1 The name Art Nouveau

The name Art Nouveau came from La Maison de lArt Nouveau, a shop and interior design gallery opened in Paris in 1895 by Samuel Bing. There was never any idea that it would become a generic term but somehow it caught on. As it spread across Europe, however, each nation that adopted the new art gave it their own name and as such it came to be known by a series of terms. (Detailed below)

Art Nouveau around Europe (and the world)

Art Nouveau, as a movement was remarkable in the way that it spread throughout Europe and the world. Paris and Britain can be seen as the centre of the movement but each country developed its own interpretation and made it their own to some extent. By the turn of the century the movement was an international phenomenon but there was no single style- all the countries demonstrated their own national characteristics. Art Nouveau was also primarily an urban style and was focused very much on the big cities of the countries it touched. Country-Main City (Name used) Most important practitioners, media used and other details. Britain Glasgow (Art Nouveau) Charles Rennie Mackintosh- interiors and architecture especially. William Morris- textiles.

France- Paris (Art Nouveau or Modern Style) Guimard: Metro signs in glass and iron Lalique- glassware/ jewellery Paris also hosted the World's Fair of 1900, which also helped to bring Art Nouveau to centre stage. Spain-Barcelona (Modernista) Antoni Gaud-extensive architecture including the cathedral La Sagrada Familia (The Sacred Family), Casa Mil and Parc Gell. Domenech i Montaner-Palau de la Msica Catalana (The Palace of Catalan Music)

Austria-Vienna (Sezessionstil) Art Nouveau in Vienna was known as the Secession style after seminal Viennese artist Gustav Klimt led the city's progressive artists and designers into forming the Vienna Secession group in 1897 Wagner, Hoffmann and Olbrich- architecture

Germany-Munich (Jugendstil) The term Jugendstil came from the title of the Munich periodical Die Jugend (The Youth), established in 1896. Wrttembergische Metallwaren Fabrik producers of domestic metalwork and tableware.

Italy-Turin (Stile Liberty) Turin was a leader in Italy's economic growth at that time and an important centre for the development of Italian Art Nouveau. In 1902, it hosted the Prima Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna, the most ambitious display of international decorative art ever attempted.

Belgium-Brussels (Art Nouveau) Architecture-Victor Horta- Tassel House (the first fully developed example of architecture in the Art Nouveau style). Also Henry Van de Velde. Socit des Vingt- (Les Vingt)

Czech Republic- Prague/ Moravia (Art Nouveau) Alphonse Mucha- printing-images of the Art Nouveau woman- became an icon of the movement.

America- New York/ Chicago Louis Comfort Tiffany- glassware (and jewellery/enamelware/ceramics) Chicago- architect Louis Sullivan- skyscrapers

Art Nouveau in Everyday Life

More than any other artistic movement, Art Nouveau found its way into many aspects of everyday life. In the UK both craft and industry responded to Arts and Crafts ideals and designers in Europe and the US followed the British example. It heavily influenced numerous forms of domestic design and production as well as art and architecture. Art Nouveau was considered to be a total style meaning that it encompassed a hierarchy of scales in design: architecture, interior design, decorative arts including jewellery, glassware and ceramics, furniture, textiles, household silver and other utensils, lighting and the range of the visual arts. In producing what can be seen as art objects that are made for use in the home and personal environment, Art Nouveau can be seen to unite function and decoration. This meant that as an art-form, despite certain airs of elegance, luxury and decadence, that it was open to and attainable by the poor as well as the wealthy. Many such Art Nouveau high designs were made for Libertys department store in London, to such an extent that the Italians came to call the movement Stile Liberty. The objective was, however, to make these items available to everybody. Liberty himself said that his aim for his store was, the production of useful and beautiful objects at prices within the reach 1 of all classes. Another good example of the way in which the Art Nouveau style influenced the very most ordinary parts of everyday life are the Paris Metro signs made in iron and glass by Hector Guimard between 1899 and 1905. These have sometimes been interpreted as street furniture and can be seen to represent urban art for the people.

Art Nouveau and Shopping

The stigma of the art object had meant that for a very long time, such things were seen as elitist, exclusive and unattainable to the common man. This was certainly not the case for the products of the Art Nouveau movement. It was indeed, by its very nature, a commercial art. It was now entirely normal for people to have such art objects as part of their domestic environment and everyday lives. As such, this had an enormous impact on the retail industry. The example of Libertys department stores in London and Paris demonstrates the way in which shops were forced to cater for this new market, dramatically adapting their stock to provide shoppers with the beautiful objects that were once just functional items and were now works of art.

