EHAP Chapter 10

Intro Renaissance=rebirth Dutch scholars use word herfsttij to describe period o Can mean decline or harvest Demographic and political crises were being revived o Religious crisis would have to wait though City states of Italy were best off due to strategic location and lucrative Eurasian trade Wealth gave merchants ability to work will on society and culture Patronage in Italian cities was unmatched elsewhere By 1490s Renaissance peaked Movable type, Classical knowledge revival, languages, cultural changes set into motion o Critical historical scholarship was invented Vernacular was greater than Latin, states were greater than church o Trips to East and Americas were greater than those to Rome Colonies in Americas, New World exploration o Gold and silver spurred science, weapon development , and caused inflation o Slaves were bought from Africa to Portuguese to work the mines of the New World o Social engineering, political planning o Mercantilism emerged

The Renaissance in Italy Burckhardt people began to think for themselves rather than be completely focused on god, and the full nature of Man emerged o He may be wrong because the time was still very Christian, there were earlier renaissances that failed to do anything like this, especially Greek and Latin revival in 1200s o Middle Ages were dominated by church and agricultural feudalism, whereas Renaissance was characterized by nationalism, centralization, trade, capitalism, and decline of religion o 1375-1527 was the best period, until in 1527 soldiers sacked Rome

The Italian City-State Renaissance started within Italy because of its location, which made it easy to trade with different areas Venice, Genoa, Pisa had uninterrupted trade during the Middle Ages When trade revived in 1000s, immediately traders in Italy mastered the skills needed By 1400s, Italian bankers were most powerful in Europe and rich cities gained autonomy

Growth of City-States Was assisted by the fighting between Guelf (propapal) and Ghibelline (proimperial) factions that the war initially created o Cities were not checked by any group and were allowed to expand freely Milan, Papal States, Venice, Florence, Naples o All of the states were run as despotisms because there was so much competition within them Venice was the only exception. It was a merchant oligarchy run by 300 people, and a ruthless executive Council of Ten

Social Class and Conflict Florence had 4 social groups: Grandi (rich), Popolo grosso (newly rich), middle-burgher guild and shop owners, etc; popolo minute (legitimately poor people) o 30000 paupers (people with absolutely no money) Ciompi Revolt from poor from things which made it impossible to live o Fighting between old and new rich, Black Death, and collapse of the banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi o Lower classes ruled Florence for 4 years until Cosimo de Medici came along

Despotism and Diplomacy Medici was a powerful statesman who manipulated elections and controlled the city sneakily o Signoria was an 8 member council with guild owners, bankers, etc. He used informal relations to keep this group loyal to him o Head of the Office of Public Debt Lorenzo de Medici was almost totalitarian o Pazzi family plotted against their rule and killed his brother In other areas , despotism was more subtle o Podestas were hired for the purpose of keeping order within the society and making sure business and trade were normal and uninterrupted

o They got these podestas from military brokers known as condottieri o Despotism was dangerous, but it was successful too; Sforza family came to power in 1450 and Visconti family in 1278 As city-states found out about foreign military developments, if they remained shrewd of them they could gain advantage but avoid war o Establish embassies where ambassadors were both diplomatic and watchful for other rival courts Regardless of despotism or freedom, religion or secularization, there was much patronage for art because the Italian cities all had the money for it

Humanism Some see humanism as the dying out of Christianity (Buckhardt), but some see humanism as champions of Christianity itself, who opposed paganism and scholasticism, and some others saw it just to promote scholarship and civic responsibility and liberty Paul O. Kristeller says that humanism was the focus of rhetoric and scholarship for its own sake There is truth in all of this o It WAS a study of Latin and Greek classics for both its own sake and for the sake of a rebirth of old values o Studia humanitatis was a study of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, and moral philosophy Seen as a joy itself and prepared people for a life of dignity o Leonardo Bruni gave the study this name Student of Manuel Chrysoloras, a Byzantine scholar who opened the world of Greek scholarship to Italians when he went to Florence Humanists were orators and poets at first, who composed poems and taught rhetoric at universities. Otherwise, they were secretaries in princely and papal courts There were recoveries of old material in the Carolingian Renaissance, the school of Chartres, and the great Aristotelian revival in Paris, and among the Augustinians in the 14th century o Renaissance, however, had much more material, technical skill, and was much more secularized When exploring sources, they did not summarize them but went directly to the original source itself Mastery of Latin and Greek was essential for humanists, and it was available to everyone in the 14th and 15th centuries

Petrarch, Dante, and Boccaccio Petrarch was the father of humanism Spent his life in Avignon to pursue poetry and letters o Wrote letters to dead men (Letters to the Ancient Dead) o Wrote a Latin epic poem and a set of biographies on famous Roman men (Lives of Illustrious Men) o Wrote many sonnets to a woman named Laura Studied text critically and shunned scholasticism Classical and Christian values are equal in his work o All of this inspired later humanists to do the same thing Dante, with Vita Nuova and Divine Comedy as much less secular Boccaccio wrote Decameron, which was a social commentary about 3 men and 7 women in a country retreat telling horrible stories. It is a dynamic look at human behavior o He also collected Greek and Roman manuscripts

Education Reforms and Goals Humanists went directly for original sources, which kept them on the lookout for new information and made them innovative educators Humanists wanted to be wise, speak eloquently, know good, and practice virtue o Learning ennobled people o Veregio wrote a book (On the Morals that Befit a Free Man), about liberal educations o Quintillians Education of the Orator set up classical humanist curriculum o Feltre also set up curriculum not just by teaching difficulty, but also with physical exercise and tough games o Manuel Chrysoloras gave classical languages systematic form o Castiglones Book of the Courtier notes that successful courtiers must have many skills as well as good moral character o Christine de Pisan was a woman who got the finest possible education Expert in languages and literature After becoming a widow, she started writing poetry for money She wrote the City of Ladies, which shows some of the great woman accomplishments of history

