Solutions of Problems 3 Solution (3.1) a) We shall begin by showing that C1 is a subgroup of C . It is clear that C1 C .

. It remains to show that C1 is closed, contains the identity, and contains the inverse of every of its elements. Indeed (i) Closure: If z1 , z2 C1 , i.e. |z1 | = |z2 | = 1, then z1 z2 C1 because |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | = 1 (ii) Identity: The identity element is 1 which is clearly in C1 because |1| = 1. (iv) Inverse: The inverse of an element z C is z 1 . Moreover since z z = |z |2 , we can express the inverse of z as z z 1 = 2 . |z | Next to show that every element z C1 has an inverse, we have to prove that |z 1 | = 1. Using the above equation |z 1 | = | z |z | |z | 1 |= 2 = 2 = =1 2 |z | |z | |z | |z |

because |z | = 1, z C1 . This concludes the proof that C1 is a subgroup of C . The subgroup C1 will be normal in C , if z C1 z 1 C1 for every z C . However, C and so C1 are abelian groups because z1 z2 = z2 z1 for every pair of complex numbers. Therefore C1 is normal because every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. In this particular case, we have zuz 1 = zz 1 u = u for every u C1 and z C . b) The set R+ is a group with multiplication law the standard multiplication of real numbers. We dene a map as follows: :

C R+
z (z ) = |z | .

To show that is a group homomorphism, we have to prove that (z1 z2 ) = (z1 ) (z2 ) 1

for z1 , z2 C . Indeed, we have (z1 z2 ) = |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | = (z1 ) (z2 ) . So is a group homomorphism. Moreover to show that is onto, one has to prove that for every r z C such that (z ) = r. Indeed, let r R+ and set z = r. Then (z ) = (r) = |r| = r , and the map is onto. c) The kernel of the homomorphism is dened as follows: Ker = {z C : (z ) = 1} , i.e. the elements z Ker are the complex numbers in However, these are the elements of C1 and so

R+ there is a

C for which (z ) = |z | = 1.

C1 = Ker .
d) Recall the theorem that has been explained in the lectures which states that if : G G is a group homomorphism onto G with kernel H , then G/H = G . We apply this theorem for G = C , H = C1 = Ker and G = R+ and nd that

C /C1 = R+ .
e) To show that

C = C1 R+ , we consider the map

C C1 R+
z , |z |) . |z |

z (z ) = (

The map is clearly well-dened. The map is a group homomorphism. Indeed (z1 z2 ) = ( z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 , |z1 z2 |) = ( , |z1 ||z2 |) = ( , |z1 |)( , |z2 |) = (z1 )(z2 ) . |z1 z2 | |z1 | |z2 | |z1 | |z2 |

The map is 1 1. Indeed let z1 = z2 and (z1 ) = (z2 ). Then by the hypothesis ( z2 z1 , |z1 |) = ( , |z2 |) |z1 | |z2 | 2

and so

z1 z2 = |z1 | |z2 | |z1 | = |z2 | .

These imply that z1 = z2 , contradiction. So is 1 1. It remains to show that is onto. Indeed let (u, r) complex number z = ur C . Then (z ) = (

C1 R+ . Next consider the

z ur ur , |z |) = ( , |ur|) = ( , |u||r|) = (u, r) |z | |ur| |u||r|

since |u| = 1 and |r| = r. So is onto. Therefore is a group isomorphism and this proves (e). Solution (3.2) a.) From construction the set S is S = {sa,b : (a, b) R R}. It remains to dene the group multiplication law on S . Since S is a set of maps, it is natural to dene multiplication by map composition; but we need to check that composition of maps in S gives maps in S . Let sa1 ,b1 , sa2 ,b2 S , acting on R rst with sa1 ,b1 and then with sa2 ,b2 , we get sa2 ,b2 sa1 ,b1 (x) = sa2 ,b2 (a1 x + b1 ) = a2 a1 x + a2 b1 + b2 . We see that this is simply sa1 a2 ,a2 b1 +b2 , so that the multiplication law is sa2 ,b2 sa1 ,b1 := sa2 ,b2 sa1 ,b1 = sa1 a2 ,a2 b1 +b2 . We can now show that S is a group under the above multiplication law. Indeed (i) Closure: It is obvious because if a1 = 0 and a2 = 0, then a2 a1 = 0. (ii) Associativity: This follows immediately by the fact that the multiplication law corresponds to composition of maps. Explicitly, sa3 ,b3 sa2 ,b2 sa1 ,b1 = sa3 ,b3 sa2 a1 ,a2 b1 +b2 = sa3 a2 a1 ,a3 (a2 b1 +b2 )+b3 = sa3 a2 ,a3 b2 +b3 sa1 ,b1 ) = sa3 ,b3 sa2 ,b2 sa1 ,b1 (iii) Identity: The identity is e = s1,0 . Indeed sa,b s1,0 = s1,0 sa,b = sa,b for every sa,b S . 3 (1)

(iv) Inverse: We take as the inverse of sa,b S the element

which is clearly in S . This is indeed the inverse because

b.) The transformations S1 and the transformations S2 are generated by the following subsets of S : S1 = {sa,b S, and a = 1} = {s1,b , b R} S2 = {sa,b S, and b = 0} = {sa,0 , a R {0}} , respectively. To show that S1 is a subgroup, we have the following: (i) Closure: Indeed, let s1,b1 , s1,b2 S1 , then s1,b1 s1,b2 = s1,b1 +b2 S1 and so the composition law satises closure. (ii) Identity: The identity s1,0 of S is an element of S1 . (iii) Inverse: The inverse of the element s1,b S1 is
1 s 1,b = s1,b S1 .

