Jackson Notes part 2 January 2013

1 Energy in the Electromagneic eld

1 and the work done by the elds on the charge

1 d

/
=
_
B
A

r d

/
=
_
B
A
d = (
A

B
)
independent of the path C. Since the work done by the elds must decrease
the stored energy, we may interpret the term as the potential energy of the
system comprising the charge and the elds

1.
\ = l
i
l
f
=
A

B
For a system of point charges
i
at positions r
i
, we may write the potential
as
(r) =
1
4-
0
N

i=1

i
jr r
i
j
When we compute the potential at the position of a charge
j
we do not include
charge
j
(charges do not exert forces on themselves, or equivalently, we ignore
the innite self-energy of the charge). Thus the energy of charge
j
in the
presence of all the other charges is
l
j
=
j
(r
j
) =
1
4-
0
N

i=1; i6=j

j
jr r
i
j
=
N

i=1; i6=j
l
ij
(1)
Thus we see that the energy l
j
is the sum of the energies l
ij
of all the pairs of
charges we can form with charge ,. The energy of the total distribution appears
to be
l =
N

j=1
l
j
=
N

j=1
N

i=1; i6=j
l
ij
However, we have to be careful not to double count pairs of charges. (l
ij
= l
ji
,
but we only want one of them.) (See Lea and Burke Ch 25 for more on this).
So
l =
1
4-
0

j>i

j6=i

j
jr r
i
j
=
1
2
1
4-
0
N

j=1

j6=i

j
jr r
i
j
(2)
1
Now we look at what happens when the charge distribution is continuous. We
replace
i
with the charge element d = j (r) d
3
r and
j
with j (r
0
) d
3
r
0
and
replace each sum with an integral to obtain
l =
1
2
1
4-
0
_ _
j (r) j (r
0
)
jr r
0
j
d
3
rd
3
r
0
=
1
2
_
j (r) (r) d
3
r (3)
where we used eqn (22) in Notes 1 for (r) . Notice, though, that we have no
way to express the constraint i 6= ,, and the self-energy is now included. Using
Poissons equation, we may eliminate the charge density and obtain the energy
in terms of the elds alone:
l =
1
2
_
_
-
0
r
2

_
(r) d
3
r
=
-
0
2
__

r
_

r
_
d\
_

r

rd\
_
=
-
0
2
__
S1

r ^ : d
_

1

1 d\
_
If the sources of the elds are localized, then the potential decreases at least as
fast as 1,r as r !1, and so the surface integral is zero. (It goes as
1
r
1
r
2
r
2
=
1
r
as r !1.) Thus
l =
-
0
2
_
all space
1
2
d\
and the energy density is
n
E
=
-
0
2
1
2
Extension to elds in media (see 4.7 well do more with this later).
l =
1
2

1

1
Example: energy of a pair of point charges.
To simplify the calculation we can put the origin at the position of one of
the charges.
2
Then

1 (r) = /
1
r
jrj
3
+/
2
r r
2
jr r
2
j
3
and the energy density is
n(r) =
/
2
-
0
2
_

1
r
jrj
3
+
2
r r
2
jr r
2
j
3
_

1
r
jrj
3
+
2
r r
2
jr r
2
j
3
_
= /
2
-
0
2
_

2
1
jrj
4
+

2
2
jr r
2
j
4
+ 2
1

2
r
jrj
3

(r r
2
)
jr r
2
j
3
_
The rst two terms are the self-energy terms, and the volume integral of each
is innite.
1
The third term is the interaction energy. It is the only term that
changes as the charges move, and thus (classically) it is the only energy we can
extract from the system.
l
int
= /
2
-
0
2
_
2
1

