5.

HUMIDIFICATION
Humidification operation is a classical example for an interphase transfer of mass and energy, when a gas and a pure liquid are brought into intimate contact. The term humidification is used to designate a process where the liquid is transferred to gas phase and dehumidification indicates a process where the transfer is from gas phase to liquid phase. The matter transferred between phases in both the cases is the substance which constitutes liquid phase and it either vaporizes or condenses indicating either humidification process or dehumidification process. 5.1 Definitions The substance that is transferred (vapor) is designated by A and the main gas phase is designated by B. 5.1.1 Molal absolute humidity (Y) It is defined as the moles of vapor carried by a unit mole of vapor free gas. Y = yA/ yB = (pA/ pB) = [pA/ (Pt-pA)] = moles of A/ moles of B and PT is total pressure When the quantities yA and yB are expressed in mass, then it is called mass absolute humidity (Y ) or Grosvenor humidity. Y = Y. MA/ MB = [pA/ (PT-pA)] (MA/ MB) = mass of A/ mass of B 5.1.2 Saturated absolute humidity (YS) When the vapor gas mixture is saturated, then the partial pressure becomes equal to the vapor pressure of that substance. YS = PA/ PB = [PA/ (Pt PA)] When the quantities are expressed in mass, YS = (PA/ PB) (MA/MB) = [PA/ (Pt PA)](MA/MB) 5.1.3 Dry bulb temperature (DBT) The temperature indicated by the thermometer by ordinary immersion in the vapor gas mixture is called dry bulb temperature. (5.4) (5.3) (5.2) (5.1) where yA,yB are moles of A and B respectively, PA is the partial pressure of A

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5.1.4

Relative humidity or Relative saturation (% RH) It is normally expressed as a percentage. If pA is the partial pressure under a given condition and PA is the vapor pressure at any bulb temperature (DBT) of the mixture then, % RH = pA/PA x 100 (5.5)

5.1.5

Percentage saturation or percentage humidity: (Hp) It is defined as the percentage of humidity under given condition to the humidity under the saturated condition. (Hp) =( Y/Ys) x 100 (5.6)

5.1.6

Dew Point This is the temperature tDp at which a vapor-gas mixture becomes saturated when cooled at constant total pressure out of contact with a liquid. Moment the temperature is reduced below dew point, vapor will condense as a liquid dew.

5.1.7

Humid heat The humid heat CS is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas and its accompanying vapor by one degree at constant pressure. CS = CAY + CB Where CA and CB are specific heats of vapor and gas respectively. (5.7)

5.1.8

Enthalpy The enthalpy of a vapor gas mixture is the sum of the enthalpies of the gas and of the vapor content. For a gas at a DBT of tG, with a humidity of Y , the enthalpy relative to the reference state t0is, H = Enthalpy of gas + Enthalpy of vapor component = CB (tG t0) + Y[CA (tG tDP) +DP+CA, L (tDP t0)] component A (vapor) in liquid phase. This expression can further be simplified as low pressures are normally encountered in humidification operations. Let us consider the point P in Fig.5.1, which actually lies on a line of constant pressure corresponding to the partial pressure of the vapor in the mixture and, for all practical purposes can be considered as lying on the line whose pressure is the saturation pressure of the vapor at the reference temperature or at P. (5.8) where DP is Latent heat of vaporization at dew point and CA, L is specific heat of

77

The vapor enthalpy can then be computed by the following path P TS and becomes enthalpy per unit mass of vapor, CA (tG t0) + 0, where 0 is the latent heat of vaporization at the reference temperature. The enthalpy of the mixture, per unit mass of dry gas is then, H = CB (tG t0) + Y

[CA(tG t0) + 0] (5.9)

= CS (tG t0) + Y 0 5.1.9 Humid Volume

The humid volume, VH of a vapor-gas mixture is the volume of unit mass of dry gas and its accompanying vapor at the prevailing temperature and pressure. expression for humid volume in m3/kg of dry gas is VH = [(1/ MB) +(Y / MA)] 22.41 [(tG +273)/273] [(1.013x105/ Pt)] = 8315 [(1/ MB) +(Y / MA)] [(tG + 273)/ Pt] where Pt is the total pressure in N/m2 A typical Psychrometric chart is shown in Fig.5.2 from which the various properties of air-water system can be obtained. Alternatively, the equations given above can be used. (5.10) The

78

79

5.2

Adiabatic saturation curves Consider a system as shown in Fig. 5.3. A feed stream of gas is contacted with a

liquid spray and as a result of diffusion and heat transfer between the gas and liquid, the gas leaves the system humidified. Assuming the operation to be adiabatic, we obtain the following. L HL tL GS Y1 H1 tG1 GS Y2 H2 tG2 Fig. : 5.3 Adiabatic chamber A mass balance for vapor transferred yields, L = GS (Y2 - Y1) (5.11) (5.12) (5.13) (5.14) Enthalpy balance yields GS H1 + L HL = GS H2 i.e. H1 + (Y2 - Y1) HL = H2 Using the definition for enthalpy, Eq. (5.13) is modified as CS1 (tG1 to) +Y1 o + (Y2 - Y1) CA,L (tL to) = CS2 (tG2 to) + Y2 o are denoted as tas, Yas, Has and if the liquid enters at tas, Eq. (5.14) becomes [CB (tG1 to) +Y1 CA (tG1 to)] + Y1 o + [Y as- Y1] CA, L (tas to) = [CB (tas to) + Yas CA (tas to)] + Yaso (5.15) By subtracting Y1 CA tas from both sides and further simplifying, we get (5.15) as (CB+Y1 CA) (tG1 tas) = CS1 (tG1 tas) = (Yas Y1) [CA(tas to) + o CA, L (tas to)] (i.e.) CS1 (tG1 tas) or (tG1 tas) = (Yas Y1 (as) = (Yas Y1) (as/CS1) (5.16) (5.17) (5.18) If the gas mixture leaving the system is fully saturated and hence the various quantities

Eq. (5.18) is the adiabatic saturation curve on the psychromatic chart which passes through (Yas tas) and (Y1 tG1) on the 100% curve. Since CS1 contains the term Y1, in Eq. (5.18) represents a curve. Thus for any vapor gas mixture, there is an adiabatic saturation temperature tas, such that if contacted with liquid at tas, the gas will get cooled and humidified. If the contact time is large enough, the gas will become saturated at (Yas tas) and if the contact time is insufficient, it will leave at (Y2 tG2)

