Wanita dan tema perubahan dalam novel Faridah Hanum Kertas ini membincangkan dua tema utama yang

difokuskan dalam novel Faridah Hanum: wanita dan gagasan perubahan. Penulisan novel ini membawa pembaca melangkaui garis lazim yang terikat dengan pandangan konservatif kepada kerangka yang lebih luas tentang nilai dan aspirasi perubahan yang diperjuangkannya untuk mengangkat hak dan kebebasan wanita. Syed Sheikh al-Hadi, melalui karyanya yang fenomenal ini, telah mencetuskan perubahan yang positif dalam pemikiran masyarakat melayu terhadap kepentingan mempertahankan kebebasan wanita dan membela suara dan haknya. Kata kunci: wanita, Faridah Hanum, Syed Sheikh al-Hadi, perubahan dengan matlamat dihasilkan dengan matlamat telah mencetuskan aspirasi moden menulis novel ini Protagonisnya Faridah Hanum diketengahkan sebagai pencetus kesedaran dan perubahan dalam masyarakat. Syed Sheikh al-Hadi menerajui perubahan dari novel yang dihasilkannya pada 19 ini. utama dengan lebih luas yang diusahakan oleh , W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain
Publication details for Prof James Piscatori Piscatori, James (2012). 'Secular Aspirations and Political Islam in the Arab Middle East: The 1950s reconsidered'. The Maghreb Review 37(1): 3-32. Publication type: Journal papers: academic ISSN/ISBN: 0309-457X. OCLC. 4116541 View online: Online version Author(s) from Durham Prof James Piscatori Prof James Piscatori Professor of International Relations, and Head of School in the School of Government and International Affairs Member of the Centre for the History of Political Thought (email at [email protected])

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND

Professor Piscatori has worked at several universities in Britain, Australia and the United States. In Britain, he was Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford; and Professor of International Politics in the University of Aberystwyth. In addition, he was Professor at the Australian National University and Associate Profesor in the School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University. He has also been Senior Fellow at two research institutions -- the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London and the Council on Foreign Relations in New York. He has served on several international collaborative committees such as the Committee for the Comparative Study of Muslim Societies of the Social Science Reseach Council, and was co-editor of a series on Muslim Politics for Princeton University Press. RESEARCH AND SUPERVISION INTERESTS Professor Piscatori's work has centred on two themes: Islam and international relations; and Islamic political thought, particularly as it relates to democratisation in Middle Eastern societies. Area focus has been principally, but not exclusively, on the Arab states of the Gulf. Recently, he has been working on pan-Islamism and Islamic transnationalism, and specifically investigating the contemporary meaning of the ummah (community of the faith).
Research Interests Staff Profiles Publication details for Prof James Piscatori Piscatori, James (2012). 'Secular Aspirations and Political Islam in the Arab Middle East: The 1950s reconsidered'. The Maghreb Review 37(1): 3-32. Publication type: Journal papers: academic ISSN/ISBN: 0309-457X. OCLC. 4116541 View online: Online version Author(s) from Durham Prof James Piscatori

Islamic political and international thought Politics and international relations of the Middle East Religion and politics in the Arab states of the Gulf Teaching Areas Introduction to Middle East Politics (10 hours/year.)

Indicators of Esteem : Elected to the Society of Scholars, Johns Hopkins University Current Advisory Board Membership Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, School of Foreign Servce, Georgetown University Casa Arabe and International Institute of Arab and Muslim World Studies, Madrid and Cordoba Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies, Australian National University Centre for Muslim States and Societies, University of Western Australia National Centre for Excellence in Islamic Studies, Australia 2012 Exhibition on the Hajj, British Museum, London Current Editorial Boards Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs Critique: Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World and Oxford Islamic Studies OnLine, Oxford University Press Journal of Islamic Studies Political Handbook of Political Islam, Routledge Intellectual Discourse [Kuala Lumpur] Awraq [Madrid] Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (on-line) Publications Books: authored Piscatori, James (2004). Muslim Politics. Princeton University Press. Books: edited Dresch, Paul & Piscatori, James (2005). Monarchies and Nations: Globalization and Identity in the Arab States of the Gulf. I.B. Tauris. Edited works: contributions

Piscatori, James (2012). 'Winning Hearts and Minds: US promotion of a democratic Islam'. In American Democracy Promotion in the Changing Middle East: From Bush to Obama. Akbarzadeh, Shahram,, Piscatori, James, MacQueen, Benjamin & Saikal, Amin Routledge. Journal papers: academic Piscatori, James (2012). 'Secular Aspirations and Political Islam in the Arab Middle East: The 1950s reconsidered',. The Maghreb Review 37(1): 3-32. Piscatori, James (2000). 'Imagining Pan-Islam: Religious Activism and Political Utopias'. Proceedings of the British Academy 131. Monographs Piscatori, James (2000). Islam, Islamists and the Electoral Principle. International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM). Grants Awarded 2010: Australian Research Council Grant on Democratisation in the Middle East Supervises Meshari Alruwaih Miss Lucy Abbott Mr Khalil al-Anani Mr Abdulmalic Al-hussain Mr Daoud Yaqub Nussaibah Younis Publication details for The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror [Paperback] Bernard Lewis (Author) In his first book since What Went Wrong? Bernard Lewis examines the historical roots of the resentments that dominate the Islamic world today and that are increasingly being expressed in acts of terrorism. He looks at the theological origins of political Islam and takes us through the rise of militant Islam in Iran, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia, examining the impact of radical Wahhabi proselytizing, and Saudi oil money, on the rest of the Islamic world. The Crisis of Islam ranges widely through thirteen centuries of history, but in particular it charts the key events of the twentieth century leading up to the violent confrontations of today: the creation of the state of Israel, the Cold War, the Iranian Revolution, the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan, the Gulf War, and the September 11th attacks on the United States.

While hostility toward the West has a long and varied history in the lands of Islam, its current concentration on America is new. So too is the cult of the suicide bomber. Brilliantly disentangling the crosscurrents of Middle Eastern history from the rhetoric of its manipulators, Bernard Lewis helps us understand the reasons for the increasingly dogmatic rejection of modernity by many in the Muslim world in favor of a return to a sacred past. Based on his George Polk Awardwinning article for The New Yorker, The Crisis of Islam is essential reading for anyone who wants to know what Usama bin Ladin represents and why his murderous message resonates so widely in the Islamic world. Prof James Piscatori Piscatori, James (2012). 'Winning Hearts and Minds: US promotion of a democratic Islam'. In American Democracy Promotion in the Changing Middle East: From Bush to Obama. Akbarzadeh, Shahram,, Piscatori, James, MacQueen, Benjamin & Saikal, Amin Routledge. Publication type: Edited works: contributions ISSN/ISBN: 9780415520553 View online: Online version Author(s) from Durham Prof James Piscatori What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East [Paperback]

Bernard Lewis (Author) For centuries, the world of Islam was in the forefront of human achievement -- the foremost military and economic power in the world, the leader in the arts and sciences of civilization. Christian Europe was seen as an outer darkness of barbarism and unbelief from which there was nothing to learn or to fear. And then everything changed. The West won victory after victory, first on the battlefield and then in the marketplace. In this elegantly written volume, Bernard Lewis, a renowned authority an Islamic affairs, examines the anguished reaction of the Islamic world as it tried to make sense of how it had been overtaken, overshadowed, and dominated by the West. In a fascinating portrait of a culture in turmoil, Lewis shows how the Middle East turned its attention to understanding European weaponry, industry, government, education, and culture. He also describes how some Middle Easterners fastened blame on a series of scapegoats, while others asked not "Who did this to us?" but rather "Where did we go wrong?" With a new Afterword that addresses September 11 and its aftermath, What Went Wrong? is an urgent, accessible book that no one who is concerned with contemporary affairs will want to miss.

Reconquista
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Belum Diperiksa Langsung ke: navigasi, cari

Animasi Reconquista dari tahun ke tahun.

Muhammad XII menyerah kepada Ferdinand dan Isabella, mengakhiri kekuasaan Islam di Iberia.

Reconquista (bahasa Spanyol dan Portugus untuk "penaklukan kembali"), adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk proses yang dimana kerajaan Kristen menaklukkan kembali Semenanjung Iberia (sekarang Spanyol dan Portugal) dari umat Islam dan negara-negara Moor Al-Andalus (Bahasa Arab al-andalus). Istilah "penaklukan kembali" digunakan dalam artian daerah-daerah ini dilihat sebagai milik umat Kristen, walaupun kenyataannya pada saat itu orang-orang yang ditaklukkan kebanyakan adalah Muslim dan orang-orang Arab. Di sisi lain sebelum Iberia ditaklukkan kerajaan-kerajaan Islam, semenanjung ini sudah didiami oleh orangorang yang berbahasa Roman dan mendapat pengaruh Kristen.[rujukan?] Proses reconquista ini berjalan lebih dari 7 abad, dimulai dari Pertempuran Covadonga (722), dimana kerajaan Asturias berhasil menghentikan penaklukan Bani Umayyah, yang saat itu menguasai hampir seluruh Iberia. Pada 1236 kota terakhir Muslim di Spanyol, Granada ditundukkan oleh Ferdinand III dari Kastilia, dan sejak itu Granada berdamai dengan syarat menjadi negara bawahan Kastilia. Pada 2 Januari 1492, Ferdinand II dan Isabella, pasangan yang digelari Los Reyes Catlicos, kembali menyerang Granada, dan hasilnya Sultan Granada Muhammad XII (Boabdil) menyerah secara penuh. Kemenangan ini menghasilkan negara Kristen bersatu di seluruh Spanyol, kecuali Navarra yang masih terpisah hingga 1512. Reconquista di Portugal mencapai puncaknya pada 1249, saat raja Afonso III berhasil menundukkan Algarve (Arab

Al-gharb).

Konsep dan Durasi

Jika digunakan dalam konteks periode sejarah dalam historiografi tradisional Spanyol dan Portugal, istilah Reconquista biasa digunakan untuk merujuk kepada periode yang jangkauannya dari tahun 718 (atau 722, menurut sumber-sumber lain) hingga tahun 1492, yaitu ketika negara Islam terakhir yang masih ada di Iberia, Keamiran Granada, dikalahkan. Selama periode itu, kerajaan-kerajaan Kristen secara bertahap mengambil alih kekuasaan di Semenanjung Iberia dari

kerajaan-kerajaan Muslim. Sampai akhirnya -ketika penaklukan Granada- seluruh semenanjung tersebut dibawah kekuasaan Kristen, sementara praktek keagamaan Kristen Mozarab pribumi yang dianut selama berabad-abad di bawah rezim Muslim ditekan sejak 1080 oleh Raja Alfonso VI dari Kastilia seiring kerajaan-kerajaan Katolik Roma memperluas daerah ke selatan. Historiografi Spanyol abad keduapuluh menekankan pentingnya kahadiran suatu fenomena yang berkelanjutan dimana kerajaan-kerajaan Iberia melawan dan menaklukkan kembali kerajaankerajaan Muslim yang dianggap sebagai musuh bersama. Namun, bertolak belakang dengan klaim tersebut yang menyatakan mulainya dari Pertempuran Covadonga (tahun 718 atau 722), ideologi Reconquista baru dimulai pada abad kesembilan. Lihat pula Wikimedia Commons memiliki galeri mengenai: Reconquista

Al-Andalus Sejarah Islam Sejarah Spanyol Sejarah Portugal Inkuisisi Spanyol

Referensi

Payne, Stanley, "The Emergence of Portugal", in A History of Spain and Portugal: Volume One. Riley-Smith, Jonathan, The Atlas of the Crusades. Facts On File, Oxford (1991) Tofio-Quesada, Ignacio, "Censorship and Book Production in Spain During the Age of the Incunabula", Graduate Center, CUNY. Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain. University Press of Edinburgh (1992). Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (Edinburgh 1972). Timothy Reuter, Christopher Allmand, David Luscombe, Rosamond (EDT) McKitterick, " The New Cambridge Medieval History", Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, ISBN 0-521-36291-1.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series)

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) / Volume 106 / Issue 01 / January 1974, pp 6364 Copyright The Royal Asiatic Society 1974

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) Reviews of Books

The influence of Islam on medieval Europe. By W. Montgomery Watt. (Islamic Surveys, No. 9.) pp. viii, 125. Edinburgh, University Press, 1972. 1.50. Elizabeth Brine The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys) [Paperback] WM Watt (Author) In this admirable book Montgomery Watt traces the influence of Islam in medieval Europe, looking in detail at commerce, science and technology, philosophy, and the development of European self-awareness. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) / Volume 106 / Issue 01 / January 1974, pp 63-64 William Montgomery Watt

William Montgomery Watt (14 March 1909 24 October 2006[1]) was a Scottish historian, an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh. Watt was one of the foremost non-Muslim interpreters of Islam in the West, and according to Carole Hillenbrand "an enormously influential scholar in the field of Islamic studies and a much-revered name for many Muslims all over the world". Watt's comprehensive biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Muhammad at Mecca (1953) and Muhammad at Medina (1956), are considered to be classics in the field.[2]

Contents

1 Biography 2 Awards 3 Watt's views 4 Works 5 References 6 External links

Biography
Watt, whose father died when he was only 14 months old, was born in Ceres, Fife, Scotland.[1] Watt was a priest of the Scottish Episcopal Church, and was Arabic specialist to the Anglican Bishop of Jerusalem from 1943-46.[1] He became a member of the ecumenical Iona Community in Scotland in 1960. He was Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh from 1964-79. He has been called "the Last Orientalist".[3] He died in Edinburgh on 24 October 2006 at the age of 97.[4]

Awards
Watt held visiting professorships at the University of Toronto, the Collge de France, and Georgetown University, and received the American Giorgio Levi Della Vida Medal and won, as its first recipient, the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies award for outstanding scholarship.[2]

Watt's views
Watt believed that the Qur'an was divinely inspired, though not infallibly true.[3] Martin Forward, a 21st-century non-Muslim Islamic scholar, states: His books have done much to emphasize the Prophets commitment to social justice; Watt has described him as being like an Old Testament prophet, who came to restore fair dealing and belief in one God to the Arabs, for whom these were or had become irrelevant concepts. This would not be a sufficiently high estimate of his worth for most Muslims, but its a start. Frankly, its hard for Christians to say affirmative things about a religion like Islam that postdates their own, which they are brought up to believe contains all things necessary for salvation. And its difficult for Muslims to face the fact that Christians arent persuaded by the view that Christianity is only a stop on the way to Islam, the final religion." [5] Charlotte Alfred, a reporter for the journal founded in Watt's department at Edinburgh, the Edinburgh Middle East Report, pointed out: His views on Islam and Christianity have at times been controversial. He rejects the infallibility of both the Bible and the Qurn, but regards each as divinely inspired. He has argued that the Muslim and Judaeo-Christian traditions have much to teach each other, personally commenting that his study of Islam deepened his understanding of the oneness of God.[6] Carole Hillenbrand, a professor of Islamic History at the University of Edinburgh, states:[2] He was not afraid to express rather radical theological opinions - controversial ones in some Christian ecclesiastical circles. He often pondered on the question of what influence his study of Islam had exerted on him in his own Christian faith. As a direct result, he came to argue that the Islamic emphasis on the uncompromising oneness of God had caused him to reconsider the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which is vigorously attacked in the Koran as undermining true monotheism. Influenced by Islam, with its 99 names of God, each expressing special attributes of God, Watt returned to the Latin word "persona" - which meant a "face" or "mask", and not "individual", as it now means in English - and he formulated the view that a true interpretation of Trinity would not signify that God comprises three individuals. For him, Trinity represents three different "faces" of the one and the same God.