2
r
jrj
3

r r
2
jr r
2
j
3
d
3
r
= /
2
-
0

2
_

r
1
jrj


r
1
jr r
2
j
d
3
r
= /
2
-
0

2
_ _

r
_
1
jr r
2
j

r
1
jrj
_

1
jr r
2
j

r

r
1
jrj
_
d
3
r
= /
2
-
0

2
_
S1
1
jr r
2
j

r
1
jrj
^ : d
_
1
jr r
2
j
r
2
1
jrj
d
3
r
The surface integral is zero (integrand goes as 1,r
3
while d goes as r
2
as
r !1), so we have
l
int
= /
2
4-
0

2
_
1
jr r
2
j
c (r) d
3
r
= /

2
jr
2
j
This is the expected result. Compare with eqn (1).
1.2 Magnetic energy
The work done by the elds on moving charges (currents), per unit time, is
1 =
c\
ct
=
_

,

1 d\
When the currents are conned to wires, the expression simplies
1 =
c\
ct
=

loops
_
C
1

1 d

/
1
Note that the innity arises at r = 0 :
R
1
0
1
r
4
4r
2
dr =
4
r

1
0
3
We may use Stokes theorem to re-express the line integral:
c\
ct
=

loops
1
_
Si
_

r

1
_
^ : d
where o
i
is a surface spanning loop i, and then from Faradays law
c\
ct
=

loops
1
_
Si
_

1
0t
_
^ : d
So the work done by the elds is
c\ =

loops
1
_
Si
0

1
0t
^ : dct
=

loops
1 c
B;i
where
B;i
is the magnetic ux through surface o
i
. Work done by the elds
decreases the stored energy, c\ = cl. Thus
cl =

loops
1 c
B;i
Now we let the current build up innitely slowly
_
@
@t
' 0 and thus

r

, ' 0
_
.
This means the "eld lines" of

, are closed loops, to which we can apply the
result we have just derived. The current 1 = ,o where o is a small area
element perpendicular to

,. Thus
cl =

loops
,o
_
c

1 ^ : do
=

loops
,o
_
_

rc

_
^ : do
=

loops
,o
_
loop i
c

/ =

loops
_
loop i

, c

d/o
=
_

, c

d\
4
Next we use Amperes law to write

, in terms of the elds. Remember: we are

r

H
_
c

d\
Now, from the cover,

r
_

/ a
_
=a
_

/
_

/
_

ra
_
Thus, with a = c

and

/ =

H, we have
cl =
_
_

r
_

H c

_
+

H
_

rc

__
d\
We use the usual trick of converting the rst integral to a surface integral, and
arguing that it is zero. (Note that

! 0 at least as fast as 1,r
2
for localized

,. ) Then
cl =
_

H c

1 d\
For a linear medium,

H /

1, and so
cl =
1
2
c
_

H

1 d\
and thus
l =
1
2
_

H

1 d\
and the energy density is
n
B
=
1
2

H

1
In vacuum
n
B
=
1
2j
0
1
2
=
j
0
2
H
2
Combining with the electric energy, we get
n
em
=
1
2
_
-
0
1
2
+
1
2
j
0
_
(4)
1.3 Conservation of energy, general case
When there exists a current distribution

, and eld

1, the elds do work per
unit volume to maintain the current at a rate
1 =

,

1
5
Using Amperes law, we may eliminate

,. This time we allow arbitrary time
variation.
_

,

1 d\ =
_
_

r

H
0

1
0t
_

1 d\
Substitute for

1
_

r

H
_
using

r
_

1

H
_
=

H
_

r

1
_

1
_

r

H
_
and use Faradays law and the divergence theorem to get:
_

,

1 d\ =
_
_

H
_

r

1
_

r
_

1

H
_

1
0t


1
_
d\
=
_
_

H
_

1
0t
_

1
0t


1
_
d\
_
_

1

H
_
^ : d
In a linear medium, we can simplify the rst term:
_

,

1 d\ =
1
2
_
0
0t
_

H

1 +

1

1
_
d\
_

o ^ : d
or
_
0
0t
1
2
_

H

1 +

1

1
_
d\ =
_

o ^ : d
_

,

1 d\ (5)
where

o is the Poynting vector

1

H. Remembering that ^ : is the outward
normal, we may interpret this result as:
rate of change of stored energy in the volume = ow of energy into the volume work done by elds
Applying the divergence theorem to the rst term on the RHS, we may write
the energy conservation equation in dierential form:
0n
0t
+

