The First Greek Redaction of Pseudo-Methodius

Not long after it was composed, the Syriac text of Pseudo-Methodius was translated into Greek. The Greek text thus is part of that literary current that brought works of Oriental literature to the attention of the readers speaking and reading Greek. This important Oriental-Byzantine, East-West direction of literary borrowings is often neglected as compared with the better-known translation of Byzantine works into Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, and Coptic, yet it has been studied, particularly for the field of hagiography. Here the Syriac text of Pseudo-Methodius will be compared with the First Greek Redaction. Emphasis will be placed on the differences, because they may be expected to throw light on the circumstances and mentality of the translator. It should be noted, however, that not all the differences between the two texts were due to the translator. In the first place, there exists as yet no critical edition of the Greek text; it is therefore not always easy to ascertain the reading of the Greek archetype, and even where the reading of the archetype is beyond doubt, changes may have occurred between the time of the translation and the archetype. Furthermore, there are several instances of mistakes in the Codex Vaticanus Syrus 58 where it is the Greek text that preserves the correct reading. Finally, in at least one case, the prophecy of the duration of Arab rule, there is evidence of a deliberate textual change in the Syriac tradition while the Greek version preserves what must have been the original Syriac text.1 In the following discussion the attempt will be made to single out those variants in the Greek text that seem to be due to the author of the First Greek Redaction, but it goes without saying that this procedure entails a series of subjective judgements. The manuscript tradition of the First Greek Redaction of Pseudo-Methodius has been studied and the text edited by V. Istrin.2 Here the supposed author, Methodius, is called bishop of Patara, rather than of Olympus, as in the Syriac text. In the title the translator also characterizes the content as the kingship of the nations and the last times, rather than the succession of kings and the last times, as in the Syriac original. By specifying that the tract deals with the BASILEIA TON ETHNON the translator undoubtedly wishes to warn his Byzantine audience to expect a discussion of Median, Persian, Babylonian, Ethiopian, Greek and pagan Roman rulers, not (or only indirectly) a treatise on the Christian rulers of Byzantium. The translator rendered into Greek the entire Syriac tract, but some major omissions are noteworthy. He neglected to translate the brief preamble in which the Syriac author represents Methodius as asking God concerning the generations and concerning the kingdoms and receiving an answer from one of the angels on the mountain of Senagar. One cannot be certain why the translator omitted this passage. He also replaced the revealing reference to many brethren of the clergy by the neutral some (tines) where the Syriac text discusses conflicting interpretations of Psalm 68:31. Moreover, there are in the Greek translation other instances (to be discussed presently) of the translator suppressing or toning down remarks unfavourable to the clergy.3 While there are a number of significant omissions in the First Greek Redaction of Pseudo-Methodius, the additions of the Greek translator are few, short, and unimportant, except for certain expansions of the scriptural evidence which will be discussed later. On the whole the translation is faithfulat points literal, in other passages reflecting fairly accurately the intent of the Syriac text. There is, however, one

