6th Social History Our Past 1
6th Social History Our Past 1
6th Social History Our Past 1
O N T E N T S
Foreword Why Study History? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? ON THE TRAIL OF THE EARLIEST PEOPLE FROM GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD IN THE EARLIEST CITIES WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS
IN THIS BOOK
LOOK OUT FOR THESE
Definitions
You will find that each chapter is introduced by a young girl or a boy. Each chapter is divided into sections. Read, discuss and understand each section before proceeding to the next. Some chapters contain definitions. Many chapters contain a portion from a source, clues from which historians write history. Read these carefully, and discuss the questions they contain. Many of our sources are visual. Each illustration has a story to tell. You will also find maps. Look at these and try to locate the places mentioned in the lessons. Many chapters contain boxes with interesting, additional information. All chapters end with a section titled Elsewhere. This tells you about something that was happening in another part of the world. At the end of each chapter, you will find a list of keywords. These are to remind you of important ideas/ themes introduced in the lesson. You will also find some dates listed at the end of each chapter. In each chapter there are intext questions and activities that are highlighted. Spend some time discussing these as you go along. And there is a small section titled Imagine. This is your chance to go back into the past and figure out what life would have been like. You will also find three kinds of activities listed at the end of each chapter Lets recall, Lets discuss
Source
Additional information
Elsewhere
KEYWORDS
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES Imagine
CHAPTER 1
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WHAT , WHERE, HOW AND WHEN ?
Now find the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest. Some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago are located here. People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle, and lived in villages. Locate the Garo hills to the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India. These were some of the other areas where
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agriculture developed. The places where rice was first grown are to the north of the Vindhyas. Trace the river Indus and its tributaries (tributaries are smaller rivers that flow into a larger river). About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of these rivers. Later, about 2500 years ago, cities developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries, and along the seacoasts. Locate the Ganga and its tributary called the Son. In ancient times the area along these rivers to the south of the Ganga was known as Magadha. Its rulers were very powerful, and set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms were set up in other parts of the country as well. Throughout, people travelled from one part of the subcontinent to another. The hills and high mountains including the Himalayas, deserts, rivers and seas made journeys dangerous at times, but never impossible. So, men and women moved in search of livelihood, as also to escape from natural disasters like floods or droughts. Sometimes men marched in armies, conquering others lands. Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place. And religious teachers walked from village to village, town to town, stopping to offer instruction and advice on the way. Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover new and exciting places. All these led to the sharing of ideas between people. Why do people travel nowadays? Look at Map 1 once more. Hills, mountains and seas form the natural frontiers of the subcontinent. While it was difficult to cross these frontiers, those who wanted could and did scale the mountains and cross the seas. People from across the frontiers also came into the subcontinent and settled here.
Facing Page : This is a map of South Asia (including the present countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka) and the neighbouring countries of Afghanistan, Iran, China and Myanmar. South Asia is often called a subcontinent because although it is smaller than a continent, it is very large, and is separated from the rest of Asia by seas, hills and mountains.
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WHAT , WHERE, HOW AND WHEN ?
These movements of people enriched our cultural traditions. People have shared new ways of carving stone, composing music, and even cooking food over several hundreds of years.
There are several ways of finding out about the past. One is to search for and read books that were written long ago. These are called manuscripts, because they were written by hand (this comes from the Latin word manu, meaning hand). These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas. Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten away by insects, some were destroyed, but many
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have survived, often preserved in temples and monasteries. These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine and science. Besides, there were epics, poems, plays. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil. We can also study inscriptions . These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them. There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including kings and queens) recorded what they did. For example, kings often kept records of victories in battle. Can you think of the advantages of writing on a hard surface? And what could have been the difficulties? There were many other things that were made and used in the past. Those who study these objects are called archaeologists . They study the remains of buildings made of stone and brick, paintings and sculpture. They also explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins. Some of these objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay or metal. Objects that are made of hard, imperishable substances usually survive for a long time.
An old inscription. This inscription dates to about 2250 years ago, and was found in Kandahar, present-day Afghanistan. It was written on the orders of a ruler named Ashoka. You will read about him in Chapter 8. When we write anything, we use a script. Scripts consist of letters or signs. When we read what is written, or speak, we use a language. This inscription was written in two different scripts and languages, Greek (top) and Aramaic (below), which were used in this area.
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WHAT , WHERE HOW AND WHEN ?
Left : A pot from an old city. Pots like these were used about 4700 years ago. Right : An old silver coin. Coins such as this one were in use from about 2500 years ago. In what ways is the coin different from the ones we use today?
Archaeologists also look for bones of animals, birds, and fish to find out what people ate in the past. Plant remains survive far more rarely if seeds of grain or pieces of wood have been burnt, they survive in a charred form. Do you think cloth is found frequently by archaeologists? Historians, that is, scholars who study the past, often use the word source to refer to the information found from manuscripts, inscriptions and archaeology. Once sources are found, learning about the past becomes an adventure, as we reconstruct it bit by bit. So historians and archaeologists are like detectives, who use all these sources like clues to find out about our pasts.
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of the country. For example, today most people living in the Andaman Islands get their own food by fishing, hunting, and collecting forest produce. By contrast, most people living in cities depend on others for supplies of food. Differences such as these existed in the past as well. Besides, there is another kind of difference. We know a great deal about kings and the battles they fought because they kept records of their victories. Generally, ordinary people such as hunters, fishing folk, gatherers, farmers or herders did not keep records of what they did. While archaeology helps us to find out about their lives, there is much that remains unknown.
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WHAT , WHERE, HOW AND WHEN ?
Elsewhere
We have seen that inscriptions are written on hard surfaces. Many of these were written several hundreds of years ago. All inscriptions contain both scripts and languages. Languages which were used, as well as scripts, have changed over time. So how do scholars understand what was written? This can be done through a process known as decipherment.
L
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D (T)
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One of the most famous stories of decipherment comes from Egypt, a country in north Africa where there were kings and queens about 5000 years ago. Rosetta is a town on the north coast of Egypt, and here an inscribed stone was found, which contained inscriptions in three different languages and scripts (Greek, and two forms of Egyptian). Scholars who could read Greek figured out that the names of kings and queens were enclosed in a little frame, called a cartouche. They then placed the Greek and the Egyptian signs side by side, and identified the sounds for which the Egyptian letters stood. As you can see, a lion stood for L, and a bird for A. Once they knew what the letters stood for, they could read other inscriptions as well.
Imagine
You have to interview an archaeologist. Prepare a list of five questions that you would like to ask her/him.
Lets recall
1. Match the following: Narmada Valley Magadha Garo hills Indus and its tributaries Ganga Valley 2. The first big kingdom Hunting and gathering Cities about 2500 years ago Early agriculture The first cities KEYWORDS travelling manuscript inscription archaeolog y historian source decipherment
Lets discuss
3. Return to Rasheedas question. Can you think of some answers to it?
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WHAT , WHERE, HOW AND WHEN ?