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5.3 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) It is the steady state temperature attained by a small amount of liquid evaporating into a large amount of unsaturated vapor gas mixture. To measure the wet bulb temperature, a thermometer or an equivalent temperature measuring device such as a thermocouple is covered by a wick which is saturated with pure liquid and immersed in a stream of moving gas having a definite temperature and humidity. The ultimate temperature attained is called wet bulb temperature and will be less than the Dry bulb temperature (if the gas is unsaturated). If the wet bulb temperature is to be measured accurately, the following precautions will have to be followed. i) ii) iii) 5.3.1 The wick must be completely wet The velocity of air should be fairly large The make up liquid, if supplied to the bulb should be at the wet bulb Theory of wet bulb thermometry Consider a drop of liquid immersed in a rapidly moving stream of unsaturated vapor gas mixture shown below in Fig 5.4. If the liquid is initially at a temperature higher than the dew point of vapor, the vapor pressure of the liquid will be higher at the drop surface than the partial pressure of vapor in the gas and hence the liquid will evaporate and diffuse into the gas. The latent heat required for evaporation is supplied at the expense of sensible heat of liquid drop due to which the temperature of the droplet will reduce. As the liquid temperature is reduced below the dry bulb temperature of the gas, heat will flow from gas to the liquid at an increasing rate due to large temperature difference. Ultimately, the rate of heat transfer from the gas to the liquid will be equal to the rate of heat required for evaporation and ultimately the temperature of the liquid will remain constant at some low value, tw

temperature.

pAG is partial pressure of vapour

Y is Absolute humidity kg/kg tG is dry bulb temperature of vapor gas mixture

Fig. 5.4 The wet bulb temperature

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Here both heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously. The heat lost by gas to the liquid per hour, Q, is given by Q = h. A. (tG tw) (5.19) where h is the heat transfer coefficient in kJ/hr.m2 K, A is the area of heat transfer in m2 tG is the dry bulb temperature in K and tw is the wet bulb temperature in K The mass of liquid evaporated per hour, W = kC.A. [CA1- CA2) MW] (5.20) where kC is mass transfer coefficient, m2/hr, A is area of mass transfer, m2, CA1and CA2 are concentration of water vapor at the liquid-gas film and surrounding air respectively, k.mole/m3 and Mw is molecular weight of water, kg/k-mole. The Eq. (5.20) can be modified in terms of pressure and temperature as, W = kC. A. [(Mw) (pA1 pA2)] /RT and in the surrounding air respectively, N/m2 and R is gas constant, J/K-mole K Humidity at the interface is given by Y1 = [Pw/ (Pt Pw)] [Mw/ MA] molecular weight of air kg/k-mole. Humidity in the surrounding air is given by Y2 = [pw/ (Pt pw)] [Mw/ MA] (5.23) where pw is partial pressure of water, N/m2, Pt is total pressure of water, N/m2 and MA is molecular weight of air Kg/k-mole. By substituting Eq. (5.22) and (5.23) in Eq. (5.21) is modified as W = kC.A MW/RT [(MA/MW) (Pt PW) Y1 (MA/MW) Y2 (Pt - pw)] (5.24) = kC. A (MA/ RT) [(Pt Pw) Y1 Y2 (Pt - pw)] (5.25) In humidification operations, especially when the temperatures are low, Pw and pw are small in comparison to Pt and hence neglected. Now the Eq. (5.25) gets simplified to W given by QEvap = W = kC.A (MA Pt / RT) [Y1 - Y2 ] = Heat required for evaporation (5.27) (5.28) By the principle of wet bulb thermometry, we know Heat lost by the gas Substituting in Eq. (5.28) from Eq. (5.19) and (5.27), we get = kC. A (MAPt/ RT) (Y1 - Y2 ) (5.26) If is the latent heat of vaporization in kJ/kg, then the heat required for evaporation is (5.22) where Pw is vapor pressure of water, N/m2, Pt is total pressure of water, N/m2 and MA is (5.21) where T is temperature, K, pA1 and pA2 are partial pressure of water vapor at the interface

82

h.A (tG tw) = kC A (MAPt/ RT) [Y1 - Y2 ] (tG tw) = (kC/ h) (MAPt/RT) [Y1 - Y2] = (kC/h). MAC [Y1 - Y2] (5.30) By the definition of mass transfer coefficient ky = kC. C (tG tw) = [ky . MA/ h] [Y1 - Y2] From Chilton Colburn analogy, we have (h/CPU0) (Pr)2/3 = (kC/U0) (SC) 2/3 = (ky/CU0) (SC) 2/3 On simplification, (SC/ Pr)2/3 = [Le]2/3 [h /Cpkc ] = [hC/Cpky] where Le is Lewis number. Substituting Eq. (5.34) in Eq. (5.32), gives (tG tw) = [(Y1- Y2) / (Le) 2/3 Cp] [C MA/] ; since CMA = then (tG tw) = (Y1 - Y2) / (Le) 2/3 Cp

(5.29)

(5.31) (5.32) (5.33) (5.34)

(5.35)

The quantity (tG tw) is called the wet bulb depression. For the system of air water at ordinary conditions, the humid heat CS is almost equal to the specific heat Cp and the Lewis number is approximately unity. Therefore, (tG tw) = (Y1 - Y2) /CS (5.36) Now it can be inferred on comparing Eq. (5.18) with Eq. (5.36), both the equations are identical. The adiabatic saturation curve (line) and the wet bulb temperature (line) merge in the case of air water system only since Lewis number is unity for that system. For the other systems, adiabatic saturation curve and wet bulb temperature lines are different. 5.4 Gas Liquid operations Some of the following examples are under adiabatic operations and non-adiabatic operations: 5.4.1 i. Adiabatic operations Cooling a liquid: It occurs by transfer of sensible heat and also by evaporation. Its main application is in cooling towers where the water is cooled. ii. Cooling a hot gas: By providing a direct contact between hot gas and liquid, cooling of gas is effected. Fouling in heat exchangers is avoided. However, this is used only when vapors which come out from liquid are not objectionable.