The Florentine Academy and the Revival of Platonism Revival of Greek studies, especially Plato, was the best recovery of the Renaissance Manuel Chrysoloras came from Constantinople to teach Greek stuff in Italy, and 50 years later, Council of Ferrera allowed Greek culture to flow into Italy Florentine Platonic Academy opened when Constantinople fell in 1453 and Greeks fled to Italy o Supervised by Cosimo de Medici, Ficino, and Pico della Mirandola o Academy was not actually a school, but just an area for people who were interested in the works of Plato and the Neoplatonists o Ficino published full works of Plato Platonic tradition, and the synthesis of it with Christian teaching, was most important to Renaissance thinkers The appeal of Platonism was b/c it distinguished between an eternal sphere of being and the ground on which humans live o Human reason existed in the former Pico della Mirandola wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, which depicted humans as the only creatures who could choose whatever they wanted o Intro to a collection of 900 theses

Critical Work of the Humanists: Lorenzo Valla People could become critical of tradition even though it was not their intention Lorenzo de Valla defended predestination against the advocates of the free will, and exposed the Dontation of Constantine o He proved that the document, which showed all of the lands donated by Constantine to the pope, was anachronistic and wrong Pointed out errors in the Vulgate Bible He did not mean to be a bad Catholic, but his work benefited those individuals who were less loyal to the Church o Humanists were the first group of Martin Luthers supporters

Civic Humanism Education should promote public service and virtue, these humanists thought o To this end, three Florentine humanists served as chancellor: Salutati, Bruni, and Bracciolini o Used rhetorical skills to ally Florence against Naples and Milan o Bruni and Bracciolini wrote histories of the city o Alberti was an architect for the city

o Some humanists were elitist, however, and decided they would spend time studying classical pure Latin behind closed doors o Machiavelli and Guicciardini , for this reason, adopted their vernacular and made contemporary history their primary source and subject matter Renaissance Art Laity was no longer subordinate to the clergy (in fact, they now had a leading role) o Church lost power, national bureaucracies preferred to hire laity, and lay learning became more important as time went on o People began to appreciate the secular and human world as time went on High Renaissance saw less formulaic art and more art focused on the observation of the natural world and human emotion o Art also had a more rational and symmetrical element which displayed harmony of the universe o Very interested in Roman art Artists had oil paints, shading for enhancement (chiaroscuro), adjusting sizes of figures (perspective) o This all permitted artists to rationalize space and paint a more natural, less flat world as they might do in the Middle Ages Giotto essentially started the Renaissance. Inspiration from St. Francis of Assisi made him paint the world more naturally o Early Renaissance Massacio, Donatello o High Renaissane Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo

Leonardo da Vinci Truly emphasized the definition of Renaissance Man because he was so skilled and talented in many different aspects

Raphael Was both a great person and a great artist Famous for School of Athens, which depicts Plato and Aristotle surrounded by great philosophers, along with some contemporaries of Raphael himself

Michelangelo Sculpture of David is a perfect example of his devotion to harmony, symmetry, and proportion Four different popes commissioned work from him

Pope Julius II solicited the paintings on the beautiful ceiling of the Sistine Chapel o 10,000 ft^2 and 343 figures o Took 4 years o It was a perfect labor of love which Michelangelo insisted on doing on his own His associates barely got anything to do because he did everything himself His later paintings show a passing of Renaissance styles and an introduction of mannerism, which makes room of the strange and the abnormal and gives freer reign to the artist o Started because people didnt like the symmetry and systematic nature of the High Renaissance o Tintoretto and El Greco became the biggest proponents of mannerisms era

Slavery in the Renaissance Thriving western market developed when Spanish sold Muslim slaves to Italian city states o Considered a mercy, because otherwise slaves would have died o There were both household slaves and plantation slaves Plantation slaves exised in Sudan, Cyrpus, and Crete After the Black Death, people started to get slaves from everywhere o Africa, Balkans, Crete, Cyrpus, lands around the Black Sea o Slaves had many races: Tartars, Greeks, Russians, etc. o Slaves were in priest services, they were given as dowry, and Tuscany had at least one in every rich home Owners had total control over their slaves o They initially cost money, but their years of free labor made them worth the cost Tartars and Africans were worst treated, but slaves were usually kept healthy and happy o They became mothers of their masters children o They were integrated as family o They were, however, still suspected because, by nature, slaves were resentful of their societal position

Italys Political Decline: The French Invasions The Treaty of Lodi Treaty pitted Milan, Florence, and Naples against Venice and the Papal States, but whenever someone threatened Italy as a whole, all would form a united front

Milanese despot Ludovico il Moro tried to take advantage of his power, so Naples and Florence decided to attack them o Because of this, Ludovico il Moro decided to take the help of the French, who once themselves ruled Naples, to oust the leader of the Naples Failed to realize that French also had claims to Milan, and they would want to take over all of Italy once they crossed the Alps into it

Charles VIIIs March through Italy Louis XI didnt want to invade Italy, but Charles VIII had no problem with it o He made it to Florence very quickly, and when he got there Piero de Medici tried to placate him by handing over Pisa and other Florentine possessions This caused Girolamo Savonarola to oust him, because he convinced everyone that the coming of the French was a divine vengeance on their immortality Ultimately, Charles entered Florence with no problem and the city made it unscathed Savonarola ruled for 4 years after this, but his rule turned out to be so immoral and insufficient that he was imprisoned and executed Part of this was because he praised the French invaders as godsends, and this was highly illegal Ferdinand of Aragon didnt want to be part of this whole problem (l ived in Sicily), so he established the League of Venice with the Papal States, Venice, and Emperor Maximillian against the French (this caused a major conflict between France and Spain) Ludovico il Moro realized he was screwed, so he joined the League of Venice and worked send Charles VIII into retreat where he died in 1498

Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia family Louis XIII returned to Italy under pope Alexander VI, who was very corrupt o Supported political careers of his children Cesare and Lucrezia and made papal policy equal to politics to build politics in Romagna Principalities fell away from the church during the Avignon papacy He thought French allies could secure his power in the region, so he took steps to get their loyalty from them o Annulled the marriage of the king to Charles VIII sister, so he could marry Charles VIII widow, and she would stay French o Also abandoned League of Venice, which made them too weak to resist French reconquest of Milan

o It was a scandal, but Alexander VI accomplished his goals in Romagna, Louis and Ferdinand of Aragon ended up splitting Naples, and Milan was invaded and ended up collapsing Pope Julius II Placed the lands of Romagna under papal jurisdiction Was very secular and was known as the Warrior Pope Erasums wrote something called Julius Excluded from Heaven to give a humorous satire about how Julius did not deserve to get to go to Heaven Eventually, he got all the lands of Romagna under the lead of the Papal States, so he turned to another goal; taking the French out o Formed Holy League with FoA, Venice, Emperor Maximillian, and got French out in 1513 in Novara (the Swiss did this) France decided to invade again o Eventually they defeated the Swiss at the Holy League of Marignano, won the Concordat of Bologna o The French king controlled his own clergy, and in return the French recognized the awesomeness of the pope o This kept France Catholic after the Protestant Reformation o Then Spain started the Habsburg-Valois wars, which France lost (all 4)

Niccolo Machiavelli Italy was shaken totally by political wars, and Machiavelli thought that independence were ends that justify any means He was so fond of the way that Romans possessed virtu, the fondness and heroism for their own country, so he sort of exaggerated the turmoil of the time (his friend Francesco Guicciardini was more realistic) He had republican ideals, and believed that strong people could collectively succeed, and that Italy should stop quarreling He decided the political spectrum was so bad, that he became a huge cynic o Decided only a dictatorial person could rule People think Machiavelli wrote the Prince as a satire and not recommendation for despotism o However, he seemed earnest when he said there were advantages in fraud and brutality o Hoped to see a strong ruler from Medici family, which captured the papacy with Leo X

o He idolized Lorenzo de Medici and Cesare Borgia (son of Alexander VI) o Ultimately, the Medicis did not hold Italy, because Rome was sacked under the second Medici pope, Clement VII Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe While certain aspects of feudal monarchy remained, and representative bodies even grew in influence, sovereign states were the biggest emerging parties Feudal monarchies divided power between king and his vassals o Nobility took some power from this all o They had success with the forming of the English Parliament, French Eststes General, and Spanish Cortes, but after 100 years war, the nobility and the clergy were on the decline and less able to contain expanding monarchies o Towns started to increasingly ally themselves with the king, which made the rise of sovereign states much easier In a sovereign state, tax, war, and law become affairs of the state rather than of the region Only when monarchs got the ability to act independently could they work against decentralization forces Once monarchs got power, they used it excessively o Ferdinand and Isabella never called on the Cortes o Henry VII raised revenues without Parliament voting on them o Monarchs were also assisted by brilliant theorists The many never subjugated to the one, but the law was dominated by monarchs o Appointed civil servants well versed in national affairs (Corregidores in Castile, justices of peace in England, bailiffs in France) o Some servants became very attached to the regions they covered, but their outlooks had to remain on a national scale Noble army was swapped for royal infantry and artillery o Soldiers fought for pay, so they were more efficient, but things could get disastrous if they didnt meet the payroll Warfare cost was extremely important, but nobles were too stubborn and cocky to pay taxes, so lower classes had to sustain the impact Many opportunities to get tax money o Collect money from royal domains o Levy taxes such as salt tax (gabelle), 10% sales tax (alcaba) o Taille was the name of a tax which the French levied directly on peasants o Rulers sold bonds and public offices, but did not levy taxes on nobles. Rathey, they borrowed from the nobles and Italian-German bankers

France Charles VII won 100 yrs war b/c Joan of Arc, had a strong econ because of Jacques Coeur o Made great by his helpers Defeat of English in 100 years way and defeat of Charles the Bold and Burgundy were his best 2 accomplshments o Burgundy tried to dwarf France and HRE Louis XI and Maximillian split Burgundy between them, and the king got twice the land he originally had and expanded trade within the system France, however, became a defeated nation by the 1500s, with failed conquests in Italy and losing wars against the Habsburgs

Spain When Ferdinand of Aragon got married to Isabella of Castile, despite strong protests from Portugal and France, both became much stronger o Castile had a sheep industry called Mesta run by the government o Both of the parts remained sovereign of one another, even though they were dynastically united now Together, the rulers accomplished a great deal o Conquered Moors, Naples, Navarre o Won the allegiance of the Hermanadad, a powerful league of cities and towns that served them against stubborn landowners o People united with kings against nobility Religious tolerance was done with Spain took total control of the Church, and started the Spanish Inquisition to persecute Muslims and Jews o This was the reason Spain remained Catholic and was able to have a CounterReformation They contracted anti-French marriages for political purposes o Daughter Catherine of Aragon married Arthur, Henry 7s son o After he died, she married Henry 8, and the failure of this marriage became the main aspect of the English Reformation Also sponsored Columbus, who arrived to Caribbean while trying to get to the Far East o Led to Spanish empire in Mexico and Peru because both had gold and silver mines, which made Spain very dominant

England Hundred Years War broke England into 2: House of York (Henry VI) and House of Lancaster (Edward VI) o Conflict was the War of the Roses York always challenged Lancaster Edward VI seized power for more than 20 years at one point Brother Richard III took the throne from Edwards son, so he was considered a villain who also murdered Edwards sons to secure the throne o Shakespeares play documents this best o Over his reign, the Duke of Lancaster got more popularity and defeated him eventually Henry VII (Henry Tudor) dominated 16th cent. England o Married Edward IVs daughter, Elizabeth of York, to make the claim to the throne uncontestable o Put down the nobility using the Court of Star Chamber to end the perversion of justice by nobles (people who used bribes and intimidation) o Expanded the power of the monarchy and seized the lands of the nobles so effectively that he was able to rule without funding from Parliament

HRE HRE in Germany and Italy was a hugely decentralized government, and rulers partitioned their governments such that Germany had 300 political entities by late 1400s The Golden Bull established a seven member electoral college which was supposed to be an administrative body and provide the unity that was supposed to be there The right of the ruler was renegotiated every election, making the one subjugated to the many The Reichstag was the name of a parliament with the Golden Bull workers, nonelectoral princes, and representatives of the 65 free imperial cities (weakest overall group) o Creation of a Supreme Court, Council of Regency, and an imperial ban on private warfare. Council of Regency was bad because it gave princes a share in executive power o Germany was still torn up by the 16th and 17th centuries, and it was a mess that gave room for the Protestant Reformation

