Job Embeddedness in a Culturally Diverse Environment Author(s): Carlos M. Mallol, Brooks C. Holtom and Thomas W.

Lee Source: Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Sep., 2007), pp. 35-44 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25092986 . Accessed: 10/09/2013 05:17
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J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35-44

DOI 10.1007/sl0869-007-9045-x

Job Embeddedness
Carlos M. Mallol Thomas W. Lee Brooks

in a Culturally
C. Holtom

Diverse

Environment

Published ? Springer

online:

18 May 2007 Science+Business Media,

LLC

2007

Abstract
minorities.

is changing,

The demographic composition of the workforce of with an increase in the participation

studies center their attention on the

Introduction One is the challenges faced by managers and retention of talent (Mitchell, Holtom, & development on intent Lee, 2001). Organizations developing competi tive advantage in virtually any economic or geographic rely on talented and dedicated employees the personal and organizational (Pfeffer, 1994). Moreover, costs of voluntary employee separation are high. Thus, context will employee
managers

Numerous

of the constant

inclusion of minorities, but variation in turnover of a cul turally diverse workforce has not received much attention. Forecasts indicate that by 2020 Hispanic presence will increase 60% nationwide. that management
cultural as factors on voluntary

these trends, it is critical scholars examine the impact of Hispanic Given

important This organizational paper assesses outcomes whether such there

turnover.

retention
in today's

merits
organizations.

the

attention

of

top-level

are significant differences between Hispanics and Cauca and voluntary sians with respect to job embeddedness turnover. The findings suggest that job embeddedness is a robust predictor of employee retention across diverse
populations.

Keywords
commitment

Turnover
Job

Job satisfaction
Hispanic

Organizational
Talent

the retention challenge is the fact that the Compounding of the U.S. work force is undergoing funda composition mental change. The number of Hispanics in the U.S. surged by 60% from 1990 to 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, The in the United States, 2001a). His Hispanic Population are now the panics largest minority in the U.S. Given these
changes, there is a clear need to consider how well orga

embeddedness

nizational
neous outcomes Portions were in submitted by Carlos M. Mallol of requirements for his doctoral partial degree. A at the 2003 Academy version of this article was presented preliminary of International Business Conference. of this research fulfillment seeks U.S.

theories

developed

among

relatively

homoge

important organizational populations predict in more diverse contexts. This cultural paper one of these outcomes directly. The pur

to address

pose of this paper is to develop

job tion?in embeddedness?a the Hispanic new cultural

and test the application

theory context. of employee reten

of

(3) H. Wayne of Business School and Entrepreneurship, Huizenga Nova Southeastern 3100 SW 9th Avenue, Fort University, FL 33315, USA Lauderdale, e-mail: [email protected]

C. M. Mallol

Voluntary

turnover

research

B. C. Holtom McDonough Washington, T. W. School Lee of Business, University of Washington, Seattle, USA School USA of Business, Georgetown University,

Voluntary turnover research has traditionally followed two main paths: (1) the study of turnover from the attitudinal perspective, considering job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and (2) the influence of the labor market on turnover through the perceived ease of movement and availability of alternative employment. The models

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36 developed along these paths, although successful in iden tifying turnover predictors, explain only a limited per centage of quits (Griffeth, Horn, & Gaertner, 2000). More
recently, researchers considered instances in which turn

J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35-44

is a composite that result con from

each struct

dimension). formed from

Job the

embeddedness six sub-dimensions

the 3 x 2 matrix
Links tions are between

suggested
a person,

above.
as formal institutions or informal or other connec people.

characterized

over may occur in spite of high job satisfaction or labor market conditions & (Lee, Mitchell, Holtom, McDaniel, Hill, 1999) and may be moderated by variables other than or employee those strictly related to the employee-job employer relationships (Griffeth et al., 2000). Over the years, researchers have determined that given alternatives, people stay if they are satisfied with their job and committed to their organization and leave if they are
not. However, the research reports that work attitudes play

and

Embeddedness suggests that a number of strands connect an employee and his or her family in a social, psycholog ical, and financial web that includes work and non-work
friends, groups, the community, and the physical environ

ment
links

in which
between

he or she lives. The higher

the person and the web,

the number of
an em

the more

only a relatively small role overall in employee retention and leaving (Griffeth et al., 2000). for the limited explanatory One possible explanation focused turnover theories is the power of organizationally emerging body of empirical research that suggests that
many off-the-job factors are important for attachment

ployee is bound to the job and the organization. We believe certain links may be more important than others and that these differences may be population specific as will be discussed
from

later. A variety of research streams suggest that there is normative pressure to stay on a job, which derives
family, team members, and other colleagues (Maertz,

(Maertz & Campion, of Price & Mueller

4 'non-work" ments or conflicts influences

1998). The original (1981) and Mobley

and work they and include family

turnover models (1982) mention

family roles. attach Research

Stevens, & Campion, 2003). O'Reilly, Caldwell, and Bar nett (1989) use the term social integration to describe the at-work part of the link process. Furthermore, a study by Abelson
married,