passage where the Greek text differs radically from the Syriac original. It occurs where the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius discusses the past victories of Rome over Hebrews, Macedonians, Medes, Persians, and Armenians. The entire section is replaced in the First Greek Redaction by a very different development that also stresses the invincibility of the Roman Empire but is limited to the history of the Jewish people and its relations to Rome. Ernst Sackur pointed out as early as 1898 that the Greek passage, which he considered in Latin translation, agreed, partly verbatim, with the text of Anastasius of Sinais Disputatio adversus Judaeos. However, in view of the serious doubts over the authenticity of this work it would be imprudent to rely on this agreement in defining the time of translation... The treatment of Alexander the Great is interesting. On fol. 123 verso the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius calls Alexander king of kings and a few words later king of the Macedonians, but in the Greek text the first title is omitted altogether and the second replaced by the surprising term Ellhnwn (or: Ellhn) turannos gegonws. How are these changes to be explained? Instead of the Babylonian title king of kings, he applied instead to Alexander the designation tyrant of the Greeks, introduced into Greek literature by the author of IV Maccabees for a successor of Alexander, Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Frequently, the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius refers to the Byzantine Empire and its emperor as the kingdom of the Greeks (malkuto deiaunoie) and king of the Greeks (malko deiaunoie). In these passages the Greek translator has replaced the words of the Greeks by of the Romans or has added the latter expression. Here the translator wishes to make absolutely clear that Pseudo-Methodius prophecies referred to the Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Twice the Syriac author refers to three talismans: to priesthood, prophecy and kingship in the case of the Jewish state, and to priesthood, kingship and the Holy Cross for the kingdom of the Christians. Both passages have disappeared in the Greek translationalthough the Byzantine Empire could certainly claim the last three items. The translator was also concerned lest anything unfavourable be said about the clergy. It has already been mentioned that where the Syriac alludes to disagreements among the clergy concerning this interpretation of Psalm 68:31, the translator eliminates the reference to the clergy. And in his prophecy of the Arab invasion Pseudo-Methodius predicts that the multitude of the clergy will deny the true faith of the Christians and the Holy Cross and the sacraments, but the translator simply attributes this apostasy to polloi, without specifying the clergy. Underlying the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius thesis of the duration of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire to the end of time, as the heir of Ethiopian royalty, is the conviction that the prerogatives of a kingdom were inherited by its conqueror. That is why the notion of the overpowering of one kingdom by another is a key concept throughout the Syriac tract. The Greek translator normally renders this notion satisfactorily by verbs such as katakratein (prevail over) and katakurieuein (gain dominion over). A few lines before and after these accurate translations, however, he replaced, at least partially, the Syriac authors remark that the Medes overpowered Babylonia, the Macedonians overpowered Ethiopia, the Greeks the Macedonians, and the Romans the Greeks by the very different concept that the aforementioned realms were joined together (sunhfthhsan)... The translator transforms the generals who, according to the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius, succeeded Alexander into Alexanders sons, in spite of the statement of the Syriac author (omitted by the translator) that Alexander had no sons.4

Very strange also is the translators attitude toward Byzantium and Rome. The Syriac text tells how King Armalaos of Rome gave the city to his bride, the princess Byzantia of Byzantium. He characterizes the bridegroom as pesit, which can mean either upright or simple, and states that he was a man without a trace of cunning (fol. 125 verso). The translator, on the other hand, renders this by calling Armalaos (very simple and generous) (variant: , munificent). He thus chose to translate the Syriac adjective pesit in its pejorative sense and even strengthened this meaning by the addition of the word . The second Greek adjective, , if this is the correct reading, supposedly is meant by the translator as an equivalent for the absence of cunning noted by the Syriac author, but it is difficult to know whether he is using it in the positive sense of generous or the negative meaning of romantic or quixotic. The net effect of the translators characterization of King Armalaos and of his gift of the city of Rome to his Byzantine bride seems to be thoroughly critical, but nothing indicates that he had any Roman affiliations or anti-Byzantine prejudicesrather the contrary. The translators objection to the gift must therefore have been aimed not against the particular gift, the city of Rome, but against the act of donation as such. Roman law had from early times known the institution of the dowry (dos) given by the father of the bride to the bridegroom. On the other hand, early Roman law had been extremely hesitant toward gifts made by the bridegroom or husband to his bride or wife. Until the time of Justinian I, such gifts had to be agreed upon prior to the marriage. The institution of donation propter nuptias permitted by Justinian found its way into later Roman law from various Eastern legal systems such as that of Syria and perhaps of Greece. It has been pointed out above that the translator makes explicit the principle, implied in the Syriac original that by marriage a husband acquires the possessions and claims of his wife. It is therefore not surprising that the translator should have disapproved of a husband like Armalaos divesting himself by donation to his brideof his claim to the city of Rome. Such a procedure presented no difficulty for the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius, because the donation propter nuptias was an ancient feature of Syrian law; but from the translators point of view, Armalaos in his excessive simplicity had allowed himself to be taken advantage of by his beautiful Byzantine wife. The translators attitude toward Armalaos is, therefore, another instance of abandoning a feature of the Syriac background and substituting for it an attitude based on Roman (Byzantine) tradition. The Greek translators treatment of biblical quotations deserves a few words. It has been shown above that he normally translates the Peshitta text found in the Syriac original of Pseudo-Methodius. But it has also been mentioned that where differences between the Peshitta and Septuagint texts were relevant to the Syriac writers thesis or argument, he adopts a compromise. Furthermore, in one major passage the wording of the Greek translation differs radically from the Syriac original, yet the meaning is fairly similar. On fols. 135 verso to 136 recto the Syriac text cites word by word Gen. 49:17, each word being followed by an interpretation. In the Peshitta the biblical passage reads as follows: Dan will be the snake on the path and the serpent on the ways that bites the horse in its heel and throws its rider behind it. I wait for thy salvation, O Lord. The Syriac and the Greek texts agree that the words are a prophecy of the Antichrist because he will be descended from Dan. The Syriac text of Pseudo-Methodius interprets the path to be the way to heaven, and that which biteth the horse to the words in the form of justice, i.e., the Christian faith; the rider stands for holy men, and the biting is the apparent miracles performed by the Antichrist. All these interpretations occur in different terms in the First Greek Redaction, where the entire biblical passage is cited consecutively. It is noteworthy that in this case the translator cites the biblical verse from the Septuagint (Dan will be the snake in the way sitting on the