83

iii. Humidifying a gas: For controlling the humidity in air, this is more desirable used in preparing air for drying. iv. Dehumidifying a gas: By direct contact with a cold liquid, vapors are condensed and removed. This finds application in drying and recovery of solvent vapors from gases. 5.4.2 Non-adiabatic operations film over the outside of the pipe and the latter in turn is cooled by direct contact with air. ii. Dehumidifying a gas: A gas vapor mixture is brought into contact with pipes through which a refrigerant flows and the vapor condenses on the surface of pipes. 5.5 Design of cooling tower The operation of prime importance in industries is cooling hot water from heat exchangers, condensers and the like by direct contact with air for reuse. As the latent heat of vaporization is so large, even a small amount of vaporization will produce a very large cooling effect. This principle is used in the design and operation of a cooling tower. These are usually carried out in some sort of packed tower and generally a counter current flow of gas and liquid will be adopted. The schematic arrangement , various streams and their properties are shown in Fig. 5.5 L2 tL2 HL2 G2, GS, tG2 H2 ,Y2 Liquid tL YG dY

i. Evaporative Cooling: A liquid or gas inside a pipe is cooled by water flowing in a

Film

Gas tG

dt Yf tf

L1, tL1 HL1

G1, Gs H1, tG1 Y1

Fig. 5.5 Flow of streams in a counter current cooling tower

84

Consider a differential section of height dZ from the bottom of the tower wherein the change in humidity of air is dY The amount of moisture transferred to air = GS [dY] Making an enthalpy balance for the water and air stream we get, Heat gained by gas = Heat lost by the liquid. GS dHG We know dHG dHL = = = L dHL CS dtG + o dY CL dtL (5.38) (5.37)

Integrating Eq. (5.38) between junctions (1) and (2), yield GS [HG2 HG1] = L. [HL2 HL1] i.e. GS [HG2 HG1] = L. CL [tL2 tL1] hL a dZ (tL tf) = L CL dtL Heat flux for the air is hG a dZ (tf tG) = GS CS dtG Mass flux from the gas side is ky a dZ (Yf YG) = Gs dY We know for air-water system, Lewis number is unity. (i.e.) h /Cpkc = h/ CSky = 1.0 (i.e.) hG = ky CS (5.43) (5.44) Substituting Eq. (5.43) in Eq. (5.41) gives ky a CS.dZ (tf tG) = GS CS dtG Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.42) by , gives ky a. dZ [Yf - YG] = GS dY Adding Eq. (5.44) and (5.45) gives and rearranging, we get GS [CS dtG+ dY] = ky a dZ [CS (tf tG) + (Yf - YG)] = ky a dZ [(CS tf +Yf) - (CS tG - YG)] Modifying Eq. (5.46) in terms of enthalpy gives, GS dHG Integrating (5.47) yields = ky a dZ [Hf HG] (5.47) (5.46) (5.45) (5.42) (5.41) (5.39) (5.40) Heat transfer rate per unit cross sectional area of the bed for the liquid side is

Z dHG/ (Hf HG) = ( ky a/GS ) dZ = (ky a/GS) Z 0

(5.48)

85

(or)

= =

NtG . HtG

(5.49)

where NtG

dHG/ (Hf - HG) and HtG = (GS/ky a)

The Eq. (5.48) can be used to estimate the height of cooling tower. Already, we have deduced Eqs. (5.38) and (5.40) GS dHG = L dHL = L CL dtL (by definition of dHL) According to Eq. (5.47), hLa dZ (tL tf) = L CL dtL GS dHG = ky a dZ (Hf HG) Combining equations (5.38) and (5.40) and (5.47), we have finally hL a dZ (tL - tf) = ky a dZ (Hf - HG) (i.e.) [(Hf - HG)/ (tL - tf)] = hL/ ky or [(Hf - HG)/ (tf tL)] = - (hL/ ky) (5.50) (5.51)

Eq. (5.51) gives the interfacial conditions which can be used in L.H.S of Eq. (5.48) for estimating the height of the cooling tower. However, if the overall driving force and the bulk fluid properties are used, the film conditions are replaced by equilibrium properties and the Eq. (5.49) takes the form Z = NtOG . HtOG 2 where NtOG = (5.52)

dHG/ (H* - HG)

and HtOG = GS/ Kya Steps involved in the use of above procedure for the design of cooling tower: Step 1: Construct equilibrium curve Draw the temperature Enthalpy diagram. Step 2: Draw the operating line. Heat lost by liquid (i.e.) LCL (tL2 tL1) = = Heat gained by gas. GS (HG2 - HG1)

(i.e.) [(HG2 - HG1)/ (tL2 tL1)] = (LCL / GS) The minimum air flow requirement is obtained by drawing a tangent to the temperature enthalpy curve from (tL1, HG1) point.

86

Step 3: Interfacial conditions. Determine the interfacial conditions using Eq. (5.51) [(Hf - HG)/ (tf tL)] = (hL/ ky) by drawing lines with a slope of (hL/kY) from operating line to equilibrium curve or [(H* - HG)/ (t tL)] = (hL/ ky) Step 4: Find interfacial properties or equilibrium properties as the case may be and determine (Hf HG) or (H* - HG) Step 5: Graphically determine

or

dHG/ (Hf - HG) = NtG dHG/ (H* - HG) = NtOG

and find the height of the tower by NtG HtG or NtOG HtOG The difference between the temperature of liquid at the exit and the wet bulb temperature of entering air is called the wet bulb temperature approach. In the design of cooling towers, this is ordinarily specified to be from 2.5 oC to 5oC Make up fresh water in re-circulating water system must be added to replace losses from entrainment (drift or windage), evaporation losses and blow down. Windage losses can be estimated as 0.1 to 0.3 per cent of re-circulation rate for induced draft towers. If the make up water also contains dissolved salts, a small amount of water is discarded to keep the salt concentration at a specified level. 5.6 Re-circulating Liquid Gas humidification Cooling This is a case where the liquid enters the tower at the adiabatic saturation temperature of the entering gas mixture. This is normally achieved by re-circulating the exit liquid back to the tower. The gas not only gets cooled but also humidified in the process along the adiabatic saturation curve which passes through the entering gas conditions. Depending upon the degree of contact, the gas will approach the equilibrium conditions. A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.6