r

o =

,

1 (6)
Compare with charge conservation (Notes 1 pg 2). Here the non-zero term on
the right hand side shows that energy may be converted to non-electromagnetic
forms by the currents.
1.4 Systems of conductors
With the usual convention that ! 0 at innity, a spherical conductor of
radius a carrying charge Q has potential \ = /Q,a. Similarly, the surface of
any conductor is an equipotential and the value of the potential is proportional
to the charge it carries. The constant of proportionality depends on the size
and shape of the conductor:
\ = Q,C (7)
6
where C is the capacitance. Note that C equals the charge on the conductor
when it is raised to unit potential.
Now suppose we have a collection of charged conductors. The elds pro-
duced by all of the conductors aect the potential on each of them. Thus we
may write
\
i
=
N

j=1
j
ij
Q
j
(8)
The coecients j
ij
depend on the geometry. We can invert the matrix j
ij
to
obtain the relation
Q
i
=
N

j=1
C
ij
\
j
(9)
If all the conductors except one are grounded, and the remaining one has \
i
= 1,
then
Q
i
= C
ii
\
i
= C
ii
Compare this relation with equation (7). The coecients C
ii
are called capac-
itances while the C
ij
with i 6= , are called coecients of induction.
The capacitance C
ii
is the charge required to raise conductor i
to unit potential with all the others grounded.
Note that this denition is not quite the same as the capacitance of a system
of two conductors dened in elementary treatments (e.g. Lea and Burke Ch 27
and example below). Since the name is the same, you must use context to
decide which is meant.
We may also express the energy of the system in terms of the C
ij
. Since
charge exists only on the surface of the conductors (Problem 1.1), and each
surface is an equipotential, equation (3) becomes:
l =
1
2
N

i=1
Q
i
\
i
=
1
2
N

i=1
N

j=1
C
ij
\
j
\
i
=
1
2
N

i=1
N

j=1
Q
i
j
ij
Q
j
As an example of nding coecents of capacitance, consider a simple system
composed of two concentric, spherical conducting shells of radii a and / a.
Let the potential be zero at innity, and let the charges on the two conductors
be Q
a
and Q
b
respectively. Then we can use Gauss law to nd the electric
elds, and hence the potentials on the two surfaces.
For r < a,

1 = 0
For a < r < /,

1 = /
Qa
r
2
^ r
For r /,

1 = /
Qa+Q
b
r
2
^ r
7
To nd the potentials, use the line integral:

2
=
_
2
1

1 d

/
We start from innity where we know = 0. Then:

1
=
b
= /
_
1
b
Q
a
+Q
b
r
2
dr = /
Q
a
+Q
b
r

1
b
= /
Q
a
+Q
b
/
and then:

b
= /
_
b
a
Q
a
r
2
dr = /
Q
a
r

b
a
= /Q
a
_
1
a

1
/
_
(10)
and so

a
= /
Q
a
+Q
b
/
+/Q
a
_
1
a

1
/
_
= /
_
Q
a
a
+
Q
b
/
_
Using superposition, we can think of this as the constant potential inside the
charged sphere of radius / due to the charge Q
b
, plus the potential at the surface
of the charged sphere of radius a due to its own charge Q
a
.
Now we want to put all this into the language of capacitances. First:
\
i
=

j
j
ij
Q
j
or, equivalently:
_
\
a
\
b
_
=
_
j
11
j
12
j
21
j
22
__
Q
a
Q
b
_
For our example, we can see that
_
j
11
j
12
j
21
j
22
_
= /
_
1,a 1,/
1,/ 1,/
_
Then we can also write:
Q
i
=