Works

The faith and practice of al-Ghazl (1953) ISBN 978-0-686-18610-6 Muhammad at Mecca (1953) ISBN 978-0-19-577278-4 Muhammad at Medina (1956) ISBN 978-0-19-577307-1 (online) Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1961) ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0, a summary of the above two major works (online) Islamic Philosophy and Theology (1962) ISBN 978-0-202-36272-4 Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets (???) Islamic Political Thought (1968) ISBN 978-0-85224-403-6 Islamic Surveys: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (1972) ISBN 978-0-85224-439-5 The Majesty That Was Islam (1976) ISBN 978-0-275-51870-7 What Is Islam? (1980) ISBN 978-0-582-78302-7 Muhammad's Mecca (1988) ISBN 978-0-85224-565-1 Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions (1991) ISBN 978-0-415-05411-9 Early Islam (1991) ISBN 978-0-7486-0170-7 Islamic Philosophy And Theology (1987) ISBN 978-0-7486-0749-5 Islamic Creeds (1994) ISBN 978-0-7486-0513-2 History of Islamic Spain (1996) ISBN 978-0-85224-332-9 Islamic Political Thought (1998) ISBN 978-0-7486-1098-3 Islam and the Integration of Society (1998) ISBN 978-0-8101-0240-8 Islam: A Short History (1999) ISBN 978-1-85168-205-8 A Christian Faith For Today (2002) ISBN 0-415-27703-5

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ^ a b c William Montgomery Watt by Richard Holloway. The Guardian. 14 Nov. 2006 ^ a b c Professor W. Montgomery Watt by Carole Hillenbrand ^ a b Interview: William Montgomery Watt ^ The Herald, The Scotsman, The Times, 27 October 2006 ^ The Prophet Muhammad: A mercy to mankind (dead link) ^ Obituary by Charlotte Alfred. Edinburgh Middle East Report Online. Winter 2006.

External links

Professor W. Montgomery Watt by Carole Hillenbrand W. Montgomery Watt: Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman "Sirat An-Nabi and the Orientalists" Criticism of some of Watt's works by Muhammad Mohar Ali Obituary by Charlotte Alfred. Edinburgh Middle East Report Online, a journal founded in Watt's former department. Winter 2006 Professor Watt's paper Women in the Earliest Islam Interview with Professor Watt on Islam/Christian relations William Montgomery Watt's picture

Copyright The Royal Asiatic Society 1974

What or Who is Salaf?

The manhaj (methodology) of the Salaf is to adhere to the Qur'aan and the authentic Sunnah as understood by the Salaf as-Saalih. The word Salaf is a shortened version of the word 'Salaf asSaalih', which means the 'Righteous Predecessors'. It refers specifically to the first three generations of Islaam in which the Prophet Muhammad (Sallalaahu Alaihi wa Sallam) described as being the best generations of Muslims. The first, the Prophet (Sallalaahu Alaihi wa Sallam) and his Sahaabah (companions). The second, the Taabi'een (the followers of the companions). The third, the Tabaa'at-Taabi'een (the followers of the followers of the companions). Generally, this term refers to all those pious predecessors who followed the way of the Salaf and who have preceded us in time. This is the true manhaj of Ahl as-Sunnah wa al-Jamaa'ah. "If Allah wants to favor someone, He grants him comprehension (understanding) of this religion." [Sahih Bukhari vol.1 # 71, Tirmidhi and Musnad Ahmad] The example of guidance and knowledge with which, Allah has sent me is like abundant rain falling on the earth, some of which was fertile soil, absorbed rain water and brought forth vegetation and grass in abundance. (And) another portion of it was hard and held the rainwater and Allah benefited the people with it and they utilized it for drinking, making their animals drink from it and for irrigation of the land for cultivation. (And) a portion of it was barren which, could neither hold the water nor bring forth vegetation (then that land gave no benefits). The first is the example of the person who comprehends Allah's religion and gets benefit (from the knowledge), which Allah has revealed through me (the Prophet) and learns and then teaches others. The last example is that of a person who does not care for it and does not take Allah's guidance revealed through me (He is like that barren land.)" [Sahih Al-Bukhari v.1 no.79. Narrated by Abu Musa] It is only those who have knowledge amongst His slaves that fear Allah. [Soorah Al-Fatir (35): 28] "Seek knowledge, because seeking it for the sake of Allah is a worship. And knowing it makes you more God-fearing; and searching for it is jihad, teaching it to those who do not know is charity, reviewing and learning it more is like tasbeeh. Through knowledge Allah will be known and worshipped. With the knowledge Allah will elevate people and make them leaders and imams, who will in turn guide other people." [Fatawa Ibn Taymiyya vol.10, p.39] "Whoever treads on a path in search of Islamic knowledge, Allah will ease the way to Paradise for him. The angels will lower their wings, pleased with this seeker of knowledge, and everyone in the heavens and on earth will ask forgiveness for the knowledgeable person, even the fish in the deepest of waters will ask for his forgiveness [Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah, Tirmidhi # 2835sahih hadith]

He whom death overtakes while he is engaged in acquiring knowledge with a view to reviving Islam with the help of it, there will be one degree between him and the Prophets in Paradise . [Al-Tirmidhi Hadith no. 249. Narrated by Al-Hasan al-Basri]
Akademika 82 (1) 2012:21-30 Syed Hussein alatas: pemikiran colonial dan gagasan feudalisme melayu Syed Hussein alatas: colonial mind and the malay feudalism idea Abstrak Abstract Pengenalan Syed Hussein: watak tertawan dan pemikiran kolonial Syed Hussein dan pemikirannya tentang feudalisme melayu Persambungan pemikiran syed Hussein tentang gagasan feudalisme melayu Beberapa kritik terhadap pemikiran tentang feudalisme melayu Masyarakat melayu berdasarkan catatan sumber-sumber sejarah Penutup Rujukan

Professor W. Montgomery Watt

Son of the Presbyterian manse and Episcopal priest who became a leading interpreter of Islam William Montgomery Watt, Orientalist and priest: born Ceres, Fife 14 March 1909; Assistant Lecturer in Moral Philosophy, Edinburgh University 1934-38, Lecturer in Ancient Philosophy 1946-47, Lecturer, then Senior Lecturer and Reader in Arabic 1947-64, Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1964-79 (Emeritus); ordained deacon 1939, priest 1940; Curate, St Mary, Boltons, London 1939-41; Curate, Old St Paul's, Edinburgh 194143; Arabic specialist to Bishop of Jerusalem 1943-46; Chairman, Association of British Orientalists 1964-65; married 1943 Jean Donaldson (one son, four daughters); died Edinburgh 24 October 2006. W. Montgomery Watt, who in his long lifetime was probably the foremost non-Muslim interpreter of Islam in the West, was an enormously influential scholar in the field of Islamic studies and a much-revered name for many Muslims all over the world. Born in Ceres, Fife, in 1909, William Montgomery Watt, like many other famous Scots, was a son of the manse. His father died while he was still a baby and he was brought up, as an only

child, by his mother, uncle and aunt in Edinburgh. Educated at George Watson's College, he then studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Jena and Oxford. Although he specialised initially in philosophy and theology, he became interested in Islam through lengthy conversations with an Indian lodger who was of the Ahmadi persuasion. His serious study of Arabic began with Richard Bell, the Edinburgh Orientalist. He was ordained in the Episcopalian Church in 1939. His subsequent appointment as chaplain to the Bishop of Jerusalem took his interest in Islam to a new level. Soon after he returned to Scotland, he was appointed Lecturer in Arabic at Edinburgh in 1946; there he spent nearly all his long and fruitful career. He was awarded a personal chair in 1964 and he retired in 1979. Unlike many famous Scots, Watt didn't seek his fortune south of the border, but settled in a charming house in Dalkeith, just outside Edinburgh, in 1947. There he and his wife, Jean (ne Donaldson), whom he had married in 1943, enjoyed a long and happy life. As well as his academic duties, Watt continued as a serving minister of the Scottish Episcopal Church for many years until infirmity confined him to his home. He remained a member of the ecumenical Iona Community from 1960. Watt's vast scholarly output - he wrote 30 books and scores of articles - has made his name renowned in the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as in the West. He was a towering figure in the history of Edinburgh University Press, establishing the highly successful Islamic Surveys series in 1962 to bring the subject to a wider readership, and writing seven books for that press, all of which are still in print and are amongst its bestsellers. His other books have been translated into a vast array of other languages. His early books on Islam concentrate primarily on the career of the Prophet Muhammad. They are based on a close analysis of the original Arabic sources and the two works Muhammad at Mecca (1953) and, especially, Muhammad at Medina (1956) remain classic studies. Freewill and Predestination in Early Islam - the subject of his PhD - was published in 1948 and reveals an interest in Islamic theology which stayed with him all his life. He translated the spiritual "autobiography" of the great medieval Muslim scholar Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali, 1953) and followed that with an excellent study of al- Ghazali entitled Muslim Intellectual (1963). Perhaps his finest achievement in the field of Islamic theology was his magisterial The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (1973). For these works on theology Watt relied not just on primary Arabic sources but, because of his excellent reading knowledge of German, he could draw on the great pioneering traditions of 19th-century German scholarship on Islam. Especially in his later years Watt's writing concentrated on an abiding concern of his - dialogue between Christians and Muslims - and in this field he published, for example, Muslim-Christian Encounters: perceptions and misperceptions (1991). He also published steadily on Christian topics and his own faith gave a spiritual dimension not just to his discussion of Christianity but also to what he said about Islam.

Watt was awarded many academic honours; he held visiting professorships at the University of Toronto, the Collge de France, and Georgetown University, and received the American Giorgio Levi Della Vida Medal and was, as its first recipient, the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies award for outstanding scholarship. Long before the recent wave of Islamophobia in the West, Watt advocated dialogue with Muslims, not demonisation of them. He doubted the appropriateness of conversion and felt that those of all faiths should collaborate in friendship to stem the tide of materialism and secularisation. Unlike certain Orientalist scholars of previous generations, Watt was indeed convinced that the Koran was divinely inspired and that Muhammad received true religious experiences directly from God. Watt roundly condemned those in the West who sought to perpetuate scurrilous medieval misconceptions about the Prophet of Islam. He was not afraid to express rather radical theological opinions - controversial ones in some Christian ecclesiastical circles. He often pondered on the question of what influence his study of Islam had exerted on him in his own Christian faith. As a direct result, he came to argue that the Islamic emphasis on the uncompromising oneness of God had caused him to reconsider the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which is vigorously attacked in the Koran as undermining true monotheism. Influenced by Islam, with its 99 names of God, each expressing special attributes of God, Watt returned to the Latin word "persona" - which meant a "face" or "mask", and not "individual", as it now means in English - and he formulated the view that a truer interpretation of the Trinity would not signify that God comprises three individuals. For him, the Trinity represents three different "faces" of the one and the same God. Always a shy man, he enjoyed the simple life with his family, either in Dalkeith or in his summer home in Crail on the Fife coast, walking, gardening, stamp-collecting, and latterly, in extreme old age, he derived great pleasure from doing several crosswords a day. Carole Hillenbrand
W. Montgomery Watt. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press, 1961. from pg. 229.

ASSESSMENT APPEARANCE AND MANNER Muhammad, according to some apparently authentic accounts, was of average height or a little above the average. His chest and shoulders were broad, and altogether he was of sturdy build. His arms were long, and his hands and feet rough. His forehead was large and prominent, and he had a hooked nose and large black eyes with a touch of brown. The hair of his head was long and thick, straight or slightly curled. His beard also was thick, and he had a thin line of fine hair on his neck and chest. His cheeks were spare, his mouth large, and he had a pleasant smile. In complexion he was fair. He always walked

as if he was rushing downhill, and others had difficulty in keeping up with him. When he turned in any direction, he did so with his whole body. He was given to sadness, and there were long periods of silence when he was deep in thought; yet he never rested but was always busy with something. He never spoke unnecessarily. What he said was always to the point and sufficient to make his meaning clear, but there was no padding. From the first to last he spoke rapidly. Over his feelings he had a firm control. When he was annoyed he would turn aside; when he was pleased, he lowered his eyes. His time was carefully apportioned according to the various demands on him. In his dealings with people he was above all tactful. He could be severe at times, though in the main he was not rough but gentle. His laugh was mostly a smile.