SOME IMPORTANT
4.
DATES
X
Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists may find. Which of these could be made of stone? Why do you think ordinary men and women did not generally keep records of what they did? Describe at least two ways in which you think the lives of kings would have been different from those of farmers.
the beginning of agriculture (8000 years ago) the first cities on the Indus (4700 years ago) cities in the Ganga valley, a big kingdom in Magadha (2500 years ago) the present (about 2000 AD/CE)
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6.
Lets do
7. Find the word crafts persons on page 1. List at least five different crafts that you know about today. Are the crafts persons (a) men (b) women (c) both men and women? What were the subjects on which books were written in the past? Which of these would you like to read?
8.
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CHAPTER 2
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List the skills and knowledge that the children of these communities had. Do you have these skills and knowledge? There are at least four reasons why huntergatherers moved from place to place. First, if they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they would have had to go elsewhere in search of food. Second, animals move from place to place either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them had to follow their movements. Third, plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants. Fourth, people, plants and animals need water to survive. Water is found in lakes, streams and rivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial (with water throughout the year) others are seasonal. People living on their banks would have had to go in search of water during the dry seasons (winter and summer). Besides, people may have travelled to meet their friends and relatives. Remember, they travelled on foot. How do you come to school? How long would it take you to walk from your home to school? How long would it take you if you took a bus or rode a bicycle?
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E B A
Stone tools A : These are examples of the earliest stone tools. B : These were made several thousand years later. C : These were made later still. D : These were made about 10,000 years ago. E : These are natural pebbles.
D C
Some uses of stone tools are given below. Make a list of what these tools were used for and try and decide which of these tasks could be performed using a natural pebble. Give reasons for your answer. Some of these stone tools were used to cut meat and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides (animal skins), chop fruit and roots. Some may have been attached to handles of bone or wood, to make spears and arrows for hunting. Other tools were used to chop wood, which was used as firewood. Wood was also used to make huts and tools.
Stone tools may also have been used for : Left : Digging the ground to collect edible roots. Right : Stitching clothes made out of animal skin.
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As stone tools were important, people tried to find places where good quality stone was easily available. Places where stone was found and where people made tools are known as factory sites. How do we know where these factories were? Usually, we find blocks of stone, tools that were made and perhaps discarded because they were not perfect, and chips of waste stone left behind at these sites. Sometimes, people lived here for longer spells of time. These sites are called habitation-cum-factory sites. If you had to describe the place you live in, which of the terms would you choose? (a) habitation (b) factory (c) habitation-cum-factory (d) any other
Bhimbetka (in presentday Madhya Pradesh). Some sites, known as habitation sites, are places where people lived. These include caves and rock shelters such as the one shown here. People chose these natural caves because they provided shelter from the rain, heat and wind. Natural caves and rock shelters are found in the Vindhyas and the Deccan plateau. These rock shelters are close to the Narmada valley. Can you think of why people chose to live here?
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Sites
are places where the remains of things (tools, pots, buildings etc.) were found. These were made, used and left behind by people. These may be found on the surface of the earth, buried under the earth, or sometimes even under water. You will learn more about different sites in later chapters.
How stone tools were made : one of the two techniques is shown in the illustration. Try and identify it.
A changing environment
Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions. In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands. This in turn
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led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on grass. Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons. It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became important. This was also a time when several grain bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent. Men, women and children probably collected these grains as food, and learnt where they grew, and when they ripened. This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own.
Ostriches in India!
Ostriches were found in India during the Palaeolithic period. Large quantities of ostrich egg shells were found at Patne in Maharashtra. Designs were engraved on some pieces, while beads were also made out of them. What do you think the beads could have been used for? Where do we find ostriches today?
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habitation-cum factory sites. In some of the other, smaller sites, there is evidence to suggest that tools were made. Some of the sites were close to springs. Most tools were made from limestone, which was locally available. Can you think of a term for the second type of sites?
Elsewhere
Find France in your atlas. The painting below is from a cave in France. This site was discovered by four school children more than a hundred years ago. Paintings like this were made between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago. Many of these were of animals, such as wild horses, aurochs (an older, wild form of cattle), bison, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer and bear, painted in bright colours. These colours were made from minerals like ochre or iron ore, and charcoal. It is possible that these paintings were done on ceremonial occasions. Or perhaps they were made for special rituals, performed by hunters before they went in search of prey? Can you think of any other reasons?
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Imagine
KEYWORDS hunter-gatherer site habitation factory Palaeolithic Mesolithic microliths
You live in a rock shelter like the one shown on page15 about 12,000 years ago. Your uncle is painting one of the inner walls of the cave and you want to help him. Will you mix the colours, draw the lines, fill in the colours? What are the stories he might tell you?
Lets recall
1. Complete the sentences: (a) Hunter-gatherers chose to live in caves and rock shelters because . (b) Grasslands developed around years ago. (c) Early people painted on the of caves. (d) In Hunsgi, tools were made of . 2. Look at the present-day political map of the subcontinent on page 136. Find out the states where Bhimbetka, Hunsgi and Kurnool are located. Would Tushars train have passed near any of these sites?
Lets discuss
3. Why did the hunter-gatherers travel from place to place? In what ways are these similar to/different from the reasons for which we travel today? What tools would you use today for cutting fruit? What would they be made of? List three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire (see page16). Would you use fire for any of these purposes today?
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5.
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SOME IMPORTANT
Lets do
6. Make two columns in your notebook. In the left hand column, list the foods hunter-gatherers ate (see page 11). In the right hand column, list some of the foods you eat. Do you notice any similarities/differences? If you had a natural pebble like the ones shown on page 13, what would you use it for? List two tasks that are performed by both men and women at present. List another two that are performed only by women, and two that are performed only by men. Compare your list with that of any two of your classmates. Do you notice any similarities/differences in your lists?
X
DATES
the Mesolithic period (12,000-10,000 years ago) the beginning of the Neolithic (10,000 years ago)
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CHAPTER 3
Varieties of foods
Today, most of our food such as fruit, vegetables, grain, milk and meat comes from plants that are grown and animals that are reared. Different plants grow in different conditions rice, for example, requires more water than wheat and barley. This explains why farmers grow some crops in some areas and not in other areas. Different animals too, prefer different environments for instance, sheep and goat can survive more easily than cattle in dry, hilly environments. But, as you saw in Chapter 2, women and men did not always produce their own food.
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Women, men and children could also attract and then tame animals by leaving food for them near their shelters. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog. Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps where they lived. These animals such as sheep, goat, cattle and also the pig lived in herds, and most of them ate grass. Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became herders. Can you think of any reasons why the dog was perhaps the first animal to be tamed?
