8 Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods

This chapter provides an overview of available maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) methods. Knowledge of these methods is important to understanding and appreciating the next two chapters on network and project level management. This chapter does not discuss all available M&R methods, nor does it discuss the methods in full detail. A more detailed presentation of M&R techniques can be found in the references listed at the end of this chapter. Maintenance and rehabilitation is also called maintenance and repair by some agencies. Therefore the "R" in "M&R" can be interpreted as either rehabilitation or repair. M&R methods are presented in this chapter under three categories: localized, global, and major. Localized M&R includes patching and crack sealing; global M&R includes applying fog seals and slurry seals; and major M&R includes overlays and recycling. Many M&R projects combine methods to address the cause of the problem(s) rather than just fix the symptoms. For example, if PCC slab corner breaks occurred as a result of pumping and loss of support, patching the corner breaks alone will not correct the problem. Instead, a project level evaluation (see Chapter 11) should be conducted and the appropriate M&R alternative selected. The alternative may consist of slab undersealing, full-depth patching of the corner breaks, and joint sealing. In the following sections, each M&R method is defined, a situation that warrants its consideration is identified, and its design or technique of application is described.

159

160 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

8.1 Localized M&R

Definition
Crack sealing is the process of cleaning and sealing or resealing of cracks in AC pavement. Use This technique is used to fill longitudinal and transverse cracks, including joint reflection cracks from underlying PCC slabs, that are wider than 1/8 in. The primary purpose of crack sealing in AC pavement is to prevent surface water infiltration into the pavement foundation. It is more cost effective to use this technique as a preventative measure when the overall pavement condition is good or better. Sealing cracks in a deteriorated pavement is not cost effective. This will be further discussed in Chapter 10 under the critical PCI concept.

Design/Technique
The technique consists of the following steps: 1. Remove old sealant and form a sealant reservoir. Use a vertical spindle router or hand tools. a. b. 2. 3. Remove the loose material along edges. The sealant reservoir depth should be at least the width of the crack plus VA in.

After routing, clean the crack using compressed air (do not sandblast). Vacuum or sweep up the debris. Apply sealant. Do not overfill the crack; fill to 1/8 in. below the pavement surface.

8. L 1.2 Full-Depth Patching (AC Pavement) Definition This technique involves replacing the full depth of the AC layer and may include replacement of the base and subbase layers.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods/ 161 Use

Full-depth patching is used to repair structural and material related distresses such as alligator cracking, rutting, and corrugation. In the case of slippage cracking where the failure may be limited to the top AC layer, the depth of the patch may be limited to the top AC layer if it can be removed easily.
Design/Technique

The AC full-depth patching technique is illustrated in Figure 8-1. The technique consists of the following steps: 1. Square off the area to be patched and mark off at least 6 in. to 12 in. beyond the distressed area. Make cuts to form straight lines with vertical sides. The patch boundary does not have to be rectangular.

DEEP PATCH REPAIR

REMOVE SURFACE AND BASE AS NECESSARY TO FIRM MATERIAL ANO COMPACT. CUT STRAIGHT & VERTICAL FACES (PAVEMENT SAW I APPLY TACK COAT VERTICAL FACES HOT ASPHALT MIX PLACED DIRECTLY ON SUBGRADE NEEDS NO PRIME PLACE IN LAYERS NOT TO EXCEED 3 IN

BACKFILL AND COMPACT USING HOT ASPHALT MIX VIBRATORY PLATE COMPACTOR (SM PATCHES) ROLLER COMPACTOR (LARGE PATCHES) COMPACT TO SAME GRADE AS SURROUNDING PAVEMENT AND MEET DENSITY REQUIREMENTS

REFERENCE: THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE MANUAL SERIES MS-16 ASPHALT IN PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

Figure 8-1. Full-Depth Patching of AC Pavement (Air Force 1992).

162 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

2. After cutting, remove material from the cut area. a. If base course or subgrade is damaged, remove and replace the material, and compact. As a minimum, compact the base course in place. b. After compaction, thoroughly clean the pavement surface outside the repair area to avoid debris getting into the tack coat or patching material. 3. Apply a light tack coat to the sides of the patch area and prime the bottom. a. Backfill and compact in 2 in. to 3 in. lifts with a dense-graded hot mix asphalt to the same grade as the existing asphalt. The use of a vibrating roller is strongly recommended. If rutting is present, rolling may be done transversely so that the roller will rest on the patch material and not on the old pavement. Seal 1 in. to 1 !4 in. past edges of patch to avoid water infiltration.

b.

