Pump Systems
Pump Systems
Pump Systems
Introduction
Pumps move fluids in a wide variety of applications. In the manufacturing sector, pumps consume about 27% of all electricity moving product, transferring heat and producing useful power in hydraulic systems. In the buildings sector, pumps move water throughout buildings for heating and cooling, and between chillers and cooling towers. Thus, pump systems are widely used. Moreover, careful analysis can improve the energy efficiency of most pump systems. This chapter discusses fundamentals of pump systems, with an emphasis on energy-efficient design, retrofit and operation of pump systems. This chapter includes: Derivation of the fluid work equation Methods to calculate pressure loss through pipes and fittings Introduction to piping system design Key principles for designing low-energy piping systems Pump systems Key principles for low-energy pumping systems
Wf
Figure 1. Control-volume diagram of pumping system.
Wf + m1(h + V2/2 + gz)1 - m2(h + V2/2 + gz)2 Q = 0 Wf = m2(h + V2/2 + gz)2 m1(h + V2/2 + gz)1 + Q
[1]
where Wf is the rate of work transmitted to the fluid, m is the mass flow rate, h is the specific enthalpy, V is the velocity, g is the acceleration of gravity, z is the height above a
Pump Systems
fixed reference and Q is the rate of heat loss from the system. From conservation of mass and from the definition of enthalpy: m1 = m2 = m h = u + Pv. Substituting m1 = m2 = m and h = u + Pv into Equation 1 gives: Wf = m [ (u + Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (u + Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 + q ] Wf = m [ (Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 + (q + u2 u1) ] Wf = m [ (Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) where u is the specific internal energy, U is the internal energy, P is the pressure and v is the specific volume. Assuming the density of the fluid does not change, 1 = 2 = . Substituting 1 = 2 = , m = V and v = 1/ gives: Wf = V [ (P/ + V2/2 + gz)2 (P/ + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) Wf = V [ (P + V2/2 + gz)2 (P + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) Wf = V [ (P2 P1) + /2(V22- V12) + g(z2 z1) ] + (Q + U2 U1) where V is the volume flow rate. The term (Q + U2 U1) represents the net energy added to the fluid from friction with the pipe/duct walls. To be consistent with the other terms, it is useful to write (Q + U2 U1) in terms of pressure drop. Thus: (Q + U2 U1) = m (q + u2 u1) = V (q + u2 u1) = V (hl) where hl is the headloss in units of specific energy (Btu/lb or J/kG) due to friction between the fluid and pipes, ducts and fittings. Substituting (Q + U2 U1) = V (hl) gives: Wf = V [ (P2 P1) + /2(V22- V12) + g(z2 z1) + (hl) ] [2]
A number of interesting observations can be made about Equation 2. First, each of the terms (P2 P1), /2(V22- V21), g(z2 z1) and (hl) have units of pressure. Thus, the fluid work necessary to propel the fluid can be written in terms of W = V P. The term (P2 P1) represents the static pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term /2(V22- V12) represents the velocity pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term g(z2 z1) represents the elevation pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term (hl) represents the friction pressure drop as the fluid flows through the pipes or ducts. Thus, the equation for the energy required to move an incompressible fluid through pipes or ducts, Wf, can be written as: Wf = V [ Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation + Pfriction ] = V Ptotal [3]
Pump Systems
The first three components of the total pressure loss (Pstatic , Pvelocity , Pelevation) refer to differences between the inlet and outlet of the system. The forth component of the total pressure loss, Pfriction, refers to irreversible friction losses in the pipes and ducts and is always present (non-zero) in all real pump/fan applications. Thus, the total pressure drop can also be written as: Ptotal = (Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition And the equation for Wf can be written as: Wf = V [(Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition]
where g is the acceleration of gravity, is the density of the fluid in the manometer, and h is the height of the fluid column. When a pressure difference is characterized in terms of h, it is frequently called head. Thus, when pressure loss due to friction in pipes or ducts measured in terms of h, it is often called friction head or head loss. Similarly, when the pressure required to lift a fluid against the force of gravity is measured in terms of h, it is often called elevation head. When the fluid in the manometer is water, the relationship between pressure and head is: h = P / (g H20) In pump systems, head is often expressed as the difference in height, h, between levels of a water-filled manometer in units of feet of water, ft-H20 or, equivalently, ft-wg. In fan systems, h is typically measured in inches of water, in-H20, or, equivalently, in-wg. Common conversions between pressure and manometer height are: 1 lb/in2 = 27.7 in-H20 = 2.31 ft-H20
[5]
Pump Systems
The volume flow rate in this equation is the product of the mass flow rate and density of the fluid. Thus, this equation is easily modified for any fluid with a density different than water at standard conditions by including term for the specific gravity of the fluid, SGf. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at standard conditions. SGf = f / H20 Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Example Calculate the work added to the fluid (hp) by a pump pumping 100 gpm of water at standard conditions if the pressure rise across a pump was 30 psi. h = P / (g ) = 30 psi x 2.31 ft-H20 / psi = 69.3 ft-H20 Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Wf (hp) = 100 gpm x 69.3 (ft-H20) 1.0 / 3,960 (gpm-ft-H20/hp) = 1.75 hp
[6]
Pump Systems
Open Systems In open systems, such as the one shown below, fluid is pumped from one location to a different location. In open systems the change between static, elevation and velocity pressures between the inlet and outlet to the system must be considered; however, careful definition of the inlet and outlet locations can minimize the complexity of the calculations.