The Northern Renaissance Focused on education and more on religion than previously

Stimulated by importation of Italian learning and Brothers of the Common Life Less of an elitist group with more focus on religious reforms Focused on education, so printing press would be helpful

The Printing Press Education was extremely important since the days of Charlemagne because educated people with a variety of skills was needed to run a government o Many schools had been created and universities grew in number from 20 to 70 Printing methods became more efficient; they went from the inefficient method of vellum (calfskin) to single sheet wood cuts In response to the need for books, Gutenberg invented the Printing Press, and books started to be produced on a variety of topics o Best were piety, religion, calendars, almanacs, and how-to books o Printing press became VERY profitable by 1500 Now anyone who could read was an authority and nobles and kings did not have to deal with church goes who couldnt read o Also used increasingly for propagandistic purposes

Erasmus His popularity shot up after the printing press, and he showed that people actually did want reforms to the church before the reformation made it possible Made a living as a tutor (for a scarce audience) o Prepared Latin dialogues known as Colloquies o His collection of ancient and contemporary proverbs was known as Adages Tried to reconcile faith with humanism through his philosophy philosophia Christi o Made all of the original sources available (through painstaking work) o Produced Greek Edition of New Testament and Latin one (1516 and 1519 respectively) Got in trouble with the church o Changed the Bible and had anticlerical satires o Had works placed in Index of Forbidden Books and got Luthers condemnation for his views on the freedom of human will

Humanism and Reform Germany Rudolf Agricola was the father of German humanism after spending 10 yrs in Italy

Ulrich von Hutten showed the union of humanism, German nationalism, and Luthers religious reform Johann Reuchlin was a Jewish enthusiast and could write Hebrew even though he was himself a Christian o A man named Pfefferkorn attacked Reuchlin for his views and thought he was being too pro-Jewish, so many people rushed to the side of Reuchlin (for the sole purpose of protecting the value of scholarship) o Controversy created a work called the Letters of Obscure Men, which was a huge political satire of monks and Scholastics. Von Hutten contributed to this. o When Martin Luther posted his 95 theses, this was again seen as an attack on the values of Reuchlin, so many people rushed to his side

England Visiting Italians and English scholars (Erasmus, Grocyn, Lincare) started humanism in England John Colet, dean of St. Pauls Cathedral, patronized humanism Thomas More is one of the best known humanists of England for his work Utopia, which is a criticism of society itself o It did this by showing a Utopian society and contrasting it from the current world Henry 8 trusted More, but executed him because he did not allow the Act of Supremacy (formation of the Anglican Church) or his marriage with Anne of Boleyn

France Got their influences from their invasions of Italy o Guillaume Bude and Lefevre dEtaples were the leaders of French Humanism The latter exemplified critical scholarship and got attention from Martin Luther o Guillaume Briconnet and Marguerite dAngouleme started a group of young reform minded humanists, out of which Jean Calvin emerged

Spain Humanist Francisco Cisneros, the grand Inquisitor, founded the University of Alcaca in 1509, published a Greek edition of the New Testament, and made the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, which had Hebrew Greek, and Latin words of the Bible in parallel columns. This also helped Spain stay strictly Catholic

Voyages of Discovery and the New Empire in the West Gold and Spices Mercenary motives inspired Henry the Navigator to sponsor Portuguese exploration of the African coast in order to gain power in the gold trade o By 15th century, Lisbon and Antwerp became 2 huge cities for gold trade o Antwerp was a crossroads between Portugal, Spain, Belgium, and Germany Spices also became important from India, in order to enhance and preserve food Bartholomeu Dias established an Empire on the Cape of Good Hope When Vasco de Gama went to India, he got 60x the price of the trip in cargo Challenged Europeans and Venetians for the spice trade Spanish tried to sail across the Atlantic, but Columbus got there first Vespucci and Magellan found out that there was a whole new continent in North America

The Spanish Empire in the New World Columbus New World exploration inspired three centuries worth of exploration Gold and silver from the Americas financed Spains many endeavors and caused Spains inflation Columbus initially thought he landed in Japan because of Marco Polos accounts of his years in China, and the first globe map of the world o The map only showed the ocean between the west coast of Europe and the east coast of Asia, and made him think Cuba was Japan and the US was China When he landed in San Salvador, Taino Indians gave him food, shelter, and anything he wanted

A Conquered World Columbus thought he was on the East Indies and called the people he met Indians, so the name stuck These peoples had actually traveled from the Bering Strait across Alaska Native Americans used to have the Mesoamerican and Andean Civilization, which were dominated by the city of Teotihuacan o The first millennium saw the rise of the Mayas, with pyramids and astronomical achievements

Many Andean civilizations, most importantly the Chavin, built up the Andean area, with highways, canals, textiles, etc. When Columbus came, Aztecs were in Mesoamerica and Incas were in Andean civilization

The Aztecs in Mexico Aztecs overthrew their rulers in 1428 and Aztec conquest went until 1500 Aztecs governed small tribes harshly and fed people to the gods as tribute (sacrifice) Hernan Cortes came in 1519 o Aztec legend indicated that he might be a god, so they showered him with gifts and refused to oppose him. This backfired because he conquered their capital city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), and they imprisoned Montezuma who then died for some weird reason o This was now called New Spain

The Incas in Peru Vanquished many subjects and ruled harshly on millions of people Francisco Pizzaro, inspired by Cortes, then hit the Incas with more military power than they could imagine Pizarro captured the leader, Atahualpa, in 1531, but after realizing that he could not eventually control him, Pizarro killed him Division between Spanish conquerors caused a breakdown in control until 1560s One civilization totally conquered both of these civilizations, which made it bad for those conquered, but those conquered also were unable to have an impact on Western civilization o The Iriquois Tribe, however, may have influenced the American Constitutions feature of freedom Ultimately, Spanish DOMINATED in South America, and this marks the transition of South America into Latin America