8.1.2 Portland Cement Concrete Localized M&R Methods 8.1.2.1 Crack Sealing (PCC Pavement) Definition Crack sealing is the process of cleaning and sealing or resealing cracks in PCC pavement. Use This technique is used to stop surface water infiltration into the pavement foundation and to stop the accumulation of incompressibles in the cracks. Water infiltration results in weakened support and eventual pumping, corner breaks, and slab shattering. Accumulation of incompressibles in cracks leads to spalling of the concrete and is a source of foreign object damage to aircraft engines.
Design/Technique

The crackfillingtechnique is illustrated in Figure 8-2 (U.S. Air Force 1992). The technique consists of the following steps: 1. Remove old sealant if previously filled. a. Route the crack using a vertical spindle router (do not use a rotary impact router as it spalls the concrete).

b. This step may be done by hand by breaking off the end of a hoe, and using the curved metal rod left at the end. 2. Different filling procedures are required based on crack width and amount of spalling for different classifications of cracks. The following procedures are recommended: a. Hairline to 1/8 in., no spalling: do not widen or seal. With minor spalling: blow out and seal.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods/ J63

CRACK REPAIR

ORIGINAL CRACK

AFTER ROUTING

SEALING RECESS 1/8" MIN

THE VARIABLE WIDTH AND AMOUNT OF SPALLING FOUND ALONG THE CRACKS NECESSITATES DIFFERENT PROCEDURES FOR REPAIR SEE FIGURES 2-33 ANO 2 : 3 b

REFERENCE: TM 5-822-9/AFM 88-6. CHAPTER 10. REPAIR OF RIGID PAVEMENTS USING EPOXY RESIN GROUTS. MORTARS AND CONCRETE

Figure 8-2. Crack Sealing of PCC Pavement (From U.S. Army and Air Force 1988).

1/8 in. to 3/8 in., no spalling: if edges are rough, blow out or route before sealing. With minor spalling: route and seal. 3/8 in. to 3/4 in., no spalling: route and consider using a backer rod if too deep. With major spalling: repair the spall as a joint, while maintaining the crack through the spall. Greater than 3/4 in., no spalling: route and consider using a backer rod if too deep. With major spalling: rebuild crack as if it were a joint.

164 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

e.

Cracks approximately 1 lA in. may be temporarily patched using bituminous concrete if they are not "working" cracks. For a permanent repair, rebuild as a joint.

3. 4.

After routing, sandblast the crack, then airblow and vacuum. As a minimum, airblow debris awayfromthe crack and sweep it up. Install a backer rod if required. Apply the proper sealantfrombottom to top of crack.

8.1.2.2 Diamond Grinding (PCC Pavement) Definition Diamond grinding is the process of removing a thin layer of the existing concrete surface by grinding it with a series of closely spaced rotating diamond saw blades. Use This method is used to reprofile jointed concrete pavements that have developed a rough ride because of faulting or slab warping. It is also used to restore transverse drainage and to provide a textured pavement surface. Design/Technique Diamond grinding should be performed before faulting becomes excessive; otherwise, grinding will be expensive. Other M&R that may be needed before diamond grinding include: 1. 2. 3. Full- and partial-depth patching. Slab undersealing. Load transfer restoration.

Joint and crack sealing is performed after diamond grinding. 8.1.2.3 Full-Depth Patching (PCC Pavement) Definition This type of M&R involves full-depth replacement of part or all of a PCC slab. When the entire slab is replaced, it is called "slab replacement." Use Full-depth patching is used to repair a variety of distresses, most of which occur near joints or cracks. Such distresses include corner breaks and "D" cracking. When a fulldepth patch is performed adjacent to a joint or crack, the load transfer across the joint or crack should be restored. Deterioration of a reflected joint or crack in an asphalt concrete overlay is also a candidate for full-depth patching of the underlying concrete pavement.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /165

Design/Technique
The fiill-depth patching technique is illustrated in Figure 8-3 and consists of the following steps: 1. Square off the area to be patched, including all underlying deterioration. Deterioration near joints may be larger at the bottom of the slab by as much as a few feet. This may be verified by coring as part of the project evaluation (Chapter 10). To prevent rocking of the patch, it is recommended that the minimum dimension be >4 ft (for low-volume traffic) or 6 ft (for high-volume traffic). The minimum dimension is also a function of whether load transfer devices are used. The following is recommended for the design of the patch sides: a. b. c. 2. Use deformed tie bars for sides awayfromjoints. Use dowel bars or restore existing load transfer at transverse joints. Use butt joints along longitudinal joints. Other designs are possible, but they should be engineered to prevent premature failure of the patch.

Saw the panel boundaries, except when one of the boundaries is a joint. Partial- or fiill-depth sawing may be used. Partial-depth sawing leaves some aggregate interlock, but allows potential spalling at the bottom of the patch during breakup and removal of the concrete. Breakup of the concrete should startfromthe center of the patch using gravity or pneumatic air hammers. To avoid damage to the adjacent concrete, ball breakers should not be used.