Open Tank 2
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Open Tank 1
Static Pressure and Head: In an open system, it is frequently possible to define the inlet and outlet locations so that the inlet, 1, and outlet, 2, of the system are surfaces of open tanks. If so, both the inlet and outlet pressures, P1 and P2, are equal to atmospheric pressure, and the change in static pressure is zero. Pstatic = P2 P1 = Patm Patm = 0 In some cases, however, the inlet and outlet pressures are different. In these cases, the required static pressure or static head must be calculated. Example If a fluid is pumped from an open tank to a pressurized tank at 10 psig, then the required static head is: Pstatic = P2 P1 = Ppres tank Patm = (10 + 14.7) psia 14.7 psia = 10 psi hstatic = 10 psi x 2.31 ft-H20/psi = 23.1 ft-H20 Velocity Pressure and Head: For internal incompressible flow, such as the flow of water through a pipe, fluid velocity is inversely proportional to the square of the pipe diameter. Thus, if the pipe diameter remains constant, the inlet and outlet velocities are equal, and the change in velocity pressure is zero. Pvelocity = /2(V22- V12) = 0
Pump Systems
When the inlet and outlet velocities are different, the change in velocity pressure must be calculated. A useful dimensional relationship to calculate velocity V from volume flow rate, V, and pipe diameter, d, is: V (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 A useful dimensional relation to calculate the velocity head associated with a velocity, V, for water at standard conditions is: hvelocity = Pvelocity / H20 g = fluid / [2 V2 H20 g] h velocity (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V (ft/s)]2 Example If 100 gpm of water is pumped through a pipe with an inlet diameter of 4 inches and discharged from a pipe with an outlet diameter of 2 inches, the required velocity head is: V1 (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [4 (in)]2 = 2.55 ft/s V2 (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [2 (in)]2 = 10.2 ft/s h velocity1 (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V1 (ft/s)]2 = 0.0155 [2.55 (ft/s)]2 = 0.10 ft-H20 h velocity2 (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V2 (ft/s)]2 = 0.0155 [10.2 (ft/s)]2 = 1.61 ft-H20 h velocity = h velocity2 - h velocity1 = 1.61 ft-H20 - 0.10 ft-H20 = 1.51 ft-H20 Elevation Pressure and Head: The change in elevation pressure is: Pelevation = fluid g (z2 z1) The change in elevation head, in terms of water filled manometer height, for water at standard conditions is: helevation (ft-H20) = Pelevation / (H20 g ) = fluid g (z2 z1) / (H20 g ) = (z2 z1) ft Example If water at standard conditions is pumped from one open tank to another open tank with a surface 10 feet higher than the first open tank, then the required elevation head is: helevation = 10 ft 0 ft = 10 ft-H20
Pump Systems
Pump Systems
Use of the Moody diagram requires calculation of the Reynolds number and ratio of the tube roughness to tube diameter. The Reynolds number is: Re = V D / = fluid V D / where is the kinematic viscosity (air at 60 F = 0.572 ft2/h and water at 60 F = 0.044 ft2/h), and is the dynamic viscosity (air at 60 F = 0.043 lbm/h-ft and water at 60 F = 2.71 lbm/h-ft). Typical values for pipe roughness factors, e, are shown in the figures below.
Pump Systems
Example Calculate the friction head loss (ft-H20) to pump 100 gpm of water through 100 ft of 3in diameter steel pipe using the friction-factor method and Moody Diagram. A = D2 / 4 = 3.14159 x (3/12)2 / 4 = 0.049087 ft2 V = V / A = (100 gal/min / 7.481 gal/ft3) / 0.049087 ft2 = 272.316 ft/min Re = V D / = 272.316 ft/min x 60 min/hr x (3/12) ft / 0.044 ft2/hr = 92,835 e/D(steel pipe) = (1.5 x 10-4) ft / (3/12) ft = .000600 f = 0.021 (from Moody) P = (f L V2) / (2 D) = 0.021 x 100 ft x 62.27 lbm/ft3 x (272.316 ft/min)2 / (2 x 3/12 ft x (60 s/min)2) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 h = P / (g ) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 / (32.2 ft/s2 x 62.27 lbm/ft3) h = 2.69 ft-H20 (per 100-ft pipe) An explicit algebraic expression for friction factor, f, was developed by Churchill. This relationship is valid for all ranges of Reynolds numbers, and is more accurate than reading the Moody diagram:
Pump Systems
Example Calculate the friction head loss (ft-H20) to pump 100 gpm of water through 100 ft of 3in diameter steel pipe using the friction-factor method and Churchill relation. A = D2 / 4 = 3.14159 x (3/12)2 / 4 = 0.049087 ft2 V = V / A = (100 gal/min / 7.481 gal/ft3) / 0.049087 ft2 = 272.316 ft/min Re = V D / = 272.316 ft/min x 60 min/hr x (3/12) ft / 0.044 ft2/hr = 92,835 e/D(steel pipe) = (1.5 x 10-4) ft / (3/12) ft = .000600 A = [2.457 ln(((7/Re)^0.9 + (0.27e/D))^-1)]^16 = 4.3862E+20 B = [37,530/Re]^16 = 5.08943E-07 f = 8[(8/Re)^12 + (A+B)^-1.5]^(1/12) = 0.0210 (from Churchill) P = (f L V2) / (2 D) = 0.021 x 100 ft x 62.27 lbm/ft3 x (272.316 ft/min)2 / (2 x 3/12 ft x (60 s/min)2) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 h = P / (g ) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 / (32.2 ft/s2 x 62.27 lbm/ft3) h = 2.69 ft-H20 (per 100-ft pipe)
Monograph Method Alternately, head loss due to friction for water flow through pipes, hp, can be determined from monographs such as shown below.