87

L2 tas

GS, Y2 tG2

L1, tas
make up

GS, Y1 tG1

Fig. 5.6 Schematic arrangement of re-circulation humidifier Based on the temperature and humidity changes which lie in the gas phase, the mass balance is Gs dY = ky a (Yas Y ) dZ Z 2 (i.e.) (5.53) (5.54)

dY / (Y Y) = k
as

1 11 and since Yas is constant, integration yields,

a/ GS dZ 0

ln [(Yas - Y1 ) / (Yas - Y2 )] = (ky a/ GS ) Z (i.e.) Z = (GS / ky a) {ln [(Yas - Y1)/ (Yas - Y2)]} Z = (HtG) (NtG) where HtG = G / kya and NtG = ln [(Yas - Y1)/ (Yas - Y2)] Let (Y)av = [(Yas - Y1) (Yas - Y2)]/ ln [(Yas - Y1)/ (Yas - Y2)] (Y)av = (Y2 - Y1) / ln [(Yas - Y1)/ (Yas - Y2)] ln [(Yas - Y1)/ (Yas - Y2)] = [(Y2 - Y1)/ (Y)av] Substituting (5.60) in (5.56) gives Z = [GS / ky a] [(Y2 - Y1) /(Y)av]

(5.55) (5.56) (5.57) (5.58) (5.59) (5.60)

(5.61)

Z = (HtG) (NtG) where HtG = (GS / kya) and NtG = [(Y2 - Y1) /(Y)av] Since the humidity of gas in equilibrium with liquid is Y as Murphree gas-phase stage efficiency is [Y2 - Y1) / Yas - Y1)] = [(Y - Y ) / (Y - Y )] = 1 (Y Y ) / (Y - Y ) 2 1 as 1 as 2 as 1 From Eq. (5.57)

(5.62) (5.63) 88

= 1 Exp(-N

tG

5.7

Equipments: There are various types of equipments available in industries for humidification operations and discussed below.

5.7.1 Packed cooling towers: As with any other operations, the cost of installation and operation will have to be minimum. As the operation involves almost a continuous contact with water, the frame work and packing materials should posses good durability in such environment. Red wood is impregnated suitably with coal tar creosote. Pentachlorophenols and the like is commonly used for frame work. Now-a-days, towers made of plastic are also used. The internal packing, which is a staggered arrangement of horizontal slats, could be made of wood or plastic materials. Normally, more than 90% of the tower will have voids such that the pressure drop is very low. Tray towers are not used for these operations. Typical arrangements of cooling tower is shown in Fig. 5.7
Water Air Air Air Water Water air

Air

Air water water (b) Natural draft (c) Forced draft

Air

water (a) Atmospheric air Water

water

water

air

Water (d) Counter current draft (e) Cross current draft

water

Fig. 5.7 Cooling Tower Arrangement

89

The types shown in Fig. 5.7(a) and (b) are atmospheric towers depend on air movement. In natural draft towers, (b), depend upon displacement of warm inside air by the cool air from outside. Chimney is needed in this type of towers. These find application in places where the humidity and air temperatures are low. In types (c), (d) and (e) due to the provision of air by fans more uniform distribution of air can be expected. Chimneys are not needed in these arrangements. Whenever, fogging is common, finned type heat exchangers can be used to evaporate the fog by heat from the hot water to be cooled as shown in type (f). 5.7.2 Spray Chambers A typical spray chamber is shown in Fig. 5.8. They are generally used for humidification and cooling operations under adiabatic conditions. They can also be used for dehumidification process also. They are provided with heaters both at the inlet and outlet points of air. Preheating of air is necessary when large humidity changes are needed. Same thing can be achieved by using hot water in the spray chamber. Similarly by using water at a low temperature, dehumidification can be achieved. Operations of this nature is useful in providing conditioned air for different applications.

90

The process is shown in a typical Psychrometric chart of Fig. 5.9

Humidity

100% saturation Final heating Leaving air Entering air Preheating T Fig.5.9 Process in a Spray chamber Humidification and adiabatic cooling

5.7.3

Spray Ponds: They are also used for cooling water where close approach to the

air-wet bulb temperature is not required. Examples for this are the water fountains, where the water is thrown up as a spray in air and the liquid falls back into the collection basin. Generally these operations show high windage losses of water.

91

Exercise: 1) An air (B) water (A) sample has a dry bulb temperature of 50 oC and a wet bulb temperature of 35oC. Estimate its properties at a total pressure of 1 atm. 1 atm = 1.0133 x 105 N/m2 Average molecular weight of air = 28.84 i) Y (Chart) ii) % Humidity (Chart) = = = iii) % Relative saturation = Molal Humidity 0.0483 pA = = = 0.03 kg water vapor/kg dry air 0.0483 kg.mole/kg.mole 35% Partial pressure/Vapour Pressure pA/ (PT - pA) pA /[1.0133x105 pA] 0.04672 105 N/m2

Partial pressure under the given condition is given by

Vapor pressure of water (steam tables) at 50oC = 92.55 mm=0.1234 105 N/m2 % R.H. iv. Dew point v. Humid heat = = 37.86 % 31.5oC

= CS = CB + CA Y = 1.005 + 1.884 (0.03) = 1.062 kJ/kg dry air oC

vi. Enthalpy: (For a reference temperature of 0oC) a. H o b. = = = CS (tG to) + Y o 2502 KJ/kg 1.062 (50 0) + (0.03) (2502) = 128.16 kJ/kg = 50 kJ/kg = 50 + (274 50) (0.35) = 128.4 kJ/kg.

Enthalpy of saturated air = 274 kJ/kg Enthalpy of dry air Enthalpy of wet air

vii.)

Humid volume vH: = 8315[(1/28.84) +(Y/18)] [325/ (1.0133x105)] = 0.969 m3 mixture/kg of dry air

a. vH = 8315 [(1/ MB) +(Y/ MA)] [(tG + 273)/ Pt]

b. Specific volume of saturated air = 1.055 m3kg. Specific volume of dry air By interpolation vH = 0.91 m3/kg. = 0.91 + (1.055 0.91) (0.35) = 0.961 m3/kg of dry air

92

2.