(1987) assessed variables related to both on and links. He found that people who are older, are off-the-job
have more tenure and/or have children requiring

between

on spillover models explains how family and work lives are related (Marshall, Chadwick, & Marshall, 1992). Cohen
(1995), for example, shows how non-work commitments

care are more

and perhaps

likely to stay than to leave. Leaving

their home can sever or require

their job
the rear

like family, hobbies and church influence job attitudes and attachment. Lee and Maurer (1999), moreover, found that a were better predic spouse having children at home and tors of leaving a job than organizational commitment. there are now a variety of factors that have Additionally, been empirically associated with retention that are not
attitudes but are organizational in nature. Inducements to

rangement of some of these links. In short, job embedd edness integrates these important social influences on
employee retention.

Fit is defined as an employee's

or comfort with an organization

perceived
and with his

compatibility
or her envi

ronment. According
ployee's personal

to job embeddedness
values, career goals and

theory, an em
plans for the

stay can derive from working with groups or on certain projects that create types of commitment other than the
attraction example, one many has for his or use her job or organization. attachments For companies teams to induce

"fit" with the larger corporate culture and the demands of his or her immediate job (e.g., job knowledge, skills, and abilities). In addition, a person will consider how
well he or she fits the community and surrounding envi

future must

ronment. Job embeddedness

stronger turnover, the for ties to the

posits that the better the fit, the

In studying Chatman, and voluntary Caldwell

1997). A new theory of turnover?job includes both on- and off-the embeddedness?explicitly (Cohen & Bailey, job factors that influence staying.

organization. O'Reilly,

example,

Job embeddedness Job embeddedness represents a broad array of influences on employee retention (Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, & are Erez, 2001). The critical aspects of job embeddedness the links an employee has to other people or the commu nity, how he or she fits in the organization or environment and, lastly, what the employee would sacrifice upon leav are called ing the organization. These three dimensions are in both the orga relevant and sacrifice; they links, fit,
nization and the community (i.e., two sub-dimensions for

slightly faster when that entry produces poor per ported organizational are likely to leave the fit, employees son-organization organization. Chan (1996) suggests that having one's per sonal attributes fit with one's job may decrease turnover, and Villanova, Bernardin, Johnson, and Dahmus (1994) found that lack of job compatibility predicted turnover. Thus, a person's fit with the job and organization relates to et al. (2001) to the organization. Mitchell attachments believe that there is a community dimension of fit as well.
A person may or may not like the weather, amenities and

(1991) terminated

found

that misfits

with

values the organization's than fits. Chatman (1991) re

general culture of the location inwhich he or she resides. In addition, outdoor activities (e.g., fishing, skiing), political

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J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35^4

37 a culturally diverse population. to address this question. The purpose of this paper is

and religious climates, and entertainment activities (college or professional sports, music, theater) vary dramatically by region and location. Importantly, these assessments of fit may be independent of job or organization fit (I like GM but I dislike Michigan winters). Relocation would obvi ously require a recalibration of fit, but even a new job without relocation could disturb one's general patterns with
new hours of work or a different commute.

Hispanic

culture

or cost of material captures the perceived forfeited be benefits that may by leaving psychological one's job. For example, likely leaving an organization Sacrifice
promises personal losses (e.g., giving up colleagues,

is used to refer to those people who The term "Hispanic" Puerto Rico, Cuba, or Central or originate from Mexico, South America. The incorporation of different Hispanic groups in the American society has been different from the
experience of earlier immigrants from European countries.

While

interesting projects or desirable perks). The more an em ployee gives up when leaving, the more difficult it is to sever employment with the organization (Shaw, Delery, benefits like stock Jenkins, & Gupta, 1998). Non-portable options or defined benefit pensions may involve sacrifices. latter factors have been shown to be related to These fices (Gupta & Jenkins, 1980). Other potential sacri incurred by leaving an organization include opportu nities for job stability and advancement (Shaw et al., as links and fit to well sacrifices (as 1998). Community turnover
some Leaving you are extent) a are mostly community to your that family an issue if one has and hard. Of to safe relocate. or where one is attractive can be

in the geographic, contexts of these historical and countries, the economic, as from these countries self-identify frequently people differences least one
contrary to

there are considerable

Hispanic?at
ues?which,

indication
the case

of shared cultural val

of European immigrants,

(Melendez, Rodriguez, & on the 2000 U.S. Census a 1991). For example, Figueroa, or she was Hispanic ei respondent could indicate that he ther because of foreign birth or heritage (though born in the U.S.). Diverse national origin is but one of the differences stems from a shared language has shown differences Research Hispanics. on to United the time of arrival the States, depending among
number of generations in the country and socio-economic

close

course,

can change jobs but stay in the same home. But even then, like an easy commute or the ability to various conveniences
be at home during certain times due to flextime (e.g., when

status (Valenzuela & Dornbusch, 1994). So, while many as between differences important people characterized
Hispanic may exist, we believe that there are also sub

stantial similarities
U.S. Census Given the

and, thus, it is appropriate

for recent purposes emergence of

to follow
this research.