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Example Calculate the friction head loss in ft-H20 for pumping 100 gpm of water through 200 ft of 3-in diameter steel pipe using the ASHRAE monographs. From the monograph in Figure 6, the head loss for a flow rate of 100 gpm through a 3in diameter steel pipe is 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe. Thus, the head loss through 200 ft of pipe is: h = 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe x 200 ft-pipe = 5.0 ft-H20 Schedule refers to wall thickness, with schedule 80 being thicker than schedule 40. Thus, the schedule 80 plastic pipe in the preceding monograph has a smaller interior diameter than the schedule 40 steel pipe. Thus, even though the plastic pipe is smoother, the reduced diameter increases friction loss, hence, the pressure drop for a given nominal diameter plastic pipe is greater than for the same nominal diameter steel pipe. The same is true for the copper pipe, where K,L,M refers to pipe thickness and affects the interior diameter. Thus to achieve energy savings from reducing friction, it would be necessary to use the next largest size of schedule 80 plastic pipe compared to schedule 40 steel pipe.
Loss coefficient data, kf, for pipe fittings are shown in the figures below.
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Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005, Pg 36.2. Example Find the fluid work, Wf, required to move 100 gpm of water through 200 ft of 3-in diameter steel pipe with for four flanged welded 90-degree standard elbows assuming that 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere and at the same elevation.
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V2= V1 because the area of duct at 1 and 2 are the same. z2 = z1 because 1 and 2 are at the same elevation. Thus: hpres = hvel = helev = 0 htotal = hpres + hvel + helev + hp + hf = hp + hf From monograph in Figure 6 at 100 gpm and 3-in diameter steel pipe, the friction head loss through the pipe is: hp = 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe x 200 ft-pipe = 5.0 ft-H20 The velocity is: V (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [3 (in)]2 = 4.54 ft/s From the ASHRAE table, kf = 0.34 for a 3-inch flanged welded 90-degree standard elbow. The friction head loss through four elbow fittings is: hf (ft-H20) = nf x kf x 0.0155 [V (ft/s)]2 hf (ft-H20) = 4 x 0.34 x 0.0155 [4.54 (ft/s)]2 = 0.43 ft-H20 The total head loss through ducts and fittings is: htotal = hp + hf = 4.54 ft-H20 + 0.43 ft-H20 = 4.97 ft-H20 The work added to the fluid is: Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Wf (hp) = 100 gpm x 4.97 (ft-H20) 1.0 / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) = 0.125 hp
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reduced friction losses and pumping costs. A rule of thumb that is often used as a starting place for selecting pipe diameters is to select the pipe diameter such that: hfriction ~ 4.0 to 2.5 ft-H20 / 100 ft-pipe This design guideline insures that the fluid velocity is low enough to avoid pipe erosion and excess noise, and provide a reasonable balance between the cost of the pipes and pumping energy costs. Using this as a starting place, subsequent design iterations can identify economically optimum pipe diameters. In many cases, the economically optimum pipe diameter will be larger than that suggested by the design guideline. Serial Flow In serial flow systems, such as the one shown below, the total friction pressure drop is the sum of the friction pressure losses in the pipes and fittings. The total pressure drop for sizing the pump and energy calculations is the total pressure loss due to friction plus the sum of the elevation, velocity and static pressure differences between the inlet and outlet. For closed piping systems, the inlet and outlet are at the same location and the elevation, velocity and static pressure differences are all zero.
Parallel Flow Many piping designs employ parallel flow. In parallel flow designs, the total pressure drop for sizing the pump and calculating pump energy costs is the total pressure drop for the path with the highest pressure drop. The figure below shows two common piping configurations that employ parallel flow.
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The configuration on the left is called direct return. In this configuration, the total pressure drop for flow through leg A is less than the total pressure drop for flow through leg D. Thus, if no balancing valves were installed, more fluid would flow through leg A than D, and the total pressure drop across the pump would be set by the pressure drop through leg D. The configuration on the right is called indirect return. In this configuration, the pressure drop and flow through all legs are equal. Thus, indirect return guarantees equal flow through all legs in the absence of balancing or flow control valves.
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This means that doubling the pipe/duct diameter reduces friction pressure loss by about 97%! Example Calculate the percentage reduction in friction head loss if pumping 4 gpm of water through 0.5-inch and 1-inch diameter schedule 40 steel pipes. From the monogram: h 0.5-inch = 1.3 ft-H20/100 ft h1-inch = 17 ft-H20/100 ft The percent reduction in friction head loss from doubling the diameter of the pipe would be about: (17 1.3) / 17 = 92% Optimum pipe diameter is often calculated based on the net present value of the cost of the pipe plus pumping energy costs. Using this method in the figure below (Larson and Nilsson, 1991) optimum pipe diameter was found to be 200 mm. When the cost of the pump was also included in the analysis, the optimum diameter was found to be 250 mm and energy use was reduced by 50%. This illustrates the importance of considering the whole system.