Of the many stories illustrating his gentleness and tenderness of feeling, some at least are worthy of credence. The widow of his cousin Ja'far ibn-Abi-Talib herself told her grand-daughter how he broke the news of Ja'far's death. She had been busy one morning with her household duties, which had included tanning forty hides and kneading dough, when Muhammad called. She collected her children --she had three sons by Ja'far -- washed their faces and anointed them. When Muhammad entered, he asked for the sons of Ja'far. She brought them, and Muhammad put his arms round them and smelt them, as a mother would a baby. Then his eyes filled with tears and he burst out weeping. ' Have you heard something about Ja'far ? ' she asked, and he told her he had been killed. Later he instructed some of his people to prepare food for Ja'far's household, ' for they are too busy today to think about themselves '. He seems to have been specially fond of children and to have got on well with them. Perhaps it was the yearning of a man who saw all his sons die as infants. Much of his paternal affection went to his adopted son Zayd. He was also attached to his younger cousin 'Ali ibn-Abi-Talib, who had been a member of his household for a time; but he doubtless realized that 'Ah had not the makings of a successful statesman. For a time a grand-daughter called Umamah was a favourite. He would carry her on his shoulder during the public prayers, setting her down when he bowed or prostrated, then picking her up again. On one occasion he teased his wives by showing them a necklace and saying he would give it to the one who was dearest to him; when he thought their feelings were sufficiently agitated, he presented it not to any of them, but to Umamah. He was able to enter into the spirit of childish games and had many friends among children. He had fun with the children who came back from Abyssinia and spoke Abyssinian. In one house in Medina there was a small boy with whom he was accustomed to have jokes. One day he found the small boy looking very sad, and asked what was the matter. When he was told that his pet nightingale had died, he did what he could to comfort him. His kindness extended even to animals, which is remarkable for Muhammad's century and part of the world. As his men marched towards Mecca just before the conquest they passed a bitch with puppies; and Muhammad not merely gave orders that they were not to be disturbed, but posted a man to see that the orders were carried out. These are interesting sidelights on the personality of Muhammad, and fill out the picture formed of him from his conduct of public affairs. He gained men's respect and confidence by the religious basis of his activity and by qualities such as courage, resoluteness, impartiality and

firmness inclining to severity but tempered by generosity. In addition to these he had a charm of manner which won their affection and secured their devotion.

THE ALLEGED MORAL FAILURES Of all the world's great men none has been so much maligned as Muhammad. We saw above how this has come about. For centuries Islam was the great enemy of Christendom, since Christendom was in direct contact with no other organized states comparable in power to the Muslims. The Byzantine empire, after losing some of its best provinces to the Arabs, was being attacked in Asia Minor, while Western Europe was threatened through Spain and Sicily. Even before the Crusades focused attention on the expulsion of the Saracens from the Holy Land, medieval Europe was building up a conception of ' the great enemy '. At one point Muhammad was transformed into Mahound, the prince of darkness. By the twelfth century the ideas about Islam and Muslims current in the crusading armies were such travesties that they had a bad effect on morale. Practical considerations thus combined with scholarly zeal to foster the study and dissemination of more accurate information abo Muhammad and his religion.

Since that time much has been achieved, especially durin the last two centuries, but many of the old prejudices linge on. Yet in the modern world, where contacts between Christians and Muslims are closer than ever before, it is urgent that both should strive to reach an objective view of Muhammad's character. The denigration of him by European writers has too often been followed by a romantic idealization of his figure by other Europeans and by Muslim. Neither denigration nor idealization is an adequate basis for the mutual relations of nearly half the human race. We are now back at the questions with which we began. We have an outline of the facts on which ultimate judgements mus be based. What are our ultimate judgements to be ? One of the common allegations against Muhammad is tha he was an impostor, who to satisfy his ambition and his lust propagated religious teachings which he himself knew to be false. Such insincerity makes the development of the Islamic religion incomprehensible. This point was first vigorously made over a hundred years ago by Thomas Carlyle in his lectures On Heroes, and it has since been increasingly accepted by scholars. Only a profound belief in himself and his mission explains Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship and persecution during the Meccan period when from a secular point of view there was no prospect of success. Without sincerity how could he have won the allegiance and even devotion of men of strong and upright character like Abu-Bakr and 'Umar ? For the theist there is the further question how God could have allowed a great religion like Islam to develop on a basis of lies and deceit. There is thus a strong case for holding that Muhammad was sincere. If in some respects he was mistaken, his mistakes were not due to deliberate Iying or imposture. The other main allegations of moral defect in Muhammad are that he was treacherous and lustful. These are supported be reference to events like the violation of the sacred month on the expedition of Nakhlah (624) and his marriage to Zaynab bint-Jahsh, the divorced wife of his adopted son. About the bare facts there is no dispute, but it is not so clear that the facts justify the allegations. Was the violation of the sacred month an act of treachery or a justified breach with a

piece of pagan religion ? Was the marriage with Zaynab a yielding to sexual desire or a mainly political act in which an undesirable practice of ' adoption ' belonging to a lower moral level was ended ? Sufficient has been said above about the interpretation of these events to show that the case against Muhammad is much weaker than is sometimes thought. The discussions of these allegations, however, raises a fundamental question. How are we to judge Muhammad ? By the standards of his own time and country ? Or by those of the most enlightened opinion in the West today ? When the sources are closely scrutinized, it is clear that those of Muhammad's actions which are disapproved by the modern West were not the object of the moral criticism of his contemporaries. They criticized some of his acts, but their motives were superstitious prejudice or fear of the consequences. If they criticized the events at Nakhlah, it was because they feared some punishment from the offended pagan gods or the worldly vengeance of the Meccans. If they were amazed at the mass execution of the Jews of the clan of Qurayzah, it was at the number and danger of the blood-feuds incurred. The marriage with Zaynab seemed incestuous, but this conception of incest was bound up with old practices belonging to a lower, communalistic level of familial institutions where a child's paternity was not definitely known; and this lower level was in process being eliminated by Islam. From the standpoint of Muhammad's time, then, the allegations of treachery and sensuality cannot be maintained. His contemporaries did not find him morally defective in any way. On the contrary, some of the acts criticized by the modern Westerner show that Muhammad's standards werehigher than those of his time. In his day and generation he was a social reformer, even a reformer in the sphere of morals. He created a new system of social security and a new family structure, both of which were a vast improvement on what went before. By taking what was best in the morality of the nomad and adapting it for settled communities, he established a religious and social framework for the life of many races of men. That is not the work of a traitor or ' an old lecher'. It is sometimes asserted that Muhammad's character ( declined after he went to Medina, but there are no solid grounds for this view. It is based on too facile a use of the principal that all power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. The allegations of moral defects are attached to incidents belonging to the Medinan and not the Meccan period, but according to the interpretation of these incidentsgiven in this book they marked no failure in Muhammad to live to his ideals and no lapse from his moral principles. The persecuted preacher of Mecca was no less a man of his time than the ruler of Medina. If nothing is recorded of the preacher to show us how different his attitude was from that of nineteenth-century Europe, it does not follow that his ideals were any loftier (by our standards) than those of the reforming ruler. The opposite is more likely to be the case since the preacher was nearer to the pagan background. In both Meccan and Medinan periods Muhammad's contemporaries looked on him as a good and upright man, and in the eyes of history he is a moral and social reformer. So much must be said in fairness to Muhammad when he is measured against the Arabs of his time. Muslims, however, claim that he is a model of conduct and character for all mankind. In so doing they present him for judgement according to the standards of enlightened world opinion. Though the world is increasingly becoming one world, it has so far paid scant attention to Muhammad as a moral exemplar. Yet because Muslims are numerous, it will sooner or later have

to consider seriously whether from the life and teaching of Muhammad any principles are to be learnt which will contribute to the moral development of mankind. To this question no final answer has yet been given. What has been said so far by Muslims in support of their claims for Muhammad is but a preliminary statement and has convinced few non-Muslims. It is still open to the Muslims of today, however, to give the rest of the world a fuller and better presentation of their case. Will they be able to sift the universal from the particular in the life of Muhammad and so discover moral principles which make a creative contribution to the present world situation ? Or, if this is too much to expect, will they at least be able to show that Muhammad's life is one possible exemplification of the ideal for all humanity ? If they make a good case, some Christians will be ready to listen to them and to learn whatever is to be learned. In this enterprise the difficulties confronting Muslims are immense. A combination of sound scholarship and deep moral insight is needed, and this combination is rare. My personal view is that Muslims are unlikely to be successful in their attempt to influence world opinion, at least in the sphere of morals. In the wider sphere of religion they have probably something to contribute to the world, for they have retained emphases -- on the reality of God, for example -- which have been neglected or forgotten in important sections of the other monotheistic religions; and I for one gladly acknowledge my indebtedness to the writings of men like al-Ghazali. But towards convincing Christian Europe that Muhammad is the ideal man little, indeed nothing, has so far been accomplished.

THE FOUNDATIONS OF GREATNESS Circumstances of time and place favoured Muhammad. Various forces combined to set the stage for his life-work and for the subsequent expansion of Islam. There was the social unrest in Mecca and Medina, the movement towards monotheism, the reaction against Hellenism in Syria and Egypt, the decline of the Persian and Byzantine empires, and a growing realization by the nomadic Arabs of the opportunities for plunder in the settled lands round them. Yet these forces, and others like them which might be added, would not in themselves account for the rise of the empire known as the Umayyad caliphate nor for the development of Islam into a world religion. There was nothing inevitable or automatic about the spread of the Arabs and the growth of the Islamic community. Without a remarkable combination of qualities in Muhammad it is improbable that the expansion would have taken place, and the military potential of the Arabs might easily have spent itself in raids on Syria and 'Iraq with no lasting consequences. These qualities fall into three groups.

First there is Muhammad's gift as a seer. Through him -- or, on the orthodox Muslim view, through the revelations made to him -- the Arab world was given a framework of ideas within which the resolution of its social tensions became possible. The provision of such a framework involved both insight into the fundamental causes of the social malaise of the time, and the genius to express this insight in a form which would stir the hearer to the depths of his being. The European reader may be ' put off ' by the Qur'an, but it was admirably suited to the needs and conditions of the day.

Secondly, there is Muhammad's wisdom as a statesman. The conceptual structure found in the Qur'an was merely a framework. The framework had to support a building of concrete policies and concrete institutions. In the course of this book much has been said about Muhammad's farsighted political strategy and his social reforms. His wisdom in these matters is shown by the rapid expansion of his small state to a world-empire after his death, and by the adaptation of his social institutions to many different environments and their continuance for thirteen centuries. Thirdly, there is his skill and tact as an administrator and his wisdom in the choice of men to whom to delegate administrative details. Sound institutions and a sound policy will not go far if the execution of affairs is faulty and fumbling. When Muhammad died, the state he had founded was a ' going concern ', able to withstand the shock of his removal and, once it had recovered from this shock, to expand at prodigious speed. The more one reflects on the history of Muhammad and of early Islam, the more one is amazed at the vastness of his achievement. Circumstances presented him with an opportunity such as few men have had, but the man was fully matched with the hour. Had it not been for his gifts as seer, statesman, and administrator and, behind these, his trust in God and firm belief that God had sent him, a notable chapter in the history of mankind would have remained unwritten.

WAS MUHAMMAD A PROPHET ? So far Muhammad has been described from the point of view of the historian. Yet as the founder of a world-religion he also demands a theological judgement. Emil Brunner, for example, considers his claim to be a prophet, holds that it ' does not seem to be in any way justified by the actual content of the revelations ', but admits that, ' had Mohammed been a pre-Christian prophet of Arabia, it would not be easy to exclude him from the ranks of the messengers who` prepared the way for the revelation '. Without presuming to enter into the theological complexities behind Brunner's view, I shall try, at the level of the educated man who has no special knowledge of either Christian or Islamic theology, to put forward some general considerations relevant to the question.

I would begin by asserting that there is found, at least in some men, what may be called ' creative imagination '. Notable instances are artists, poets and imaginative writers. All these put into sensuous form (pictures, poems, dramas, novels) what many are feeling but are unable to express fully. Great works of the creative imagination have thus a certain universality, in that they give expression to the feelings and attitudes of a whole generation. They are, of course, not imaginary, for they deal with real things; but they employ images, visual or conjured up by words, to express what is beyond the range of man's intellectual conceptions. Prophets and prophetic religious leaders, I should maintain, share in this creative imagination. They proclaim ideas connected with what is deepest and most central in human experience, with special reference to the particular needs of their day and generation. The mark of the great prophet is the profound attraction of his ideas for those to whom they are addressed.