the
as a

kids come home

jobs.

from school) may

be

lost by changing

categorization relatively

of Hispanics

of hospital
as an

a sample of retail employees and another sample et al. (2001) reported the employees, Mitchell was reliably measured embeddedness First, following. job With
aggregated score across items for fit in the organi

dominant examines
other races

minority, systematic
with

very little research is available between Hispanics differences

to organization relevant

that and and

respect

attitudes

(e.g.,
behaviors behaviors,

job

satisfaction,
(e.g., absenteeism,

organizational
turnover).

commitment)
citizenship we

zation, fit in the community,

to the community, sacrifice

links to the organization,

in leaving the organization,

links
and

performance,

organizational However,

believe

sacrifice
embeddedness

in leaving the community.

was correlated with

Second,
intention

aggregated
to leave

job
and

that a number of differences between the cultures may scores the for among Hispanics suggest higher potential
than North Given Americans. the dearth of management research on the cultural

predicted subsequent voluntary turnover. Third, job em beddedness significantly predicted subsequent voluntary
turnover organizational after controlling commitment, for job gender, search, job and satisfaction, perceived

alternatives. A subsequent study (Lee, Mitchell, Sablynski, Burton, & Holtom, 2004) extended the theory and research on job embeddedness. One contribution was to disaggre into its two major sub-dimensions, gate job embeddedness
namely, sample onof and bank off-the-job employees, embeddedness. regression Using analyses a large revealed

that deal specifically with Hispanics in the U.S., an collectivism constitute (Hofstede, 1996) may acceptable proxy and may suggest indirect evidence for the value of
job embeddedness. Because national cultures are the cat

variables

research, the degree egories for comparison in Hofstede's of collectivism recorded in Latin American countries from which Hispanics come to the U.S. provides the basis for an estimate. Latin American half of Hofstede's 0-100 cultures cover most scale for of the lower the individualism a collectivism from low of six (Gua dimension, ranging a to of 46 temala) high (Argentina). Inspite of this 'spread', all the Latin American countries reported by Hofstede can as defined be (1996) having relatively collectivistic

that off-the-job embeddedness was significantly predictive of subsequent voluntary employee turnover and volitional
absences, nificant. whereas However, on-the-job to date no embeddedness research has was been non-sig published

that examines

the predictive

value of job embeddedness

in

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38 short distance
housing-related

J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35^4 likely to be made

Geographic

cultures

(i.e.,

their

scores

are below

50). Moreover,

because

moves
reasons

are more
(U.S. Census

for

the theory emphasizes the importance of comparisons, the cultural distance between those countries (average score of 20) and the U.S. score (91) becomes particularly relevant. Because
on

Bureau,

Mobility, confirm

job embeddedness
to groups,

places
teams

significant
and

importance
communities,

2001b). The combination of these data seems to the evidence offered earlier regarding potential to move away from family for hesitancy among Hispanics
reasons. based research has also considered off-the-job U.S.

connections

families

work-related

we believe
member

it will be higher individualistic

in the Hispanic

than majority

cultures.

While
social

societies
concept of

tend to base much of their

the nuclear family, col

structure

on

the

in job mobility. A meta-analysis of demographic et shows number of children al., 2000) predictors (Griffeth in the household to be negatively correlated (r = -.14) with factors (1999) voluntary turnover. Research by Lee and Maurer also speaks to the importance of family size and household
structure as influences in reducing turnover. According to

lectivistic cultures often favor extended family arrangements

that condition members to perceive themselves as members

of a "we" collectivism
tended members

that transcends is inversely

doubles have as

(Hofstede, 1996). Since correlated with wealth, the ex

an economic obligation. structure to which

the "I"

family often

a financial

States Census Bureau, Hispanic families have a higher than average number of children living in the household. While the national average is 1.85 children the United under the age of 18, families of Hispanic heritage report in which a 2.19. Moreover, 30.6% of family households was of five or the householder consisted Hispanic person
more people. In contrast, only 11.8% of non-Hispanic

Collectivist family arrangements are characteristic of the Latino population and while the body of research is biased toward low-income families of Mexican ancestry (Velez Iba?ez,
based on

1996) suggesting
economic needs,

kinship
more

networks
recent

predominantly
indicated

studies

White

kinship networks and extended families are not rooted only reasons (Valenzuela & Dornbusch, in economic 1994). studies have shown that extended families be Moreover,
come larger and stronger with generational advancement,

this large (U.S. Census family in the United States, The Bureau, Hispanic Population 2001a). By the year 2020 white non-Hispanic people will represent 67% of the work force, down from the current 76%, and the Hispanic presence is predicted to increase by almost 60% nationwide, and will be more accentuated in
certain regions of the country.