Reduce System Pressure Drop: Use Smooth Pipes Smooth pipes result in less friction head loss than rough pipes. Example
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Consider pumping water with Re = 100,000 through 3-inch plastic (smooth) and schedule 40 steel pipe. From the previous table of surface roughness, = 0.00015 ft. Thus, /Dsteel = 0.00015 ft / (3/12) ft = 0.00060 From the Moody Diagram, fsteel = 0.021 and fplastic = 0.018. The percent reduction in friction headloss from the use of plastic pipe would be about: (0.021 0.018) / 0.018 = 17%
Reduce System Pressure Drop: Use Low Pressure-Drop Fittings Minimizing fittings, including turns, and the use of low-pressure drop fittings can significantly reduce friction head loss. Consider for example, the table below. The use of fully-open gate valves instead of globe valves reduces the friction head loss through the valve by 98%. Similarly, the use of swing type check valves instead of butterfly valves reduces the friction head loss through the valve by 33%, and long radius elbows reduce the friction head loss by 50% compared to standard radius elbows.
where kf = (Le/D) ft
Steel Pipe Diameter (inches) ft 0.027 1 0.023 2 0.019 4 0.017 6 0.015 8-10 0.014 12-16 0.013 18-24 0.012 Source: Applied Fluid Mechanics, Mott, 2000
Pump Types
Pumping applications can generally be divided into two categories: low flow at high pressure and high flow at low pressure. Low flow at high pressure applications include hydraulic power systems and typically employ positive-displacement pumps. The majority of fluid-flow applications are high flow at low pressure and use centrifugal pumps.
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In centrifugal pumps, the fluid enters along the centerline of the pump, is pushed outward by the rotation of the impeller blades, and exits along the outside of the pump. A schematic of a centrifugal pump is shown below.
Pump Curve
Pumps can generate high volume flow rates when pumping against low pressure or low volume flow rates when pumping against high pressure. The possible combinations of total pressure and volume flow rate for a specific pump can be plotted to create a pump curve. The curve defines the range of possible operating conditions for the pump. If a pump is offered with multiple impellers with different diameters, manufacturers typically plot a separate pump curve for each size of impellor on the same pump performance chart. Smaller impellors produce less pressure at lower flow rates. Typical pump performance charts with multiple pump curves are shown below.
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The power required to push the fluid through the pipe, Wfluid, is the product of the volume flow rate and system pressure drop. Wfluid = V Ptotal Graphically, fluid work is represented by the area under the rectangle defined by the operating point on a pump performance chart. Typically, the efficiency of the pump at converting the power supplied to the pump into kinetic energy of the fluid is also plotted on the pump performance chart. Pump efficiencies typically range from about 50% to 80%. Power that is not converted into kinetic energy is lost as heat. The power required by the pump, which is called the shaft
Pump Systems 21
work or brake horsepower. Pump efficiency is the ratio of fluid work to shaft work. , can be calculated from the flow rate, total pressure, and efficiency values from the pump curve, using the following equation. Wpump = Wfluid / Effpump = V Ptotal / Effpump A useful dimensional version of this equation for pumping water at standard conditions is: Wpump (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) / [3,960 (gal-ft/min-hp) x Effpump] Many pump performance graphs, including those shown above, also plot curves showing the work required by the pump to produce a specific flow and pressure. Note that these curves show work required by the pump including the efficiency of the pump. Calculating the work supplied to the pump using the preceding equation and comparing it to the value indicated on a pump performance graph is a useful exercise.
System Curve
The total pressure that the pump must produce to move the fluid is determined by the piping system. This total pressure of the piping system is the sum of the pressure due to inlet and outlet conditions and the pressure loss due to friction. In a piping system, pressure loss due to friction increases with increasing fluid flow; thus, system curves have positive slopes on pump performance charts. The operating point of a pump is determined by the intersection of the pump and system curves. To determine the form of a system curve, consider the equation for total pressure in a piping system. The total pressure caused by a piping system is the sum of the pressure due to inlet and outlet conditions and the pressure required to overcome friction through the pipes and fittings. Ptotal = (Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition Inlet/Outlet Pressure The inlet/outlet pressure that the pump must overcome is the sum of the static, velocity and elevation pressures between the inlet and outlet of the piping system. For closed loop piping systems, the inlet and outlet are at the same location; hence, the static, velocity and elevation pressure differences are all zero. For open systems, the differences in static, velocity and elevation pressures must be calculated. In many pumping applications, the velocity pressure difference between the inlet and outlet is zero or negligible, and inlet/outlet pressure is simply the sum of the static and elevation heads. In these cases, the inlet/outlet pressure is independent of flow and is represented on a pump performance chart as the pressure at zero flow.
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Friction Pressure Drop The equations for pressure loss from friction through pipes and through fittings are: Pp = (f L fluid V2) / (2 D) Pf = kf fluid V2 / 2 These equations clearly show that for a given pipe system, the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity, and hence the square of the volume flow rate. Pfriction = C1 V2 = C2 V2 This quadratic relationship can be plotted on the pump curve to show the system curve.