The Economy of Exploitation Mining, agriculture, and shipping became the three major components of Latin American economy o Conquistadors were highly interested in silver mining in Potosi in Peru and in Northern Mexico Spanish crown got 1/5 of mining revenues Epitome of exploitative economy

o Agriculture happened on haciendas, or large land estates owned either by peninsulares or creoles Produced food for mining areas and leather goods for mining machinery Black slaves from Africa grew sugar for an insatiable Spanish need o There were also many officers for urban servers to hold o Social devices were used to draw in laborers Encomienda was a formal grant of hundreds or thousands of laborers Started to decline by 1500s because people thought laborers would become nobility Repartimento was a required time of labor for workers which was almost too harsh to survive Eventually laborers became free, but they had to purchase goods and be forever indebted to their owners (debt peonage) Black slavery came at the end Diseases also killed Native Americans, because due to the relative ease of their lives and their reduced interactions with other cultures they were not immune to many diseases The Impact on Europe People started to distrust traditional knowledge about EVERYTHING because they messed up so hard geographically People started to condemn the Spanish for their treatment of Native Americans People started to open up to the idea of exploration and expansion, and this is where Global interactions really started Spices and metals from Spanish Empire was a mixed blessing o Inflation and increase of prices happened, and wages remained even as time went on Governments started basic research and planning funding into shipping and mining industries o Some large scale planning, such as French silk industry Capitalism already started to develop in the rich Italian city-states o Some usury occurred o Medici of Florence grew rich as did the Fuggers of Aubsburg Fuggers bought the HRE in 1519 Aggravated setup of social hierarchy People were now critical to tradition and more open to new ideas, especially if it meant a chance at a better life

EHAP Chapter 11

Intro In Saxony, Germany, Protestant reformers led broad movements against the church because they thought the church was hurting their peace of mind and taking away their money through indulgences Protestants were more impressed by the human potential to do good than do bad, and they encouraged firm discipline o Even though Renaissance values faded out somewhat, Protestant reformers also liked to go back to Classical values and original sources of Greek and Hebrew information

Society and Religion Came at a time of conflict between European nation-states Towns and regions, which used to be run on their own, were now going to be subjugated to kings and monarchs, which caused popular revolt o Perhaps had to do with states rights

Social and Political Conflict There were 65 free imperial cities, such as in Germany and Switzerland o Most had protestant movements, but there was a mixed degree of success, and the only fully successful areas were Germany and Switzerland There was also internal political and social division o Guilds had literate, sophisticated members who wanted to expand their economies o They had an economic stake in fanning religious conflict, and certain guilds with a history of opposition to reigning government also opposed Protestant reformers o People who got pushed around by these guilds saw an ally in the Protestant movement Protestant pamphlets and sermons were highly relevant o When Luther and his friends sang about their own values, it made rulers who looked down on people as subjects rather than citizens mad o Peasants on the land were highly interested in the reformation due to their own misfortunes

Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church For many people, the church started to be less and less dependable o Between the secular pretensions of the papacy and the dry teaching of Scholastic theologians, people started to move toward an unorthodox piety o The laity started to gain tons of new knowledge as they traveled around the world extensively Books also offered them a chance to widen their horizons o Protestants wanted a more simple, egalitarian church

The Modern Devotion Brothers of the Common Life (alternate name for Modern Devotion) started to form a religious practice aside from common religious vows and complexity Spread to Northern and some of Southern Europe People were not required to leave their jobs, wear special dress, or make special vows. All they had to do was have individual piety to God The brothers were also active in education o Most important achievement was conducting classes and caring for young boys wanting to become priests or monks (Erasmus came out of this) o Thomas a Kempis wrote Imitation of Christ, which ended up being the most popular book about the reformation of the time Source of Protestant reformations in the world o It was actually very conservative, with Classical, simple values being brought back into the scene o Appeared at the same time as the laity was trying to make their own reformations o People were allowed to observe religion without surrendering their life in the world

Lay Control over Religious Life Offices began to give way to the benefice system, which allowed church posts to be sold to the highest bidders o These people worked at the highest level and had no idea on how to run their positions or how to care for the local level o Almost every German town had some kind of problem with the benefice system Luther wrote a work called Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, in which the sale of indulgences was attacked o Luther disliked when these were offered solely for personal greed

Indulgences were balanced out by dissolving monasteries City governments also tried to improve religious life at the local level o Endowed preacherships supported by benefices which were able to perform at levels higher than commissioned by the church and also more dedicated Magistrates restricted the growth of ecclesiastical institutions o Churches were exempt from taxes, military service and other dirty jobs, and being judged by the laity (in theory) o Church was thought to be holy, and there could not be anyone to compromise that o The magistrates decided to block the asylum criminals took in holy places and also forced the clergy to follow the given tax code People were tired of church interference in government affairs

Martin Luther and the German Reformation to 1525 There was no national identity or governmental body strong enough to regulate the Protestant Reformation, so everything usually happened within towns and villages o There was a national identity against Rome that became strong enough by 1517 for Martin Luther to come in with his own views Martin Luther was originally supposed to study law as per his familys wishes, but he instead decided that he would join the Order of the Hermits of Saint Augustine, after he promised God he would do this during a lightning storm if he escaped death o Went to Rome in 1510, where he formed an opinion on the corruption of the church o In 1511 he moved to Wittenberg, and earned a degree in theology in 1512 This caused him to be an essential religious leader

Justification by Faith Alone Luther believed that medieval theology was asking too much of him, and made it out that he was so sinful that he had to have a higher standard of being than any human being could every achieve Therefore, he thought that if someone had 100% pure faith to God, he could go to Heaven

The Attack on Indulgences People who committed sins were supposed to have eternal punishment for them, but after the priest absolved them of their sins, the punishment changed to being temporary

o Indulgences totally removed these temporary penalties, which was good because they would end up making a person suffer in purgatory rather than go directly to heaven Indulgences used to be given to Crusaders who died in battle At one point the treasury of merit was created, which could cover the work people had to do In 1476, these indulgences were extended to cover purgatory They used to be given out to only Crusaders, but now could even be sold for just a small fee o In one corrupt exchange, one Jubilee Indulgence (which would cover all outstanding sins) was given for the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica in Rome Luther was extremely mad about this particular exchange, because he didnt think indulgences could really do anything Election of Charles V People were very mad at Luther in Saxony and sanctions were about to be issued on him, but Emperor Maximillian of the Dominican Order of Aubsburg died before it could happen, and then people started to shift their focus to the election of a new emperor o Charles I of Spain became the new emperor known as Charles V Charles had a long tradition of Habsburg rule and a massive help from the Fugger family, which helped him get the help of the seven electors o For this, the seven electors solicited a revival of the Council of Regency, Imperial Supreme Court, and promised to hold a diet with them Decided not to attack Germany, to Luthers advantage