Air is entering into a cooling tower with characteristics as follows: Dry bulb temperature = 25C, Wet bulb temperature = 22C and Pressure = 1 atm. Find (i) humidity, (ii) % humidity, (iii) % relative humidity, (iv) Dew point and (v) enthalpy. From Psychometric chart, Humidity = 0.0145 kg water/kg dry air % humidity = 57%. (iii)YS (Saturation humidity) = 0.0255 kg water/ kg dry air. YS = [PA/ (Pt-PA)] [18/28.84] 0.0255 = [PA / (1- PA)] [18/28.84] pA = 0.0393 atm. Y = [pA/ (pt-pA)] [18/28.84] 0.0145 = [pA/ (1 - pA)] [18/28.84] pA = 0.0227 atm. R.H = (pA/PA) 100 R.H = (0.0227/0.0393) 100 = 57.77%

(iv) Dew point = 19.5C (v) Humid heat, Cs = 1005 + 1884 Y = 1005 + 1884 0.0145 = 1032.32 J/kg C Enthalpy, H = Cs tG + 2502300 Y = (1032.32 25) + (2502300 0.0145) = 65188.25 J/kg dry air. 3. A mixture of nitrogen- acetone vapour at 800 mm Hg and 25C has percentage saturation of 80%. Calculate (i) absolute humidity (ii) partial pressure of acetone (iii) absolute molal humidity and (iv) volume percent of acetone. Assume vapour pressure of acetone at 25C is 190 mm Hg. Ys= PA/(Pt- PA) (58/28) = [190/(800 - 190)] (58/28) =0.645 kg acetone/kg nitrogen % Saturation = Y/Ys 100 80 = (Y/0.645) 100 Y= 0.516 kg acetone/kg N2 93

Y = pA/ (Pt-pA) (58/28) pA = 159.54 mm Hg Y = pA/(Pt-pA) = 0.249 k mole acetone/k mole N2 Volume of 0.249 k mole acetone at NTP= 0.249 22.414=5.581m3 Volume of 1 k mole of N2 at NTP = 22.414 m3 Calculating volume of acetone and N2 at 25C using Ideal gas law, P1 V1/T1 = P2 V2/T2 Volume of acetone at 25C and 800 mm Hg = (298 5.581 760)/ (800 273) = 5.787 m3 Volume of N2 at 25C = (298 22.414 760)/ (800 273) = 23.243 m3 Hence, total volume of mixture = 5.787+ 23.243= 29.03 m3 % volume of acetone = (5.787/29.03) 100 = 19.83% 4) Partial pressure of water vapour in a mixture of air- water vapour at a total pressure of 106.6 kPa and a temperature of 60C is 13.3 kPa. Express the concentration of water vapour in (i) absolute humidity (ii) mole fraction (iii) volume fraction (iv) relative humidity and (v) gm water/m3 mixture. Assume vapour pressure is 20.6 kPa at 60C. (i) Y = pA/ (Pt-pA) = 13.3/ (106.6-13.3) = 0.14255 k mole water vapour/k mole dry air Y= Y (18/28.84) = 0.08897 kg water vapour/kg dry air (ii) Mole fraction = pA/Pt = 0.1248 (iii) Volume fraction = Mole fraction = 0.1248 (iv) Relative humidity = (pA/PA) 100 = 64.6% Humid volume, VH = 8315 (1/MB + Y/ MA) [(tG + 273)/Pt] = 8315 (1/28.84 + 0.0885/18) (333/106.6 103) = 1.02835 m3 mixture/kg dry air (v) gm water/m3 mixture = Y/VH = 0.08897/1.02835 = 0.0865 kg water/m3 mixture = 86.5 gm water/m3 mixture 5) Air is available at a DBT and WBT of 30oC and 25oC respectively. Find its humidity, Percentage Saturation, humid volume, enthalpy and dew point.

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From Psychrometric chart, Y = 0.0183 kg water vapour/kg dry air % Saturation = 67% Humid volume = 8315(1/MB + Y/MA) [(tG+273)/Pt] = 0.883 m3 mixture/ kg dry air Humid heat, Cs = 1005 + 1884 Y = 1039.48 J/kg dry air oC Enthalpy = Cs tG + 2502300Y = 76976.49 J/kg dry air Dew point = 23.5oC 6) Air water vapour mixture has a DBT of 55C with humidity of 0.048 k mole water vapour/k mole dry air and 1 standard atmospheric pressure. Find absolute humidity, % humidity, humid volume, humid heat and total enthalpy. Y = Y (18/28.84) = 0.03 kg water vapour/kg dry air % humidity = 25.5% Humid volume = 8315(1/MB + Y/MA) [(tG+273)/Pt] = 0.978 m3 mixture/kg dry air Humid heat, Cs = 1005 + 1884 Y = 1061.52 J/kg air C Enthalpy = Cs tG + 2502300 Y = 133452.6 J/kg dry air 7) Air at 85C and absolute humidity of 0.03 kg water vapour/kg dry air at 1 Standard atmosphere is contacted with water at an adiabatic saturation temperature and it is thereby humidified and cooled to 70 % saturation. What are the final temperature and humidity of air? From Psychometric chart, Final temperature = 46C Y = 0.0475 kg water vapour/kg dry air .

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8) Air at a temperature of 30C and a pressure of 100 kPa has a relative humidity of (i)Calculate the molal humidity of air.

80%.