Plotting System Curves As the preceding discussion showed, system curves have a flow-independent component (of inlet/outlet pressure) and a flow-dependent component that varies with the square of flow rate (of friction pressure). A system curve for a closed-loop piping system with no inlet/outlet pressure difference is shown below. The curve is a parabola of the form hheadloss = C2 V2. The curve passes through the origin because the inlet/outlet pressure difference, sometimes called the static head, is zero. The coefficient C2 can be determined if the operating point is known by substituting the known pressure drop and flow rate into the equation and solving for C2. The fluid work required to push the fluid through the pipe is the product of the volume flow rate and system pressure drop and is represented graphically by the area under the rectangle defined by the operating point.
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Figure 13.System curve for closed-loop piping system with no inlet/outlet pressure difference. Source of original pump curve: Kreider and Rabl, 1996.
A system curve for an open-loop piping system with a static or inlet/outlet pressure of 40 ft is shown below. This system curve is of the form hheadloss = A + C2 V2; where A is the static or inlet/outlet pressure drop. As before, the coefficient C2 can be determined if the operating point and inlet/outlet pressure are known by substituting the known values into the equation and solving for C2.
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Figure 14. System curve for open-loop piping system with 40 ft-H20 inlet/outlet pressure difference Source of original pump curve: Kreider and Rabl, 1996.
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Head ft-H20
4,000
6,000
8,000 V gpm
A (One pump)
C (System)
Figure 15.Pump and systems curves for secondary chilled water loop.
The system curve C describes the relationship of pressure drop and flow rate for the given piping system with no static head. Because head loss varies with the square of flow rate, the equation of the system curve can be estimated by fitting a quadratic equation through the origin and the design operating point: h (ft H20) = (2.4 x 10-6) x V2 1)
where V is the flow rate in gpm. The equation for curve B can be estimated by the fitting a regression equation through the data points on the curve: h (ft H20) = 149 + 0.00106 x V + (3.65 x 10-7) x V2 (2)
The operating point of curve B for two pumps in parallel can be found from Equations 1 and 2 to be about: h = 135 ft H20 V = 7,500 gpm
Note that the total volume flow rate of two pumps operating in parallel is less than twice the flow rate of a single pump operating alone (at the intersection of C and A).
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Welec = Wf / ( Efficiencypump.fan x Efficiencydrive x Efficiencymotor) A dimensional version of this equation, using U.S. units for pumping water at standard conditions, is: Welec (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) / (3,960 (gal-ft/min-hp) x Effpump x Effdrive x Effmotor)
Qloss =10
Qloss = 8
Qloss = 25
Wmotor 100
Wdrive 90
Wpump 83
Wfluid
58
motor = 90%
drive = 92%
pump = 70%
For example, if the efficiency of the motor at converting electrical energy to motor shaft work is 90%, the efficiency of belt drives at transferring motor shaft work to pump is 92%, and the efficiency of a pump at converting pump shaft work to fluid work is 75%, the electrical energy use required by the motor would be 73% greater than the required fluid work. Welec = Wf / ( 90% x 92% x 70%) = 1.73 Wf
Wf2 = Wf1 (V2 / V1)3 This relation shows that a small reduction in the volume flow rate results in a large reduction in the fluid work. For example, reducing the volume flow rate by one half reduces fluid work by 88%! Wf2 = Wf1 (1/2)3 == Wf1 (1/8) (Wf1 Wf2) / Wf1 = [Wf1 - Wf1 (1 /8)] / Wf1 = 1 (1/8) = 88% Another useful relation can be derived from the relationship between volume flow rate V and the rotational speed of the pump fan. In centrifugal pumps and fans, the volume flow rate is proportional to the rotational speed of the pump fan. V = C RPM Since V/RPM is constant, it follows that: (V / RPM)1 = C = (V / RPM)2 V2 = V1 (RPM2 / RPM1) Thus, volume flow rate varies in proportion to pump/fan speed.
Flow Control
Most pump systems are designed for peak conditions. Because peak conditions occur infrequently, many pump systems operate a less than peak flow. Because pumping energy use is highly dependent on the type of flow control, it is important to select the best method of flow control for a given application. In pump systems, flow is typically controlled by one of four methods: Bypass Flow-control valves Impellor size Pump speed
Bypass diverts fluid around a process and then returns the fluid to the piping system so that the pump always pumps a constant volume of fluid. This is the least energy-efficient method of flow control. Flow-control valves increase system pressure drop, reduce flow, and causes the operating point on the pump curve to move to the left. Although pump energy decreases as flow decreases, this method does not produce significant energy savings at reduced flow.
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When the flow requirement does not vary over time, the pump impellor diameter can be increased or decreased to generate the required flow rate. This is a very efficient method of flow control. When the flow requirement does not vary over time, the most energy efficient method of flow control is to vary the rotational speed of the pump by installing a variable speed drive (VSD) in the power supply to the pump motor.
Cost with 25% contractor markup on drive Horsepower 5 10 15 20 25 50 100 w/bypass $1,653 $2,008 $2,233 $2,458 $2,772 $4,344 $7,021 w/o bypass $1,515 $1,771 $2,028 $2,332 $3,854 $6,049 Wiring $500 $579 $658 $737 $816 $1,211 $2,000 Installation $400 $463 $526 $589 $653 $968 $1,600 Controls $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000
Total Cost w/bypass $4,553 $5,050 $5,417 $5,784 $6,240 $8,523 $12,621 w/o bypass $4,557 $4,955 $5,354 $5,800 $8,033 $11,649
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Note: 2006 costs assuming existing motor is suitable for inverter use.