FULL DEPTH REPAIR DRILL AND EPOXY DEFORMED TIE BARS y ^ \ L VERTICAL SAWCUT (2"MINI DEPTH, CHIP AND BREAK OUT CONCRETE B.

LA
REFERENCES: TM S-C22-9/AFM M - 6 . CHAPTER 10. "REPAIR OF RIGID PAVEMENTS USING EPOXVRESIN GROUTS. MORTARS. AND CONCRETES." TM 5-B25-3/AFM M - . CHAPTER 3. RIGID PAVEMENTS FOR AIRFIELDS OATED AUGUST I M S FOR DOWEL AND TIE BAR SIZE ANO SPACING ACI 503R-80. " USE OF EPOXY COMPOUNDS WITH CONCRETE" FOR GUIDANCE ON BONDING UNHARDENEO CONCRETE TO HARDENED CONCRETE.

rA

|i^-EPOXY 4 RFSIN

C=3 ' DRILL & EPOXY DOWEL IF JOINT WAS ORIGINALLY DOWELED OR IF REPAIR IS 1/3 OR MORE OF SLAB WIDTH

RE-ESTABLISH LONGITUDINAL JOINT (KEY OR DOWELS)

Figure 8-3. Full-Depth Patching of PCC Pavement (U.S. Army and Air Force 1988).

166 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

3.

Remove all broken concrete and prepare the foundation. Excessive moisture should be removed or dried. Granular subbases are difficult to compact; therefore, partial or full replacement of the granular subbase with concrete is recommended. Straighten or realign existing deformed tie bars and dowels. Install new tie bars or dowels as required by drilling holes in the face of the existing slab. Place the concrete and ensure the edges receive good vibration. If the patch cannot be closed to traffic for several days, use an early strength concrete mix that contains a higher cement content and additives.

4. 5.

8.1.2.4 Joint Sealing (PCC Pavement) Definition Joint sealing is the process of cleaning and sealing or resealing PCC joints. Use This technique is used to stop surface water infiltration into the pavement foundation and to stop the accumulation of incompressibles in the joints. Water infiltration results in weakened support and eventual pumping, corner breaks, and slab shattering. Accumulation of incompressibles in joints leads to spalling of the concrete and is a source of foreign object damage to aircraft engines. Design/Technique The joint sealing technique is illustrated in Figure S-A (U.S. Army and Air Force 1988). The technique consists of the following steps: 1. Remove the old joint material with a joint plow attachment. The plow blade must not be rigid or V-shaped, as it will spall the concrete. High pressure water may be used as an alternative. Removal depth is typically twice thefinalwidth of the joint, averaging 1 in. Preformed elastomeric compression seals may be removed by hand if they are short in length. If long seals are to be removed, start removal by hand, then attach it to a tractor to pull it out. Airblow the joint and vacuum the debris. As a minimum, blow debris away from the joint and sweep it up. Sawing or refacing (as required). a. The joint must be refaced if the sides are not vertical or if you need to widen the joint to a specified width and depth for proper shape factor and proper sealant bonding. The shape factor is a ratio of depth to width and should be between 0.5 to 2.0 to minimize stresses in the sealant (U.S. Army and Air Force 1988). Do not widen a joint more than 3/4 in., unless it is an expansion joint.

2.

3. 4.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /167

Figure 8-4. Joint Sealing of PCC Pavement (From U.S. Army and Air Force 1988).

b. c. 5. 6.

If preformed compression seals are removed, refacing is not required unless the joint width is too small. Joints that are severely spalled should be reconstructed using partialdepth patch procedures.

Following refacing, clean by sand- or water-blasting to remove all debris from joint. As a minimum, thoroughly airblow the joint and vacuum the debris. Install a backer rod or separating medium at the proper depth, ensuring that the material is not twisted or stretched.

168 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

7.

Apply the proper sealant using a pressure injection wand. a. b. The sealant MUST be appliedfromthe bottom up. DO NOT overfill the joint. It should be 1/8 in. below the joint surface to avoid extrusion. If no pressure wand is available, use a pour pot with extreme caution to ensure the joint is adequately sealed.