Domestication
is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different from wild plants and animals. This is because people select plants and animals for domestication. For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone to disease. They also select plants that yield large-size grain, and have strong stalks, capable of bearing the weight of the ripe grain. Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds) will have the same qualities. Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for breeding. As a result, gradually, domesticated animals and plants become different from wild animals and plants. For example, the teeth and horns of wild animals are usually much larger than those of domesticated animals. Look at these two sets of teeth. Which do you think belongs to a wild pig and which to a domesticated animal? Domestication was a gradual process that took place in many parts of the world. It began about 12,000 years ago. Virtually all the plant and animal produce that we use as food today is a result of domestication. Some of the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat 23 and barley. The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat.
If you plant a seed, you will notice that it takes some time to grow. This may be for several days, weeks, months and in some cases years. When people began growing plants, it meant that they had to stay in the same place for a long time looking after the plants, watering, weeding, driving away animals and birds till the grain ripened. And then, the grain had to be used carefully. As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it. In many areas, they began making large clay pots, or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground. Do you think hunter-gatherers would have made and used pots? Give reasons for your answer.
Storing animals
Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they are looked after carefully, they provide milk, which is an important source of food, and meat, whenever required. In other words, animals that are reared can be used as a store of food. Apart from food, what are the other things that could have been obtained from animals? What are animals used for today?
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of plants and animal bones. One of the most exciting finds includes remains of burnt grain. (These may have been burnt accidentally or on purpose). Scientists can identify these grains, and so we know that a number of crops were grown in different parts of the subcontinent. They can also identify the bones of different animals. Look at the table below to see where evidence of grain and bones of domesticated animals have been found.
Sites
Mehrgarh (in present day-Pakistan)
Hallur (in present-day Andhra Pradesh) Paiyampalli (in present-day Andhra Pradesh)
These are just some of the sites from which grain and bones have been found.
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New stone tools. Compare these with the tools shown on page 13 (Chapter 2). Can you see any similarities or differences?
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Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found. These were sometimes decorated, and were used for storing things. People began using pots
for cooking food, especially grains like rice, wheat and lentils that now became an important part of the diet. Besides, they began weaving cloth, using different kinds of materials, for example cotton, that could now be grown. Did things change everywhere and all at once? Not quite. In many areas, men and women still continued to hunt and gather food, and elsewhere people adopted farming and herding slowly, over several thousand years. Besides, in some cases people tried to combine these activities, doing different things during different seasons.
Tribes
Usually two to three generations live together in small settlements or villages. Most families are related to one another and groups of such families form a tribe. Members of a tribe follow occupations such as hunting, gathering, farming, herding and fishing. Usually, women do most of the agricultural work, including preparing the ground, sowing seeds, looking after the growing plants and harvesting grain. Children often look after plants, driving away animals and birds that might eat them. Women also thresh, husk, and grind grain. Men usually lead large herds of animals in search of pasture. Children often look after small flocks. The cleaning of animals and milking, is done by both men and women. Both women and men make pots, baskets, tools and huts. They also take part in singing, dancing and decorating their huts.
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FROM GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD
Some men are regarded as leaders. They may be old and experienced, or young, brave warriors, or priests. Old women are respected for their wisdom and experience. Tribes have rich and unique cultural traditions, including their own language, music, stories and paintings. They also have their own gods and goddesses. What makes tribes different from many other societies you will be studying about is that land, forests, grasslands and water are regarded as the wealth of the entire tribe, and everybody shares and uses these together. There are no sharp differences between the rich and the poor.
Make a list of all the activities performed by men in tribal societies. What do women do? Are there any activities that are done by both men and women?
Village
One of the distinctive features of a village is that most people who live there are engaged in food production.
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Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage. When people die, their relatives and friends generally pay respect to them. People look after them, perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life after death. Burial is one such arrangement. Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with goats, which were probably meant to serve as food in the next world.
A house in Mehrgarh. This is what a house in Mehrgarh may have looked like. In what ways is this house similar to the one in which you live?
A burial from Mehrgarh. Can you identify the skeletons of the goats?
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Find Daojali Hading on Map 2 (page14). This is a site on the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley, close to routes leading into China and Myanmar. Here stone tools, including mortars and pestles, have been found. These indicate that people were probably growing grain and preparing food from it. Other finds include jadeite, a stone that may have been brought from China. Also common are finds of tools made of fossil wood (ancient wood that has hardened into stone), and pottery.
Elsewhere
Find Turkey in your atlas. One of the most famous Neolithic sites, Catal Huyuk, was found in Turkey. Several things were brought from great distances flint from Syria, cowries from the Red Sea, shells from the Mediterranean Sea and used in the settlement. Remember, there were no carts most things would have been carried on the backs of pack animals such as cattle or by people. What do you think cowries and shells would have been used for?
Imagine
You are in charge of a small plot of land and have to decide what food crops to grow. What are the plants you would choose? Where would you get the seeds from? How would you plant them? How would you look after your plants? And when would they be ready for harvesting?
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Lets recall
1. Why do people who grow crops have to stay in the same place for a long time? Look at the table on page 25. If Neinuo wanted to eat rice, which are the places she should have visited? Why do archaeologists think that many people who lived in Mehrgarh were hunters to start with and that herding became more important later? State whether true or false: (a) Millets have been found at Hallur. (b) People in Burzahom lived in rectangular houses. (c) Chirand is a site in Kashmir. (d) Jadeite, found in Daojali Hading, may have been brought from China.
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SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
Beginnings of domestication (about 12,000 years ago) Beginning of settlement at Mehrgarh (about 8000 years ago)
2.
3.
4.
Lets discuss
5. List three ways in which the lives of farmers and herders would have been different from that of huntergatherers. Make a list of all the animals mentioned in the table (page 25). For each one, describe what they may have been used for.
6.
Lets do
7. 8. List the cereals that you eat. Do you grow the cereals you have listed in answer no. 7? If yes, draw a chart to show the stages in growing them. If not, draw a chart to show how these cereals reach you from the farmers who grow them.
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CHAPTER 4
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These cities were found in the Punjab and Sind in Pakistan, and in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab in India. Archaeologists have found a set of unique objects in almost all these cities: red pottery painted with designs in black, stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, and long stone blades.
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Top : A street in Mohenjodaro with a drain. Above : A well. Far Left : A Harappan seal. The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent. Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they mean. Left : Terracotta toys.
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Top : Stone weights. Notice how carefully and precisely these weights are shaped. These were made of chert, a kind of stone. These were probably used to weigh precious stones or metals. Right : Beads. Many of these were made out of carnelian, a beautiful red stone. The stone was cut, shaped, polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a string could be passed through it. Far right : Stone blades. Bottom Right : Embroidered cloth. A stone statue of an important man found from Mohenjodaro shows him wearing an embroidered garment.