households

were

and acculturation
family ties are

(Velez-Ibanez,
considered to exert

1996). Not
a strong

surprisingly,
influence on

Hispanic decision making with regard to relocation (Na tional Survey of Latinos, 2002). Anecdotal evidence in the popular press suggests that because of close familial ties, many Hispanic employees decline relocations that would (Joinson, 2000). provide upward mobility One of the significant challenges faced by the maquil border is adora industries located along the U.S.-Mexico
the exceptionally high turnover among workers, which can

With
labor of

skills learned in the home country devalued

immigrants country's with a generally often seek poor residence language

in new
in areas

markets,

command

the new

where

significant numbers of similar immigrants live. Their economic destinies depend heavily on the social structures in these communities and, thus, their mobility to limited & be Sensenbrenner, (Portes 1993). likely
In sum, the above research suggests the collective

present

is

run higher than 100% annually (Crispin, 1990). In a study et al. (2003) found that when Maertz of maquiladoras,
employees more loyal, friends, and were than asked 50% to discuss of the to what references less or whom were than to they are family,

importance of family and community influences on Hispanic job mobility. Further, many of the items used tomeasure the community aspects of job embeddedness would likely elicit
higher scores from Hispanics than non-Hispanics. The

neighbors.

In contrast,

2% mentioned

foregoing Hypothesis

discussion 1A

leads to two hypotheses:

their employer. The degree to which workers in the ma quilas express loyalty to family and friends suggests the importance of the "links in the community" potential dimension of job embeddedness. trends among Hispanics living in the U.S., Regarding there is evidence Bureau, 2001b) likely to permanently from the 2000 U.S. Census (U.S. Census to support the notion that Hispanics are less relocate

and The fit-community, links-community dimensions of job embeddedness will sacrifice-community than Caucasians in comparable be higher among Hispanics
jobs.

the long distances. While is rate of overall (over highest among Hispanics moving White, Black, and Asian Americans), moves outside the
county same or report state are lowest that among overall Hispanics. long-distance Moreover, moves the are indicates

IB Hypothesis the community

Caucasians

The overall will

be higher
jobs.

level of job embeddedness in than among Hispanics

in comparable

the To date, very little research exists that examines a on individual-level cultural of heritage specific impact
outcomes of interest to organizations such as turnover,

more

likely

to be made

for work-related

reasons, while

absenteeism

or

performance.

We

believe

that

job

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J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35-44

embeddedness

39
case

may

help

to connect

culture?in

this

Hispanic culture?to additional variance

demographic in turnover. This paper replicates and extends the research by Mitchell et al. (2001) and Lee et al. (2004) by inquiring not only about the value of job em beddedness as a predictor of voluntary turnover, but also by its strength in a diverse population with a considering

influences

in explaining

would leaving the organization bring about costs in values are clearly seniority benefits. These underlying consistent with the "sacrifice upon leaving the organiza these tion" dimension of job embeddedness. Moreover, workers indicate a desire to remain in an organization be cause of their relationships with co-workers, which sug gests the value placed on "links in the organization" (Maertz et al., 2003). Finally, Triandis' lectivism
nizational commitment

of Hispanic strong participation of employees heritage. we the propose following hypotheses: Accordingly, Hypothesis controlling for job satisfaction and is signifi commitment, organizational job embeddedness to cantly and negatively correlated voluntary turnover of all employees regardless of race (Replication). 2B controlling for job satisfaction and is signifi commitment, job embeddedness After correlated to voluntary turnover of 2A After

(1989) work implies that high col should enhance the level or importance of orga
where the organization is seen as an

et al. (2001) and Lee et al. in-group. Given that Mitchell between (2004) found high correlations organizational commitment and "fit in the organization," we believe that if the organization is viewed as an in-group, the generally collectivist Hispanics will exhibit higher "fit in the orga nization." Thus, we propose the following hypotheses: 3A The fit-organization, Hypothesis links-organization and sacrifice-organization dimensions of job embeddedness will be higher among Hispanics in a predominantly His
panic firm than in a non-Hispanic firm.

Hypothesis

organizational cantly and negatively Hispanic Given

(Extension). employees the relatively recent rise of Hispanic participation to in the U.S. labor force, little literature is available the of factors array causing comprehensively identify to develop stronger attachment to the firms that Hispanics
employ them or to other forms of employment (e.g., self

employment). tion recently

topic that has received atten is Hispanic entrepreneur ship. Some of these studies suggest that working within a 'Latino' atmosphere may by Hispanics) (e.g., a firm owned or managed One research the embeddedness
"Most U.S. employers

3B Hypothesis the organization Hispanic

The overall level of job embeddedness in will be higher among Hispanics in a firm than in a non-Hispanic firm.

strengthen
example,

of Hispanic
are

employees.