Escritt, Steven, Art Nouveau, Phaidon, London, 2000, pp333.

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It is also important to note how influential a simple shop can be; Evidently, Samuel Bings Paris shop La Maison de lArt Nouveau had a remarkable impact on the worlds of both art and retail, as it came to give its name to the entire Art Nouveau movement.

Art Nouveau Materials and Production

As well as the central art production methods such as painting, drawing, printing and sculpture, and other general production methods such as furniture making and architecture, there are a number of other important materials and technical production processes that were crucial to the Art Nouveau movement, and marked a change in attitudes to relationships between art and technology. This new acceptance of the mass-production of art objects also significantly affected the idea of the status of the art object, as well as its availability in the popular market. A few key of the key production processes are described below.

Glassware
Glassmaking making involves the superheating of crushed quartz sand to produce a hot liquid, which is then allowed to cool to the clear, hard substance you recognize when you stare out the windows in your house or drink from a glass. Quartz sand makes up about 70% of common glass, with some other ingredients added to make the glassmaking process easier. For example, sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is added as it reduces the melting point of the mixture to 1,000C. Calcium oxide (CaO), aluminium oxide and magnesium oxide (MgO) are also added so as to improve the chemical durability of the mix. Sometimes, other ingredients such as lead or boron are added to the mixture to create different effects and properties. The processes of glassmaking have remained essentially the same since ancient times. The materials are fused at high temperatures in seasoned fireclay containers, then boiled down; the impurities skimmed off, then cooled several hundred degrees. The molten glass (called metal) is then ladled or poured into moulds and pressed, or is blown (sometimes into moulds), or is drawn. The shaped glass is then annealed (heated up and then slowly cooled) to relieve stresses caused by manipulation. Although today most hollow vessels such as light bulbs or containers are machine blown, fine ornamental hollow glassware is still made by gathering a mass of glass at the end of a long, iron blowpipe, blowing it into a pear-shaped bulb, which is rolled on an oiled slab (marver), shaped with tools, and then re-blown, often into a mould; the glass is reheated periodically in a small furnace. It is finally transferred to an iron rod (punty) attached to the base of the vessel, and the lip is shaped and smoothed. Methods of decoration include cutting, copper-wheel engraving, etching with hydrofluoric acid, enamelling, gilding, and painting/ A few specialist glassware production methods are detailed below:

PTE DE VERRE: A special and very detailed method of casting glass, this technique involves the pressing of glass powders into moulds, which allows for the use of particular colours in specific places. A plaster mould is made from an original wax model of the piece. The wax is steamed out of the plaster mould, then the fine, powdered glass mixed with a binding agent to make a paste can be carefully applied, often requiring several layers- it is a long and

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tedious process. Once all the glass powder has been applied, the mould is cast at 1400-1500 degrees and is very slowly cooled. Once it has been removed from the mould the glass is cleaned and polished to produce the finished piece. CAMEO/CASED GLASS: This term refers to glassware with more than one layer of glass in contrasting colours. The technique requires a great deal of skill and usually involves the production of one shell, then a gather of contrasting coloured glass is quickly and gently blown into it. The two are then fused. The finishing depends on the desired effect. Frequently, the outside layer of opaque glass is cut through to create a pattern using the coloured glass beneath; these are usually simple and all-over patterns, requiring a steady hand and an accurate eye. Cameo glass, however, is cased glassware in which the outer layer forms the design, and the inner layer the background. The most famous example of this is the Portland Vase in the British Museum. ENAMELLED GLASS: This technique is widely used in both decorative glassware and in the production of glass for windows. It largely involves the spraying or painting of one surface (usually the inner surface) of the glass with an enamel colour, to give an overall coloured effect. It is then fired. In windows this can have such beneficial effects as diffusing light. In decorative glassware enamel can also be painted onto the outer surface of the glass so as to create designs. SILVER OVERLAY: A method of decorating glassware, silver was applied to glass or ceramics through the process of electroplating. Firstly a metal based powdered or liquid flux was applied to the glass which gave it a conductive surface. Then it was placed in a liquid, silver-plating bath where the silver would bond to the areas covered by the flux. The flux could either be applied in a design or pattern, or could be applied to the whole of the object and then undesired parts later removed mechanically or chemically, usually with an acid bath. LUSTRE GLASS: This type of glassware is achieved by tinting the exterior of the glass with a metallic oxide vapour. A small amount of the oxide is inserted into the kiln in a special container or a thin layer is painted or sprayed onto the body. The heat in the kiln transforms the oxide into a gas which is trapped in the kiln and coats the clear glass surface with a thin layer of iridescent colour.