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The Harappans also made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular (See illustration on page 35) and usually have an animal carved on them. The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs, such as the one shown on page 6. Was metal used in the villages you learnt about in Chapter 3? Was stone used to make weights? Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls,
Faience
Unlike stone or shell, that are found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels.
made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread. Many of the things that were produced were probably the work of specialists. A specialist is a person who is trained to do only one kind of work, for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, or carving seals. Look at the illustration (page 36) and see how well the face is carved and how carefully the beard is shown. This must have been the work of an expert crafts person. Not everybody could have been a specialist. We do not know whether only men were specialists or only women were specialists. Perhaps some women and men may have been specialists.
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West Asia. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
How were goods carried from one place to another? Look at the illustrations. One shows a toy and the other is a seal. Can you suggest what the modes of transport used by the Harappans were? Did you come across illustrations of wheeled vehicles in earlier lessons?
A toy plough. Today, in many farming communities, only men use the plough. We do not know whether the Harappans followed such customs or not.
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ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.
A dockyard at Lothal. This huge tank may have been a dockyard, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel. Goods were probably loaded and unloaded here.
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A building that was found here was probably a workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.
KEYWORDS city citadel ruler scribe crafts person metal seal specialist raw material plough irrigation
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It appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south. New cities emerged about 1400 years later. You will read about them in Chapters 6 and 9.
Elsewhere
Find Egypt in your atlas. Most of Egypt is a dry desert, except for the lands along the river Nile. Around 5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt. These kings sent armies to distant lands to get gold, silver, ivory, timber, and precious stones. They also built huge tombs, known as pyramids. When they died, the bodies of kings were preserved and buried in these pyramids. These carefully preserved bodies are known as mummies. A large number of objects were also buried with them. These included food and drink, clothes, ornaments, utensils, musical instruments, weapons and animals. Sometimes even serving men and women were buried with the rulers. These are amongst the most elaborate burials known in world history. Do you think kings would have needed these things after death?
Imagine
You are travelling with your parents, about 4000 years ago, from Lothal to Mohenjodaro. Describe how you would travel, what your parents might carry with them, and what you would see in Mohenjodaro.
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IN THE EARLIEST CITIES
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
X
Lets recall
1. How do archaeologists know that cloth was used in the Harappan civilisation? Match the columns Copper Gold Tin Precious stones 3. Gujarat Afghanistan Rajasthan Karnataka
Cotton cultivation at Mehrgarh (about 7000 years ago) Beginning of cities (about 4700 years ago) Beginning of the end of these cities (about 3900 years ago) The emergence of other cities (about 2500 years ago)
2.
Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the plough important for the Harappans?
Lets discuss
4. Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson. Which do you think children would have enjoyed playing with the most? Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tick mark against the things you eat today. Do you think that the life of farmers and herders who supplied food to the Harappan cities was different from that of the farmers and herders you read about in Chapter 3? Give reasons for your answer.
5.
6.
Lets do
7. Describe three important buildings in your city or village. Are they located in a special part of the settlement (e.g. the centre)? What are the activities that take place in these buildings? Are there any old buildings in your locality? Find out how old they are and who looks after them.
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OUR PASTSI
8.
CHAPTER 5
The books we use are written and printed. The Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read. It was written down several centuries after it was first composed, and printed less than 200 years ago.
A page from a manuscript of the Rigveda. This manuscript of the Rigveda, on birch bark, was found in Kashmir. About 150 years ago, it was used to prepare one of the earliest printed texts of the Rigveda, as well as an English translation. It is now preserved in a library in Pune, Maharashtra.
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OUR PASTSI
Generally, sons did not automatically succeed fathers as rajas. Read the previous section once more and see whether you can find out what the rajas did. Two words were used to describe the people or the community as a whole. One was the word jana, which we still use in Hindi and other languages. The other was vish. The word vaishya comes from vish. You will learn more about this in Chapter 6. Several vish or jana are mentioned by name. So we find reference to the Puru jana or vish, the Bharata jana or vish, the Yadu jana or vish, and so on. Do any of these names sound familiar? Sometimes, the people who composed the hymns described themselves as Aryas and called their opponents Dasas or Dasyus. These were people who did not perform sacrifices, and probably spoke different languages. Later, the term dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to mean slave. Slaves were women and men who were often captured in war. They were treated as the property of their owners, who could make them do whatever work they wanted. While the Rigveda was being composed in the north-west of the subcontinent, there were other developments elsewhere. Let us look at some of these.
47
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Top : This type of megalith is known as a cist. Some cists, like the one shown here, have port-holes which could be used as an entrance.
Some important megalithic sites are shown on Map 2 (page14). While some megaliths can be seen on the sur face, other megalithic burials are often underground. Sometimes, archaeologists find a circle of stone boulders or a single large stone standing on the ground. These are the only indications that there are burials beneath. There were several things that people did to make megaliths. We have made a list here. Try and arrange them in the correct order: digging pits in the earth, transporting stones, breaking boulders, placing stones in position, finding suitable stone, shaping stones, burying the dead. All these burials have some common features. Generally, the dead were buried with distinctive pots, which are called Black and Red Ware. Also found are tools and weapons of iron and sometimes, skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments of stone and gold. Was iron used in the Harappan cities?
Iron equipment found from megalithic burials. Left top : Horse equipment. Left below : Axes. Below : A dagger.
48
OUR PASTSI
49
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
the centre of the settlement. This house also had a granary. The body was placed in a crosslegged position. Do you think this was the body of a chief? Give reasons for your answer.
Occupations at Inamgaon
Archaeologists have found seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame. Bones of a number of animals, many bearing cut marks that show they may have been used as food, have also been found. These include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose, besides birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish. There is evidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, dates and a variety of berries were collected.
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OUR PASTSI
Use this evidence to list the possible occupations of the people at Inamgaon.
Elsewhere
Find China in your atlas. Around 3500 years ago, we find some of the first evidence of writing in China. These writings were on animal bones. These are called oracle bones, because they were used to predict the future. Kings got scribes to write questions on the bones would they win battles? Would the harvest be good? Would they have sons? The bones were then put into the fire, and they cracked because of the heat. Then fortunetellers studied these cracks, and tried to predict the future. As you may expect, they sometimes made mistakes. These kings lived in palaces in cities. They amassed vast quantities of wealth, including large, elaborately decorated bronze vessels. However, they did not know the use of iron. List one difference between the raja of the Rigveda and these kings.
Imagine
You live in Inamgaon, 3000 years ago, and the chief has died last night. Today, your parents are preparing for the burial. Describe the scene, including how food is being prepared for the funeral. What do you think would be offered?