Where do such ideas come from ? Some would say ' from the unconscious '. Religious people say ' from God ', at least with regard to the prophets of their own tradition, though a few would go so far as to claim with Baron Friedrich von Hugel, ' that everywhere there is some truth; that this truth comes originally from God .' Perhaps it could be maintained that these ideas of the creative imagination come from that life in a man which is greater than himself and is largely below the threshold of consciousness. For the Christian this still implies some connexion with God, for, according to Saint John, in the Word was life, and Jesus said ' I am the Life '. The adoption of one of these views does not settle all the questions at issue. What about those ideas of the creative imagination which are false or unsound ? Baron von Hugel is careful to say only that truth comes from God. Religious tradition has also held that ideas might come from the devil. Even if the creative imagination is an instrument which may be used by God or Life, that does not necessarily imply that all its ideas are true or sound. In Adolf Hitler the creative imagination was well developed, and his ideas had a wide appeal, but it is usually held that he was neurotic and that those Germans who followed him most devotedly became infected by his neurosis. In Muhammad, I should hold, there was a welling up of the creative imagination, and the ideas thus produced are to a great extent true and sound. It does not follow, however, that all the Qur'anic ideas are true and sound. In particular there is at least one point at which they seem to be unsoundthe idea that ' revelation ' or the product of the creative imagination is superior to normal human traditions as a source of bare historical fact. There are several verses in the Qur'an (II. 5I; 3. 39; I2. I03) to the effect that ' this is one of the reports of the unseen which We reveal to thee; thou didst not know it, thou nor thy people, before this '. One could admit a claim that the creative imagination was able to give a new and truer interpretation of a historical event, but to make it a source of bare fact is an exaggeration and false. This point is of special concern to Christians, since the Qur'an denies the bare fact of the death of Jesus on the cross, and Muslims still consider that this denial outweighs the contrary testimony of historical tradition. The primary intention of the Qur'an was to deny the Jews' interpretation of the crucifixion as a victory for themselves, but as normally explained it goes much farther. The same exaggeration of the role of ' revelation ' has also had other consequences. The Arab contribution to Islamic culture has been unduly magnified, and that of the civilized peoples of Egypt, Syria, 'Iraq and Persia, later converted to Islam, has been sadly belittled. Too much must not be made of this slight flaw. Which of us, conscious of being called by God to perform a special task, would not have been more than a little proud ? On the whole Muhammad was remarkably free from pride. Yet this slight exaggeration of his own function has had grave consequences and cannot be ignored. Finally, what of our question ? Was Muhammad a prophet ? He was a man in whom creative imagination worked at deep levels and produced ideas relevant to the central questions of human existence, so that his religion has had a widespread appeal, not only in his own age but in succeeding centuries. Not all the ideas he proclaimed are true and sound, but by God's grace he has been enabled to provide millions of men with a better religion than they had before they testified that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the messenger of God.

Women in the Earliest Islam

W. MONTGOMERY WATT
Also now below in Turkish Translation as: The following text by Professor William Montgomery Watt has been scanned and placed on the web by me, Alastair McIntosh of Scotlands Centre for Human Ecology. I have done this because I am regularly contacted by scholars about the interview that Bashir Maan and I undertook with him during his 90 th year in 1999 (see http://www.alastairmcintosh.com/articles/2000_watt.htm ) Prof Watt give me a reprint his article about women and Islam after it first came out in 1991 and he had made a presentation about it at a conference in Scotland. I believe this paper has a relevance to contemporary understanding of the Islamic world that merits being made available on the internet. I telephoned Professor Watts residence near Edinburgh, Scotland, today (27 May 2005) but was told by his daughter, Ann Watt, that on account of his advanced age he is no longer involved with intellectual work. She said he spends most of his time between meals doing crosswords. He would probably no longer remember who I was as his memory has mostly gone, but the crosswords demonstrate that parts of his immense intellect are still with him. I last saw him about 3 years ago when I gave a talk to his Family Group in the Iona Community. He was advanced in age and manifestly infirm. I suspect that he was able to absorb very little from what I said, though it was wonderful to be in his presence. [Ps. On 16 July 2005 I received an email from Ann Watt adding: "My father spent several months in hospital last year, and there is the occasional scare when he gets taken in again, but he is on a fairly even keel. He has certainly lost interest in a lot of things and his memory is fairly selective." Please note that I have had little time to correct the text for scanning errors in the text that follows. I am particularly aware that the accents on Arabic words have frequently been picked up wrongly, but I hope that Arabic readers will be able to make their own adjustments where necessary. I notice that Prof Watt often precedes a passage with unclear meaning with a question mark [?], so please do not confuse these with scanning errors. I apologise for this limitation in offering here for scholars and people of goodwill an important insight into Professor Watts views on a matter that is of great significance in todays world. Speaking as a Quaker with with Christian roots, what this paper did for me was to suggest that early Isla m was profoundly concerned with womens rights and wellbeing. Allahu Akbar! Alastair McIntosh.

Women in the Earliest Islam W. Montgomery Watt

Originally published in studia missionalia, Vol. 40, 1991, pp. 162-173, Editrice Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, Roma.

Islam is still in many ways a mans religion, but the position of women was improved at various points by Muhammad and the new religion he proclaimed. To understand the early stages of this improvement it is necessary to know something about the position of women in Arabia before Muhammads time. For this there is a considerable amount of material in Arabic, but to get the full picture requires further study by competent anthropologists. In my book Muhammad at Medina, published in 1956, I did my best, as a non-anthropologist, to deal with this material. So far as I know, no anthropologist has since studied it, and what I present here is a summary of my own findings. It has often been supposed that the provision of Islamic law by which a Muslim man may have four wives was a restriction of a previously unlimited polygyny. One or two cases are mentioned of men having up to ten wives, but it is not clear within what social system this occurred. The verse of the Qur,n on which the restriction is based appears to be encouraging men to have more than one wife: If you are afraid that you cannot act with equity in respect of orphans, then marry those of the women who seem good to you, twos, threes, fours; and if you are afraid that you will not act justly (towards several wives), then one (only), or what your right hands possess (sc. slaves) (Sura 4.3). To understand this verse it is necessary to attempt to give some account of the relations between the sexes in pre-Islamic Arabia. The basic fact appears to be that in most parts of Arabia the social system was based almost exclusively on matrilineal kinship, that is, kinship where only descent from mother was considered. This did not mean matriarchy or rule by women, however. There seem to have been extended families of people related matrilineally, but the control of this family and its property would be in the hands of a uterine brother of the senior woman, and would pass from him to her son. Early Muslim scholars have preserved accounts of the marital arrangements associated with this social system. The two main forms seem to have been what may be called limited and unlimited polyandry. Thus it was a case of a woman having a limited or unlimited number of husbands and not of a man having several wives. In the case of limited polyandry, when a woman gave birth to a child, she summoned her male sexual partners (who were less than ten), and in front of them declared that a particular one was father of the child; and the man was not allowed to deny this. The unlimited polyandry seems hardly to have differed from prostitution, but there may have been restraints of which we are not informed. In these cases of polyandry the marriage seems to have been uxorilocal, that is, it took place in the house where the woman lived, and the man was said to visit her. The men, of course, may well have made such visits to several women. It further appears, however, that in some parts of Arabia, notably in Mecca, the matrilineal system was in process of being replaced by a patrilineal one. This interest in paternity is probably connected with the increasing commercial prosperity in Mecca and the accompanying growth of individualism. Men who were amassing considerable personal wealth wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their own actual sons and not simply by an extended family of their sisters sons. One of the essential changes made by Islam was to insist that a woman should have sexual relations with only one man at a time. Divorce or change of partner was relatively easy, especially for the man, but it was obligatory for a woman, before having another sexual partner, to observe a waiting-period (idda) to ensure that she was not pregnant. It was not easy, of course, to effect such a sweeping change all at once, and for a time a distinction seems to have been made between women who observed the waiting-period and those who did not. Along with

this change went a change from uxorilocal to virilocal marriage, that is, it was now the woman who went to a house provided by the man. Muhammads wives each had a separate apartment, but these were round a central courtyard in what was essentially his house, though it also served as mosque. The verse of the Qurn quoted above is said to have been revealed after the battle of Uhud in 625 in which many Muslims had been killed, leaving widows to be provided for. In the circumstances of Medina at the time many of these widows could easily have sunk back into the polyandry which had been prevalent there; and it was doubtless for this reason that Muslim men were encouraged to form households in which there were several women partnered only to the head of the household. The Qurn also contains various other regulations which seem to be designed to prevent the men in charge of matrilineal households from treating the women under them unfairly. To sum up the results of the treatment of marital matters in Muhammads lifetime I wrote in Muhammad at Medina: In the sphere of marriage and family relations Muhammad effected a profound and far-reaching reorganization of the structure of society. Before his time new individualistic tendencies were certainly present, but their presence was leading more to a breakdown of the old structure than to the building up of a new one. Muhammads essential work here was to use these individualistic tendencies in the raising of a new structure. The customs and practices of the communal (tribal) stage of society, to vary the metaphor, had suffered shipwreck; Muhammad salvaged what was valuable from them, and carried it over to the new individualistic society. In this way he produced a family structure that in many respects has proved attractive and satisfactory for societies emerging from the communal stage and passing into an individualistic one. Both by European Christian standards and by those of Islam, many of the old practices were immoral, and Muhammads reorganization was therefore a moral advance (p. 289).

In this restructuring of society there were changes in the position of women, some for the better, some perhaps for the worse, though of course we do not really know how women fared in the polyandric system. On the whole, however, it would seem that women benefited from the changes and were given greater security, especially since the change from a communal society to a more individualistic one was inevitable.

The Quran on marital questions

The following are the main Quranic passages dealing with marital matters. The translation is my own, but for the most part it follows the interpretations in the translations of Marmaduke Pickthall and George Sale. The former was himself a Muslim who consulted Egyptian Muslim scholars, while the latter followed closely the interpretations of the standard Muslim commentator, al-Baydawi. It should be noted, however, that the commentators were interested in

showing how the Quran justified contemporary Muslim practice, and not in understanding what the verses meant to the first Muslims. In sections 4 and 5 I have tried to show what some passages might mean to persons just emerging from a social system based on matriliny, as described in the article. It seemed helpful to transliterate certain key words rather than translate. To the reader it will soon become clear that many passages are obscure and capable of different interpretations, but it is not feasible here to enter into a discussion of such questions. Words in brackets are additions to the Arabic text; in some cases they are implicit in it, as in the gender of pronouns, while in other cases they seemed needed to make the meaning clear.

1. BASIC RULES

If you are afraid that you cannot act with equity in respect of orphans, then marry those of the women who seem good to you, twos, threes, fours; and if you are afraid that you will not act justly (towards several wives), then one (only), or what your right hands possess (sc. slaves). Give the women (you marry) their marriage portions (saduqat) as a gift; but if the voluntarily remit to you any part of it, enjoy that wit satisfaction and advantage. (Sura 4.3,4). Do not marry polytheistic (women) until they believe. A believing slave-girl is better than a polytheistic (woman), even though (the latter) pleases you. Do not give (your daughters) in marriage to polytheists until (these) believe; a believing slave is better than a polytheist, even though (the latter) pleases you. These invite to Hell, but God invites to Paradise and forgiveness by his grace. He makes his signs (or revelations) to people, so that they may be admonished. They ask you (Muhammad) about menstruation. Say: It is an uncleanness, so keep apart from women during menstruation, and do not go near them until they are cleansed. When they are cleansed, go in to them in the way God commanded; God loves those turning to him, and he loves the cleanly. Your wives are a field for you (to cultivate). Go in to your field as you will, but send (good deeds) before you (profitable) to yourselves. Fear God and know that (one day) you will meet him (2.221-3). Mothers suckle their children for two full years for him (the father) who wants to complete the suckling. (Incumbent on) him to whom the child is born is the feeding and clothing of them (the women) in fairness. No person shall be burdened beyond his ability. A mother shall not be made to suffer for her child, nor he to whom the child is born for his child. Incumbent on the heir (of the father) is the like of that. If the two (parents) decide on weaning by mutual agreement and counsel, it is no sin for the two. If you want a wet-nurse for your children, it is no sin for you provided you pay what you offer (her) in fairness. Fear God and know that God is seeing what you do. Those of you who die and leave wives, let (the wives) keep a waiting-time (tarabbus) apart by themselves for four months and ten (days). When they reach their term (ajal, sc. the end of the waiting-period) it is no sin for you whatever they do with themselves in fairness. God is informed of what you do.

It is no sin for you (either) to make public your betrothal of women (? during their waiting-time) or to conceal (that) in yourselves. God knows you will remember them. Make no promises to them privately unless in fair words, and do not decide on making the (actual) marriage until the (period) written has reached its term. Know that God knows what is in yourselves so beware of him; and know that he is forgiving, clement (2.233-5). 0 believers, it is not lawful for you to inherit against their will the women (of your deceased kinsmen), nor to hinder them (from marrying others) so that you may take away part of what you have given them (as dowry?), unless they are guilty of open indecency (fahisha); but associate with them kindly; if you hate them, it may happen that you are hating something in which God has placed much good (4.19). Say to the believing (women) that they lower their eyes and preserve their private parts, and that they do not display their adornment except what (normally) appears: that they draw their veils over their bosoms, and do not display their adornment except to their husbonds or their fathers or their husbands fathers or their sons or their husbands sons or their brothers or their brothers sons or their sisters sons or their women or what their right hands possess (sc. slaves) or male attendants who lack vigour or children who do not distinguish womens nakedness. Let them not stamp with their feet so that what is concealed of their adornment is revealed. Turn together to God, 0 believers, so that you may prosper. Marry those of you who are solitary (or single?), and those of your men and women slaves who are upright; if they are poor, God will enrich them of his abundance. God is of ample means and knowing. Let those who cannot find a marriage remain chaste until God enriches them of his abundance (24.31-3). Let them (your wives) dwell where you dwell, according to your means. Do not be hard on them so that you straiten life for them. If they are pregnant, spend on them (what is needful) until they are delivered of their burden. If they suckle (their children) for you, give them their hires (ujur) and consult together fairly. If there are difficulties between you, and another (woman) suckles for him (the father), let him with plenty spend of his plenty, and let him whose provision is limited spend of what God has given him. After hardship God will give ease (65.6,7).

2.

RELATIVES ONE MAY NOT MARRY

Do not marry those women your fathers married, except what has already happened, for this is indecency (fahisha) and abomination (maqt) and an evil way. Forbidden to you are your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your fathers sisters, your mothers sisters, your brothers daughters, your sisters daughters, your foster-mother, your foster-sisters, your wives mothers, your stepdaughters who are under your care (born) oTf your wives to whom you have gone in but if you have not gone in to them, it is no sin for you (to marry their daughters) and the wives of your sons who are from your loins. (You are also forbidden) to have two sisters together, except what has already happened. God is forgiving, merciful (4.22,23).

