process for nding dierentiable solutions to the remaining intervals, (t1 , t2 ), (t2 , t3 ), and (t3 , ) are done in the same manner. As one can easily see, this process is lengthy and fairly dicult. Therefore, we will use a numerical solver and a piece-wise function found by assembling all of the solutions from the cases in the previous section. Although the solutions for each case are continuous, they may fail to be at any one of the end points. Therefore, it is necessary to prove continuity and dierentiability not only over each subinterval of k, but also at their respectable end points t0 , t1 , t2 , and t3 . To do this we will take the limits of each subinterval as they approached their end points from above and below and set the limits equal to each other. This will ensure that the function is smooth over its endpoints as well as dierentiable. Therefore, the conditions necessary for our funtion to be continuous are as follows: At t0 , t t0 1.95b0 = 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l t1 t 0

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Substituting t0 for t, we have 1.95b0 = 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l 1.95b0 = 1.95b0 . At t1 , t = t1 , then 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l = 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t1 ) 1,2 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l 0.35b1 h = 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 (l h) = Ae (t1 ) 1,2 At t2 , t = t2 , then 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t2 ) = 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t2 1,2 2,3 Ae (t2 ) = Ae (t2 ). 1,2 2,3 Note: The denition of t2 is the time when the opening shock is felt. This implies that the cross-sectional area is a1 , the nal steady-state condition. At t3 , t = t3 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t3 ) = 0.35b1 h + 1.33a1 2,3 Ae (t3 ) = a1 . 2,3 From the above calculations it is fairly easy to tell that the continuity of k is ensured by the continuity of Ae and Ae on their respective subintervals. And further, that the 1,2 2,3 linear function used to model the extension of the suspension lines ensures continuity at t0 . The continuity at t1 requires that 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 l = 0.35b1 h + 1.33Ae (t1 ). 1,2
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t0 t 0 t1 t 0

The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

1.33Ae (t1 ) 1,2 1.33Ae (t1 ) 1,2

1.95b0 + 0.35b1 (l h) = . 1.33

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The continuity at t2 calls for Ae (t2 ) = Ae (t2 ). 1,2 2,3 Finally, the continuity at t3 requires that Ae (t3 ) = a1 . 2,3 Experimental data for the canopy area during deployment is presented in [6],(p. 246 Figure 6.10B). The area appears to be essentially exponential. Therefore, we will let Ae (t) 1,2 = 0 e
0 (tt1 )/(t2 t1 ) The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

The conditions established above are satised when 1.95b0 + 0.35b1 (l h) 0 = 1.33 and a1 . 0 Specic information about the over-ination is more dicult to obtain. One possible function, suggested by Meade in [1], satisfying our conditions is 0 = ln a1 = Ae (t) 2,3 = 1 t t2 1 + 1 sin t3 t 2

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where the parameter 1 represents the relative increase in area above the nominal area of the parachute. Experimental data suggests that the parachute over-inates to approximately 115 percent of its original area, making = 0.15 a reasonable choice.[1] The model and values for all of its parameters are now completely determined. A numerical solution of the problem can be created and graphed using a software package such as MATLAB (See Appendix).

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5.

Verication of the Model

Prior to looking at a numerical approximation of the solution, recall that the terminal velocity can be determined from vt = mg = k 2mg . b Ab + C e Ae ) (Cd d

Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion

With k as dened in our piece-wise cases and the numerical parameters given previously, the free-fall terminal velocity is vt 44.2 m/s 98.9 miles/hr while the impact velocity should be approximately vt 5.72 m/s. The free-fall terminal velocity is exceptionally close to the 100 mile/hr estimate given previously. Figure 4 provides additional verication of terminal velocity and smoothness results. The spike in the acceleration contains both the snatch force and opening force. Also, notice that once the motion approaches terminal velocity, the position is essentially linear.

Appendix

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The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model

50

Conclusion Appendix

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50

velocity acceleration 0 5 10 15 taxis 20 25 30

Figure 4: Velocity and Acceleration for the First 30 Seconds.

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6.

Conclusion
The Original Model Chute Deployment Skydiving Physics Improved Model Verication of the Model Conclusion Appendix

While the new model is an improvement over the one found traditionally in textbooks and classrooms, it does not include all of the physics. Parameters such as changing air density, parachute porosity, and suspension line elasticity all aect the model to some extent. However, signicant parameters such as the changing cross-sectional areas and the relationship between resistance and velocity have greatly improved the basic model.