KEYWORDS Veda language hymn chariot sacrifice raja slave megalith burial skeletal 51 iron
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
X
Lets recall
1. Match the columns Sukta Chariots Yajna Dasa Megalith 2. Complete the sentences: (a) Slaves were used for (b) Megaliths are found in (c) Stone circles or boulders on the surface were used to (d) Port-holes were used for (e) People at Inamgaon ate Stone boulder Sacrifice Well-said Used in battles Slave
Beginning of the composition of the Vedas (about 3500 years ago) Beginning of the building of megaliths (about 3000 years ago) Settlement at Inamgaon (between 3600 and 2700 years ago) Charaka (about 2000 years ago)
Lets discuss
3. In what ways are the books we read today different from the Rigveda? What kind of evidence from burials do archaeologists use to find out whether there were social differences amongst those who were buried? In what ways do you think that the life of a raja was different from that of a dasa or dasi?
4.
5.
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OUR PASTSI
Lets do
6. Find out whether your school library has a collection of books on religion, and list the names of five books from this collection. Write down a short poem or song that you have memorised. Did you hear or read the poem or song? How did you learn it by heart? In the Rigveda, people were described in terms of the work they did and the languages they spoke. In the table below, fill in the names of six people you know, choosing three men and three women. For each of them, mention the work they do and the language they speak. Would you like to add anything else to the description?
7.
8.
NAME
WORK
LANGUAGE
ANYTHING ELSE
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WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
CHAPTER 6
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OUR PASTSI
chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya, also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation?
Varnas
We have many books that were composed in north India, especially in the areas drained by the Ganga and the Yamuna, during this period. These books are often called later Vedic, because they were composed after the Rigveda about which you learnt in Chapter 5. These include the Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, as well as other books. These were composed by priests, and described how rituals were to be performed. They also contained rules about society. There were several different groups in society at this time priests and warriors, farmers, herders, traders, crafts persons, labourers, fishing folk, and forest people. Some priests and warriors were rich, as were some farmers and traders. Others, including many herders, crafts persons, labourers, fishing folk and hunters and gatherers, were poor. The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas. According to them, each varna had a different set of functions. The first varna was that of the brahmin. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. They were expected to fight battles and protect people. Third were the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. Both the kshatriyas and the vaishyas could perform sacrifices.
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KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
Last were the shudras, who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with the shudras. Both women and shudras were not allowed to study the Vedas. The priests also said that these groups were decided on the basis of birth. For example, if ones father and mother were brahmins one would automatically become a brahmin, and so on. Later, they classified some people as untouchable. These included some crafts persons, hunters and gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials and cremations. The priests said that contact with these groups was polluting. Many people did not accept the system of varna laid down by the brahmins. Some kings thought they were superior to the priests. Others felt that birth could not be a basis for deciding which varna people belonged to. Besides, some people felt that there should be no differences amongst people based on occupation. Others felt that everybody should be able to perform rituals. And others condemned the practice of untouchability. Also, there were many areas in the subcontinent, such as the north-east, where social and economic differences were not very sharp, and where the influence of the priests was limited. Why did people oppose the system of varnas?
Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food.
Janapadas
The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 57). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 4?
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OUR PASTSI
They made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns.
Mahajanapadas
About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them.
MAP : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities
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KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stone had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this.
The fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago.
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OUR PASTSI
The new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 92). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 9. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas wer e dif ferent from those mentioned in the Rigveda.
Taxes
As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes.
Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers. Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga or a share. There were taxes on crafts persons as well. These could have been in the form of labour. For example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month for the king. Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal produce. There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold, through trade. And hunters and gatherers also had to provide forest produce to the raja.
What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers?
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KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
Changes in agriculture
There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. However, it was back breaking work. Generally, slave men and women, ( dasas and dasis ) and landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes?
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OUR PASTSI
Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didnt conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had heard that the rulers of India had vast ar mies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda?
Gana
Is used for a group that has many members.
Sangha
Means organisation or association.
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KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha democracy
This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago.
In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences.
Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas. Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 11.
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OUR PASTSI
Elsewhere
Find Greece and Athens in your atlas. Around 2500 years ago, the people of Athens set up a form of government, which was called a democracy, which lasted for about 200 years. All free men over the age of 30 were recognised as full citizens. There was an assembly that met at least 40 times a year to decide on important matters. All citizens could attend these meetings. Appointments for many positions were made through lottery. All those who wanted to be chosen gave in their names, and then some were selected through lottery. Citizens were expected to serve in the army and the navy. However, women were not considered citizens. Also, many foreigners, who lived and worked in Athens as merchants and crafts persons did not have rights as citizens. Besides, there were several thousand slaves in Athens, who worked in mines, fields, households and workshops. They too were not treated as citizens. Do you think this was a true democracy?
Imagine
You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear.
Lets recall
1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the king. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified.
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KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
SOME IMPORTANT
2.
DATES
X
Fill in the chart given below with the terms: huntergatherers, farmers, traders, crafts persons, herders.
New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago) Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago) Alexanders invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago) End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1500 years ago)
3.
Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas?
Lets discuss
4. 5. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? In what ways are present-day elections different from the ways in which rulers were chosen in janapadas?
Lets do
6. Find the state in which you live in the political map on page 136. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. Find out whether any of the groups mentioned in answer 2 pay taxes today. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present.
7.
8.
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OUR PASTSI
CHAPTER 7
65
NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. You will learn more about stupas in Chapter 12.
The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.
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Upanishads
Around the time that the Buddha was preaching and perhaps a little earlier, other thinkers also tried to find answers to difficult questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means approaching and sitting near and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues.
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NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning, and participated in debates held in royal courts. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII.
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Jainism
The most famous thinker of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 6. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. All beings, said Mahavira long to live. To all things life is dear. Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes.
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NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
Jaina
The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira?
It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 113).
The sangha
Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha. However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for beggar) and
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OUR PASTSI
bhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas , merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 6. Were there any similarities?
Monasteries
To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the monks and nuns, and they themselves, felt the need for more per manent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest
A cave hollowed out in the hills. This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Monks and nuns lived and meditated in these shelters.
71
viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India.
Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the monks and nuns. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. You will learn more about this in Chapter 10.
Elsewhere
Find Iran in your atlas. Zoroaster was an Iranian prophet. His teachings are contained in a book called the Avesta. The language of the Avesta, and the practices described in it are very similar to those of the Vedas. The basic teachings of Zoroaster are contained in the maxim Good thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds. Here is a verse from the Zend Avesta: Lord, grant strength and the rule of truth and good thinking, by means of which one shall create peace and tranquillity. For more than a thousand years, Zoroastrianism was a major religion in Iran. Later, some Zoroastrians migrated from Iran and settled down in the coastal towns of Gujarat and Maharashtra. They were the ancestors of todays Parsis.
Imagine
You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go.
Lets recall
1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.
KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara monastery ashrama
2.
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NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
X
e. Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? What were the main teachings of the Mahavira?
Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago) Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1500 years ago)
4.
Lets discuss
5. Why do you think Anaghas mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer.
6.
Lets do
7. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world?
8.