For Methods is
Overview and samples

ill-prepared

to eval

uate foreign-earned
discounted. By

human

capital

and thus its value

employers may recog

contrast,

co-ethnic

of human capital earned in their home country" (Sanders & Nee, 1996). Research conducted on entrepreneurship suggests that embeddedness and off-the-job may have a on-the-job stronger effect for those Hispanics living in "enclaves." nize the value
There is reason to believe that the same set of factors that

The

study was conducted at two leading southeast Florida banks. Both financial institutions are of recognized national
presence and are active in the same market segment (e.g.,

explain explain
obvious blur groups vide the

embeddedness in a community also sociological for Hispanics. Aside from the job embeddedness
example line of of family-owned community but a support non-related structure companies and organization, immigrants for entrepreneurs. also that tend to between larger pro The

retail banking services). In one of the banks, all of its Bro ward County branch offices were targeted for distribution of the survey (hereinafter BC Bank). At the second bank, all branches located in Miami-Dade County were targeted (hereinafter MD
Census Bureau,

Bank).

According

to the United
metropolitan area

States
ranks

the Miami-Hialeah

co-ethnic and

a base

third in the nation in the concentration of Hispanic house holds, with predominant roots in Cuba and in other Latin
American nations. Hispanics represent 13.5% of the U.S.

latter would
communities

thrive in environments
whose size increases

defined by immigrant
while they remain lin

isolated (Evans, 1989). guistically Recent work by Maertz et al. (2003) develops a turnover model for theMexican maquiladoras. A number of findings from their research inform this study. Specifically, they found that Mexican
of flexibility to

Miami-Dade and Broward counties they population, while in 60.1 and 19.5%, represent respectively. In terms of African American
are also

population, Miami-Dade
above the national average,

and Broward
with 21.1 and

counties
23.6%,

workers
accommodate

evaluated
non-work

their jobs in terms

interests (e.g.,

family

and education).

Another

was

the perception

that

respectively, compared to 12.8% nationwide (U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey Profile, 2002). In the case of BC Bank, the survey instruments were sent to each branch office in sealed envelopes via

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40
were from

J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35-44

inter-office tribution

mail. via

Branch

managers e-mail

aware

of

the

dis

company

senior

management,

which

also requested their cooperation with the distribution of the instruments to all branch employees. The distribution took place during May 2002. In the case of MD Bank, the
survey instruments were provided in packages to branch

et al. (2001), we created Z-scores for the fill-in questions (such as tenure in the position, organization and type of work or number of children) before including them in the calculation of the aggregate variables. The reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the 34 items measuring job em ingMitchell beddedness at .89. Similar to the construct is measured et al. (2001), low results found by Mitchell including scores for Sacrifice-Community (.66) and Links-Organi zation (.64), the reliability estimates (Cronbach's alpha) for all other variables were higher than the recommended .70 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).

to employees, at a gathering of managers senior personnel for the Miami-Dade County region in August 2002. It is important to note that MD Bank was and still has a high con previously owned by Hispanics for distribution centration
organization,

of Hispanic
including

employees
top management.

at all

levels

of

the

In both cases, the full cooperation of the organization was indicated to the employees with a letter of introduction
from management. A postage-prepaid, self-addressed

Results
characteristics of the are

included. Confidentially of responses was on a letterhead. In order to letter university guaranteed by with the level of additional comfort give respondents envelope was
confidentiality dressed of the survey, reply envelopes sent were ad via to the university. Management a reminder

Demographic

respondents

pre

to all participating 10 days after the employees distribution of the survey. Questionnaires were distributed to 555 employees of MD re Bank and to 670 employees of BC Bank. Employees e-mail from MD bank and 233 turned 189 usable questionnaires from BC bank, representing 34.1 and 34.8% response rates, the institutions were in agreement respectively. Although with providing turnover information in the future, they re quested the survey be anonymous, unless the employees was to self-identification. Self-identification agreed a a with $500 encouraged by offering participation in draw that chose to provide their cash prize to those employees names. Of the 423 valid responses, 216 of the respondents
provided their names and in most cases, telephone numbers.

the variables are are in Table 2; Caucasian results presented presented in the lower diagonal and Hispanic results in the upper diagonal. statistics, reliability estimates, and ?-tests for Descriptive in Table 3. To test for other variables are presented sented in Table 1. Correlations between selection
(information

bias a Chi-square
on tenure, age

test was performed

and marital status

for gender
was not

made position
female.

available of
There

by

the organizations).
consistent with

The majority
the overall com

of are
of

respondents

are women,

the banks where

was (y2 = no 3.49, evidence n.s.).

70-80%
of Further

of employees
gender bias comparisons

among

respondents

respondents employees
ference marital between status).

who who

self-identify show no significant did self-identify

the two groups (on gender, tenure,

did

not

with

the

180 dif
or

age,

Of

match

the 216 identified respondents, only 180 resulted in a with bank records, mostly due to hardly legible handwriting that could not be matched to bank records. One year after the initial distribution, both banks provided actual turnover information for the list of self-identified employ and ees, indicating date of termination of employment

3, as predicted by Hypoth 1A, Hispanics demonstrate higher levels of fit-com = 1.9, < (t = 3.7, p .03) and sacrifice-community munity (t As can be seen from Table esis
< p .001) than Caucasians. However, contrary to Hypoth

esis

1A, Hispanics
(t = -2.0,

demonstrated
p < .03)

a lower
than

level of

links

community

Caucasians.