Enamelware
There are several different types of enamelling technique; these are the four principal ones:

BASSE-TAILLE: In this technique, the metal surface is carved in varying depths of low relief using etching, engraving, chasing, or other techniques. The low relief surface is covered with transparent enamel so that the design is revealed through it. Several thin layers of transparent enamels are then fired over this base, giving the enamelled object a brilliant tonal quality.

CHAMPLEV: In this technique, portions of the surface of the metal are cut away, creating troughs and hollows, separated by raised lines of metal that form the outline of the design. The hollows are then filled in with colours.

CLOISONNE: In this technique, thin strips or wires of copper are soldered/ fastened on to the base metal in order to produce a closed cell (cloison) design. These cells are then filled with enamel colours and fired. Each colour stays within the enclosed cell and does not diffuse into the other spaces. Once the piece is completed, the cloisons are only visible as a fine network within the enamel.

PLIQUE A JOUR: In this technique, metal strips or individual wires are used to create the design, and are often used to create the structure of the object itself, such as a vessel or a piece of jewellery. These wires or strips are soldered to each other, rather than to a base metal, thus creating a network of metal for the enamellist to work upon. Here the enamel does not have a backing but is held together by the metal structure. The final results enable the colour of the enamel to acquire a transparency similar to the effect of stained glass on a tiny scale.

Metal ware
There are a number of methods of producing metal ware, depending on the object to be made. Most of these methods are used to produce domestic metal ware and jewellery. There are other methods not detailed here that are used for industrial metal ware production. FORGING was the first method of forming metal to shape. This involves heating metal up until it is malleable and then hammering it into shape. This was originally done by hand but meant the forging of very large objects was not possible until machinery, powered by water mills was invented to beat the metal into shape. Today, the machinery is powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. CASTING has always been the most obvious way of making shaped articles and is most often an essential part of the metal ware production process before subsequent forming. In this process molten metal is poured into a mould and allowed to cool and solidify. Good quality sand and wax were used to create moulds before 1820 but since then die casting (forcing molten metal under high pressure into the cavities of steel moulds) and other continuous casting techniques have been developed to give a wider range of precision production techniques. A lot of jewellery is made using this method. MACHINE PRESSES are used to create several types of metal ware, they can be used to bend metal, make it thinner and wider using rollers, press designs or holes into it, and even to stamp it into coins, buttons, buckles and other shapes.

LATHES are used to cut metals into shapes, brass if most often used with these machines and they are used to make objects like door knobs. ELECTROPLATING is the process of coating of an electrically conductive object with a layer of metal using electrical current. It was introduced commercially in the 1830s. Initially it was used for plating copper alloys with a decorative silver coating but was also soon adopted for the production of art metal ware. Nickel plating was introduced in the 1870s and chromium plating soon afterwards to provide a cheaper and more durable surface finish than silver.

Fashion and Art Nouveau

As Art Nouveau spread through countries and across media, it is not a great surprise that it also came to influence the fashion world. The flowing lines and organic forms of the Art Nouveau style are reflected in the clothes of the era, especially in ladies dresses, the skirts of which were full and bell shaped, flowing out like blossoming flowers.

The early Art Nouveau silhouette in some ways echoed the fussy and decorative look of the early Romantic period, with full, puffed sleeves and flared, moderately full skirts. However, the hour-glass figure with its erect posture, stiffly boned collar band, and high shoulders suggested a somewhat more formidable image than had gone before.

By the 1900s, the style relaxed and the silhouette changed with the introduction of a new S shaped corset. The materials became softer and gauzier, with lace decoration and were very lightweight. The sinuous lines and soft materials and colours were consistent with the Art Nouveau style as seen in furniture, furnishings and architecture.