j
C
ij
\
j
or
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
=
_
C
11
C
12
C
21
C
22
__
\
a
\
b
_
where
_
C
11
C
12
C
21
C
22
_
=
_
j
11
j
12
j
21
j
22
_
1
=
1
/
_
1,a 1,/
1,/ 1,/
_
1
=
1
/
_
/
/ a
__
a a
a /
_
8
Thus:
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
=
1
/
/
/ a
_
a a
a /
__
\
a
\
b
_
=
1
/
/
/ a
_
a (\
a
\
b
)
a\
a
+/\
b
_
Now put in the expressions for the potentials and double check:
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
=
1
/
a/
/ a
_
\
a
\
b
\
a
+/\
b
,a
_
=
1
/
a/
/ a
/
_
aQ
b
+Qab
ab

Qa+Q
b
b

aQ
b
+Qab
ab
+
b
a
Qa+Q
b
b
_
=
a/
/ a
_
Q
a
ba
ab
Q
b
ba
ab
_
=
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
as expected.
The capacitances of the two conductors are
C
11
=
1
/
a/
/ a
and C
22
=
1
/
/
2
/ a
.
The capacitance of this system, as dened in elementary treatments for
Q
a
= Q
b
= Q, is (equation 10)
C =
Q
4\
=
Q
/Q(/ a) ,a/
=
4-
0
a/
(/ a)
= C
11
Is this relation true in general? No.
In general, if Q
b
= Q
a
, we have:
_
\
a
\
b
_
=
_
j
11
j
12
j
21
j
22
__
Q
Q
_
=
_
j
11
Qj
12
Q
j
21
Qj
22
Q
_
and thus
C =

Q
\

1
j
11
j
12
j
21
+j
22

Using Greens reciprocation theorem (problem 1.12), we can show that j

1
j
11
2j
12
+j
22

whereas
_
C
11
C
12
C
21
C
22
_
=
_
j
11
j
12
j
21
j
22
_
1
=
1
j
11
j
22
j
12
j
21
_
j
22
j
12
j
21
j
11
_
So
C
11
=
j
22
j
11
j
22
j
12
j
21
=
j
22
j
11
j
22
j
2
12
which is not equal to C, in general.
9
For our system, j
22
= j
12
(you might want to investigate the conditions
necessary for this relation to hold) and we have:
C
11
=
1
j
11
j
22
= C
The energy of the system is:
l =
1
2
\ C \
=
1
2
_
\
a
\
b
_
1
/
/
/ a
_
a a
a /
__
\
a
\
b
_
=
1
2/
/
/ a
_
\
a
\
b
_
_
a\
a
a\
b
a\
a
+/\
b
_
=
1
2/
/
/ a
_
a\
2
a
2a\
a
\
b
+/\
2
b
_
or, equivalently,
l =
1
2
\ C \ =
1
2
\ Q
=
1
2
_
\
a
\
b
_
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
=
1
2
(\
a
Q
a
+\
b
Q
b
)
or
l =
1
2
Q 1 Q
=
1
2
_
Q
a
Q
b
_
/
_
1,a 1,/
1,/ 1,/
__
Q
a
Q
b
_
=
/
2
_
Q
2
a
a
+ 2
Q
a
/
Q
b
+
Q
2
b
/
_
In the special case that Q
a
= Q
b
= Q, we get
l =
/
2
_
Q
2
a
2
Q
2
/
+
Q
2
/
_
=
/Q
2
2
_
1
a

1
/
_
=
1
2
Q
2
C
as expected.
1.5 Poyntings theorem for harmonic elds
The above discussion does not include any dissipative eects that convert en-
ergy to non-electromagnetic forms. The easiest way to include these eects is
by working with the Fourier transforms of the Maxwell equations. This im-
mediately gives us the results for AC circuits, for example, by considering a
single frequency component. The general results for time dependent elds with
dissipation are in Jackson 6.8.
10
For a single frequency component