3. DIVORCE (As pointed out in the article, one of the great innovations of Quranic law was the insistence that between two husbands a woman must observe a waiting-period (tarabbus, idda); the end of this period was the term or ajal). For those who forswear their wives (or vow to abstain from them) a waiting-time (tarabbus) of four months (is prescribed); but if they change their mind, God is forgiving merciful. If they decide on divorce, God is hearing, knowing. The divorced (women) shall observe a waiting-time of three (monthly) courses. It is not lawful for them to conceal what God has created in their wombs (sc. a pregnancy), if they believe in God and the Last Day. Their husbands would do better in that (case) to take them back, if they (the husbands) want a reconciliation. They (the women) have (rights) similar to those (of men) over them in fairness; but the men have a superior degree to them. God is mighty, wise. Divorce is (?must be pronounced) twice; then (a woman must be) retained fairly or released in kindness. It is not lawful for you to take back anything of what you gave them, except when both fear that they cannot observe the limits (set by) God. If you fear that the two will not observe the limits (set by) God, there is no sin for the two in (the woman) redeeming herself. These are the limits (set by) God. Do not transgress them, for those who transgress the limits (set by) God, these are the wrongdoers. If he divorces her (the third time), she shall not be lawful afterwards for him (to marry) until she marries a husband other than he. If he (the other husband) divorces her, it is no sin for the two (the woman and the first husband) to return to each other, if they think they can observe the limits (set by) God. These are the limits (set by) God; he makes them clear to people with knowledge. When you have divorced women and they have reached their term (ajal), retain them fairly or release them fairly; do not retain them to their hurt and so transgress. He who does that wrongs himself... When you have divorced women and they have reached their terms, do not hinder them from marrying their (new) husbands, if they agree between them fairly. This is in admonition to him of you who believes in God and the Last Day. This is more righteous for you and purer. God knows and you do not know (2.226-32). It is no sin for you to divorce the women when you have not yet touched them and have not appointed a dowry (farida) for them. Provide for them fairly, the rich according to his means and the straitened according to his means. (This is) a duty for the muhsinin (men observing strict marriage rules). If you divorce them before touching them, but have appointed for them a dowry, then (give) half of what you appointed, unless (the women) forego (it) or he in whose hand is the marriage

contract foregoes (it). To forego (? the whole) is nearer to piety. Forget not liberality among yourselves; God is the seer of what you do (2.236, 237). If you want to replace one wife by (another) wife and (if) you have given one of them a (large) sum of money, take nothing from it; would you take it by slandering (her) and openly wronging (her)? How can you take it, since one of you has gone into the other, and they (the women) have received from you a firm pledge? (4.20, 21). O you who believe, when you marry believing women and then divorce them before touching them, there is no waiting-period (idda) for you to fulfil towards them; but provide for them and dismiss them handsomely (33.48). O prophet, when you (men) divorce women, divorce them at their idda, and reckon the idda (exactly). Fear God, your Lord. Do not expel them from their houses and do not let them go away unless they have committed a manifest indecency (fahisha). These are the statutes of God, and he who transgresses Gods statutes has wronged himself. You do not know whether God will bring about some new thing after this. When they have reached their term (ajal) (either), retain them fairly or part from them fairly. Call to witness two just men among you, and bear witness (as) before God. This is an admonition for him who believes in God and the Last Day. For him who fears God, God will appoint a way out (or a happy issue), and will give him provision from where he did not expect (it). He who trusts in God (God) is his sufficiency. God is attaining his purpose (amr). God has fixed for everything its period. For those of your wives who despair of their courses, if you are in doubt, their idda is three months, as it is for those who have not had their courses. For pregnant women their term (ajal) is when they are delivered of their burden. To him who fears God (God) will make his command easy (65.1-4).

4. TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (It would clearly have been impossible to change within the space of a year or two from the earlier systems of polyandry to one in which all women observed the waiting-period. In the following verses tahassun is almost certainly a technical term for observing the waiting-period; for the men who do so the corresponding participial term is muhsinin and for the women either muhsint or muhsanat, where the latter, being passive, would indicate that they were made to do it. The participial forms for those following the old customs and not observing the waiting-period are musafihin and musafihat, while the akhdn are the marital partners of such women). Also (forbidden to you are) women who are muhsanat, except what your right hands shall possess (sc. slaves); (this is) an ordinance for you from God. Lawful for you is what is beyond that, to seek with your wealth, but muhsinin, not musafihin. For what you enjoy from them (the women) give them their hires (ujr) dutifully. There is no sin in what you agree upon mutually after what is due. God is knowing, wise.

Whoever of you cannot afford to marry believing muhsanat, (let him marry) what your right hands possess of your believing fatayat; God well knows your faith. (You are) one from the other; so marry them with the consent of their people (ahl), and give them their hires (ujur) fairly (they being), muhsanat, not musafihat, and not taking akhdn. If when they observe the waitingperiod they commit indecency (fhisha), they are liable for half the punishment of the muhsanat. This (permission) is for him of you who fears sinning; but if you are patient (and do not marry), that is better for you. God is forgiving, merciful (4.24, 25). Today there are made lawful for you the good things; and the food of those (before you) given the scripture is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them. (Also lawful for you) are the muhsant of the believing (sc. Muslim) women and the muhsant of those given the scripture before you, provided you give them their hires (ujr) (and you are) muhsinin, not musafihin, and not taking akhdn (5.5). Do not compel your fatayat to bigha if they want tahassun, in order that you may seek the advantage of this present life. If anyone compels them, God is forgiving and merciful (to such women) after their being compelled (24.33 pert).

5.

INDECENCY AND ADULTERY

(It is difficult to know what precisely is meant by indecency or fahisha. It might have been relapse into some of the old practices after observance of the waiting-period had been generally accepted, or it might have been something else; bigha (in 24.33 above) is also obscure. Again it is difficult to know what precisely is meant by adulteress and adulterer (zaniya, zani) against the background of polyandry, but the fault appears to be more serious than a mere return to old customs). (For) those of your women who are guilty of indecency (fahisha), call four of you to witness against them; if they witness (to the truth of the allegation), then confine the women in the houses until death comes to them, or until God provides a way (of escape). If two of you are guilty of that, punish them both; but if they repent and do well, let them alone; God is relenting and merciful. Forgiveness is only (incumbent) on God towards those who do evil ignorantly and then repent speedily; to these God relents, and God is knowing, wise (4.15-17). The adulteress and the adulterer (zniya, zani) scourge each of them with a hundred stripes. Let not pity for the two keep you from (executing) Gods judgement, if you believe in God and the Last Day. Let a group of the believers witness the punishment. The adulterer shall not marry other than an adulteress or a polytheistic (woman), and the adulteress none shall marry other than an adulterer or a polytheist. That (form of marriage) is forbidden to the believers (24.2,3).

6. REFUGEES (In the treaty of al-Hudaybiya between Muhammad and the Meccans in 628 he is said to have agreed to send back to Mecca any individuals who came to him in Medina professing Islam. This was probably intended to apply to junior members of clans and clients. The following verse exempts believing women from being sent back and makes alternative arrangements). O you who believe, when believing women come to you as emigrants, examine them; God knows best their faith. If you know them (to be genuine) believers, do not send them back to the unbelievers. They are not lawful for them (the unbelievers) and (the unbelievers) are not lawful for (these women); but give (the unbelievers) what they have spent. It is no sin for you to marry (these women) if you give them their hires (ujur). Do not retain the ties of unbelieving women (? prevent them leaving you), but demand what you have spent, and let them (? unbelieving men) demand what they have spent. That is the judgement of God judging between you. God is knowing, wise. If any of your wives escapes from you to the unbelievers, and then you have your turn (? of triumph), give to those whose wives have gone away the like of what they have spent. Fear God in whom you are believers (60.10,11).

7.

MUHAMMADS PRIVILEGES

(The following verses, indicating Muhammads special marital privileges, have given rise to much discussion of the precise meaning of some phrases, but it is here presented as it stands. There are several other passages dealing with relations between Muhammad arid his wives). O Prophet, we have made lawful for you your wives to whom you have given their hires (ujr), and what your right hand possesses of what God has given you as war-booty, and the daughters of your paternal uncle, the daughters of your paternal aunts, the daughters of your maternal uncle and the daughters of ydur maternal aunts, who have migrated with you, and a believing woman if she gives herself to the Prophet and the Prophet wants to seek her in marriage, something specially for you and not for the believers. We know what we have prescribed for them in respect of their wives and what their right hands possess, so that you (Muhammad) may be free from blame (in respect of special privileges). God is forgiving, merciful. Postpone (? the turn) of whom you will of them (0 Prophet) or take to yourself whom you will of them. Whoever you desire of those you have set aside, it is no sin for you (to receive). That is better, so that they may be comforted and not grieve, and may all be content with what you have given them. God knows what is in (all) your hearts. God is knowing, clement. Women are not permitted to you after (this), nor may you exchange them for (other) women, even though their beauty pleases you, apart from what your right hand possesses. God is watchful over everything (33.50-2).

[Ends there was no separate bibliography to this paper.]

Turkish Translation sent to me by HUZEYFE DEMIRTAS

slam ncesinde ve slamn lk Yllarnda Arap Yarmadasnda Kadn ve Toplum

Bu yaz, Prof. William Montgomery Wattn Women in the Earliest Islam (slamn lk [Dnem]lerinde Kadnlar) basl altnda ve ilk olarak 1991de yaynlad makalesinin (bir ksmnn) Trke tercmesidir. W. M. Wattn bu yazsnn daha nceki bir Trke tercmesi muhtemelen bulunmamaktadir; bu sebeple yaznn ilk Trke tercmesini sizinle paylastmz dnyoruz. 1999 ylnda, Wattn 90. ya gnnde kendisiyle yaplan son rportaj (arkada Bashir Maan ile birlikte) gerekletiren Sayn Alastair McIntosha, bu rportaj yapt gn kendisine Prof. Watt tarafndan verilen bu yazy internet sayfasnda (http://www.alastairmcintosh.com) paylast ve bizim de tercme edip dergimizde yaynlamamz ho grd iin tesekkr bir bor biliriz. Prof. Wattn bu yazs aslen Studia Missionalia (Vol. 40, 1991, pp. 162-173, Editrice Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, Roma) adl bir gazetede yaynlanm; kendisiyle irtibata getiimiz Sayn Alastair McIntosh bu gazeteyi belirsiz (obscure) bir Vatikan gazetesi (journal) olarak tanmlyor. Yukarda, Wattn bu yazsn ksmen evirdiimizi sylemitik; yaznn evirmediimiz son ksmnda Prof. Watt, yazsnda o blme kadar sunmu olduklar ve evlilik ile ilgili dier bir takm Kuran ayetlerinin ngilizce tercmelerini (yaklak be sayfa boyunca) The Quran on Marital Questions (Kuran, Evlilik Soru[n]lar zerine) adl ana bal ve muteakip ara balklar altnda, sadece ksa on bilgiler vererek sralamaktadr.Yaznn tercmesini yaptmz ksmnda geen Kuran ayetinin mealini biz merhum Elmall Hamdi Yazrn (sadeletirilmemi) o muhalled eserinden aldk. Metnin orijinalinde Efendimize (a.s.) -sadeceismen hitap edilmektedir, metne sadk kalmak adna biz de aynen evirdik. Ho grle slamn lk [Dnem]lerinde Kadnlar slam hala bir ok ynden bir erkek dini, fakat kadnlarn konumu Muhammed ve onun duyurduu din tarafndan farkl noktalarda gelitirildi. Bu geliimin erken safhalarn anlamak iin Muhammedin zamanndan nce Arap Yarmadasndaki (Arabia) kadnlarn konumunu bilmek gerekir. Bunun icin kayda deer lde Arapa dkman bulunmaktadr fakat tam bir resim elde etmek, iinin ehli antropologlarn daha ileri calmalarn gerektiriyor. 1956da yaynlanan Muhammed Medine (Dnemin)de (Muhammad at Medina) adl kitabmda, bir antropolog olmasam da, yapabileceimin en iyisiyle bu materyali ele almaya altm. Bildiim kadaryla da o zamandan beri bu (konu) zerinde alma yapan bir antropolog olmad ve burada sunacaklarm benim kendi bulgularmn bir zetidir.