Aesthetic Dress

This movement came as part of the Aesthetic Movement of the late Victorian era in which artists, poets, writers and actors came together in rejecting the ugly machine made products that were becoming more and more prevalent through the Industrial Revolution. The Aesthetes embraced Pre-Raphaelite imagery and painting in which women are shown without corsetry. The freedom and naturalness of this was admired and adopted by the Aesthetes and it was felt that contemporary dress should be altered in accordance with these ideals. In contrast to the fashion at the time, Aesthetic dress rejected any kind of restrictive corsetry. Initially there were few people who wore it, but over time it became popular amongst middle class intellectuals and artistic and literary people. Usually made of wool, Liberty silks or velvet fabrics, such dress was cut looser and was unstructured in the style of medieval or Renaissance garments with larger sleeves. The dress appeared loose compared with figure hugging fashion garments of the era. Loose waited corset free women were considered to have loose morals and it did not help that

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many of the Aesthetic women were thought slightly Bohemian and beyond the normal social conventions and morals of the time.

Women and Art Nouveau

In many ways, the developments in fashions reflected the ways in which the lives of women were changing at this time. The formidable image of the 1890s came about as increasing numbers of young unmarried women now worked in shops and offices. Also, housewives were often active in church related work and other voluntary community activities. Women were also beginning to appear in public in a social context, at restaurants and even at the beach. Tailored suits for women, similar to mens suits in cut, but featuring a skirt, were now part of every womans wardrobe. Moving into the 1900s, suits and tailored clothing continued to be a part of every womans daytime wardrobe but as their lives continued to expand, getting far busier and more active, their clothes became softer and more relaxed to accommodate this change.

It goes without saying of course that women were heavily represented in Art Nouveau, the shapes and curves of the female form were a natural and important aspect of the flowing, sinuous and organic lines that make the Art Nouveau style so instantly recognisable. Women are represented in the work of the movement in almost every medium, from jewellery to domestic furnishings and from prints and paintings to architecture and metalwork.

It was Alphonse Mucha, however, who created the lasting image of the Art Nouveau woman when he created the advertising poster for Sarah Bernhardt for her show Gismonda in 1894. This poster was not only revolutionary it its own right but it resulted in instant fame and a great many commissions for Mucha, who had been hitherto unknown. Mucha went on to produce a flurry of paintings, posters, advertisements and book illustrations, as well as designs for jewellery, carpets, wallpaper, and theatre sets- a great deal of which featured beautiful healthy young women in flowing, Neoclassical looking robes, often surrounded by lush flowers which sometimes formed haloes behind the women's heads. His style was often imitated.

Loie Fuller
Loie Fuller was an improvisational dance performer and indeed a pioneer of modern dance, who gained particular attention and success in Paris in 1892 with her Serpentine Dance in which she used metres of flowing silk illuminated by theatrical lighting. She became an icon for artists at the time, and was painted by Toulouse-Lautrec and sculpted by Rodin, as well as Raoul Larche who created on of the most famous images of Fuller in a table lamp.

Nature in Art Nouveau

Nature was an extremely important influence for the Art Nouveau movement. In the vast majority of cases, most Art Nouveau designs, in any medium, are at the very least reminiscent of natural things, whether they be plants, flowers, animals or people. Various animals and birds can be seen in Art Nouveau designs; especially the peacock and owl. Insects were also very popular, with dragonflies and butterflies in particular featuring heavily in jewellery design.

Plants, trees and flowers were fundamental to most Art Nouveau design, although heavily stylized. It was their rich, flowing, organic qualities that it strove to emulate, their sinuous curves and natural grace it passionately replicated. Flowers featured heavily in countless works of the period, those included in the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh are particularly popular and very recognisable today.

Nature, Urbanisation and Art Nouveau

Although there is certainly a strong emphasis on nature in Art Nouveau, it was predominantly an urban style, seeming almost to have been created specifically to decorate the streets of the large, modern, industrialized cities that had grown so dramatically during th the last third of the 19 century. In this way Art Nouveau can be seen as a vehicle for bringing nature into the urban environment. Important civic buildings appeared in big European cities, stylized, heavily decorated and with unmistakable Art Nouveau design, frequently laden with natural imagery.

One can also see parallels between the social climate and the emergence of the Art Nouveau movement and its characteristics. This was very much a time of urbanisation, industrialisation and modernisation, and this is reflected in Art Nouveau- a New Art that was indeed modern and very forward-looking, rejecting previous styles and making use of new technologies and innovations, such as the new ability to produce large, irregular pieces of glass and exposed iron for use in architecture.