8.L2.5 Partial-Depth Patching (PCC Pavement) Definition Partial-depth patching involves removing shallow localized areas of deteriorated or spalled PCC pavement and replacing it with a suitable patch material such as cement concrete or epoxy concrete. Use This technique is used to repair PCC pavement distresses that are confined to the top few inches of the slab, such as joint and corner spalling. Design/Technique The partial depth-patching technique is illustrated in Figure 8-5 (U.S. Air Force 1992) and consists of the following steps: 1. Square off the area to be patched and mark off approximately 3 in. beyond the distressed area. Use a concrete saw to make a vertical cut a minimum of 2 in. deep around the marked area. Ensure cuts (both at the corners and along the edges) intersect to obtain a rectangular or square patch with vertical sides. After cutting, break out the area with pneumatic drills or jackhammers down to sound concrete. After the unsound concrete is removed, blow out the hole with compressed air to remove residual material and dust. Then thoroughly pressure rinse the area. Use a stiff broom or brush to apply a bonding grout approximately 1/16 in. thick over the entire area to be patched immediately before the concrete patch material is placed (epoxy grout for epoxies). If the material does not use a bonding grout, use a large brush to dampen the surface (no standing water) with water before placing material. Bonding grout mixture is 1 part Portland cement, 1 part fine sand, and no more than 5 gallons of water per sack of cement. Insert a thin strip of wood, jointfiberboard,or oil-coated metal, for the new joint. Scoring the fiber board about 3A in. from the top will make routing or removing the board easier. Another alternative is to completely cut and grease the material, removing it when the patch material is set.

2.

3.

4.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation

Methods/169

P A R T I A L DEPTH REPAIR

REMOVE DE LAMIN A TED MA TER/AL V \ / EPOXY OR GROUT ^ COATING'

. j .&

PATCH

SEPA RA TING MEDIUM

MAKE VERTICAL SAWCUT MN T DEEP APPROX T FROM DISTRESSED AREA REMOVE ALL CONCRETE AND LOOSE MATERIAL WITHIN SAWED AREA TO SOUND CONCRETE ( T MN DEPTH). USE A SEPARATING MEDIUM TO MAINTAIN AND PROTECT JOINT. USE A BONDING AGENT TO INSURE GOOD CONTACT BETWEEN EXISTING PAVEMENT ANO PATCH. GROUT AND PATCH WITH T SLUMP CONCRETE. AFTER PATCH HAS CURED CLEAN JOINT ANO APPLY JOINT SEALANT REFERENCE: TM9 -822-9/AFM 88-6. CHAPTER 10, REPAIR OF RIGID PAVEMENTS USING EPOXY RESIN GROUTS. MORTARS ANO CONCRETE

Figure 8-5. Partial-Depth Patching of PCC Pavement (From U.S. Army and Air Force 1988).

Mix, place, and finish the concrete. All concrete type materials should be extended with aggregate to match the existing concrete as closely as possible. Do not drop the concretefromheights greater than 12 in. Ensure that you have estimated for enough aggregate/patching material, plus extra, before mixing begins. a. b. When finishing has been completed, broom finish to match adjacent areas. After concrete has attained its initial set, remove filler board, if used.

170 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots 6. 7. Cure the patch a minimum of 3 days (unless using epoxy, polymer, etc.) using some type of pigmented curing compound. Route out and clean the joint, finally filling the joint with the appropriate filler material.

8.1.2.6 Slab Lfndersealing Using Cement Grout (FCC Pavement) Definition This technique involves the pumping of cement grout underneath concrete slabs (or below the base if the base is stabilized) to fill voids and provide support. Use It is used when the results of project level evaluation (Chapter 10) indicate the presence of voids. This is normally determined based on deflection measurement analysis and on observing pumping, corner breaks, and faulting. Slab undersealing is a preventive measure and should be followed by joint sealing and reestablishment of the load transfer if needed. It should be applied as soon as distresses are observed. Applying slab undersealing to a deteriorated pavement is not cost effective except if it is performed as a preparation for an overlay. Design/Technique The first step in a slab undersealing is to determine whether the undersealing will be a blanket coverage or will be limited to areas with detected problems. Once the areas to be undersealed have been decided, holes are drilled to allow cement grout to be pumped into the slab. The holes are drilled about 2 to 4 ft from joints and spaced 6 to 12 feet apart, depending on field conditions. Pump the grout until it shows through adjacent joints or cracks, but stop immediately if the slabs are raised. It should be emphasized that slab undersealing should be done by experienced contractors.

8.2 Global M&R Global M&R is cost effective when applied as a preventive measure (Chapter 10). Common global M&R methods are presented in the sections that follow. 8.2.1 Aggregate Surface Treatment (AC Pavement) Definition This technique involves applying an asphalt binder followed by a layer of aggregate, which is rolled into the binder. This process is also known as a chip seal. If sand is used instead of aggregate, the treatment is called a sand seal.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /171 Use

It is used to provide a surface seal or skid-resistant surface to structurally sound pavement. This treatment is best suited to low-volume roads. Multiple treatments may be applied up to 1 in. thick. The cost, however, approaches that of a thin hot mix overlay. Some agencies consider applying a thin overlay as surface treatment.
Design/Technique

Suggested asphalt and aggregate quantities for a single surface treatment are shown in Figure 8-6. Multiple surface treatments are achieved by repeating the procedure for a single surface treatment but using smaller aggregate in each successive application (normally reduce the aggregate maximum size by 50%). Rapid-setting asphalt emulsions are normally used as a binder. The cover aggregate should be one size. The aggregate should also be clean and cubical. The use of elongated aggregates may result in the submersion of the aggregate into the asphalt and consequent bleeding. Even though Figure 8-6 provides approximate rates of the application for the asphalt and aggregate, it is recommended that a design method be used to compute the rates. Several design methods are available (FHW 1979), which may be supplemented by local experience.