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OUR PASTSI
CHAPTER 8
Dynasty
When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and 75 Bindusaras son, Ashoka.
The places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire?
There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and crafts persons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different
MAP : 5 The Mauryan Empire, showing the Principal Cities and some of the Places where Inscriptions were found.
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OUR PASTSI
languages. They probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well.
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ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR
Tribute
Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly.
There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials.
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The Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.
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OUR PASTSI
Below : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years. Here you can see the letter a written in different scripts.
Early Brahmi
Devanagari (Hindi)
Bengali
Malayalam
Tamil
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ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR
Elsewhere
Somewhat before the time of the Mauryan empire, about 2400 years ago, emperors in China began building the Great Wall. It was meant to protect the northern frontier of the empire from pastoral people. Additions to the wall were made over a period of 2000 years because the frontiers of the empire kept shifting. The wall is about 6400 km long, and is made of stone and brick, with a road along the top. Several thousand people worked to build the wall. There are watch towers all along, at distances of about 100-200 m. In what ways do you think Ashokas attitude toward neighbouring peoples was different from that of the Chinese emperors?
Imagine
You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma. Describe the dialogue between them and your parents.
Lets recall
1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected from the area under the direct control of the ruler.
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OUR PASTSI
2.
(c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control and which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (c) Chandraguptas ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (d) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (e) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script.
Lets discuss
4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer.
X
5.
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)
6.
Lets do
7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue? 83
ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR
8.
These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 10). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors. 84
OUR PASTSI
Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 9). 85
Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1986, pp 70-71.
LOOKING AHEAD
The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 11). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 10. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the An Indo-Greek coin Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over A Kushana coin western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of A Shaka coin new towns, craft production and trade. T raders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in A Satavahana coin mind as you read 86the rest of the book.
OUR PASTSI
CHAPTER 9
Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures. Sickle, tongs, axe. Prepare a list of at least f ive objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday.
87
VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS
If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned.
Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: Labour is provided by the people. Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. Kings provide money and plan irrigation works.
5. 7. Production increases.
8. So does revenue.
9.
In the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka . Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some crafts persons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver.
89
VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS
We can use other kinds of evidence to find out about life in some of these early cities. Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest. Many of these sculptures were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited by people.
Many of the cities that developed from about 2500 years ago were capitals of the mahajanapadas that you learnt about in Chapter 6. As we had seen, some of these cities were surrounded by massive fortification walls. In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. These are known as ring wells. These seem to have been used as toilets in some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps. These ring wells are usually found in individual houses. We have hardly any remains of palaces, markets, or of homes of ordinary people. Perhaps some are yet to be discovered by archaeologists. Others, made of wood, mud brick and thatch, may not have survived. Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them. One of the most detailed accounts that has been found was by an unknown Greek sailor. He described all the ports he visited. Find
Below : A sculpture from Sanchi. This is a sculpture from Sanchi, a site with stupas, in Madhya Pradesh, showing the scene in a city. You will learn more about Sanchi in Chapter 12. Notice the way walls are shown. Are they made of brick, wood or stone? Now look at the railings. Are they made of wood? Describe the roofs of the buildings.
91
Bharuch on Map 7 (page 113) and then read his description of the city.
Coins
You may have noticed how wealth is measured in ter ms of coins in the story on page 90. Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch marked coins, such as the one shown below. They have been given this name because the designs were punched on to the metal silver or copper.
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93
VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS
Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and crafts persons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities.
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VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.
Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome.
Elsewhere
Find Rome on Map 6 (page 84). This is one of the oldest cities in Europe, and developed around the same time as the cities in the Ganga valley. Rome was the capital of one of the largest empires one that spread across Europe, North Africa, and West Asia. Augustus, one of the most important emperors, who ruled about 2000 years ago, said that he found Rome a city of brick, and made it into a city of marble. He, and later rulers, built temples and palaces. They also built huge amphitheatres open arenas surrounded by tiers of seats where citizens could watch all kinds of shows, and public baths (with separate timings for An aqueduct men and women), where people met and relaxed. Huge aqueducts channels to supply water were built to bring water to the city for the baths, fountains and toilets. Why do you think the amphitheatres and aqueducts have survived?
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Imagine
You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there.
KEYWORDS iron irrigation village port ring well city shreni Sangam
Lets recall
1. Fill in the blanks: (a)
in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the (c) Ploughmen were known as in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? List the crafts persons who would have been present in both villages and cities. Choose the correct answer: (a) Ring wells were used for: 1. bathing 2. washing clothes 3. irrigation 4. drainage (b) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory 97
3.
4.
SOME IMPORTANT
(c) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (d) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. crafts persons 3. farmers 4. herders
DATES
X
Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago) Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch marked coins (about 2500 years ago) Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago) Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1900 years ago)
Lets discuss
5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 87 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice?
6.
Lets do
7. If you have seen crafts persons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different?
8.
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CHAPTER 10
99
TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
Traders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys.
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ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 113), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often rewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 113). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts?
101
TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
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cocoons of silk worms, spun into thread and then woven into cloth. Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago. While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route. Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and west Asia, and from there, the knowledge of silk spread further west. About 2000 years ago, wearing silk became the fashion amongst rulers and rich people in Rome. It was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, along dangerous roads, through mountains and deserts. People living along the route often demanded payments for allowing traders to pass through. Look at Map 6 (pages 84-85) which shows the Silk Route and its branches. Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. The Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold
coins. These were used by traders along the Silk Route. Why do you think it would have been difficult to use carts along the Silk Route? Silk was also sent from China by sea. Trace the routes on Map 6 (pages 84-85). What do you think would have been the advantages and problems in transporting silk by sea?
A sculpture from the stupa at Sanchi. Look at the tree and the empty seat below it. Sculptors carved this to indicate that the Buddha had attained enlightenment while meditating under the tree.
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TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
Below left : An image of the Buddha from Mathura. Right : An image of the Buddha from Taxila. Look at these and note the similarities and differences that you may f ind.
isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism also spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for monks to live in. Some of these caves were made on the orders of kings and queens, others by merchants and farmers. These were often located near passes through the Western Ghats. Roads connecting prosperous ports on the coast with cities in the Deccan ran through these passes. Traders probably
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halted in these cave monasteries during their travels. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Read page 100 once more. Can you think of how Buddhism spread to these lands?
Pilgrims
are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship.
The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha (Chapter 7) as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his jour ney. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.
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TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
Xuan Zang, who took the land route back to China (through the north-west, and Central Asia) carried back with him statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600 manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses. Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus capsised. He spent the rest of his life translating the remaining manuscripts from Sanskrit into Chinese.
Vishnu as Varaha an image from Eran, Madhya Pradesh. This magnificent statue is of a special form of Vishnu, the Varaha or boar. According to the Puranas (see Chapter 12) Vishnu took the shape of a boar in order to rescue the earth, which had sunk into water. Here the earth is shown as a woman.