Overall

Table

whether

such

termination

was

voluntary

or

1 Demographic

characteristics

of respondents

involuntary.

All employees
Average Average age tenure 37.5 7.1 6.3 7.7

MD bank
39.4 35.2

BC bank

Measures

follows the model used by Mitchell et al. The methodology (2001) in the initial study of job embeddedness. The survey instrument used by Mitchell was distributed to employees of the two financial institutions. All items are provided in Appendix. The question regarding ethnicity allows for five the standard used by Miami answers, following possible Dade County for ethnic classification. Most questions required answers in a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1, strongly agree = 5). Follow

21% Male Married

Ethnicity African-American Caucasian Asian-Pacific Hispanic Islander 9.1% 37.3% 1.7% 43.7% 8.1% Other

14% 29% 58% 49%

12.2% 5.5% 10.4% 2.7% .5% 82.0% 1.6% 12.2% 13.5% 59.5%

54%

f?

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J Bus

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41

Table

2 Correlations

(lower

diagonal:

Caucasian;

upper

diagonal:

Hispanic)

1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Note: Job embeddedness JE-community JE-organization Fit-organization Fit-community Links-organization Links-community Sacrifice-organization Sacrifice-community Job satisfaction Organizational Intent to leave turnover to commitment (JE) .86 .84 .75 .76 .56 .34 .66 .78 .52 .55 -.49 -.14

2
.86

3
.78 .35 .45 .40 .84 .37 .51 .29 .85 .22 .27 .89 .43 .59 .05 .86 .46 .69 .69 -.60 -.16

4
.66 .29 .85

5
.68 .82 .24 .19 .39 .27 .02 .75 .41 .75 .65 .28 .10 .34 .76 .26 .27 -.22 -.01

6
.47 .27 .53 .21 .17 .46 .62 .08 .09 .25 .12 .20 .22 .30 .08 .23 -.27 -.26 -.07 .12 -.05 -.04 -.07 -.10

7 8
.62 .24 .84 .67 .18 .10 .00 .73 .76 .40 .35 .57 .20 .16 .34 .36 .71 .68 -.59 -.01 .27 .33 -.26 -.06

9 10
.55 .23 .72 .74 .20 .05 .01 .74 .29

11
.50 .20 .66 .54 .13 .15 .01 .73 .27 .65

12
-.30 -.05 -.50 -.47 .05 -.11 -.04 -.50 -.07 -.62 -.53

13
-.11 -.06 -.13 -.14 .04 -.16 -.07 -.01 -.10 -.03 -.01 .11

.65 -.60 -.01 -.63 -.14

-.26 -.08

-.52 -.12

Voluntary N= 151

.09

correlations.

Within

are point-biserial are product-moment turnover which for voluntary correlations 177; All correlations, except reported the correlation matrix, values greater than .15 are significant at/? < .05 and values greater than .19 are significant at/? < .01

Table

3 Reliability, a

means, Number

standard of items

deviations, Number

and Mests of cases Caucasian Hispanic Onetailed Hispanic Hispanic in firm Hispanic His. firm in nonOne tailed

Construct

M
Job embed. .83 .88 .83 Fit-corn. Links-org. Links-corn. Sacrifice-org. Sacrifice-corn. Job Org. commit. .74 .88 .66 satis. .81 .64 .90 JE-com. JE-org. Fit-org. 348 34 40211 36223 404 6 .84412 5 392 7 3416 10397 412 3 409.91 3 412 3 .97 414 3 the hypotheses are directional, one-tailed 2.72 2.55 2.89 3.78 3.91 1.39 0.08 3.50 3.68 3.65 3.24 2.21 t-tests

SD M
0.45 0.54 0.50 0.72 0.69 0.55 0.71 0.64 0.76 0.98 0.87 1.22 2.79 2.65 2.93 3.97 4.05 1.27 -0.08 3.55 3.96 3.85 3.45 2.29

SD
.40 .55 .44 .56 .73

t
1.5 1.7 0.8 2.7 1.9

p
.07 .05 .20 .01 .03 .03 .03 .24 .00 .02 .02 .28 test

M
2.78 2.63 2.94 3.98 4.04 1.29 -0.10 3.55 3.94 3.90 3.48 2.22

SD
0.39 0.54 0.41 0.54 0.71 0.49 0.84 0.66 0.65 0.77 0.79 1.13

M
2.85 2.80 2.90 3.93 4.10 1.20 .20 3.56 4.10 3.59 3.27 2.64

SD
.44 .56 .56 .65 .83 .58 .76 .76 .74 1.00 .92 1.43

t
0.77 1.52 -0.45 -0.42 0.37 -0.87 1.74 0.09 1.15 -1.80 -1.20 1.69 .22 .07 .33 .34 .36 .19 .04 .46 .13 .04 .12 .05