Nominal Aggregate Size Range, in 3/4 to 3/8 1/2 to No. 4 3/8 to No. 8 No. 4 to No. 16 Sand
a

AASHTO Aggregate Designation 6 7 8 9 M-6

Quantites Aggregate5^ Ib/sy 1 40-50 25-30 20-25 15-20 10-15 Asphalt3-' gal/sy 0.40-0.50 0.30-0.45 0.20-0.35 0.15-0.25 0.15-0.20

The lower application rates of asphalt shown are for aggregates on the fine side of the spec limits. Higher application rates are for aggregates on the coarse side of the spec limits.

Weights are based on an aggregate specific gravity of 2.65. If the specific gravity is >2.75 or <2.55, multiply the table by the aggregate specific gravity divided by 2.65. c Asphalt is an emulsion of acceptable grade and type. Figure 8-6. Suggested Asphalt and Aggregate Quantities for Single Surface Treatments and Seal Coats (FHWA 1979). 8.2.2 Fog Seal (AC Pavement)

Definition

This technique involves the spraying of a light coat of a bituminous material (0.03 to 0.05 gallon per square yard) on the surface of an existing pavement using a distributor.

/ 72 / Pavement Management for Airports. Roads, and Parking Lots Use

It is used to prolong the life of an asphalt concrete pavement by helping to reduce raveling and to improve waterproofing. Fog seals are especially good for treating pavements that carry little or no traffic. Without traffic, asphalt concrete pavements tend to ravel and harden faster than pavements that support moderate to heavy traffic. Design/Technique The material most frequently used is a SS-1 and SS-lh asphalt emulsion, which is normally heated to 150 F before application. A fog seal should be applied when the ambient temperature is above 40 F. Warmer temperatures are desirable so the emulsion will break faster. The pavement should be closed to traffic for 12 to 24 hours to allow the material to cure. The asphalt emulsion can be applied at full strength or be diluted as much as one part emulsion to ten parts water. Normal application is a dilution of one part emulsion to at least four parts of water. 8.2.3 Rejuvenators (AC Pavement) Definition Rejuvenators are proprietary bituminous materials that are sprayed on the surface of an existing pavement using a distributor. Use Similar to fog seals, rejuvenators seal and waterproof asphalt concrete surfaces. Rejuvenators, however, penetrate the asphalt concrete and soften the asphalt binder. This added capability is of great value in reducing the rate of hardening of the asphalt concrete surface and thus reducing the severity of temperature cracking. In a study conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Brown and Johnson 1976), five materials including SS-1 asphalt emulsion were evaluated. Five pavement sections were treated by the materials and were compared to untreated control sections to determine relative performance. Figure 8-7 shows the relationship between material type and cracking wider than lA inch three years after application. The materials are identified as A, B, C, D, and E where A, B, C, and D are proprietary rejuvenators and E is the SS-1 asphalt emulsion. The figure clearly shows the beneficial effect of rejuvenators A, B, and C. It can also be noticed that the beneficial effect is more for the inside traffic lane where the traffic volume is less than the outside lane. The rejuvenators did not have much effect on the total amount of cracking after three years, but only on the wider cracks.

Overview ofMaintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /173 Inside Traffic

ill IJI
111

Figure 8-7. Relationship Between Material Type and Cracking Wider than % inch (Brown 1988). Design/Technique One of the commonly used rejuvenators is Reclamite (Witco 1994). Rejuvenators should only be applied as recommended by the manufacturers. They should also be applied by experienced contractors. The rate of application may vary between 0.02 and 0.08 gal/sy based on the voids in the existing asphalt concrete surface mixture; the higher the voids, the higher the rate of application. If a higher rate of rejuvenator is used than should be, some of the rejuvenator will not penetrate the surface and skid resistance will be reduced significantly. If excess rejuvenator remains on the surface after 24 to 48 hours, it should be sanded and removed. Rejuvenators should not be applied to a pavement surface such as slurry seal or surface treatment that has a large amount of asphalt near the surface. Application of rejuvenators to these surface types may result in a sticky, soft surface (Brown 1988).

174 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots 8.2.4 Slurry Seal/Micro Surfacing (AC Pavement) Definition Slurry Seals are a specially prepared mixture of asphalt emulsion, well-graded fine aggregate, water, and mineral filler. Micro Surfacing is a slurry seal where the asphalt emulsion is replaced with a polymer-modified asphalt emulsion. Use Slurry Seals are used to provide a surface seal or skid resistant surface to structurally sound pavement. Slurry seal will fill small cracks (less than 1/8 in. wide). Larger cracks need to be individually treated before the application of a slurry seal. In addition, Micro Surfacing is used to provide transverse surface leveling prior to overlays.