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TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
Bhakti
Comes from the Sanskrit term bhaj meaning to divide or share. This suggests an intimate, two-way relationship between the deity and the devotee. Bhakti is directed towards Bhagavat, which is often translated as god, but also means one who possesses and shares bhaga, literally good fortune or bliss. The devotee, known as the bhakta or the bhagavata, shares his or her chosen deitys bhaga.
A poem by a bhakta
Most Bhakti literature tells us that riches, learning and high status do not automatically ensure a close relationship with the deity. This is part of a poem composed in Tamil by Appar, a devotee of Shiva, who lived about 1400 years ago. Appar was a vellala (Chapter 9). The leper with rotting limbs, The man who is regarded as low by the brahmin, even the scavenger ... Even these men, if they are servants (i.e. devotees) Of him who shelters the Ganga in his long hair (i.e. Shiva) I worship them, They are gods to me. What does the poet regard as more valuable, social status or devotion?
Because the deities were special, these images of the deity were often placed within special homes, places that we describe as temples. You will learn more about these temples in Chapter 12. Bhakti inspired some of the best expressions in art sculpture, poetry and architecture.
Hindu
The word Hindu, like the term India is derived from the river Indus. It was used by Arabs and Iranians to refer to people who lived to the east of the river, and to their cultural practices, including religious beliefs.
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Elsewhere
About 2000 years ago, Christianity emerged in West Asia. Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, which was then part of the Roman empire. Christs teachings were that He was the Saviour of the world. He also taught people to treat others with love and trust others, just as they themselves wanted to be treated. Here are a few verses from the Bible, the holy book that contains the teachings of Christ: Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, For they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers for they shall be called sons of God. Christs teachings appealed to ordinary people, and spread through West Asia, Africa and Europe. The first Christian preachers came from West Asia to the west coast of the subcontinent within a hundred years of Christs death. Look at Map 6 (pages 84-85) and trace out the route that they may have used. The Christians of Kerala, known as Syrian Christians because they probably came from West Asia, are amongst the oldest Christian communities in the world.
Imagine
You have a manuscript which a Chinese pilgrim would like to carry back with him. Describe your conversation.
KEYWORDS trader muvendar route silk Kushanas Mahayana Buddhism Theravada Buddhism Bodhisattva pilgrim 109 Bhakti
Lets recall
1. Match the following:
Muvendar Lords of the dakshinapatha Ashvaghosha Bodhisattvas Xuan Zang Mahayana Buddhism Buddhacharita Satavahana rulers Chinese pilgrim Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
SOME IMPORTANT
2. 3.
Why did kings want to control the Silk Route? What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes? What were the main features of Bhakti?
DATES
X
Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago) Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago) Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1900 years ago) Fa Xian comes to India (about 1600 years ago) Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1400 years ago)
4.
X The
Lets discuss
5. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Why do you think ordinary people were attracted to Bhakti?
6.
Lets do
7. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas? There are several major pilgrimages performed by people in India today. Find out about any one of them, and write a short description. (Hint: who can go on the pilgrimage men, women or children? How long does it take? How do people travel? What do they take with them? What do they do when they reach the holy place? Do they bring anything back with them?)
8.
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CHAPTER 11
Samudraguptas prashasti
Let us see what Samudraguptas prashasti tells us. The poet praised the king in glowing terms as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who was learned and the best of poets. He is also described as equal to the gods. The prashasti was composed in very long sentences. Here is part of one such sentence:
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NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
If you look at Map 7 (page113), you will notice an area shaded in green. You will also find a series of red dots along the east coast. And you will find areas marked in purple and blue as well. This map is based on the information provided in the prashasti . Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudraguptas policies towards them.
1. The rulers of Aryavarta, the area shaded in green on the map. Here there were nine rulers who were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudraguptas empire. 2. The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelve rulers, some of whose capitals are marked with red dots on the map. They surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and he then allowed them to rule again. 3. The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of gana sanghas (remember Chapter 6) in the northwest, marked in purple on the map. They brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court. 4. The rulers of the outlying areas, marked in blue on the map, perhaps the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.
The king who played the veena. Some other qualities of Samudragupta are shown on coins such as this one, where he is shown playing the veena.
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Find Prayaga (the old name for Allahabad), Ujjain and Pataliputra (Patna) on the map. These were important centres of the Gupta rulers. What was the difference between the way in which Samudragupta treated the rulers of Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha? Can you suggest any reasons for this difference?
MAP : 7 Showing Important Cities and Kingdoms
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NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
Genealogies
Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of the ruler. This one mentions Samudraguptas great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother. His mother, Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja , a title that Samudragupta also used. His great grandfather and grandfather are mentioned simply as maharajas. It seems as if the family gradually rose to importance. Arrange these titles in order of importance: raja, maharaj-adhiraja, maha-raja. Samudragupta in turn figures in the genealogies (lists of ancestors) of later rulers of the dynasty, such as his son, Chandragupta II. We know about him from inscriptions and coins. He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas. According to later belief, his court was full of learned people, including Kalidasa the poet, and Aryabhata the astronomer, about whom you will read more in Chapter 12.
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the ruler of Kanauj (see Map 7) and he was killed by the ruler of Bengal. Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army against the ruler of Bengal. Although he was successful in the east, and conquered both Magadha and Bengal, he was not as successful elsewhere. He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II. Look at Map 8 (page136) and list the presentday states which Harshavardhana passed through when he went (a) to Bengal and (b) up to the Narmada.
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NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
checked the advance of Harsha. There is an interesting play of words in the poem. Harsha means happiness. The poet says that after this defeat, Harsha was no longer Harsha! Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram. But the Chalukya victory was short-lived. Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers belonging to the Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties, about which you will study in Class VII. Who were the other rulers who tried to control the coasts and why? (Hint: see Chapter 10).
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These policies were reasonably effective, but sooner or later, some of these powerful men grew strong enough to set up independent kingdoms. What do you think may have been the advantages and disadvantages of having hereditary officers?
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The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plight of those who were treated as untouchables by the high and mighty. They were expected to live on the outskirts of the city. He writes: If such a man enters a town or a market place, he strikes a piece of wood, in order to keep himself separate; people, hearing this sound, know what it means and avoid touching him or brushing against him. And Banabhatta provides us with a vivid picture of the kings army on the move:
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NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
Elsewhere
Find Arabia on Map 6 (pages 84-85). Although it is a desert, it was at the hub of communications for centuries. In fact, Arab merchants and sailors played an important role in the sea trade between India and Europe (see page 100). Others who lived in Arabia were the Bedouins, pastoral tribes depending mainly on like hardy animals camels, that could survive in the desert. Around 1400 years ago, Prophet Muhammad introduced a new religion, Islam, in Arabia. Like Christianity, Islam was a religion that laid stress on the equality and unity of all before Allah, the one supreme god. Here is a verse from the Quran, the sacred book of Islam: For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allahs remembrance, for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward. Within a hundred years Islam spread to north Africa, Spain, Iran and India. Arab sailors, who were already familiar with the coastal settlements of the subcontinent, now brought the new religion with them. Arabs soldiers conquered Sind (in present-day Pakistan) about 1300 years ago. Trace the routes that would have been taken by these sailors and soldiers on Map 6.