Luthers Excommunication and the Diet of Worms Luther debated against John Eck about the illegitimacy of the pope and the stupidity of the church, saying that faith was the goal for salvation o Defended a heretical writer John Huss Three works put out by Luther o The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation wanted to curb church power in Germany o The Babylonian Captivity of the Church attacked the sacraments and vouched for the whole faith only thing o Freedom of a Christian also vouched for faith only These all caused him to be excommunicated in 1521 Diet of Worms, over which Charles V presided, ordered him to recant 4 months after his excommunication, but he refused to do so, so his friends put him in a castle where he

translated the New Testament into German and tried to oversee the first part of the Protestant Reformation Imperial Distractions: France and the Turks Ottoman Turks invaded Eastern Europe, so Charles V, who had Spanish responsibilities, let all German territories come up with religious rules of their own o Peace of Augsburg would enshrine such local princely control over religion in imperial law

How the Reformation Spread Spread through the hands of magistrates and princes o Magistrates always had the idea of having some basic reforms, but after the Protestant Reformation really started they started to enforce these laws in a much stronger manner Elector of Saxony and Prince of Hesse also tried to push the Protestant Reformation because they believed that the demise of the Roman Catholic church could bring them benefits o This was in full swing by the 1530s

The Peasants Revolt Luther eventually became an enemy of Germany just as much as the Pope in Rome was Peasants were constantly raising demonstrations against their tax collectors, lords, etc. and so when Luther talked about release from economic burden and the concept of a simple life, the peasants quickly tagged on o Emphasized the peasants Karsthans whose simple and hardworking life was the type Luther believed that everyone should have o When the peasants tried to revolt against their masters in 1524, however, Luther said that this was antithetical to his views and instructed that the revolt be crushed without mercy He needed to do this, otherwise he would look like a hypocrite, but it was now clear that the end to social reform as Lutherans was here

The Reformation Elsewhere

Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation Switzerland had 13, some of which were PR, some of which were RC, and some of which were both o Two main preconditions of this: first, national sense of togetherness; second, a desire for church reform in Switzerland for the past few decades

The Reformation in Zurich Ulrich Zwingli was heavily influenced by Erasmus, worked for the Swiss mercenaries, and opposed indulgences o Through his work in mercenaries, he saw how corrupted they were He ran for peoples priest position in Zurich Church o People contested him because he had an affair, but he defended himself for this and called for an end to celibacy Zurich said anything that was not in the scripture was not to be followed o The city granted him this opportunity and thus made the area the center of the Swiss Reformation o The citys strict rules made the area the first puritan PR area

The Marburg Colloquy Luther and Zwingli were supposed to bring the two countries together, but they had a few major disagreements o In the Eucharist, when Christ said this is my body in the bread and wine, Zwingli thought it was fully spiritual and Luther thought the whole thing was literal Zwingli thought Luther did not break fully from the medieval theory of the 7 sacraments Phillip of Hesse bought the two into his castle in 1529, but they were not able to agree o Both of the sides started to develop on their own somewhat from this point forward Zwinglian views came to be embodied in the Tetrapolitan Confession by Martin Bucer and Caspar Hedio for presentation to the Diet of Augsburg as an alternative to the Lutheran Augsburg Confession

Swiss Civil Wars The Swiss states had two major civil war battles, both in Kappel o The Protestants won the first one and got the Catholics to recognize their legitimacy

o The second one was won by the RC after Zwingli died, so each state got to decide religion for their own, and Zwinglis protg took over the Swiss Reformation Anabaptists and Radical Protestants People thought that Luther and Zwingli only went halfway with their reforms and they had to do more o The Anabaptists (Mennonites and Amish) believed that people should be baptized as adults and not babies so it could be with consent, and therefore, conform to the true Scripture of Chistianity

Conrad Grebel and the Swiss Brethren Grebel was the starter of Anabaptism that was at one point an ally of Zwingli The Swiss Brethren had enemies in the form of the document named Schleitheim Confession of 1527 o Social separation became such a huge problem that the document feared that the weird way that these people acted would eventually become a problem

The Anabaptists Reign in Munster Eventually baptizing oneself twice became illegal from the HRE, and 1-5000 people who did it to themselves as adults were executed o This led to an extremist movement in the city of Munster Two Dutch immigrants decided that LU and RC had to leave Munster or convert, so most of them left o Turned into a city with the practice of polygamy and use of the Old Testament After Munsters Anabaptists were killed, mellow Anabaptism started to take place

Spiritualists People who thought only the spirit of God and nothing else was needed to gain salvation o Muntzer: died as leader of peasant revolt o Franck: proclaimed the religious autonomy of every human soul o Schwenckfeld was a writer and wanderer who got a church named after him

Antitrinitarians Wanted a common-sense, logical following of religion Opponents of Calvinism Defenders of the idea of religious toleration

John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation Replaced Lutheranism as the dominant Protestant sect starting in the 1550s o France, Netherlands, Scotland hated it o Established in Southwest Germany People believed in predestination and the individuals responsibility to reform society based on the plans of God o Zealous reformers who tried to reorder the orientation of society entirely The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism by Mark Weber notes that the combination of religiousness and self-discipline led to a huge jump in the business and capitalism of the region o Also had close relations to other Puritan denominations Calvin was from a good family, had a good education, and, even though he soon left this part because he saw it as ineffective, joined the French reform party, which contributed to his standing as a reformer He converted because he thought that his stubborn heart was made teachable by God o His theology was among the best in the world, and it was very mature o He ended up converting in 1534 and joining the Reformation