.50 -1.9 .74 -2.0 .67 .66 .81 .81 1.19 0.7 3.7 2.0 2.2 0.6

Intent leave to Note: Because

are the most

appropriate

in the community was higher among job embeddedness = 1.7, than (t p < .05) as among Caucasians Hispanics IB. HI A is Thus, predicted by Hypothesis partially sup ported and H IB is fully supported. In general, we observe tend to be more support for one key idea: Hispanics
embedded in their communities than Caucasians as mea

satisfaction, and organizational commitment, job embedd edness in the organization is a statistically significant pre dictor of voluntary turnover among Hispanics (Table 4). Finally, from the Mests presented in Table 3 it is also apparent that Hispanics in predominantly Hispanic firms do not differ with respect to job embeddedness in the orga nization contrary from Hispanics in non-Hispanic to Hypothesis 3A and 3B. firms. This is

sured by job embeddedness. As can be observed in Table 4, after controlling for the institution in which the respondents work, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, job embeddedness in the is a statistically significant predictor of vol organization untary turnover among respondents of all races (Hypothesis 2A). Further, in accord with Hypothesis 2B, after control for the in institution which the ling respondents work, job

Discussion This study highlights

not only as a predictor

the importance of job embeddedness,

of turnover, but also as a guide to

fi

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42

J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35^4

Table

4 The

effects

of job embeddedness Turnover Hyp 2A

on voluntary Turnover

turnover Hyp 2B

Predictors

in local schools by providing paid time off to do so) may provide retention benefits as well as community benefits. Overall the findings suggest the need for new ways of in this country. thinking about the Hispanic population nor a hodgepodge "It is neither monolithic of distinct
national origin groups. Rather, Latinos share a range of

Exp(b)
Bank .79 Job Org. satisfaction commitment embed. embed. 2.03 .81 .08 1.15 15.31** 106.05 31.21 .17 .22

Wald
.17 2.61 .22 8.22** .08 11.57*

Exp (b)
.27 .49 2.26 4.37 .01 .01 .89

Wald
1.23

1.84 6.35**

attitudes

and experiences population" we advance

organizational

On-the-job Off-the-job Chi-square -2 log

non-Hispanic 2002). While

job satisfaction,

that set them apart from the (National Study of Latinos, no hypotheses with regard to
commitment, or intent to

likelihood

Pseudofl2

N 180 81
Note: are exponentiated The entries Logistic regression. 1.00 indicate positive and entries below effects, effects. The entries are standardized negative regression above all variables < p < .05 .01 are entered into the equation. b. Entries 1.00 indicate tests coefficients

when *p **

Two-tailed

that all three are statistically significantly than among Caucasians (Ta higher among Hispanics ble 3). Though the results may be sample or industry specific, we believe that these findings are interesting and merit future research attention. Specifically, we note that to the dominant turnover paradigm (Horn & according Griffeth, levels of job satisfaction and 1995) higher a us commitment in would lead organizational population to predict a lower level of intent to leave. In this case it is exactly the opposite (intent to leave is also higher among
However, actual voluntary turnover among

leave, we note

managers

on

retention issues,

policies. but also

It

addresses extends

not research

only into

Hispanics).

organization-related

In addition, this employee attachment to the community. research provides information on job embeddedness not available characteristics of previously regarding specific Hispanic Hispanics group gains importance. The hypotheses presented the increased participation of employees. in the labor force, understanding this ethnic With

Hispanics pared with

Americans.

in the self-identified 14.7% for Caucasians

sample was 7.4% com and 16.7% for African

Several questions remain, particularly concerning future projections of the trends outlined so far. Given how suc the U.S. has been at assimilating and socializing immigrants, it would be reasonable to argue that Hispanics will eventually share the cultural features of their new to home. If this translates into a shift from collectivism cessful individualism on the part of future generations of U.S. the particularities of labor relations involving Hispanics will be transitional or short-lived. Latinos,
The ism negative seems to correlation support this between position. wealth Census and and collectiv economic

here posit that due to cultural influences Hispanics would show a higher degree of em beddedness in the community than Caucasians. Analysis of the responses of over 400 employees in two institutions substantially similar jobs supports the hypoth
eses.

performing

in the organization was Interestingly, job embeddedness not stronger among Hispanics in Hispanic firms than in non-Hispanic firms. This finding seems to concur with the Maertz et al. (2003) study that "found no consistent evi
dence that maquiladora workers see the organization as an

data indicate that income among Latinos is growing. This would welcome the formation of nuclear families in det
riment nerstones of extended of ones, which as constitute a cultural one feature of the cor collectivism

(Hofstede,

Further, contrary to the Lee et al. (2004) find in the community did not predict embeddedness ings, job subsequent voluntary turnover, though job embeddedness in the organization did. This was true for the aggregate in-group." analysis as well as the Hispanic only analysis. There are a number of practical implications of these that require long-distance findings. First, organizations
relocation for advancement may face resistance from His

1996).
However, there is also evidence that supports the

opposite position and leads us to believe Hispanic culture, is here to stay. Hofstede detected a including collectivism, and num strong positive correlation between collectivism census ber of children per family, and the aforementioned in the data (U.S. Census Bureau, The Hispanic Population United States, 2001a) shows that Hispanic couples have 18% more children than overall non Hispanic couples in
the U.S., and as mentioned before, studies have shown that

panic employees or possibly experience higher turnover in this population. Second, employers may want to consider a broad definition of family with respect to social and other activities so as to further connect employees' family to the "organizational
onand off-the-job

extended
ational

families
advancement,

become
and

larger and stronger with gener

acculturation (Velez-Ibanez,

web."