(ii) Calculate the molal humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to 15C and its pressure increased to 200 kPa, condensing out some of the water. (iii) Calculate the weight of water condensed from 100 m3 of the original wet air in cooling to 15C and compressing to 200 kPa. (iv) Calculate the final volume of the wet air of part (iii) Data: Vapour pressure of water at 30C Vapour pressure of water at 15C Saturated. molal humidity of air , Ys= PA/(Pt- PA) = 4.24/(100-4.24) = 0.04428 k mole/k mole dry air. Relative humidity = pA/PA 0.8 = pA/4.24 Hence, pA = 3.392 kPa = 0.0351 k mole/k mole dry air. = 0.0351 18/28.84 = 0.0219 kg/kg dry air Under these conditions the air will be saturated at 15C as some water is condensed. Saturated molal humidity of air , Ys = PA/(Pt- PA) = 1.7/(200-1.7) = 0.00857 k mole/k mole dry air Ys = 0.00857 18/28.84 = 0.00535 kg/kg dry air (v) Humid volume: VH, 0riginal = 8315 (1/MB + Y/ MA) [(tG + 273)/Pt] = 8315 (1/28.84 + 0.0219/ 18) [( 30 + 273)/100000] = 0.9042 m3 /kg dry air. 100 m3 of original mixture contains, 100/0.9042 = 110.6 kg dry air Therefore, water present in original air = 110.6 0.0219 = 2.422 kg Molal humidity = pA/(Pt- pA ) = 3.392/(100-3.392) = 4.24 kPa = 1.70 kPa

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Water present finally = 110.6 0.00535 = 0.5918 kg Water condensed from 100 m3 of original mixture = 2.422-0.5918 = 1.830 kg (iv) VH, final = 8315 (1/28.84 + 0.00535/18) [(15 + 273)/200000] = 0.4187 m3 /kg dry air. Final volume of mixture = 110.6 0.4187 =46.329 m3. 9) An air water vapour sample has a dry bulb temperature 55C and an absolute humidity 0.030 kg water / kg dry air at 1 std. atm pressure. Using humidity chart Calculate the relative humidity, if vapour pressure of water at 55C is 118 mm Hg. the humid volume in m3 / kg dry air, enthalpy in J/kg dry air and the heat required if 100 m3 of this air is heated to 110C. DBT = 55C and Humidity = 0.030 kg water / kg dry air Y = Y /(18/28.84) = [0.03 /18] / (1/28.84) = 0.04807 k mole of water vapor /k mole of dry air 0.04807= PA/[Pt-PA] = pA/[760-pA] pA = 34.86 mm Hg (i) Relative humidity = pA/PA = 34.86/118 = 29.5% Saturated Humidity = 118/[760-118] = 0.184 k mole of water vapor /k mole of dry air % Humidity = [Humidity given condition/ Humidity given condition] 100 = [0.04807/0.184] 100 = 0.261 (ii) VH = 8315 (1/MB + Y/ MA) [(tG + 273)/Pt] = 8315 [1/28.84 + 0.03/18][55+273]/101300 =0.978 m3 / kg dry air VH = VH, Dry air + ( VH, Satd. Air V H, Dry air ) % saturation (from Chart) = 0.93 + (1.1 0.93) 0.261 = 0.974 m3 / kg dry air (iii) Enthalpy : Humid heat , Cs = 1005 +1884 Y = 1005 + 1884 0.03 = 1061.52 J/ kg dry air Enthalpy, H = Cs (tg-to) + Yo =1061.52 (55-0) +0.03 2502300 = 133452 J/ kg dry air = 133.452 k J/ kg dry air

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From chart : H = Hdry + (Hsat H dry) 0.261 = 56 + (350-56) 0.261 = 132.7 kJ/ kg dry air (iv) Heat needed : Volume of air = 100 m3 Mass of dry air = volume/ humid volume = 100/0.978 = 102.25 kg dry air. Enthalpy , Hfinal = Cs (tg-to) + Yo = 1061.52 (110-0) +0.03 2502300 = 191836 J/ kg dry air =191.836 k J/ kg dry air Heat added = (Hfinal-H initial) Mass of dry air = (191.836 133.452) 102.25 = 5969.76 kJ 10) A plant requires 2,000 kg/min of cooling water to flow through its distillation equipment condensers. The water will leave the condensers at 50C. It is planned to design a counter current cooling tower in order to cool this water to 30C from 50C for reuse, by contact with air. Air is available at 30C dry bulb temperature and 24C wet bulb temperature. 30% excess air will be used and the make up water will enter at 15C. For the packing to be used, the value of the mass transfer coefficient is expected to be 2500 kg/(hr)(m3)(), provided the minimum liquid rate and gas rates are 12,000 and 10,000 kg/(hr)(m2) respectively. Determine the diameter of the cooling tower and makeup water to be used.
50oC, 2000 kg/min

HG2 2

30o C

DBT : 30o C WBT :24o C HG1 : 71.09kJ/kg

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Flow rate of water to be cooled L = 2000 kg/min Inlet temperature of water = 50C Outlet temperature of water = 30C Humidity of incoming air (DBT 30C and WBT 24C ) = 0.016 kg/kg Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg C Let us now compute the Temperature Enthalpy data: Temperature: 20C, Saturated Humidity = 0.016 kg/kg Enthalpy = Cp,air (tg to) +[Cp, w.v.(tg-to) + o ] Y = 1.005 20 + [1.884 0.016 20 ] + 2502 0.016 = 60.735 kJ/kg In the same manner the enthalpy for other temperatures are also estimated and have been given below: Temp, C Enthalpy, kJ/kg 20 60.73 5 Alternatively these values can be obtained from the Psychrometric chart also corresponding to Enthalpy at saturated conditions. Enthalpy of incoming air, Hg1 : 1.005 30 + [1.884 0.016 30 ] + 2502 0.016 =71.09 kJ/kg. Now draw the Temperature Vs. Enthalpy curve from the above data. 30 101.79 40 166.49 50 278.72 55 354.92

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Fig : P 5.10(a) Temperature Enthalpy plot

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Fig : P 5.10 (b) draw the tangent to the curve.