1 (r, t) = Re
_

1 (r, .) c
i!t
_
=
1
2
_

1 (r, .) c
i!t
+

1

(r, .) c
i!t
_
When multiplying two such terms, we have to be careful. For example, the rate
at which the elds do work is
1 (r, t) = Re
_

, (r, t)
_
Re
_

1 (r, t)
_
=
1
2
_

, (r, .) c
i!t
+

(r, .) c
i!t
_
1
2
_

1 (r, .) c
i!t
+

1

(r, .) c
i!t
_
=
1
4
_

, (r, .)

1

(r, .) +

(r, .)

1 (r, .) +

, (r, .)

1 (r, .) c
2i!t
+

(r, .)

1

(r, .) c
2i!t
_
=
1
2
Re
_

(r)

1 (r) +

, (r)

1 (r) c
2i!t
_
Taking the time average, the second term vanishes, and we get
< 1 (r) =
1
2
Re
_

(r)

1 (r)
_
In what follows, the "Re" will be implicit. Then with these conventions,
Maxwells equations become

r

1 = j
f

r

1 = 0

r

1 = i.

r

H +i.

1 =

,
f
and the time averaged rate at which the elds do work in a volume \ is
< 1 =
1
2
_

,

(r)

1 (r) d\
=
1
2
_
_

r

H

i.

1 (r) d\
But

r
_

1

H

_
=

H

r

1
_

1
_

r

H

_
So
< 1 =
1
2
_
_

r
_

1

H

_
+

H

r

1
_
i.

1 (r)
_
d\
=
1
2
_
_

r
_

1

H

_
+

H

_
i.

1
_
i.

1 (r)
_
d\
The time averaged rate of energy ow is

o =
1
2
_

1

H

_
=
1
2
_

H
_
11
making
< 1 =
_
S

o : di.
1
2
_
_

1

H

1
_
d\
1
2
_

,

(r)

1 (r) d\ =
_
S

o ^ : d2i.
_
(n
E
n
M
) d\ (11)
where
n
E
=
1
4
_

1
_
=
-

(.)
4

2
is the time averaged electric energy density at frequency ., and simlarly for n
M
.
Equation (11) is the analog of equation (5) for harmonic elds.
Now consider a system with all the elds conned inside a volume \, as
shown. The Poynting ux

o is zero on the bounding surface o. (This means we
have no radiation resistance. See J 6.9 for a fuller discussion that includes ra-
diation resistance). Instead power is provided to the system by an input current
1
i
at voltage \
i
. (\
i
is the potential dierence across the system, input terminal
to output terminal, as shown in the diagram). Then we modify equation (11)
as follows:
1
2
1

i
\
i
=
1
2
_

, (r)

1 (r) d\ + 2i.
_
(n
E
n
M
) d\
We can interpret this in terms of the impedance of the system (see, eg, Lea Ch
2 Pr 14):
\
i
= 1
i
7 = 1
i
(1 iA)
12
where 1 is the resistance and A is the reactance. Then, if the conductivity is
real,
j1
i
j
2
7 =
_

, (r)

1 (r) d\ + 4i.
_
(n
E
n
M
) d\
1 iA =
1
j1
i
j
2
__
o

2
d\ + 4i.
_
(n
E
n
M
) d\
_
Thus when the energy densities and the conductivity are real, we have
1 =
1
j1
i
j
2
_
o

2
d\
and
A =
4.
j1
i
j
2
_
(n
E
n
M
) d\ (12)
At low frequencies, the stored energies are
l
E
=
1
4
jQj
2
C
=
1
4
j1
i
j
2
.
2
C
and l
M
=
1
4
1j1
i
j
2
so that (12) reduces to
.
_
1
1
.
2
C
_
= .1
1
.C
as expected.
13