VSD, Motor and Pump Efficiencies at Reduced Speed Slowing pump speed reduces flow rate and friction losses, which in turn reduces the work supplied to the fluid, Wf, according to the cube of the reduction in flow rate: Wf2 = Wf1 (V2 / V1)3 However, when a pump runs at a slower speed, the efficiency of the pump, the efficiency of the electric motor and the efficiency of the VFD may decline. Similarly, pump efficiency usually declines when a smaller impellor is used in the same pump volute. Thus, electrical energy savings from trimming pump impellors or slowing pump speed may not be reduced as much as the pump affinity law suggests. For example, pump efficiency is greatest when the largest possible impeller is installed in a pump casing. Pump efficiency decreases when smaller impellers are installed in a pump because of the increased amount of fluid that slips through the space between the tips of the impeller blades and the pump casing. The pump performance charts shown above show the decrease in pump efficiency with smaller impellers. The magnitude of the decrease in efficiency depends on the operating points, as defined by the intersection of the system and pump curves. Close inspection of the pump performance charts above reveals that in most cases, the decrease in pump efficiency with decreasing impeller size is small since the lines of constant pump efficiency are nearly parallel to the system curves. Pump efficiency also decreases as the rotational speed of a pump is reduced. As with decreasing impeller size, the magnitude of the decrease in pump efficiency depends on the individual pump. For example, in the pump performance chart shown below, pump efficiency declines from about 75% at full speed to about 55% at half speed while following the system curve with zero static head.
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Figure 17. Typical chilled water pump/piping configurations (Source: Nadel et al., 1991)
For other pumps, the magnitude of the decrease in pump efficiency may be negligible. The Pumping Systems Field Monitoring and Application of the Pumping System Assessment Tool PSAT (U.S. Department of Energy, 2002) states that in general pump efficiency at variable speeds remains approximately constant for pumping systems following a system curve with zero static head. Typical motor and VSD efficiency curves at part load are shown below. Using these relationships, motor and VSD efficiency can be approximated as: motor = 94.187(1 e-0.0904 pl) VSD = 50.87 + 1.283 pl 0.0142 pl2 + (5.834 x 10-5) pl3
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Figure 18. Motor and VSD Efficiency as a Function of Percent of Motor Nameplate Load (Bernier and Bourret, 1999)
A common method to account for the effects of reduced pump, motor and VFD efficiency at reduced flow is to use an exponent of about 2.5 rather than 3.0 in the pump affinity law as shown below. Welec2 = Welec1 (V2 / V1)2.5 VSD Pump Retrofits VSD pump retrofits typically require making three changes to the existing pumping system: 1) Install a VSD on power supply to the pump motor. In parallel pumping configurations, one VSD is generally needed for each operational pump, but not for the backup pump. 2) Close valves all by-pass pipes. 3) Install a differential-pressure sensor between the supply and return headers at the process load located the farthest distance from the pump. Determine the pressure drop needed to guarantee sufficient flow through the farthest process load at this point. Control the speed of the VSD to maintain this differential pressure. VSD Pumping: Industrial Example For example, the Figure 18 A shows a typical industrial cooling configuration using a constant speed pump. Figure 18 B shows the system after a VSD retrofit. With the retrofit, the by-pass pressure relief valve would be closed, flow through each process load would be controlled at the load, and the VSD would modulate pump speed based on the differential pressure between the supply and return headers. The device marked dP is a differential-pressure sensor which would control the speed of the VSD.
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cooling tower
dP
7.5 hp pump
25 hp pump
VSD
VSD Pumping: Commercial Building Example Another common application for variable volume pumping is on the loop supplying chilled water to air handlers. Figure 19 shows a schematic of the typical piping configuration at the air handler cooling coils in a constant-volume chilled-water supply system. The three-way valves direct chilled water either through the cooling coil or around the cooling coil via the bypass loop. The flow of chilled water through the cooling coils is varied to maintain the temperature of the air leaving the cooling coils at a constant temperature. In a VSD retrofit, the bypass valves would be closed, and a differential-pressure sensor would be installed between the supply and return headers at the air handler located farthest from the pump. In some cases, it may be necessary to replace the three-way valves with two-way valves if the three-way valves were not designed to handle larger pressure drops in a VSD situation.
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C C
C C
Figure 21 shows typical chilled water pump/piping configurations in commercial buildings. Conventionally, buildings with multiple chillers used a primary-secondary configuration to guarantee constant flow through each chiller, while allowing variable flow in the secondary loop to the air handlers. Recently, however, more systems are using a primary-only design with a flow control and bypass valve to guarantee minimum flow to the chillers.