[ 1/(Hf-Hg)] vs. Hg

Locate (tL1, Hg1 ) i.e., (30, 71.09) the operating condition at the bottom of the tower and Slope of the tangent = (LCL/G)min = (Hg2-Hg1)/(tL2-tL1) Hg2 (from graph) = 253 kJ/kg (LCL/G)min = (253 71.09)/(50-30) = 9.1 Therefore, G min = 2000 60 4.18/9.1 = 55120.88 kg/hr. G actual =1.3 G min = 1.3 55120.88 kg/hr = 71657.14 kg/hr. Slope of the operating line = (LCL/G)act = 2000 60 4.18/71657.14 = 7 (i.e.) (Hg2-Hg1)/(tL2-tL1) = 7 Therefore, Hg2, act = [7 20] + 71.09 = 211.09 kJ/kg The minimum gas rate is to be =10000 kg/hr. m2 Therefore, the maximum area of tower (based on gas) = Actual gas rate/ Minimum gas rate =71656.8/10000 =7.1657 m2 101

The minimum liquid rate is to be =12000 kg/hr. m2 Therefore, the maximum area of tower (based on liquid) is given by, Actual liquid rate/ Minimum liquid rate =2000 60/12000=10 m2 The minimum area of the tower, among the ones estimated (from gas and liquid flow rates) will be chosen, as this will alone meet the expected minimum flow rates of gas and that of liquid to ensure the mass transfer coefficient of 2500 kg/(hr)(m3)(). Hence the area of tower is 7.1657 m2 Therefore the Diameter is [7.1657 4/3.14] 0.5 = 3.02 m The line joining points (30, 71.09) and (50, 211.09) is the operating line. Let us assume that the resistances to mass transfer lies basically in gas phase. Hence, the interfacial conditions and the equilibrium conditions are one and the same. From the vertical lines drawn between the operating line and the equilibrium curve we get the conditions of gas and that of equilibrium conditions. The values are tabulated below: Temperature, C 30 35 40 45 50 NOG = Enthalpy, kJ/kg H* 101.79 133.00 166.49 210.00 278.72 1/[ H * - Hg], kg/kJ Hg 71.09 103.00 140.00 173.00 211.09 0.0326 0.0333 0.0378 0.0270 0.0148

dHg/[ H * - Hg]

The above integral is evaluated graphically by plotting 1/[ H * - Hg] against Hg from the above table Area under the curve = NOG = 4.26 The Gas flow rate is 10000 kg/(hr)(m2) based on an area of tower of 7.1657 m2 HOG = Gs/Kya = 10000/2500 = 4 m Height of the tower is = HOG NOG = 4 4.26 = 17.04 m Makeup water (M) in based on the evaporation loss (E) , blow down loss (B) and windage loss (W) M=E +B+W

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Windage loss = 0.2% of circulation rate = 0.002 2000 = 4 kg/min= 240 kg/hr Blow down loss = Neglected Evaporation loss is calculated assuming that the outlet air leaves fully saturated (Based on the enthalpy of leaving gas 211.09 kJ/kg) and is equal to 0.064 kg/kg Evaporation loss = 71657.14 (0.064-0.016) = 3439.5 kg/hr Total make up water = 240 +3439.5 = 3679.5 kg/hr. 11) A cooling tower is used to cool 1,00,000 kg/hr of water from 30 C to 17 C with air entering at 8 C and a humidity of 0.004 kg/kg. Air leaves the tower at 19 C at fully saturated condition. The cross sectional area of the tower is 14.4 m2. Calculate air velocity in kg/hr. m2 and quantity of make-up water needed. Humidity of incoming air =0.004 kg/kg dry air Humidity of leaving air =0.015 kg/kg dry air Enthalpy of incoming air = 18.11 kJ/kg dry air Enthalpy of leaving air = 57.16 kJ/kg dry air Let w be the water evaporated W = m dry air (0.015 0.004) = 0.011 m dry air Making an energy balance, Total heat, in = Total heat, out Heat in entering water + Heat in entering air = Heat in leaving water + Heat in leaving air (100000)(1)(30-0) + (m dry air)(H, in air) = (100000-W)(1)(17-0) +(m dry air)(H,out air) Substituting for W from eq.(1), we get 30 105 + 18.11m dry air=(100000-0.011m dry air ) 17 + 57.16 m dry air 30 105 -17 105 = (57.16-18.11 - 17 0.011) m dry air 13 105 = 38.863 105 m dry air m dry air = 33450.84 kg/hour Air velocity = 2322.98 kg/hr. m2 Make up water = 33450.84 0.011 = 367.96 kg/hr (1)

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12) A horizontal spray chamber with recirculated water is used for adiabatic humidification and cooling of air. The chamber has a cross section of 2 m2 with air rate of 3.5 m3/s at dry bulb temperature of 65C and absolute humidity of 0.017 kg water / kg dry air, the air is cooled and humidified to dry bulb temperature of 34C and leaves at 90% saturation. For the system the volumetric mass transfer coefficient may be taken as 1.12 kg/m3.s. (mole fraction).The density of the air is 1.113 kg/m3. Determine the length of the chamber for the requirements. Y=0.03 RH=90%

2 Makeup water 1

Y=0.017 DBT= 65C Cross sectional area of chamber 2 m2 Air flow rate : 3.5 m3/s Humidity of incoming air : 0.017 kg/kg Mass flow rate of air = 3.5 1.113 =3.8955 kg/s Gs =3.8955/1.017 =3.83 kg/s Humidity of leaving air = 0.03 kg/kg Yas = 0.032 kg/kg For recirculation humidifier ln [( Yas - Y1)/( Yas Y2)] = KyaZ/Gs ln[(0.032-0.017)/(0.032-0.030)] =1.12 Z/3.83 Z= 6.89 m

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Exercise: 1) An air water system has DBT of 65C with a humidity of 0.042 kg water vapor/kg dry air. What is the WBT and % saturation? (Ans 41 C and 20%) 2) A horizontal spray chamber with recirculated water is used for adiabatic humidification and cooling of air. The chamber has a cross section of 2 m2 with air rate of 3.5 m3/s at dry bulb temperature of 65C and absolute humidity of 0.017 kg water / kg dry air, the air is cooled and humidified to dry bulb temperature of 34C. For the system the volumetric mass transfer coefficient may be taken as 1.12 kg/m3.s. (mole fraction).The density of the air is 1.113 kg/m3. Determine the length of the chamber for the requirements. 3) A drier is used to remove 100 kg of water per hour from the material being dried. The available air has a humidity of 0.010 kg per kg of bone dry air and a temperature of 23.9C and is heated to 68.3C before entering the drier. The air leaving the drier has a wet-bulb temperature of 37.8C and a dry-bulb temperature of 54.4C. Calculate the (i) consumption rate of wet air, (ii) humid volume of air before and after preheating, (iii) wet-bulb temperatures of air before and after preheating, and (iv) Dew point of the air leaving the drier. Ans (i) 3.672 kg/hr, (ii) 0.8586 m 3/kg dry air and 0.987 m3/kg dry air, (iii)300K and 303 K and (iv) 308.5 K) 4) A spray chamber of 2 meters length and 2.5 sq. m area has been used for adiabatic humidification and cooling of air. Water is sprayed into the chamber through nozzles and the coefficient of heat transfer is found to be 1360 kcal/hr m3 C. Air is passed at a rate of 3,000 cubic meters per minute at 70C, containing water vapour 0.014 kg per every kg dry air. (i) What exit temperature and humidity can be expected for the air? (ii)What is the amount of make up water? (Ans : (i) 32 C and 0.032 kg/kg, assuming fully saturated (ii) 54.108 kg/min) 5) A tray drier contains 10 trays in a tier; on racks at 10 cm apart these are kept. Each tray is 3.5 cm deep and 90 cm wide and there are 16 sq meters of drying surface. It is desired that the material on trays is dried by blowing a part of recycled air with fresh air, drawn through a heater kept in the drier itself. Atmospheric air enters at 26.6C having a 105