Therefore S1 is a subgroup of S . Similarly, to show that S2 is a subgroup, we have the following: (i) Closure: Indeed, let sa1 ,0 , sa2 ,0 S1 , then sa1 ,0 sa2 ,0 = sa1 a2 ,0 S2 and so the composition law satises closure. (ii) Identity: The identity s1,0 of S is an element of S2 . (iii) Inverse: The inverse of the element sa,0 S2 is
1 s a,0 = sa1 ,0 S2 .

Therefore S2 is a subgroup as well. c.) To show that S1 is a normal subgroup of S , we have to prove that
1 sa,b S1 s a,b S1

for every sa,b S . Indeed let s1,d S1 , then

Therefore S1 is a normal subgroup. c.) To nd the coset group S/S1 , we consider the map : S S2 sa,b sa,b = sa,0 . This map is well dened and a group homomorphism. The former is obvious; to show the latter, we have sa1 ,b1 sa2 ,b2 = sa1 a2 ,a1 b2 +b1 = sa1 a2 ,0 = sa1 ,0 sa2 ,0 = sa1 ,b1 sa2 ,b2 . So is a group homomorphism. The group homomorphism is onto. Indeed for every element sa,0 S2 , we can nd an element in S , say sa,1 S , such that sa,1 = sa,0 . Finally the kernel of is ker() = {sa,b S : sa,b = s1,0 }. So ker() = {sa,b S : sa,b = sa,0 = s1,0 } = {s1,b : b R} = S1 . Using the theorem that has been described in the lectures, we nd that S/S1 = S2 .

Solution (3.3) a.) The right cosets of H in S3 are He = {e, a, a2 } Hb = {b, ab, a2 b} . Observe that there no other right cosets, i.e. Hb = Hab and so on. So there are two right cosets, the index is two, having three elements each. The order of S3 is six. So |S3 | = 6 = r|H | = 2 3 5

and the Lagranges theorem holds. Similarly, the left cosets are eH = {e, a, a2 } bH = {b, ba, ba2 } = {b, a2 b, ab} . Observe that there no other left cosets, i.e. bH = abH and so on. So there are two left cosets, the index is two, having three elements each. The order of S3 is six. So |S3 | = 6 = r|H | = 2 3 and the Lagranges theorem holds. b.) The conjugacy class [h] of an element h G is [h] = {ghg 1 for every g G} . Recall that the conjugacy classes of G are disjoint. It is clear from the denition that [e] = {e} . Next [a] = {a, bab1 } = {a, a2 } [ab] = {ab, a(ab)a1 , a2 (ab)(a2 )1 } = {ab, b, a2 b} , the rest of the elements of the type gag 1 and g (ab)g 1 , g S3 , do not give new elements in [a] and [ab]. Observe that S3 = [e] [a] [ab] and so S3 has three conjugacy clases. (All are disjoint). c.)Observe that the subgroup H is H = [e] [a] , i.e. it is the union of two conjugacy classes of S3 and so it is normal. d.) The number of cosets of H in S3 is two, so the coset subgroup S3 /H has order two. From the classication theorem, we expect it to be isomorphic to Z2 . To verify this, let Z2 =< b >= {e , b } . Next, we shall construct a group homomorphism : S3 Z2 6

with kernel H . For this observe that all the elements of S3 can be written as follows: S3 = {an bm , 0 n 2, 0 n 1} . We then dene the map (an b0 ) = (an ) = e (an b1 ) = (an b) = b . To show that is a group homomorphism, we have (an b0 ak b0 ) (an ak ) = (an+k ) = e = (an )(ak ) (an b1 ak b0 ) (an bak ) = (a b) = b = (an b1 )(ak b0 ) (an b1 ak b1 ) (an bak b) = (a b2 ) = (a ) = e = (b )2 = (an b)(ak b) . So is a group homomorphism; we have used the relations ba = a2 b and ba2 = ab of S3 , and so generically an bak = a b for some . The kernel of is Ker = {an bm S3 : (an bm ) = e } = {an b0 S3 } =< a >= H . So using the theorem we learn that S3 /H = Z2 =< [b] > . In particular,

Z2 = {[e], [b]} and [b]2 = [e].

e.) Observe that unlike H =< a >, the subgroups {e, b} and {e, ab} cannot be written as the union of conjugacy classes of S3 . So they are not normal subgroups of S3 .