Mslman bir erkein 4 e alabilmesine olanak salayan slam Hukuku hkm sklkla daha nceki snrlandrlmam okeliliin (polygyny - ok kadnllk) snrlandrlmas zannedildi. Erkeklerin on kadna kadar aldklar bir veya iki olaydan bahsedilir, fakat bunun ne tr bir sosyal sistem ierisinde yer ald ak deildir. Snrlamann temellendirildii Kuran ayeti erkekleri birden fazla kadn almaya tevik ediyor gibi grnyor: Eer yetimlerin haklarn gzetemiyeceinizden korkarsanz size hell olan kadnlardan ikier, er, drder nikh edin ve eer bu surette adalet yapamayacanzdan korkarsanz o zaman bir tane veya milkiniz [kendinize ait bir] cariye aln(Sure 4:3). Bu ayeti anlamak iin slam ncesi Arap Yarmadasndaki kadn-erkek aras ilikileri (hakknda) yle etraflca bir aklamaya girimek gerek. Temel olgu Arap Yarmadasnn cou blgesinde sosyal sistemin adeta yalnzca anaerkil (matrilineal) yaknln, yani sadece annenin soyundan olanlarn yaknlnn (akrabalk kinship) dikkate alnd eklinde grlyor. Bu, tabii, anaerkillik (matriarchy) veya kadnlarn ynetimi anlamna gelmiyordu. nsanlarn anaerkil bir bala birbirine bal geni ailelerinin olduu grlyor fakat bu ailenin ve mlkiyetinin kontrol (en) byk kz kardein ana bir erkek kardeinin ellerindeydi, ve bu erkek kardeten onun (byk kz kardein) oluna intikal ederdi. lk (dnem) Mslman alimleri bu sosyal sisteme ait evlilik dzenlemelerini (eserlerinde) muhafaza ettiler.(Bunlardan) ikisi, snrlandrlm ve snrlandirlmam ok kocallk (poliandri) olarak adlandrlabilecek formlar olarak grnyor. Bylelikle, kadnn snrl veya snrsz sayda koca ald bir durum vard, erkein bir ka kadn ald deil. Snrl ok kocallk durumunda, bir kadn bir cocuk dourduunda, erkek cinsel partnerlerini (ki bunlar on kiiden azdrlar) bir araya toplar, onlarn nnde onlardan belirli birinin ocuun babas olduunu aklard; ve (o) adam bunu reddetmeye izinli deildi. Snrlandrlmam ok kocallk ise, yle grnyor ki, fahielikten (prostitution) ancak yle byle ayryordu, fakat hakknda bilgilendirilmediimiz kstlamalar olmus olabilir. Bu (gibi) cok kocallk durumlarnda evlilikin anayerli (uxorilocal) olduu grnyor, yani (evlilik) kadnn yaad ye rdeki evde vuku bulurdu; ve erkein (de) kadn ziyaret ettii syleniyor. Erkekler (de), phesiz, aynen bylesi ziyaretleri bir ka kadna yapyor olmu olabilirlerdi. Bununla birlikte, ilaveten grnen o ki Arap Yarmadasnn bata Mekke olmak zere baz blgelerinde anaerkil sistem yerini ataerkil olana brakma srecindeydi. Baba tarafna (paternity) olan bu ilgi muhtemelen Mekkedeki artan ticari refah ve beraberindeki bireycilik (individualism) geliimi ile balantldr. Kayda deer lde kiisel servet yan adamlar bunun, ylece kz kardeslerinin cocuklarnn geni aileleri tarafndan deil, z be z kendi ocuklar tarafndan miras alnacandan emin olmak istediler. slam tarafndan yaplan (en) temel deiikliklerden biri kadnn ayn sre zarfnda sadece bir erkekle cinsel mnasebet halinde olmas gerektii konusunda srar etmesiydi.Boanma veya e deitirme nisbeten daha kolayd, zellikle (de) erkek iin; fakat kadnn baka bir cinsel partner edinmeden evvel hamile olup olmadndan emin olmak iin bir bekleme sresini (iddet) gzetmesi zorunluydu. Bylesi (kkl ve geni) toptan bir deiimi tmden bir defada etkin klmak elbette ki kolay deildi ve bir sre iin bu bekleme sresini gzeten ve gzetmeyen kadnlar arasnda bir ayrm yaplm olduu grlyor. Bu deiimle kol kola bir deiim (daha) sre gitti; anayerli evlilikten atayerli (virilocal) evlilie; yani bu durumda baka bir eve gidecek olan kadnd ki bu ev erkek tarafndan temin ve tedarik edilecekti. Muhammedin elerinin her

birinin ayr dairesi (oda - apartment) vard, fakat bunlar, bir camii grevi grse de esasen (onun) kendi evi olan merkezi bir avlunun etrafndaydlar. Yukarda alntlanan Kuran ayetinin 625 ylnda vuku bulan ve bir cok Muslumann ldrldrld Uhud savandan sonra vahyolunduu sylenir ki (bu sava)geride temin ve tedariklerinin salanmas gereken dul kadnlar brakmt. Medinenin (bu) zamanndaki artlarnda bu dul kadnlarn bir ou orada yaygn olan ok kocalla geri batabilirlerdi; ve phesiz ki bu sebepten Mslman erkekler, icinde sadece hane reisine e olmus bir ka kadnn bulunduu bir ev halk ekillendirmeye tevik ediliyordu. Kuran ayn zamanda anaerkil ev halknn bandaki erkeklerin kendi (sorumluluklar) altndaki kadnlara adaletsizce davranmalarn engellemek iin tasarlanm farkl dier dzenlemeleri de ierir. Muhammedin hayatta olduu zaman diliminde evlilik meseleleri muamelatnn sonularn toparlamak iin Muhammed Medine (Dnemin)de (Muhammad at Medina) adl kitabmda yle- yazmtm: Muhammed evlilik ve aile ilikileri alannda toplum yapsnn derin ve engin bir yeniden organizasyonunu balatt ve baard. Onun zamanndan nce bireyci yeni temayller kesinlikle vaki idi, fakat onlarn (bu temayullerin) varl yeni bir yapnn inasndan ok eski (yapnn) bozulup kmesine nclk ediyordu. Muhammedin buradaki elzem ii bu bireyci temayulleri yeni bir yapnn ykseliinde kullanmakt. Toplumun komnal (kabilevi) safhasnn adet ve uygulamalar deyim yerindeyse karaya oturmu olmann ilesini ekmiti; Muhammed bu enkazdan deerli ne varsa kurtard ve bunlar yeni bireyci topluma tayp aktard. O, bu yolla, komnal safhadan neet edip bireyci bir (safhaya) gemekte olan toplumlar iin cazip ve tatminkar olduunu (imdiye kadar) bir ok adan kantlam olan bir aile yaps ortaya koydu. Avrupa Hristiyan standartlar ve slamnkilerin her ikisine gre de eski uygulamalarn bir cou ahlakszca (immoral) idi ve Muhammedin yeniden organizasyonu bu nedenle ahlaki bir gelimeydi. (s. 289) Toplumun bu yeniden yaplandrmasnda kadnlarn konumunda deiiklikler vard, bir ksm daha iyiye, bir ksm belki daha ktye, fakat tabii kadnn ok kocallk sisteminde (kendisini) nasil idame ettiini gerek (manada) bilmiyoruz. Bununla birlikte, btn olarak ele alndnda, kadnlarn (bu) deiimlerden istifade ettikleri ve (kendilerine) ok ok daha iyi gvenlik saland grlr, zellikle de komnal toplumdan, daha bireyci bir topluma dnmn kanlmaz olmu olmas hasebiyle.
[ms] Floral-Based Enterprises by Andalus Muslim Community Eiashah Yusof, Roziah Sidik @ Mat Sidek

Abstract

The Andalus region was famous for its agriculture. Although the Andalus is widely known as an area that receives less rain, but its ability to develop irrigation system has triumphed to gambol the development and growth in this field. This paper discusses one of agriculture products, namely flora. Discussion concentrates on how the flora used and benefited by the community of Andalus. However, the scope of the debate confined to the flora found in the Kitab al-Nabat written by al-Dinawari. It aims to reveal the function of floral diversity that benefits the community in Andalus. This study uses content analysis method to examine the content of the book of al-Nabat in order to elucidate exactly how the flora had given the benefit to the lives of people all day in Andalus. The result of the study found that the flora which existed in Andalus can provide benefits in various aspects to the Muslim community in Andalus such as in the aspects of industrial food, grease oil, electrical power sources, clothing, perfume, timber industry and medicine. Nonetheless, this study focuses only on its utility in the food industry, clothing and perfume. UKM e-Journal System

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Submissions Vol 12, No 4 (2012) November 2012 Table of Contents Regular papers Editorial Nor Fariza Mohd Nor The Relationship between English Listening Proficiency Levels and Learning Styles Farinaz Shirani Bidabadi, Hamidah Yamat

The Impacts Of Manipulating Task Complexity On EFL Learners Performance Masoud Saeedi, Saeed Ketabi, Shirin Rahimi Kazerooni Vocabulary and Grammar Gain Through Computer Educational Games Sara Jalali, Masoumeh Dousti ESL Students Attitude, Learning Problems, And Needs For Online Writing Noriah Ismail, Supyan Hussin, Saadiyah Darus Production And Perception Of English Word Final Stops By Malay Speakers Shahidi A.H., Rahim Aman, Ab.Samad Kechot Analisis Koda Berdasarkan Kekangan Dalam Dialek Kelantan Adi Yasran Abdul Aziz Marked Themes As Context Frames In Research Article Abstracts Chan Swee Heng, Seyed Foad Ebrahimi Petangan Tradition In Javanese Personal Naming Practice: An Ethnoliguistic Study Sahid Teguh Widodo, Kundharu Saddhono Penilaian Ke Atas Kerumitan Kognitif Dalam Proses Membaca Jawi Khazriyati Salehuddin Sikap Dan Kefahaman Pelajar Terhadap Dialek Negeri Sembilan: Kajian Sosiolinguistik Mohammad Fadzeli Jaafar, Norsimah Mat Awal, Idris Aman Apabila Teori Feminis Ternyata Tidak Diperlukan: Satu Kajian Kes Ungku Maimunah Mohd. Tahir Table of Contents Vol 12, No 2 (2012) May 2012

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GEMA is published in English and Malay. Papers in Malay should have abstracts and keywords in English. Each manuscript must have an abstract (not exceeding 250 words) and 5 key words. Authors are required to use the style template (Template For Submitting Manuscript) with Tables and Figures embedded in the text itself. Format the manuscript accordingly before submission. The mechanical elements of arrangements, spacing, length, and consistency of usage in form and descriptions should be studied before submission Authors are required to inform the Editorial Board the software used if the manuscript contain any phonetic or IPA symbols. Authors are required to send the manuscript in Word Doc and PDF format. Authors are to check manuscripts for accuracy of language before submitting to the journal. The Editorial Board will NOT edit submitted manuscripts for style or language. Non acceptance of a manuscript may result if there are an unacceptable number of grammatical errors. This is a double-blind review process; please be sure that your name does not appear anywhere in the manuscript or in the filename. Authors name, designation and institutional address should be in a separate document. Authors are required to conform to the Reference Guidelines (APA style) as given. References should be between 15-30 and 30% of the references should be from journals. Authors must make sure that some of the references are current (published within the last five years). Authors MUST cite an article or articles from GEMA. Go to GEMAs homepage at http://ejournal.ukm.my/gema/, to review online articles. Papers should not be less than 5000 and not more than 8000. Papers submitted for consideration of publication in GEMA must NOT be under consideration for publication elsewhere either in electronic or printed form. These papers should also have NOT been published previously. The corresponding author should declare regarding this issue when submitting the paper to the Chief Editor. Upon submission of a paper, the author/authors must also provide the editorial board with names of four reviewers from different institution, complete with their addresses, designation and email address. An author may publish ONLY in alternate issue of GEMA. The rule remains in case of co-

authorship.

GEMA retains the right to electronically distribute accepted manuscripts but the authors will retain copyright. If authors wish to republish the article, they must write to the Chief Editor and acknowledge GEMA as the original publisher. The Editorial Board reserves the right to make editorial changes to any manuscript accepted for publication to enhance clarity and style. Due to the increasing volume of submissions, manuscript that do NOT adhere or comply to any of the submission guideline, will NOT be considered for review. Any form of enquiries (via email, sms, phone etc) cannot be entertained. The final decision for paper publication is made by the Chief Editor and the editorial board members. Papers on theories and practices including those on discussions of and reflections on methods, techniques and ideas useful in the classroom are welcomed. There must be critical discussion of the issues, new and significant contribution to the related field. Articles can be from any of the following areas:

- Linguistics; cross-cultural linguistic research and theory, and applied linguistics. - Teaching of English (issues and topics on ELT). - Literature; postcolonial literature, new literatures in English, popular literature.
- Teaching of other Languages (issues and topics on teaching of other languages) Journal Contact People Editorial Board Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor Fariza Mohd Nor, School of Language Studies and Linguistics Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Editorial Policies

Focus and Scope Section Policies Peer Review Process Publication Frequency

Focus and Scope

GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies is a Scopus index peer-reviewed journal published 4 times a year, beginning in 2012. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies is also indexed in the following databases:

Lingusitics Abstracts Online (Wiley-Blackwell), Communication & Mass Media Complete (EBSCO), Linguist List, Open J-Gate, Ulrichs Web Global Seroals Directory, Directory of Open Acess Journals (DOAJ), ASFT Plus Index, Malaysian Indexing and Abstracting System (My AIS) and SiriMalaysia.Com Articles can be from any of the following areas:

Linguistics; cross-cultural linguistic research and theory, and applied linguistics. Teaching of English (issues and topics on ELT, ESL or EFL). Literature; postcolonial literature, new literatures in English, popular literature. Teaching of other Languages (issues and topics on teaching of other languages).

Section Policies Articles Open Submissions Special Section Open Submissions Regular papers Open Submissions Book Review Open Submissions Editorial Open Submissions Reviewers Open Submissions Indexed Peer Reviewed Indexed Peer Reviewed Indexed Peer Reviewed Indexed Peer Reviewed Indexed Peer Reviewed Indexed Peer Reviewed

Peer Review Process

Every paper submitted will be screened for fulfillment of submission guideline. The paper will also undergo content review to determine if it suits the scope of the journal and fulfill the quality requirement. The paper will be returned to the writer/s if it requires further editing before it is send for review. When the editorial board has successfully received feedback from a minimum of TWO reviewers, the corresponding author will be contacted. The review process is double blind. The reviewers are invited by the editor.

Publication Frequency

Please refer to Announcement Section

Open Access Policy

This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. Anyone interested to view the journal must register.

Dr Azlan Mis, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohammad Fadzeli Jaafar, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Dr Intan Safinaz Zainudin, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Khatijah Rasool, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Ravichandran Vengadasamy, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr Shahizah Hamdan, School of Language Studies and Linguistics Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Noorizah Mohd Noor, School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Zaini Amir, School of Language Studies and Linguistics Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Principal Contact

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor Fariza Mohd Nor Chief Editor School of Language Studies and Lingusitics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Email: [email protected]
Support Contact

Dr. Afendi Hamat Email: [email protected] .