Design/Technique
A continuous mix slurry seal machine (Fig. 8-8), spreader box, and a pneumatic-tired compaction roller are used to apply the slurry seal. Emulsions of varying compositions and setting times are mixed with any one of three gradations of aggregate (Fig 8-9), to create slurry seal mixes for specific uses, Roberts et al. 1996. Type I slurry had the finest gradation and is primarily used for filling fine surface cracks, provides highest crack penetration, and provides a thin surface seal (less than 1 /8 inch thick). It is most suitable

SLURRY MIX
Figure 8-8. Flow Diagram of a Continuous Slurry Mixer (Roberts et al. 1996).

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /175

1
I 3/8 ] #4 |#8 J # 16 J #30 J #50 | #100 | #200

SIEVE SZ iE (9.5 mm) (4.75 mm) (2.36 mm) (1.18 mm) (600urn) (330 urn) (150 urn) (75 urn)

TYPE I PERCENT PASSING 100 100 90-100 65-90 40-65 25-42 15-30 10-20 |

TYPE II PERCENT PASSING 100 90-100 65-90 45-70 30-50 18-30 10-21 5-15

TYPE III PERCENT PASSING 100 70-90 45-70 28-50 19-34 12-25 7-18 5-15

STOCKPILE TOLERANCE |

5% 5% 5% 5%
4%

J [ J J
||

3% 2%

J J

Figure 8-9. Gradations of Aggregate.

for low density/low-wear traffic areas such as parking lots. Type II slurry is the most commonly used and has a maximum size aggregate of approximately 1/4 inch. It is best suited where raveling has occurred, and to improve skid resistance. Type III, with maximum aggregate size of 3/8 inch, is used for severe raveling and skid resistance. Micro Surfacing uses types II and III aggregate gradations. It is more suited for moderate to heavy traffic and for improving skid resistance. The aggregate has to be crushed stone to provide better resistance to skid and rutting. Slurry Seal/Micro Surfacing should only be applied when the temperature is above 50 degrees Fahrenheit and nofreezingoccurs within 24 hours. 8.3 Major M&R Major M&R is used to correct or improve structural and functional requirements. Major M&R is often economically justified for deteriorated pavements, pavements deteriorating at a rapid rate, and pavements subjected to a change in traffic loading. The M&R techniques presented below are normally combined to form appropriate M&R alternatives. For example, cold milling, cold or hot recycling, and overlaying can all be combined into one alternative. 8.3.1 Cold Milling (AC or PCC Pavement)
Definition

Cold milling is the removal of a given thickness of the surface layer using a machine containing a rotary drum with teeth.

176/ Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

Figure 8-10. Cold Milling Machine.

Use. It is used in asphalt pavement to bring the pavement grade to an acceptable level, remove a deteriorated layer, and to provide good bonding with the overlay. The most frequent use of cold milling is in the recycling process (see Sections 8.3.2 and 8.3.3). The existing asphalt concrete material can be removed, blended with new aggregates and asphalt, and replaced. Cold milling can also be used in concrete pavement rehabilitation, especially when performing a bonded PCC overlay where the surface is cold milled and a cement grout is applied before the overlay. Design/Technique A cold milling machine (Fig. 8-10) can be used to remove up to 3 to 4 in. of asphalt concrete in one pass. The asphalt concrete can be removed full depth or to any desired depth. The machine has grade control devices and can accurately control the grade of the milled surface with the use of stringlines. Cold milling can be performed in any type of weather, except when the reclaimed material is to be used in recycling; milling in wet weather may cause excessive moisture in the reclaimed asphalt. 8.3.2 Cold Recycling (AC Pavement) Definition Cold recycling is the use of reclaimed asphalt pavement and additional water or asphalt without the use of heat to produce a paving mixture.