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References
[1] Douglas B. Meade and Allan A. Stuthers, Dierential Equations in the New Millennium: the parachute Problem. [2] Douglas B. Meade, Maple and the Parachute Problem: Modelling with an impact [3] Polking, Boggess, and Arnold, Dierential Equations with Boundary Value Problems. [4] D. Pnueli and C. Gutnger, Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press 1992. [5] Student Handbook for Airmanship 490: Basic Free Fall Parachuting,USAF Academy, May 1990. [6] E.G. Ewing, H. W. Bixby and T. W. Knackle, Recovery Systems Design Guide, Technecal Report, AFFDL-TR-78-151, U.S. Air Force, 1978. [7] Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, and Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, 1990. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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7.

Appendix
The Original Model Chute Deployment

function plot %Closes all open figure windows. close all % The steady-state cross sectional area of chute. a_1=43.8; % The cross sectional area of the skydiver in % horizontal and vertical positions. b_0=0.5; b_1=0.1; % The height of the skydiver. h=1.778; %The length of the suspension lines. l=8.96; %Total mass of skydiver and equipment. m=97.2; %Time values for each stage of the jump. t_0=10; t_1=10.5; t_2=11.5; t_3=13.2; %Total time span. tspan=[0,30]; %Initial condition v(0)=0.

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init=0; %The gravity constant. g=9.81; %Maximum cross-sectional area for over-inflation of parachute. beta_1=0.15; %Limit as k_3 approaches t_1. alpha_0=1.95*b_0+0.35*b_1*(l-h)/1.33; %Allows the limit as k_3 approaches t_2 to be a_1. beta_0=log(a_1/alpha_0); %Using a solver to calculate the solution. [t,v]=ode45(@f,tspan,init,[],a_1,b_0,b_1,h,l,m,... t_0,t_1,t_2,t_3,g,beta_0,beta_1,alpha_0); %Equations for the cross-sectional areas of the parachute during the %inflation and over-inflation period. A_1=alpha_0*exp(beta_0*(t-t_1)/(t_2-t_1)); A_2=a_1*(1+beta_1*sin(pi*(t-t_2)/(t_3-t_2))); %Calculating coefficients of drag. k_1=0.5*(1.95*b_0); k_2=0.5*(1.95*b_0+0.35*b_1*l*((t-t_0)/(t_1-t_0))); k_3=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*A_1); k_4=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*A_2); k_5=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*a_1); %Calculation of acceleration.
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a=(-g+k_1.*v.^2/m).*(t<=t_0)+(-g+k_2.*v.^2/m).*(t_0<t & t<=t_1)+(-g+k_3.*v.^2/m).*(t_1<t & t<=t_2)+... (-g+k_4.*v.^2/m).*(t_2<t & t<=t_3)+(-g+k_5.*v.^2/m).*(t>=t_3); %Plotting the velocity and acceleration. plot(t,v,t,a) %Labelling and insertion of a legend for graph of velocity and acceleration. legend(velocity,accleration,4) xlabel(t-axis) title(Velocity and Acceleration for 30 second jump) %Creation of function file. function vprime=f(t,v,a_1,b_0,b_1,h,l,m,t_0,t_1,t_2,t_3,g,beta_0,beta_1,alpha_0) %Equations for the cross-sectional area during inflation and over-inflation A_1=alpha_0*exp(beta_0*(t-t_1)/(t_2-t_1)); A_2=a_1*(1+beta_1*sin(pi*(t-t_2)/(t_3-t_2))); %Coefficients of drag. k_1=0.5*(1.95*b_0); k_2=0.5*(1.95*b_0+0.35*b_1*l*((t-t_0)/(t_1-t_0))); k_3=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*A_1); k_4=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*A_2); k_5=0.5*(0.35*b_1*h+1.33*a_1);

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if (t<=t_0) vprime=-g+k_1*v.^2/m; elseif (t_0<t & t<=t_1) vprime=-g+k_2*v.^2/m; elseif (t_1<t & t<=t_2) vprime=-g+k_3*v.^2/m; elseif (t_2<t & t<=t_3)

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vprime=-g+k_4*v.^2/m; elseif (t>t_3) vprime=-g+k_5*v.^2/m;

end

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