Third, efforts to assist in integrating

(e.g., promoting involvement

1996). Future studies of workplace

measure and model collectivism.

attachment

clearly must

activities

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J Bus Psychol (2007) 22:35^4 Limitations of the study

43 it Hispanic descent more embedded in their communities, is also a fact that the family structure of Hispanics includes a higher than average number of children in the household. Number of children in the household was not previously as part of the job embeddedness considered construct et al., 2001). Including items that address the (Mitchell impact of family
seems appropriate.

The population studied is predominantly female. While this is a characteristic of the employee body of the host orga
nizations, the results obtained should be taken with caution.

Previous

research (Griffeth et al., 2000), points to gender differences in turnover responses. Further, though the characteristics of the respondents who pro demographic on their surveys are not demon vided self-identification stratively different from those who did not, the logistic
regression ever, despite results low may power, be subject significant to selection results were bias. How obtained,

size

in the job embeddedness

concept

In sum, it appears that while Hispanics exhibit different levels of job embeddedness from Caucasian workers, the a reliable predictor of em embeddedness model is job
ployee retention. Because of its focus on the community as

suggesting
Analysis

a potentially
of U.S. census

robust phenomenon.
information shows a difference

well Florida,
Florida's

as the organization, job embeddedness may be a ro bust model for future investigation of attachment among
largest U.S. minority.

in the characteristics
when compared

of Hispanics
averages.

in southeast
Southeast

Hispanics?the

to national

is above the national averages for population terms in of education and income and is pre Hispanics of descent?not Cuban Mexican or Puerto Ri dominantly can descent as it is predominant in other regions of the Hispanic country. The high rate of entrepreneurship and concentra tion in theMiami area has resulted in a prosperous enclave of privileged migration (Portes & Truelove, 1987). This study also has limitations to generalizability com mon to most geographically constrained studies. While the focus of this research is on the applicability of job em
beddedness Hispanics as a predictor to best of employee understand across retention this among in the U.S., phenomenon, regions

Appendix Job embeddedness items

Fit: Community. I really love the place where I live. The weather where I live is suitable for me. This community is a good match for me. I think of the community where I live as home. The area where I live offers the leisure activities that I like. Fit: Organization. I like the members of my work group. are coworkers to me. My job utilizes my skills similar My and talents well. I feel like I am a good match for this company. authority
values are

multi-factor/multi-method of the U.S. must be

research undertaken.

multiple

the company's culture. I like the and responsibility I have at this company. My
compatible with the organization's values.

I fit with

Recommendations The
present

for future studies limitations

for

demographic
an opportunity

of

the population
research that may

studied
con

future

Links: Community. (Items 1-3 for links-community and links-organization were standardized before being analyzed or being included in any composites.) Are you currently married?
Links:

tribute not only to further validate the job embeddedness construct, but also to provide a better understating of the
response addition, participation of Hispanics future studies of different should socio-economic include a more strata. balanced In

If you are married, does your spouse work outside the home? Do you own the home you live in?
Organization. How long have you been in your

of males.

The concept of job embeddedness

variables intended to measure the

includes a number of
employee's attachment

position? long have you worked for this How have in the banking you worked company? long How coworkers do interact with reg many industry? you How are coworkers many ularly? highly dependent on you? present
How many work are you teams on? are you on? How many work committees

How

(link) to and fit in the community and organization and the ' ' 'cost' (sacrifice) of leaving such organization or potential the signifi community. Research has already established cant and negative relationship between children in the household and voluntary turnover (Griffeth et al., 2000). the present variables included it the job em However, beddedness concept do not include such consideration. The results of this study demonstrate a significant difference in in the community between Hispanic and job embeddedness it can be argued that a non-Hispanic employees. While number of cultural and social reasons make employees of

this community would Sacrifice: Community. Leaving be very hard. People respect me a lot in my community. is safe. My neighborhood I have a lot of freedom on this Sacrifice: Organization. job to decide how to pursue my goals. The perks on this job are outstanding. I feel that people at work respect me a great deal. I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job. My are excellent here. I am well promotional opportunities compensated for my level of performance. The benefits are

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44

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22:35-44

good on this job. The health-care

organization are excellent. The

benefits provided by this

retirement benefits pro

vided by this organization are excellent. The prospects for continuing employment with this company are excellent.

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