humidity content of 0.01. Further, it is desired that the air entering trays have a dry bulb temperature of 93.3C and humidity 0.05 kg water/kg dry air. The air velocity at the entrance of trays is to be 3.3 m/s. The material loses water at a constant rate of 30 kg of water per hour. Determine: (i) Percentage recirculation of air. (ii) Load on heater in kcal/min. 6) Calculate the cross sectional area and depth of packing required in wooden slats packed water-cooling tower. The tower is required to cool 37,735 kg/hr of water initially at 54.4C to 32.2C, by counter current contact with air at atmospheric pressure having a wet bulb temperature of 21.0C. The air rate will be 30% more than the minimum air flow rate, and the superficial velocity will be 6,970 kg/hr sq meter (air). H meters (enthalpy based). Data: Temperature, C 4.4 10 15.5 21 26.07 32.2 37.7 43.3 48.8 54.4 57.2 Enthalpy, kcal/kg 8.47 11.30 14.72 18.96 24.3 31.1 39.9 51.36 66.5 86.7 99.52
toG

= 2.65

7) The air supply for a drier has dry bulb temperature of 26C and a wet bulb temperature of 17C. It is heated to 85C by heating coils and introduced into the drier. In the drier, it cools along the adiabatic cooling line and leaves the drier fully saturated. (i) What is its humidity initially and after heating? (ii) What is the dew point of the initial air? (iii) How much water will be evaporated per 100 cubic meter of entering air? (iv)How much heat is needed to heat 100 cubic meter air to 85C? (v) At what temperature does the air leave the drier? (Ans: 0.01 kg/kg and 0.033 kg/kg, 285 K, 2.659 kg ,6984 2kJ and 306.5 K)

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8) 350 cubic meters per minute of air at 70C and 1 atmosphere pressure having a wet bulb temperature of 30C is to be adiabatically humidified and cooled in a chamber using recirculated water. The chamber is 1.5 m. wide, 1.5 m. high and 2.0 m long. The coefficient of heat transfer has been estimated to be 1200 kcal/(hr)(m3)(C). The specific volume and specific heat of the entering air are 0.85 m3/kg and 0.248 kcal/(kg)(C) respectively. Determine the temperature and humidity of the exit air. Estimate the number of transfer units. 9) Fresh air at 25 C in which partial pressure of water vapour is 15 mm Hg is blown at a rate of 215 m3/hour first through a preheater and then adiabatically saturated in a spray chamber to 100% saturation and again reheated. This reheated air has a humidity of 0.024 kg water vapour/kg dry air. It is assumed that the fresh air and the air leaving the reheaters have the same percentage humidity. Determine (i) the temperature of air after preheater, spray chamber and reheater and (ii) Heat requirements for preheating and reheating. 10) Air is to be cooled and dehumidified by counter current contact with water in a packed tower. The tower is to be designed for the following conditions: DBT and WBT are 28 C and 25 C respectively. Flow rate of inlet air 700 kg/hr of dry air. Inlet and outlet temperatures of water are 10 C and 18 C respectively. For the entering air estimate (i) Humidity (ii) %R.H. (iii) Dew point and (iv) Enthalpy.(Ans.: 0.019 kg/kg, 88.08%, 23.5 C and 79.22 kJ/kg dry air) 11) Air is available at a DBT of 30C and a WBT of 25C respectively. 59% and 0.874 m3/kg dry air 63.4 kJ/kg and 16 C) 12) Air-water sample mixture has a DBT of 50C and a humidity of 0.03 kg water vapor/kg dry air. If the pressure is 1 atmosphere, find (i) % Humidity (ii) Humid volume (iii) Dew point And (iv) Enthalpy (Ans: 36%, 138 m3/kg dry air, 31.75C , 42 kJ/kg) Determine

Humidity, percentage saturation, humid volume, Enthalpy and Dew point (Ans: 0.013,

107

13) 1.5 m3/s of air is required for a specific operation at 65 C and 20% humidity. This is prepared from air available at a DBT of 27C and a WBT of 18C by direct spray of water into the air stream followed by passage over steam heated finned tube. Estimate the water and heat needed per second. 14) Air at a DBT of 40 C and a WBT of 30 C is to be dried by first cooling to 16 C to condense water vapor and then reheating to 25 C. Calculate (i) the initial humidity and % humidity and (ii) the final humidity and % humidity of air. 15) Air at a temperature of 20C and a pressure of 760 mm Hg has a relative humidity of 80%. (i) (ii) Calculate the humidity of air. Calculate the molal humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to 10C and its Data : VP of water at 20C = 17.5 mm Hg VP of water at 10C = 9 mmHg (Ans: 0.01171 kg/kg, 4.759 10-3 kmole/kmole) 16) Air at a DBT of 35C and WBT of 30C and at 1 atm is passed into an evaporator. The pressure increased to 1900 mm Hg, condensing out some of the water.

DBT and WBT of air at the outlet of evaporator are 45C and 38C respectively. Determine (i) Humidity and Relative humidity (ii) Percent saturation of air at the exit of evaporator and (iii) Weight of water evaporated. (Ans: (i) 0.0255 kg/kg , 70.7% (ii) 65% and (iii) 0.0155 kg)

108