Imagine
Harshavardhanas army will visit your village next week. Your parents are preparing for the visit. Describe what they say and do.
Lets recall
1. State whether true or false: (a) Harishena composed a prashasti in praise of Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. (b) The rulers of Aryavarta brought tribute for Samudragupta. (c) There were twelve rulers in Dakshinapatha.
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(d) Taxila and Madurai were important centres under the control of the Gupta rulers. (e) Aihole was the capital of the Pallavas. (f) Local assemblies functioned for several centuries in south India. 2. Mention three Harshavardhana. authors who wrote about
KEYWORDS prashasti Aryavarta Dakshinapatha genealogy hereditary officer samanta assembly nagaram
3. 4.
What changes do you find in the army at this time? What were the new administrative arrangements during this period?
Lets discuss
5. What do you think Arvind would have to do if he was acting as Samudragupta? Do you think ordinary people would have read and understood the prashastis? Give reasons for your answer.
X
6.
SOME IMPORTANT
DATES
Beginning of the Gupta dynasty (about 1700 years ago) The rule of Harshavardhana (about 1400 years ago)
Lets do
X
7.
If you had to make a genealogy for yourself, who are the people you would include in it? How many generations would you like to show? Make a chart and fill it. How do you think wars affect the lives of ordinary people today?
8.
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NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
CHAPTER 12
The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. We know the date because there is an inscription on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty (Chapter 11). What is amazing is the fact that the pillar has not rusted in all these years.
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Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa . This was surrounded with railings. Entrance to the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. Find Amaravati on Map 7 (page 113). This was a place where a magnificent stupa once existed. Many of the stone carvings for decorating the stupa were made about 2000 years ago. Other buildings were hollowed out of rock to make artificial caves. Some of these were very elaborately decorated with sculptures and painted walls. Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built at this time. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha , where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity. Often, as at Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the
Top : The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. Stupas like this one were built over several centuries. While the brick mound probably dates to the time of Ashoka (Chapter 8), the railings and gateways were added during the time of later rulers. Left : Sculpture from Amaravati. Look at the picture and describe what you see.
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BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS
Top : An early temple at Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh. This was built about 1500 years ago, and was made of baked brick and stone. Top Right : Monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram. Each of these was carved out of a huge, single piece of stone (that is why they are known as monoliths). While brick structures are built up by adding layers of bricks from the bottom upwards, in this case the stone cutters had to work from top downwards. List the problems that stone cutters may have faced. Right : The Durga temple at Aihole, built about 1400 years ago.
garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Building shikharas required careful planning. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa . It was a hall where people could assemble. Find Mahabalipuram and Aihole on Map 7 (page 113). Some of the finest stone temples were built in these towns. Some of these are shown here.
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Left : A Jaina monastery from Orissa. This two storey building was carved out of the rock surface. Notice the entrance to the rooms. Jaina monks lived and meditated in these rooms. In what ways is the cave shown here different from the illustration on p.15? Below : A sculpture from the National Museum, New Delhi. Can you see how some of the caves may have been hollowed out?
Kings and queens probably spent money from their treasury to pay the crafts persons who worked to build these splendid structures. Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings. For example, an association of ivory workers paid for one of the beautiful gateways at Sanchi. Among the others who paid for decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and
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women who are known only by their names which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls. So when you get a chance to visit any of these buildings, remember how several hundreds of people probably worked to construct and decorate them. Make a diagram like the one on page 88 (Chapter 9) to show the stages in the building of a temple or stupa.
Painting
Find Ajanta on Map 7 (page 113). This is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings. Here are some examples. As the caves are dark inside, most of these paintings were done in the light of torches. The colours, which are vivid even after 1500 years, were made of plants and minerals. The artists who created these splendid works of art remain unknown.
Paintings from Ajanta. Describe what you see in each of these paintings.
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Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. These beautiful compositions were lost to scholars for many centuries, till their manuscripts were rediscovered, about a hundred years ago. Other writers, such as Kalidasa, (about whom you read in Chapter 11) wrote in Sanskrit.
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This was a war to gain control of the throne of the Kurus, and their capital, Hastinapur. The story itself was an old one, but was written down in the form in which we know it today, about 1500 years ago. Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita, about which you learnt in Chapter 10, was also included in the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. He won and returned to Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory. Like the Mahabharata, this was an old story that was now written down. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. There are several versions (many of which are per for med) of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, popular amongst people in different parts of the subcontinent. Find out about a version in your state.
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Zero
While numerals had been used earlier, mathematicians in India now invented a special symbol for zero. This system of counting was adapted by the Arabs and then spread to Europe. It continues to be in use throughout the world. The Romans used a system of counting without using zero. Try and find out more about it.
Elsewhere
Paper has become a part of our daily lives. The books we read are printed on paper, and we use paper for writing. Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by a man named Cai Lun. He beat plant fibres, cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked these in water, and then pressed, drained and dried the pulp to create paper. Even today, hand made paper is made through a similar process. The technique of making paper was a closely guarded secret for centuries. It reached Korea about 1400 years ago, and spread to Japan soon after. It was known in Baghdad about 1800 years ago. From Baghdad it spread to Europe, Africa, and other parts of Asia including the subcontinent. What were manuscripts in early India made out of ? (Hint: See Chapter 1)
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SOME IMPORTANT
Imagine
You are sitting in a mandapa of a temple. Describe the scene around you.
DATES
X
beginning of stupa building (2300 years ago) Amaravati (2000 years ago) Kalidasa (1600 years ago) Iron pillar, Temple at Bhitargaon, Paintings at Ajanta, Aryabhata (1500 years ago) Durga temple (1400 years ago)
Lets recall
1. Match the following Stupa Shikhara Mandapa Garbhagriha Pradakshina patha 2. Fill in the blanks: (a)
Place where the image of the deity is installed Mound Circular path around the stupa Place in temples where people could assemble Tower
(b) Stories about gods and goddesses are found in the (c)
is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. and are two Tamil epics.
(d)
Lets discuss
3. Make a list of the chapters in which you find mention of metal working. What are the metals objects mentioned or shown in those chapters? Read the story on page 130. In what ways is the monkey king similar to or different from the kings you read about in Chapters 6 and 11?
4.
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5.
Find out more and tell a story from one of the epics.
Lets do
6. List some steps that can be taken to make buildings and monuments accessible to differently abled people. Try and list as many uses of paper as you can. If you could visit any one of the places described in this chapter, which would you choose and why?
7. 8.
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