Special Section Editorial : Interdisciplinary Perspectives On Culture, Power And Values: Language And Literary Studies In The Local-Global Context Pramela Krish, Hafizah Latif, Zalina Mohd Lazim Roycean Loyalty In William Shakespeares Timon of Athens Florence Toh Haw Ching, Arbaayah Ali Termizi

Nilai Setia Dari Perspektif Prosodi Semantik: Analisis Berbantu Data Korpus Hishamudin Isam, Norsimah Mat Awal Discursive Enactment of Power In Iranian High School EFL Classrooms Faiz Sathi Abdullah, Kobra Hosseini Young Women Speak Out: Healing The Selves Through Narrative Therapy Mazmi Maarof, Ruzy Suliza Hashim, Noraini Md Yusof, Raihanah Mohd Mydin Penyerapan Unsur Budaya Dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa Jepun Normalis Amzah, Natsue Hieda, Mimiko Nezu Development Of An Automated Tool For Detecting Errors In Tenses Tengku Nor Rizan Tengku Mohd Maasum, Siti Hamin Stapa, Nazlia Omar, Mohd Juzaiddin Ab Aziz, Saadiyah Darus The Semantics Of (fii) In Taizzi Dialect: A Cultural Variation Perspective Turki Mahyoub Qaid Mohammed, Imran Ho-Abdullah, Tan Kim Hua Regular papers Peluasan Makna Alim: Analisis Semantik Kognitif Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin, Anida Sarudin, Zaharani Ahmad Kata Soal Dalam Dialek Kedah Fazal Mohamed Mohamed Sultan, Nurulafiqah Suhaimi Developing Identity In Diversity: A Second Language Acquisition Experience Hamidah Yamat Penggunaan Bahasa Arab Lisan Dan Hubungannya Dengan Strategi Pengurusan Sumber Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd Rahimi, Parilah M. Shah, Wan Haslina Wah, Muhammad Sabri Sahrir

Teaching Word Stress Patterns Of English Using A Musically-Simulated Technique Mohammad Ali Heidari- Shahreza, Ahmad Moinzadeh Wanita Sebagai Objek Seks: Penanganannya Dalam Novel Bila Hujan Malam Ungku Maimunah Mohd. Tahir Pembinaan Ayat Bahasa Arab Dalam Kalangan Lepasan Sekolah Menengah Agama Rosni Samah Learning Styles Of Yemeni Undergraduate Science Students Angela Abu-Asba, Hazita Azman, Rosniah Mustaffa Penguasaan Pengetahuan Pedagogi Kandungan Guru Bahasa Iban Zamri Mahamod, Magdeline anak Nor The Washback Effect Of The Iranian Universities Entrance Exam: Teachers Insights Hadi Salehi, Melor Md Yunus Keberkesanan Penggunaan Perisian Asas Membaca Auzar Auzar Analisis Penggunaan Strategi Komunikasi Dalam Komunikasi Lisan Bahasa Arab Ashinida Aladdin Analisis Kesilapan Dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu Oleh Pelajar Asing Yong Chyn Chye, Vijayaletchumy a/p Subramaniam Pengaruh Bahasa Melayu Dan Bahasa Inggeris Dalam Strategi Penukaran Kod Bahasa Perancis Hazlina Abdul Halim Iranian EFL Learners' Realization Of Complaints In American English Parisa Abdolrezapour, Azizollah Dabaghi, Zohreh Kassaian

Students Critical Consciousness Through Critical Literacy Awareness Koo Yew Lie, Wong Fook Fei, Kemboja Ismail Kajian Akustik Realisasi Kontras Penyuaraan Bunyi Plosif Bahasa Melayu Shahidi A.H, Rahim Aman, Zulkifley Hamid Regular papers The Yesterday And Today Of The European Language Portfolio In Turkey Ilknur Pekkanli Egel Analisis Preposisi Lokatif Bahasa Melayu Berdasarkan Kerangka Role And Reference Grammar (RRG) Maslida Yusof Grammatical Awareness Among Primary School English Language Teachers Munir Shuib Struktur Sintaksis Frasa Nama Bahasa Bateq Fazal Mohamed Mohamed Sultan Social Variation Of Malay Language In Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia: A Study On Accent, Identity And Integration Idris Aman, Rosniah Mustaffa

TEMPLATE FOR SUBMITTING MANUSCRIPT

Template For Submitting Manuscript

Title Of Paper (Times new roman, font size 14, not more than 10 words)

AUTHOR/S (name/s, affiliation, e-mail of corresponding author) (Times new roman, font size 11, italic)

ABSTRACT Insert your abstract here following this structure: Introduction, Methods, Results and discussion. Use Times New Roman font size 12. Abstract should not be more than 250 words and in one paragraph only. Papers in Malay should use the same format and should have an abstract in English. The title of the paper, abstract and keywords in English should follow after the keywords in Malay. Page Layout of the paper is Size Letter 8.5 x 11 and Margin Office 2003 Default. Keywords: (5 keywords separated by semi colon[;]). INTRODUCTION Use Times New Roman font 12 and single spacing for texts in a paragraph. Paragraphs are justified. FIRST LEVEL SUB-HEADING (All Capital Letter, Font 12) No spacing between paragraphs. Next paragraphs indent. Do not use numbers or alphabets in headings and sub-headings. (Example A, Introduction 1, Body 1.1).
SECOND LEVEL SUB-HEADING (All Capital Letter, Font 10)

No spacing between paragraphs. Next paragraphs indent.

THIRD LEVEL SUB-HEADING (All Capital Letter, Font 8)

No spacing between paragraphs. Next paragraphs indent. METHOD No spacing between paragraphs. Next paragraphs indent.

Tables You can refer to tables in this way: Table 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on.

Refer to Table 1 first, then only insert Table 1 below the text or paragraph (as shown). Use Times new Roman font size 12.

TABLE 1. Insert title of Table 1 (Font size=9)

Heading Content 1 Content 4 Heading (Font size = 11) Content (Font size = 10)

Heading Content 2 Content 5

Heading Content 3 Content 6

Figure For Figure: Figure 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on.

Refer to Figure 1 first, and then only insert Figure 1 below the text or paragraph.

Figure 1 (example)

FIGURE 1. Insert title of Figure 1. The title of Figure 1 must be below the figure. (Font size=9)

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION Use Times New Roman font size 12. Paragraph must be justified. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Place any acknowledgement here. We would like to thank xxxxxxx. ENDNOTES

Do not use footnotes but collect all as endnotes and place after main document after Acknowledgement but before References. Citation of authors If there are two authors, cited paper should be written in this way (Hartmann & James, 2001). Cite papers with one author and two authors in this manner (Atkins, 1996; Leech & Nesi, 1999). Follow this format if you cite a secondary source (Lemmens & Wekker, 1990 as cited in de Schryver, 2003). REFERENCES (examples) Journal Article Ahmad, F. (2008). Presage, context, process and product: Influencing variables in literature instruction in an ESL context. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies. Vol. 8, No. 1, 1-21. Azizah Yaacob, Nor Fariza Mohd. & Nor, Hazita Azman. (2005). Implementation of teachinglearning practices and teacher-student readiness. Journal of e-Language Teaching and Learning. Vol 2(2), 16-25. Book Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter in Book Dodd, S. (1989). Lexicomputing and the dictionary of the future. In G. James, (Ed.). Lexicographers and their works (pp. 83-93). Exeter: University of Exeter Press. Gill, S.K., Nambiar R , Noraini Ibrahim and Tan Kim Hua. (in press). Globalization and language shift in Malaysia: Representations of teaching realities. In Viniti Vaish (Ed.). Globalization of language and culture in Asia: The impact of globalization processes on language. Singapore:Continuum Internet Source Faizah Abdul Majid, Zalizan Jelas & Norzaini Azman. (2002). Selected Malaysian Adult learners academic reading strategies: A Case Study. Retrieved August 16, 2005 from http://face.stir.ac.uk/Majidp61.htm Nadzrah Abu Bakar. (2007). Factors that contribute to the effective use of computers in the classroom: A case study. AsiaCall Journal Online Vol 2. Retrieved April 14, 2009 from http://www.asia-call.org/AsiaJournal2.php Conference Paper / Proceedings

Wang, Y. & Le, T. (2011). Teaching, learning and management: A case study of intercultural communication and education. AARE 2006 Conference Proceedings, 27-30 November, Adelaide EJ ISSN 1324-9339 (2007). Shahizah Ismail Hamdan. (2008). Science fiction minds and bodies: Reconsidering the borders of human subjectivity. Paper presented at The Novel and Its Borders. A Conference at the Centre for the Novel. Scotland:University of Aberdeen, July. Thesis Zawawi Ismail (2008). Penilaian pelaksanaan kurikulum kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab komunikasi di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama. -Evaluation of implemented curriculum of speaking skill in Arabic communicative subjects in religious secondary schools. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Nambiar, R. (2005). Language learning and language use strategies of tertiary learners for academic literary: Towards a theoretical and pedagogical model of learning. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia.

APPENDIX A (on a different page, if there is any) APPENDIX B (on a different page if there is any)

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Insert a short biodata of the first author (maximum of 50 words). Insert a short biodata of the second author (maximum of 50 words).

ISSN: 1675-8021

Online Submissions Author Guidelines Privacy Statement

Online Submissions

Already have a Username/Password for Sains Malaysiana? Go to Login Need a Username/Password? Go to Registration
Registration and login are required to submit items online and to check the status of current submissions. Table of Contents Editorial Editorial Nor Fariza Mohd Nor Articles Politeness of Front Counter Staff of Malaysian Private Hospitals Kuang Ching Hei, Maya Khemlani David, Lau Su Kia Compliments And Compliment Responses In Philippine English Zhang Jin-pei Sintaksis Kata Tanya Sapa Dalam Dialek Kedah Fazal Mohamed Mohamed Sultan, Nurulafiqah Suhaimi Sumbangan Framenet Kepada Leksikografi Korpus: Kajian Kes Penyelisikan Makna Kata Kerja Melihat Rusmadi Baharudin, Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin, Imran Ho-Abdullah Haiwan Sebagai Perlambangan Dalam Peribahasa Orang Semai Saidatul Nornis Hj. Mahali, Mohd. Rasdi Saamah MUET As A Predictor Of Academic Achievement In ESL Teacher Education Juliana Othman, Abu Bakar Nordin A Case Study Of Tertiary Learners Capability In Lexical Knowledge

Naginder Kaur Effects Of Bilingualism On L3 Vocabulary Learning Among Iranian EFL Learners Mostafa Zare, Sajad Davoudi Mobarakeh Kemahiran Komunikasi Interpersonal Ekspresif: Mencipta Guru Bahasa Indonesia Yang Penyayang Syofia Ulfah, Zamri Mahamod, Jamaludin Badusah Arabic Language Efficacy Questionnaire (ALEQ): Assessing Self-Efficacy and Achievement Nik Hanan Mustapha, Nik Farhan Mustapha, Nadwah Daud, Mahmud Abd Wahab Analisis Kesilapan Dan Strategi Pembelajaran Gender Gramatikal Bahasa Perancis Hazlina Abdul Halim Malaysia My Second Home: Isu Bahasa Dalam Kalangan Peserta Jepun Siti Hamin Stapa, Natsue Hieda, Normalis Amzah, Musaev Talaibek

Author Guidelines

ONLINE SUBMISSION All manuscripts must be submitted through this online system. We no longer accept hardcopy or email submission. SCOPE Sains Malaysiana is a refereed journal committed to the advancement of scholarly knowledge and research findings of the several branches of science and technology. It contains articles on Earth Sciences, Health Sciences, Life Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Physical Sciences. The journal publishes articles, reviews, and research notes whose content and approach are of interest to a wide range of scholars. Sains Malaysiana is published by an autonomous Editorial Board drawn from the Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia . In addition, distinguished scholars

from local and foreign universities are appointed to serve as advisory board members and referees. SUBMISSION PROCEDURE The Journal publishes manuscripts written in the Malay and English language. Manuscript submitted to the journal for publication should be original contribution and must not have been previously published or is under consideration simultaneously by any other publication. The manuscript should be typed with double spacing, single column and font size 12 on A4 paper not exceeding 15 pages. FORMAT AND STYLE The title of a manuscript should be concise, descriptive and preferably not exceeding 15 words. The manuscript must include an abstract, describing its main points within 150 - 250 words in the Malay and English language. For authors who are unable to provide the Malay version of the abstract, the editor will provide assistance. In general, the contents should comprise of Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion,Conclusion, Acknowledgement and References. The manuscript should be supplied with 3-5 keywords. All illustrations including figures, charts and graphs, must be labelled and supplied on pages separate from the text. The desired placement in the text should be clearly indicated. These illustrations should be referred to and numbered serial, as figures. All illustrations should be clearly drawn in permanent ink or photographed in sharp black and white and reproduced in the form of high - contrast glossy prints or digital images and provided in camera ready form. References in the text should be denoted by giving the name(s) of the author(s). All alphabetically orderedreferences list should be included at the end of the manuscript. All references cited in the text must appear in the reference list. Authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of all information in the reference. Manuscripts must conform to the references in Penerbit UKM style or the Chicago Manual of Style ( University of Chicago Press ). The references style adopted should be consistent throughout the manuscript. COPYRIGHT It is the author's responsibility to ensure that his or her submitted work does not infringe any existing copyright. Authors should obtain permission to reproduce or adapt copyrighted material and provide evidence of approval upon submitting the final version of a manuscript. REVIEW PROCESS Manuscripts will be reviewed by the Editorial Board and at least one independent referee. Decisions regarding the publication of a manuscript will be based on the Board's

recommendations. The manuscript will be evaluated based on its appropriateness for Sains Malaysiana, contribution to the discipline, cogency of analysis, conceptual breadth, clarity of presentation and technical adequacy. Manuscripts submitted by members of the journal's Editorial Board are subjected to the same review procedure. PROOFS, OFF-PRINTS AND ADDRESS One set of proofs will be sent to the author(s) to be checked for printer's errors and it is the responsibility of the author(s) to submit corrections to the Editorial Board. Each author will be provided with a complimentary copy of the journal in which the manuscript appears. Authors need indicate the address of the author(s) (including phone numbers, fax numbers and/or e-mail addresses) to whom correspondence may be sent.