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Figure 21. Typical chilled water pump/piping configurations in commercial buildings (Taylor, 2002)
Friction head loss in internal flow is strongly related to the diameter of the duct. Small ducts dramatically increase the velocity of the fluid and friction pressure loss. The friction pressure loss through pipes and ducts is: Pp = f L V2 / (2 D) The velocity V is the quotient of volume flow rate V and area A, thus Pp = f L (V / A)2 / (2 D) = f L (V / D2 )2 / (2 D) = f L V2 / (2 2 D5 ) Thus, friction pressure loss through pipes is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the diameter Pp ~ C / D5 This means that doubling the duct diameter reduces friction pressure loss by about 97%! Similarly, use of the smoothest pipe possible for a given application reduces pipe friction losses. The progression from smoothest to roughest pipe is: plastic, copper, steel, concrete. Finally, minimizing fittings, including turns, and the use of low-pressure drop fittings can significantly reduce head loss through fittings. Reduce Pump Speed to Realize Savings from Reducing Friction It may seem that reducing friction losses in a piping system would automatically reduce pump energy use. However, reducing system pressure drop without modifying the pump causes the pump to pump more fluid. This increased volume flow rate actually increases pump energy consumption. Thus, it is important to reduce the diameter of the pump impellor or slow the pump so that the volume flow rate remains the same as it was in the high friction in order to realize energy savings. The following example demonstrates this
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importance of modifying the pump to realize savings from reducing piping system pressure drop. The figure below shows a set of pump curves with two system curves. The pump originally operates at point A, and the system curve for the original piping systems extends from the origin to A. The friction pressure drop through the piping system is then reduced by 40 psi by increasing pipe diameter, using low-flow fixtures or using smoother pipe. Reducing the system pressure drop from 180 ft-H20 at point A to 140 ftH20, without altering the pump impellor or speed, would cause the pump to operate at point B. The power required to pump a fluid is the product of the volume flow rate and pressure drop; hence, the areas enclosed by the rectangles defined by each operating point represent the fluid power requirements, WfA and WfB, at the different system pressure drops.
Source: Nadel et al., 1991 WfA = 235 gpm x 180 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 10.7 hp WfB = 330 gpm x 140 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 11.7 hp The power, P, required by the pump is the fluid power requirements divided by the pump efficiency. PA = 10.7 hp / .74 = 14.5 hp PB = 11.7 hp / .70 = 16.7 hp Thus, decreasing system pressure drop without altering the pump impellor or speed would cause the pump to consume more energy, not less. Savings = PA PB = 14.5 hp 16.7 hp = -2.2 hp
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To realize energy savings from reducing pressure drop, it is necessary to slow the pump speed or decrease the size of the impellor. To determine the pump speed required to deliver the initial flow of 235 gpm with the new low-pressure drop pipe system, it is necessary to develop a system curve for the new pipe system. Pressure drop through piping systems varies with the square of flow rate. Thus, the equation for a system curve that passes through the origin can be written as: h = C V2 The coefficient, C, for the new system curve can be found by substituting the values of pressure drop and volume flow rate for point B. C = h / V2 = 140 / 3302 = 0.001286 Thus, the pressure drop through the new duct system at 235 gpm would be about: h = C V2 = 0.001286 2352 = 71 ft-H20 The flow rate of 235 gpm and 71 ft-H20 defines point C, which would be the operating point of the pump with a 5.5-in impeller. At this operating point, the pump would be about 65% efficient, and the pump power draw would be about: WC = 235 gpm x 71 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.65) = 6.5 hp Thus, the savings from reducing the pressure drop in the pipe system, if the pump impeller diameter were reduced, would be about: Savings = PA PC = 14.5 hp 6.5 hp = 8.0 hp This example demonstrates the importance of modifying the pump to realize savings from reducing system friction loss.
Efficient methods of flow control are: Reducing impellors diameter Slowing pump speed Continuous pump operation with smaller impeller or at lower speed. We recommend switching from inefficient method of flow control to efficient methods whenever possible. The following examples demonstrate savings for each case. Bypass and throttling are energy inefficient compared to the other methods and immediately signal the potential for cost-effectively reducing energy costs. Intermittent and multiple pump operation are relatively energy efficient; however, pumping energy use can sometimes be reduced by pumping at low flow rates for longer periods rather than pumping at high flow rates for shorter periods of time. When the required flow rate is constant and less than the current capacity of the pump, trimming pump impellers and slowing pump rotational speed by changing pulley sizes are typically highly costeffective due to their relatively low implementation costs. Energy use in variable flow applications can frequently be substantially and cost-effectively reduced through use of variable speed drives. Bypass: Many processes use constant speed pumps with variable process loads. Valves are opened or closed to direct water through the process or through a bypass loop. Thus, the flow of water through the pumps remains nearly constant even as the flow of water through the process varies. Bypass is the least efficient method of flow control, since pump power remains nearly constant even as the load varies. Throttling: Controlling flow by closing a flow-control valve downstream of the pump increases pressure drop and causes the operating point to move up and left on the pump curve.