path that bites the heels of the horse, and the rider will fall to the rear awaiting the salvation of the Lord.); he has (sitting), for which there is no counterpart in the Syriac bible, (the rider will fall) where the Peshitta has he throws its rider and (awaiting) in lieu of I wait for. He proceeds in similar fashion with II Thess. 2:1-8.5 Again, the translator supplies a longer excerpt from Rom. 1:26f than the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius; moreover, he corrects the order in which the passage was cited in his Syriac original.6 Finally, he provides two longish excerpts from the Greek text of I Tim. 4:1-2 and II Tim. 3:1-5, while the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius contains only a brief fragment of the first quotation and nothing of the second. It seems, then, that wherever the translator felt impelled to supply a biblical quotation on his own authority, he derived it from the Greek rather than the Syriac bible. This internal analysis of the First Greek Redaction has thrown some light on the attitudes and mentality of the translator but has determined nothing definite as to his time and place. He lived in the Byzantine Empire, as is shown by his sharp distinction between it and the kingdoms of the nations and by his use of the Greek Bible whenever he cited on his own authority. Because he lived in the Byzantine Empire and wrote for a Byzantine public he deemphasized, adapted, or omitted several features of the Syriac background. In addition to quoting from the Greek Bible, he borrowed a lengthy passage from Anastasius of Sinais Disputatio adversus Judaeos and wrote of Alexander the Great in unflattering terms borrowed from the author of IV Maccabees designation of Antiochus IV.

NOTES 1) The Syriac original, fol. 122 verso, has Arab domination lasting ten year-weeks; the Greek versions, edited by Lolos, have alternately, seven and seventeen year-weeks. 2) It should be noted that the Greek text printed by Istrin is not a critical edition but represents the text of Codex Vaticanus Reg. Pii II ll, saec. XVI. In the critical apparatus Istrin notes the variants of seven further manuscripts, none of them earlier than the 15th century. Of the Latin translation of the Greek text much earlier manuscripts are extant, one from the 7th to 8th century and three from the eighth. 3) Other omissions of the Greek translator are more difficult to explain. On fol. 122 recto the Syriac text mentions a series of kings of pre-Israelite tribes of Canaan enslaved by the Midianites, comparable to that in Josh. 3:10, but in the Greek text this list is suppressed. On fol. 129 recto the Syriac text describes in visionary language how the countries conquered by the Arabs were each allotted to one of these four princes of punishment, Desolation and Despoiler and Ruin and Destroyer, but this lively vision of an allotment to personified principles of destruction is so obscured in the Greek text that it is almost impossible to recognize. On fol. 134 recto the Syriac writer describes in rather crass colours the prosperity of Christians after the defeat of the Arabs by the Last Emperor (they eat and drink and rejoice and are merry), but these words are omitted by

the Greek translator. The Greek translator also left out some of the more lurid elements in the description of cannibalistic practises of the Unclean Peoples. 4) Compare fol. 125 recto of the Syriac text: And when Alexander, the first king of the Greeks, died, because he did not take a wife and had no sons, there ruled after him those generals of his, with p. 20.17 Istrin: And then when Alexander died there ruled after him his four sons. For he never married at all. 5) II Thess. 2:1-8 is cited with one omission from the Greek New Testament, while the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius cited from this long passage only verse 2 of the Syriac Bible and that in a very free and abbreviated way. 6) The Syriac text of Rom. 1:26f runs: Because of this did God hand them over to the pains of dishonour, for their women changed the use of their nature and had intercourse in some way contrary to nature. And again also their men in the same way abandoned the use of nature of women and had intercourse in lust one with another. The Syriac Pseudo-Methodius quotes this text fairly literally (fol. 128 verso) but cites the phrase about men before that on women. The Greek translator took the quotation from the Greek New Testament, beginning with the statement on women and mentioning the men second. He also expanded the citation by adding to the part quoted by the Syriac Pseudo-Methodius the beginning of verse 26 and the end of verse 27.