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /177 Use

It is used to rehabilitate badly deteriorated pavements. Pavements that are badly cracked or exhibit extensive ravelling can be removed and used to produce recycled cold mix. The material is normally used as a base course; however, it can be used as a surface on low-volume roads. Design/Technique The deteriorated surface is normally removed by cold milling and taken to a central plant or stockpiled locally for reuse. The reclaimed material is mixed at a central plant with water or asphalt emulsion and placed with an asphalt paving machine and compacted. It can also be placed in a self-propelled mobile plant capable of mixing and placing cold recycled mixes in one continuous operation. Compaction is normally accomplished with a combination of steel wheel, vibratory, and rubber-tired roller. This technique works best in dry, hot weather. A small amount of moisture does not affect the pavement quality, but excessive moisture is detrimental. 8.3.3 Hot Recycling (AC Pavement) Definition This technique involves using reclaimed asphalt pavementfroma cold milling operation, new aggregate, new asphalt cement, and a recycling agent, if needed, to produce recycled hot mix. Use It is used for any application for which conventional hot mix can be used. Design/Technique The amount of reclaimed asphalt used with hot recycled mix usually does not exceed 50% to 60%. The mix can be produced in a modified batch plant or in a drum mixer. A hot recycled mix is handled the same as a conventional hot mix. 8.3.4 Hot In-Place Surface Recycling Definition The rejuvenation of existing AC surface in-place is achieved by applying infrared heat, loosening the softened pavement, mixing the reclaimed material with a design admixture, and replacing and compacting the new mix. This process may or may not be followed by an overlay. Use It is used on hardened asphalt surfaces to rejuvenate the surface, improve the bond with overlay, and reduce or delay reflective cracking.

178/ Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

Figure 8-11. Hot Remixer Equipment.

Design/Technique This process is not cost effective if the pavement has structurally failed because of a poor base or subgrade. The hot surface recycling process is accomplished by either a paving train or an integrated single-pass machine (Fig 8-11). 8.3.5 Cracking and Seating (PCC Pavement) Definition This technique involves cracking deteriorated PCC pavement into smaller pieces and seating the pieces using pneumatic-tired rollers. Use It is used to reduce the severity of reflective cracking after overlaying with an AC surface. Design/Technique The PCC pavement is broken into 18 to 24 in. pieces using a variety of equipment such as modified pile-driving, falling weight hammer, and hydraulic or pneumatic impact hammers. Equipment that produces spalling should not be used. Before cracking, any existing joint and crack sealer material should be removed to a minimum depth of 1 in. to prevent slippage of the AC overlay. The seating is performed using a heavy pneumatic roller the size of which is a function of the pavement thickness, loading, and underlying foundation strength. The tire pressure may range from 90 to 150 psi, the load on each wheel from 6500 to 25,000 lbs, and the number of coverages from 3 to 30. Before the overlay, the full depth of the cracking should be verified by coring, and large open areas should be sealed with a sand-asphalt mix. The asphalt overlay should be designed for

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /179

the load but should not be less than 4 in. to minimize the amount and severity of the reflection cracks. 8.3.6 AC Overlay (AC or PCC Pavement) Definition This technique involves adding one or more AC layers to an existing AC or PCC pavement. Use It is used to correct or improve structural capacity or functional requirements such as skid resistance and ride quality. The use of an AC overlay is usually more economic when the existing pavement is still in good condition. An overlay may be combined with other M&R methods such as cold milling, cold recycling, hot recycling, and heater scarification. Design/Technique Several overlay thickness design approaches include: total structural requirement such as the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) design method (AASHTO 1993), limiting deflection such as the Asphalt Institute method (Asphalt Institute MS-17), and limiting fatigue damage, which is based on mechanistic analysis (USACE-PCASE 2004). The majority of available design methods are easy to use. With the advent of powerful microcomputers, mechanistic analyses using elastic layer theory or finite element analysis are becoming user-friendly. Figure 8-12 is an example of deflection-based design methodfromthe Asphalt Institute. The method is based on the maximum deflection as measured with the Benkelman Beam. Measurements made by a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) are converted to Benkelman Beam measurements. If a correlation has not been locally developed, the FWD measurements are multiplied by a conversion factor of 1.6. The deflections are then reduced to a representative rebound deflection (RRD) using the following equation: RRD = (X + 2S)*C*F where: X = average deflectionfromproject testing (recommended minimum of 10 points) S = deflected standard deviation C = critical season adjustment factor F = temperature adjustment factor (Fig. 8-13) The critical section adjustment factor is a function of the location; more variation is expected in areas subjected to frost. Figure 8-14 is an example for one location. (8-1)

180 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

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F/gi/re 8-73. Average Pavement Temperature vs. Benkelman Beam Deflection Adjustment Factors for Full-Depth and Three-Layered Asphalt Concrete Pavements (Asphalt Institute MS-17).

Overview ofMaintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /181

DEC

JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY TIME

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT

NOV

Figure 8-14. Illustration of the Effect of Geographic Location on Seasonal Variations in Deflections (Asphalt Institute MS-17). 8.3.7 PCC Pavement Overlay (AC or PCC Pavement)

Definition
This technique involves adding a PCC layer over an existing AC or PCC pavement. Use It is used to correct or improve the structural capacity or functional requirements such as skid resistance and ride quality. PCC overlay is mostly used over an existing PCC pavement. Design/Technique The three types of PCC overlay over PCC pavement are: unbonded, partially bonded, and fully bonded. Design approaches vary from total structural requirements to mechanistically based. Figure 8-15 is an example of overlay design procedure based on the total structural requirement approach. 8.3.8 Reconstruction (AC or PCC Pavement) Definition Reconstruction is the removal and replacement of existing pavement structure. Use It is used when the existing pavement is badly deteriorated and is based on economic analysis justification. Design/Technique The process is similar to designing and constructing a new pavement.