Submission Preparation Checklist

As part of the submission process, authors are required to check off their submission's compliance with all of the following items, and submissions may be returned to authors that do not adhere to these guidelines.
1. The manuscript has not been previously published, nor is it submitted simultaneously to another journal for consideration. 2. I have read the Author Guidelines when preparing the manuscript. The text adheres to the stylistic and bibliographic requirements outlined, which is found in About the Journal. 3. The manuscript was written with double spacing, font Times, size 12 and not more than 15 pages.

4. All illustrations including figures, charts and graphs, are labelled and supplied on pages separate from the text. The desired placement in the text are clearly indicated. All illustrations are referred to and numbered serial, as figures. All illustrations are clearly drawn in permanent ink or photographed in sharp black and white and reproduced in the form of high - contrast glossy prints or digital images and provided in camera ready form.
5. The document is available in Microsoft Office format (doc, docx, rtf) and PDF format. The file in PDF format is uploaded as the main file and .doc file is uploaded as a supplementary file. 6. Name, address and email address (institution's email) of three possible referees outside the authors' institution are indicated in the COMMENTS TO THE EDITOR. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies is a Scopus indexed peer reviewed international journal published in January, May, and September by UKM Press. The aim of this journal is to provide a venue for language researchers and practitioners to share theories, views, research results and classroom practices. Articles are published in English and Malay. Announcements

GEMA ONLINE JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE STUDIES PUBLICATION FOR 2013 Gema Online Journal of Language Studies will be published in February, May and September 2013

Privacy Statement olume 42 Number 9 September 2013 Titles - Forth Coming Issue

Sedimentation Impacts on the Growth Rates of the Scleractinian Coral Acropora formosa from Fringing Reefs of Tioman Island, Malaysia R. Nakajima, T. Yoshida, Y. Fuchinoue, T. Okashita, T. Maekawa, M.R.M. Kushairi, B.H.R. Othman & T. Toda Life-history Traits of the Freshwater Garfish Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton 1822) (Belonidae) in the Ganges River, Northwestern Bangladesh Md. Yeamin Hossain, Md. Abu Sayed Jewel , Md. Mosaddequr Rahman, A.B.M. Mohidul Haque, Heba Allah M. Elbaghdady & Jun Ohtomi

Life-history Traits of the Threatened Freshwater Fish Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton 1822) (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) in the Ganges River, Northwestern Bangladesh Md. Yeamin Hossain, Mst. Monira Khatun, Saleha Jasmine, Md. Mosaddequr Rahman, Sharmin Jahan, Md. Abu Sayed Jewel & Jun Ohtomi

Effects of Stocking Density on Growth Performance and Production of Mola, Amblypharyngodon mola M. Asadujjaman, M.A. Wahab, M.K. Fatema, M. Belal Hossain & A.K.M.S. Azam

Conservation Gap Analysis of Diptercarp Hotspots in Sarawak Using Gis, Remote Sensing and Hebarium Data Stephen P. Teo, Paul P.K. Chai & Mui-How Phua

Acute Toxicity Study of Cosmos Caudatus on Biochemical Parameters in Male Rats

M. Norazlina, S.Z. Ehsan, K. Noor Adilah, C.P. Lee, E. Farhana, P. Derick, S. Ima-Nirwana, A.S. Nazrun & M. Norliza

Antioxidant Activity in Crude Petroleum Benzene, Chloroform, Methanol and Water Extracts of Six Selected Vegetables Sumathi Murti, Nurhayati Zainal Abidin & Ashril Yusof

Xanthones from Calophyllum gracilipes and Their Cytotoxic Activity Nadiah Mad Nasir, Mawardi Rahmani, Khozirah Shaari, Nur Kartinee Kassim, Rusea Go, Johnson Stanslas & Ethel Jeyaseela Jeyaraj

In vitro Antifungal Activities and Phytochemical Analysis of Filamentous White-rot Fungi, Schizophyllum commune Yi Peng Teoh & Mashitah Mat Don

Developing Correlation Equations for Converting Among Coliforms, E. coli and HPC for Rainwater Disinfection by Sunlight M.T. Amin, M.Y. Han, Tschung-il Kim, A.A. Alazba & M.N. Amin

Komposisi Proksimat dan Komponen Asid Lemak Durian Kuning (Durio graveolens) Sabah Mohd Hanif Nasaruddin, Noor Qhairul Izzreen Mohd Noor & Hasmadi Mamat

Evaluation of Particulate Emission from a Palm Oil Mill Boiler M. Rashid, W.C. Chong, M. Ramli, Z.N. Zainura & J. NorRuwaida

Boron Removal from Aqueous Solution Using Curcumin-impregnated Activated Carbon Azhar Abdul Halim, Nor Alia Roslan, Nor Shamsiah Yaacub & Mohd. Talib Latif

Hydraulic Performance of Free Surface Breakwaters: A Review H.M. Teh

Pencirian Keseragaman Campuran dan Sifat Reologi Serbuk Alumina-Zirkonia untuk Pengacuan Suntikan Seramik Sarizal Md Ani, Andanastuti Muchtar, Norhamidi Muhamad & Jaharah A. Ghani

Performance Study of Air-based Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) Collector with Different Designs of Heat Exchanger Mohd. Yusof Hj. Othman, Faridah Hussain, Kamaruzzman Sopian, Baharuddin Yatim & Hafidz Ruslan

Effects of the Nitric Acid Concentrations on the Etching Process, Structural and Optical Properties of Porous Zinc Oxide Thin Films C.G. Ching, Leonard Lu, C.I. Ang, P.K. Ooi, S.S. Ng, Z. Hassan, H. Abu Hassan

Preparation of Porous Si (100) for Overgrown Cubic Layer: Morphological Investigation M.E.A. Samsudin, M. Ikram Md Taib, N. Zainal, R. Radzali, S. Yaakob & Z. Hassan

Pendekatan Pengesanan Titik Sauh Secara Automatik bagi Kesan Pin Peletup Senjata Api Zun Liang Chuan, Nor Azura Md Ghani, Choong-Yeun Liong & Abdul Aziz Jemain

The names and email addresses entered in this journal site will be used exclusively for the stated purposes of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party.

Announcement - Beginning 1 January 2013 all submissions must be made through the Online Submission system at http://ejournal.ukm.my/jsm

SAINS MALAYSIANA is published monthly by Penerbit UKM (twelve issues a year). It contains articles on Earth Sciences, Health Sciences, Life Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Physical Sciences. Articles are published in Malay or English.

The primary purpose of this journal is to act as a channel for the publication of research work undertaken at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia as well as other institutions.

All correspondence pertaining to articles and related matters should be addressed to:

Editor-in-Chief SAINS MALAYSIANA Faculty of Science and Technology Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor D.E. MALAYSIA

Tel: 603-89215423, Fax: 603-89256086 E-mail: [email protected]

Subscription Poster
SAINS MALAYSIANA is indexed and abstracted in ISI Thomson Reuters (Science Citation Index Expanded/SciSearch, Journal Citation Reports/Science Edition), SCOPUS, Chemical Abstracts, Google-Scholar, MyAis and Zentralblatt MATH. The Impact Factor - JCR/SE 2011 is 0.268, Q3.

SAINS MALAYSIANA is indexed and abstracted in ISI Thomson Reuters (Science Citation Index Expanded/SciSearch, Journal Citation Reports/Science Edition), SCOPUS, Chemical Abstracts, Google-Scholar, MyAis, Zentralblatt MATH and Zoological Records. The contents and archive can be viewed at http://www.ukm.my/jsm

View Journal | Current Issue | Register GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies

GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies is a Scopus indexed peer reviewed international journal published in January, May, and September by UKM Press. The aim of this journal is to provide a venue for language researchers and practitioners to share theories, views, research results and classroom practices. Articles are published in English and Malay. Open Journal Systems SAINS MALAYSIANA is published monthly by Penerbit UKM (twelve issues a year). It contains articles on Earth Sciences, Health Sciences, Life Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Physical Sciences. Articles are published in Malay or English. The primary purpose of this journal is to act as a channel for the publication of research work undertaken at Universiti KebangsaanMalaysia as well as other institutions.

SAINS MALAYSIANA is indexed and abstracted in ISI Thomson Reuters (Science Citation Index Expanded/SciSearch, Journal Citation Reports/Science Edition), SCOPUS, Chemical Abstracts, Google-Scholar, MyAis, Zentralblatt MATH and Zoological Records. The contents and archive can be viewed at http://www.ukm.my/jsm

"Scholars need the means to launch a new generation of journals committed to open access, and to help existing journals that elect to make the transition to open access..." Budapest Open Access Initiative, 2002

Open Journal Systems (OJS) is a journal management and publishing system that has been developed by the Public Knowledge Project through its federally funded efforts to expand and improve access to research. OJS Features
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. OJS is installed locally and locally controlled. Editors configure requirements, sections, review process, etc. Online submission and management of all content. Subscription module with delayed open access options. Comprehensive indexing of content part of global system. Reading Tools for content, based on field and editors' choice. Email notification and commenting ability for readers. Complete context-sensitive online Help support.

OJS assists with every stage of the refereed publishing process, from submissions through to online publication and indexing. Through its management systems, its finely grained indexing of research, and the context it provides for research, OJS seeks to improve both the scholarly and public quality of refereed research. OJS is open source software made freely available to journals worldwide for the purpose of making open access publishing a viable option for more journals, as open access can increase a journal's readership as well as its contribution to the public good on a global scale (see PKP Publications). Additional information about OJS is available here:

Keywords

Floral; Andalus; Kitab al-Nabat; al-Dinawari

OBITUARY | WILLIAM MONTGOMERY WATT Charlotte Alfred William Montgomery Watt - 14th March 19o9 - October 24th 2oo6 Leading Islamic scholar, whose remarkable legacy is encountered at the University of Edinburgh, and across the Muslim world. Professor Watt became interested in Islam while lecturing in moral philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in the 193os. His mother had just died, and in order to pay for the housekeeper he invited an Indian Muslim to live as a paying guest in his house. Over breakfast and evening

meals, passionate discussions between the two ignited his interest in Islam and the Arab world. This interest was to lead him all over the Muslim world, including working for the Bishop of Jerusalem from 1944 to 1946. His outstanding Islamic scholarship is world-renowned, and the University of Edinburgh was one of its major beneficiaries. Between 1947 and 1979 he worked in Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies, contributing to its development into one of the most highly regarded departments in its field. He has written over 3o books, and bestowed his exceptional personal collection of 1,4oo titles on the Edinburgh University library, covering Qurnic commentary, mysticism and Islamic law, the history of the Arab world, and Arabic literature. Professor Watt first came to Edinburgh to study Classics, and continued his studies in Philosophy and Ancient History at Oxford. He returned to Edinburgh to lecture in moral philosophy from 1934 until 1938, when he decided to complete a PhD on freewill and predestination in early Islam under Richard Bell, the pre-eminent Qurnic scholar and Reader of Arabic at the University. His interest led him to Palestine, where he worked for the Bishop of Jerusalem from 1944 to 1946 as an Arabic specialist, on the topic of Muslim-Christian relations. He was frustrated by the lack of opportunities for intellectual exchange with Muslims at that time in Jerusalem and, when he lost a friend in the bombing of the King David Hotel, he decided to return to Edinburgh. From lecturer in Ancient Philosophy from 1946-1947, he became Lecturer, Senior Lecturer and then Reader in Arabic from 1947-1964. In 1964, he was offered the personal Chair of the department, at that time named the Muir Institute, and oversaw its development into a centre of excellence for the study of the Muslim world. The departments of Arabic, Turkish and Persian were amalgamated into the Department of Islamic and Middle-Eastern Studies. His leadership and academic renown played no small part in the development of this centre of learning at the university. The department professes that Edinburgh's present international reputation in the field of Islamic Studies is inseparable from the name of William Montgomery Watt. He retired in 1979, but continued to publish titles into the late 199os. Professor Watt was highly regarded throughout the academic world. He held visiting professorships at the University of Toronto, the Collge de France, Paris, and Georgetown University and was awarded an honorary Doctorate by the University of Aberdeen. He was also ordained into the Scottish Episcopalian Church in 1939 and became a member of the ecumenical community of Iona in 196o. The communitys focus on ecumenism, as well as peace and justice issues, accord with his view that the Christian aim for the foreseeable future should be to bring the religions together in friendly dialogue and, where possible, in cooperation, for there is a sense in which all are threatened by the rising tide of secularism and materialism. His views on Islam and Christianity have at times been controversial. He rejects the infallibility of both the Bible and the Qurn, but regards each as divinely inspired. He has argued that the Muslim and Judaeo-Christian traditions have much to teach each other, personally commenting

that his study of Islam deepened his understanding of the oneness of God. He has written extensively on Islamic politics, history and the role of women in Islam, amongst other topics. His works include Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1961), Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misconceptions (1991) and Muslim Intellectual: a study of al-Ghazali (1963). Professor Carole Hillenbrand, the current head of the Department of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies, attests to his remarkable legacy: Professor Watt was probably the foremost Western scholar on Islam in the twentieth century and he always sought to build bridges between Christianity and Islam. He died, at the age of 97, at his home in Dalkeith, survived by his wife Jean, their children, grandchildren and great-grand children. CHARLOTTE ALFRED is a student Religious Studies and Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, and specialises in Islam. She has lived in Cairo and speaks Arabic.