Source: Gould Pumps, GPM 7-CD, Technical Information. This results in relatively small energy savings, since
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Wf2 = V2 P2
where
V2 < V1
but
P2 > P1
Thus, throttling is an energy inefficient method of flow control. Intermittent Pump Operation (Pump Long, Pump Slow): In some applications, pumps may operate at a relative high flow rate for part of the time and then be turned off until needed again. Because friction losses are proportional to the square of flow, it is more energy-efficient to pump a lower volume flow rate for a longer period of time. We call this the Pump Long, Pump Slow principle. Pump long, pump slow opportunities may exist whenever pumps run intermittently. If a single pump operates intermittently, then application of the pump long, pump slow principal would require installing a smaller pump, trimming the impeller or slowing the pump rotational speed. If multiple pumps operate in parallel, it may be possible to simply run fewer pumps more continuously. Slowing pump rotational speed by increasing pulley diameter: Reducing flow by installing a smaller diameter impeller or slowing pump speed results in relatively large energy savings, since: Wf2 = Wf2 (V2 / V1)3 The following example compares energy savings from reducing flow with a flow-control valve to energy savings from reducing flow by slowing pump speed. If the transmission between the pump and motor uses belts and pulleys, pump speed can be slowed by changing the increasing the diameter of the pump pulley. Alternately, pump speed can be slowed and varied with a variable speed drive (VSD), which alters the frequency of current to the motor. The savings from reducing impellor diameter are similar to the savings from reducing pump speed. The figure below shows pump performance at various speeds and a system curve. Assume the original operating point, A, is 1,200 gpm at 55 ft-H20. According to the chart, the required power to the pump at this operating point is about 23 hp. Alternately, pump power could be calculated as: WA = 1,200 gpm x 55 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.74) = 22.6 hp If the flow were reduced to 900 gpm with a flow control valve, the operating point would move along the pump curve to 900 gpm at 62 ft-H20. According to the chart, the required power to the pump at this operating point is about 20 hp. Alternately, pump power could be calculated as: W = 900 gpm x 62 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.70) = 20.1 hp
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Thus, the pump power savings from reducing flow from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm with a flow-control valve would be about: 22.6 hp 20.1 hp = 2.5 hp Alternately, the flow could be reduced from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm by slowing the pump speed with a VSD. Reducing the pump speed from 1,200 rpm at point A to 900 rpm at point B would reduce the volume flow rate from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm. The reduced volume flow rate would also generate less friction, and the system pressure drop would be reduced from 55 ft-H20 to 30 ft-H20. The power required to pump a fluid is the product of the volume flow rate and pressure drop; hence, the areas enclosed by the rectangles defined by each operating point represent the fluid power requirements, WA and WB, at the different flow rates.
Source: Nadel et al., 1991 WA = 1,200 gpm x 55 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 16.7 hp WB = 900 gpm x 30 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 6.8 hp The power, WB, required by the pump at point B can be read from the chart to be about 10 hp. Alternately, the power could be calculated as: WB = 900 gpm x 30 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.67) = 10.1 hp Pump power savings would be the difference between PA and PB.
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Savings = PA PB = 22.6 hp 10.1 hp = 11.5 hp When estimating power savings from reducing the volume flow rate, engineers frequently rely on pump affinity laws. Theoretically, pump work varies with the cube of volume flow rate. Use of the cubic relationship would predict: PB = PA (VB/VA)3 = 22.6 hp x (900 gpm / 1200 gpm) 3 = 9.5 hp The 9.5 hp predicted by the pump-affinity law is less than the 10.1 hp predicted by the pump curve. This example demonstrates how use of the cubic relationship typically exaggerates savings. In practice, the efficiencies of the VSD, pump and motor typically decline as flow rate decreases, resulting in slightly less savings than would be predicted using this cubic relationship. Thus, we conservatively estimate that pump/fan work varies with the square of flow rather than the cube of flow. Using this relationship, if we measured PA to be 22.6 hp at 1,200 gpm, we would estimate PB for 900 gpm to be about: PB = PA (VB/VA)2 = 22.6 hp x (900 gpm / 1200 gpm) 2 = 12.7 hp This would give a slightly conservative estimate of savings.
References
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, 1977, 1985, 2005, ASHRAE. Bernier and Bourret, 1999, Pumping Energy and Variable Frequency Drives, ASHRAE Journal, December. Gould Pumps, GPM 7-CD, Technical Information. Incropera and DeWitt, 1985, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley and Sons. Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings, McGraw-Hill Inc. Larson, E.D. and Nilsson, L.J., 1991, Electricity Use and Efficiency in Pumping and Air Handling Systems, ASHRAE Transactions, pgs. 363-377. McQuiston and Parker, 1994, Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Mott, R. L, 2000, Applied Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Inc. Nadel, S., Shepard, M., Greenberg, S., Katz, G., and Almeida, A., 1991, Energy Efficient Motor Systems, American Counsel for an Energy Efficient Economy, Washington D.C.
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Taylor, S., 2002, Primary-Only vs. Primary Secondary Variable Flow Systems, ASHRAE Journal, February, 2002, pgs 25-29. U.S. Department of Energy, 2002m Pumping Systems Field Monitoring and Application of the Pumping System Assessment Tool PSAT,
The energy imparted to a fluid by a pump is measured as the head (in meters) per unit weight of fluid.
dH = Fluid Head developed across pump ..m Z1 = Fluid Supply Level..m Z2 = Fluid Discharge Level..m P1 =Pressure over Supply Fluid..N/m2 P2 =Pressure into which fluid is discharged ..N/m2 = Fluid Density...Kg/m3) g = Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m / s2 v12 Fluid velocity at pump inlet m/s v22 Fluid velocity at pump discharge m/s
Normally the velocity head and the height head is ignored for initial selection of the pump.
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The head developed is therefore approximated to the static pressure difference expressed as a column of the liquid pumped in meters of fluid.
Note: For accurate calculations the difference in height of the pump suction and out discharge flanges and the difference in velocity head should be considered.
p (N/m^2 ) = dH * g
Q = 45000 Liters = 45 m^3 = 45/3 m^3 = 15 m^3 / Day / pump = 15/3600=0.00417m^3 /sec/ pump Q = Area x Velocity Q = 3.14 * r^2 * 24.26 m^3/sec 0.00417 = 76.1764 *r^2 r = 0.0074 m Diameter = r *2 = 0.015 m
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Head lost due to friction : A rule of thumb that is often used as a starting place for selecting pipe diameters is to select the pipe diameter such that:
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