182 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots

CONCRETE OVERLAYS ON CONCRETE PAVEMENT

TYPE OF OVERLAY

PROCEDURE

Clean Surface Debris Clean Surface Debris and Excess Joint Seal and Excess Joint Seal and Remove Excessive Place Separation CourseOil and Rubber-Place Place Overlay Concrete Overlay Concrete Not Necessary Not Necessary Not Normally Requirement is Independent of the steel in existing [pavement or condition of existing pavement. Required Not Necessary Usually Requirement is Independent! of the steel in Existing Pavement. Steel may be used to control cracking which may be caued by limited Non-Structural Defects in Pavement

Scarify all Loose Concrete, Clean Joints, Clean and Acid Etch Surface-Place Bonding Grout and Overlay Concrete Required Required Yes Normally not used in thin overlays. In thicker overlay steel may be used to supplement steel in existing pavement.

Matching of "^Location Joints in Over- J Type lay & Pavement Reflection of Underlying Cracks to be Expected

Requirement for Steel Reinforcement

Formula for Computing Thickness of overlay

<Tr)
Note: T is the Thickness of monolithic pavement required for the design load on the existing support C is a structural condition factor T should be based on the flexural strength of

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Note: The ability of the overlaid slab to transfer load at the joints should be assessed separately

Overlay Concrete

Overlay Concrete

Existing Concrete

Minimum Thickness
No Structural Defect* C*1.0" Limited Struct. Defect* C0.75" Sever* Struct. Defect* C0.36"

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YES YES YES YES
Only if defects can be repaired

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* C Values apply to structural condition only, and should not be influenced by surface defects.

Figure 8-75. Summary of Concrete Overlays on Concrete Pavement (Ray 1967).

Overview of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Methods /183

References
AASHTO (1993). AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures.American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 444 N. Capital Street N. W. Suite 225, Washington, DC 2001. Asphalt Institute (MS-16). Asphalt in Pavement Maintenance. Manual Series. Asphalt Institute (MS-17). Asphalt Overlays for Highway and Street Rehabilitation. Manual Series No. 17. Brown, E. R. (1988). Preventive Maintenance of Asphalt Concrete Pavements. Transportation Research Board, January. Brown, E. R. and Johnson, R. R. (1976). Evalution of Rejuvenators for Bituminous Pavements. AFCEC-TR-76-3, Air Force Civil Engineering Center. Tyndall Air Force Base, FL. Federal Highway Administration (1979). A Basic Asphalt Emulsion Manual. Vol. 1. Understanding and Using Emulsions. Federal Highway Administration. Report No. FHWA-IP-791, January. Ray, GK. (1967). Design of Concrete Overlays for Pavements. ACI 325, IR- 67,ACI Journal, August. Roberts, F. L., Kandhal, P. S., Brown, E. R., Lee. D. Y..and Kennedy. T. N. (1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design, and Construction, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, Alabama. Available from NAPA Education Foundation, 5100 Forbes Blvd., Lanham, MD 20706-4413. U.S. Air Force (1992). Pavement Maintenance, Repair, and Inspection. A Regional Seminar for Base-level Technicians. "Hands on Training." HQ AFESC/DEM, Tyndall AFB, FL. U.S. Army and Air Force (1988). Design Guide for Army and Air Force Airfields, Pavements, Railroads, Storm Drainage, and Earth Work. DG 110-3-204, AFP 88-71. U.S. ACE Publications Depot 2803 52nd Avenue, Hyattsville, MD 20781. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1991). Surfaced Areas Materials Utilization Catalog. U.S. Army Engineering and Housing Support Center, Ft. Belvoir. VA. Revision 4, Technical Note No. 85-1, November. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Unified Facilities Criteria UFC (May 2001), Standard Practice Manual for Flexible Pavements, web: triservicetransportation.com U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Unified Facilities Criteria. UFC 3-250-02 Draft (2004), Standard Practice Manual for Rigid Pavements, web: triservicetransportation.com U.S. Army Corps of Engineers-Pavement Computer-Assisted Structural Design-PCASE (2004). web: www: PCASE.com U.S. Army Technical Manual TM 5-624 (Oct 1995), "Maintenance and Repair of Surface Aeas." web: www.triservicetransportation.com

184 / Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and Parking Lots U.S. Army Engineering Research and Development Center-Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (ERDC-CERL), 2004. Micro PAVER Pavement Management System, 2004. email: [email protected] web: www.cecr.army.mil/paver Witco Chemical, Golden Bear Division (1993). Reclamite, P.O. Box 378, Bakersfield, CA 93302.