Political Revolt and Religious Reform in Geneva Geneva rooted out their prince in 1520s to get Calvinism going (he was also a bishop) In 1536, Geneva was finally 100% Protestant Calvin was about to go to Strasbourg when he was forced to turn to Geneva by fighting and forced to stay there because of a threat Calvin then drew up extensive articles and rules for the new church and the governing of the people o People thought the reformers were going too far and trying to set up a New Papacy o Genevas magistrates told Calvin and his friend Farel to stop these reforms, but when they refused, kicked them out of the city o Then Calvin went to Strasbourg, where he learned how to achieve his goals in Geneva

Calvins Geneva In 1540, new syndics were elected to the executive council based on Calvins preference o When he returned in 1540s, new rules allowed for clergy and magistrate to cooperate with eachother

Geneva church had pastors, teachers/doctors, elders (oversaw life of everyone), and deacons to dispense church goods and services to the poor and sick Calvin thought that faith was not an idle thought but rather an active time investment which everyone participated in o Consistory, or regulatory council, was going to therefore enforce strictest moral discipline The most stern act of Calvin was executing Michael Servetus for writing a book condemning the holy Trinity By 1550s, all syndics were religious and loyal to Calvin, and Geneva gained more than 5000 Protestant refugees from surrounding areas (France, Germany, Scotland) Considered womans paradise because men could not beat their wives

Political Consolidation of the Luther Reformation It took a long time for people to realize the power of the Lutheran Reformation, but it was done in the 1550s on

The Diet of Augsburg Charles V came from his work in Italy and Spain to convene with the diet of Augsburg to decide some kind of political arrangement for the two religions, but in the end, bluntly made all Lutherans convert to Catholicism o Protestant Reformation was too deep for this to happen, so instead the Schmalkaldic League was formed, which made moderate statements about the belief of the Catholic Church at the time Luther made stronger remarks on the issue, and they ended up reaching a stalemate with the emperor, who again had to deal with conflicts in his other countries of responsibility

The Expansion of the Reformation New regional consistories in Germany oversaw the development of the reformation, which included primary education, schools for girls, humanism in schools, and instruction for the laity in religion Eventually Lutheranism got introduced to Denmark, Sweden, and in Poland (even though there were multiple Protestant sects there)

Reaction against Protestants: The Interim Charles V tried to make a diplomatic solution between the two religions, but instead decided to use military force and take down the Schmalkaldic League

o He made Protestant rulers start to use Catholic ideals again, which made many Protestant rulers go into remission in Germany and Strasbourg (Martin Bucer went to England and got PR started up there) The Peace of Augsburg When Maurice of Saxony was hired by Charles V to be ruler of Saxony, Maurice shifted the area back to Protestantism o After being defeated by Protestant armies in 1552, Charles reinstated leaders and granted freedoms in the Peace of Passau Now religion was ran on a basis of Cuius regio, eius religio which means that the ruler of a land can determine its religion (there were, however, provisions to prevent those who converted from taking land and possessions with them) Calvinists and Anabaptists were not part of this agreement o Anabaptists didnt care anyway, Calvinists tried to revolt for this

The English Reformation to 1553 In late medieval England, people started to go against the church a little bit o Pope could not get government to stop taxing clergy o Payments to Rome were curbed by Praemunire o Humanism was starting to become rampant

The Preconditions of Reform Scholars, one of which was William Tyndale, who translated the NT into English, got together at the White Horse Inn in Cambridge to discuss Lutheran documents that were smuggled into England o Thomas More and Cardinal Thomas Wolesy (to King Henry 8) blocked Protestantism in the area Henry 8 himself did it, and got a defender of the faith title fro m the pope More responded to Luther in 1523, with something specifically called Response to Luther

The Kings Affair Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon, and did not want to leave her because it would look bad o She used to be married to his brother, which is why he decided she was cursed

o He could not break the marriage because it was actually illegal and had to be pardoned by Pope Julius II Henry wanted to marry a woman named Anne Boleyn, but the pope was a prisoner of Charles V because this was the year the HRE sacked Rome, so the pope had no way of allowing the marriage because it lasted for so long and needed a papal dispensation o Cardinal Wolsey tried to annul the marriage, but when he failed he was dismissed Then the church had a new idea: they would just make the English king supreme in spiritual and political affairs, and then not have to care about Rome

The Reformation Parliament 7 year meeting of English Reformers Fundamental religious changes now had to go through monarchy Clergy had less and less power: Ended with Submission of the Clergy, which took away their power almost entirely Complaints to the church include too many benefices, etc. Henry married Anne, Parliament ended payment to Rome, Henry became sole leader of religion (Act of Supremacy), Annes children were legitimate heirs to the throne (Act of Succession) Thomas More and John Fisher got executed for not liking the two acts Monasteries and nunneries were dissolved by 1538

Wives of Henry 8

The Kings Religious Conservatism He was VERY conservative in a Protestant land of mindset o Ten Articles of 1536 mild concessions to Protestant tenets o Priests could NOT marry on threat of execution Six Articles of 1539 reaffirmed all of the values of the Catholic Church that Henry wanted but everyone else hated o William Tyndales New Testament became the Great Bible in 1539, but England could only be Protestant for sure after Henry died

The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI When Henry died, his 10 year old son Edward VI took his place o Edward Seymour set the PR into full effect by directly communicating with John Calvin during this time o All the Catholic-esque laws Henry made were hereby repealed Act of Uniformity put Cranmers Book of Common Prayer in all churches o When Charles V won against the Germans, many of them (including Martin Bucer) were among them Many leaders were now an active part of the PR in England Second Act of Uniformity revised the Book of Common Prayer o No transubstantiation, 2 sacraments, faith and faith alone, etc. Catherine of Aragons daughter, Mary I, took over from Edward, who died as a teenager, and started to do all the same things her dad did, which made everyone mad o Anne Boleyns daughter eventually took over (Elizabeth I) and a settlement between the two religions was worked out

Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation People wanted to change the church for the better, but the popes, who wanted to remain in power, decided not to on the logic that Religious should change a man, not be changed by him Despite this, there were still many who tried their hand at Reformation o Theatines: tried to groom the minds at the high level of the church o Capuchin: Tried to go back to very simple ideas of Saint Francis o Somaschi/Barnabites: tried to repair moral, spiritual, and physical damage in Italy o Ursulines: increased religious and educational opportunities for women

o Oratorians: preserved religious literature and music o Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint John of the Cross tried to bring back monasticism Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits Society of Jesus, recognized by the church in 1540s, became a platform for 15000s reformers in India, Japan, and Americas (through missions by the church) Founder Ignatius of Loyola used to be a soldier, but after his legs were wounded in a severe battle against the French, he started to read Christian works instead, and decided to serve the church Spiritual Exercises was a document by Loyola, which showed how one could use moral self-discipline and religious self-discipline to have absolute spiritual freedom o One could essentially create a new person through the use of these spiritual exercises Loyola wanted people to believe in the words of the church no matter what, and they condemned Protestants for not listening to the Church o This revived and expanded Catholicism in, among other places, Austria and Bavaria

The Council of Trent A general council of the church was called to reassert church doctrine Caspar Contarini, its leader, showed how corrupt the Church was and how this led to its loss of popularity o This was so bad that Pope Paul tried to suppress it, but Protestant got a hold of it anyway and used it to justify themselves Council of Trent met from 1545 to 1563 o The Council was under strict control of the pope, and usually most of the population there was Italian Only clergy were allowed to take part in some of the major decisions involved with the church Reforms were plentiful o People could not hold many benefices, people had to be in the areas over which they reigned, they had to be highly visible and prominent in the community, and priests had to be more polished o None of the orthodox Catholic values, including indulgences, were ever given up o Thomas Aquinas standard improved as people turned to his theology to resolve Scholastic quarrels At one point people tried to resist Trent, but eventually caught on (for the better)

The Church in Spanish America Because of internal reforms in the 16th century, many of the explorers had a sense of Christian humanism o They wanted to bring both the religion and the learning to Europe There was a conflict between conquerors and church, because the church condemned the horrible humanitarian conditions that the Latin Americans were being put through Bartolome de las Casas reregulated treatment of slaves and created the Black Legend which portrayed slaves as being treated inhumanely o While this work was true, it ignored the fact that the Aztec rulers were just as belligerent as the current Spanish explorers and would have reciprocated Spains actions if given the chance The colonial churchs prosperity was invariably linked to that of the conquerors o Monasteries took on lives of their own and the extreme economic and humanitarian exploitation was never disputed Therefore, the church was the most conservative body in Latin America

The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin all thought that they had the responsibility not only to reform the church but to reform the practices of magistrates as well o However, they never intended to violate the norms of their society o Their reforms were cautious and cognizant to the atmosphere of the time and area

The Revolution in Religious Practices and Institutions Religion in 15th Century Life In the 15th century, many cities that would later be Protestant (Zurich, Strasbourg, Geneva, etc.) there were clergy everywhere (6-8% of pop.), and they carried out all religious punishments There were frequent religious holidays and fasting periods Monasteries were held to high regard, aristocrats sponsored churches, friars begged for alms, and Latin was used in the church

Religious shrine attracted needy and entertainment-seeking peasants alike, some of whom wanted indulgences Clergy had concubines (which they were allowed to have for a fee) People were mad about clergy and churchs power and exemption from rules, and the fact that they had to support ineffective church offices

Religion in 16th Century Life Clergy decreased by 2/3 and religious holidays by 1/3 Monasteries were dissolved and transformed into other institutions (hospices, educational centers, etc.) Worship was entirely in vernacular o Zwingli cities had to now follow only Gods word, and praying saints, relics, or images was subject to theft Lutherans had the New Testament at home and were encouraged to use it o Celibacy was not needed, and clergy had standards for decorum Moral life ruled over by committees with combo of laity and clergy, with magistrates to help o People were ambivalent on the concept of Protestantism, however, and decided to give it up eventually (reduced from to 1/5 of European pop.)

The Reformation of Education Humanism was brought into schools o Germany, France, England were humanist, and even when the schools differed from the humanist movement, they all hated Scholasticism, wanted eloquence o People were prepared to study primary sources with their info Counter-reformers, such as Ignatius Loyola of the SoJ, decided that Scholasticism should be brought back into schools, and when it was, that the thinking of such scholars as Thomas Aquinas should serve as the lens through which religious literature is understood Philip Melanchthon was a humanist reformer at the University of Wittenberg o He thought that medieval theology had neglected the classics and the contemporary math, sacred, and oratory studies o He wanted history and poetry as components of study Luther and Melanchthon changed the education totally o Students now read direct primary sources o Greek and Hebrew were studied o Every boy and girl was to achieve vernacular mastery of the bible

Calvin and his successor Theodore Beza enacted similar reforms in the University of Geneva o Carried reforms to France, Scotland, England, and New World o Greek and Hebrew were prominent here also Some thought that the new humanism being taught in schools was not legitimate and was not allowing for full liberal arts learning Nevertheless, the studia humanitatis ended up being invaluable to the humanists and the Protestants in general

The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women Protestants did not want to degrade and humiliate women o They saw women as people in their own right, but mostly for work around the house Women were objectified to an extent, but revered and highly respected as well The concept of a family was no longer seen as a hindrance to ministry responsibilities, and was now seen as a secular affair and in a positive light Protestants allowed for free divorce, and gave women the right to divorce men if they wanted to (which was not there before), but magistrates were reluctant to test the potential social upheaval that would come with those laws Nuns wrote exposing documents about how nunneries were technically subjugated to men o Women, as Protestants, found a way to enjoy their lives and be religious at the same time o Some women, however, wanted cloisters to be run because it made their live more interesting o Women were expected to be fully literate so they could base their lives on the bible; however, when women read the bible and found that it rendered men and women as equals, it changed the argument for womens rights Education was also meant to advocate the idea of womens rights

Family Life in Early Modern Europe Reformation was not a HUGE factor in changing family life Families have logic and instinct of their own to care for one another, etc. o However, 12th cent. Europe is different from 21st cent. America Cultures and times infuse values and influence on the behaviors of family

Later Marriages

People started to marry at later ages o The age used to be 14 for men and 12 for women, and the church recognized their free, private vows After the reformation, the church started to require parental agreement and public vows for marriage to be recognized (as they had actually always preferred) There was a population boom after the Great Plague wiped so many people out o Families grew larger, and if resources were to be divided equally among children, it took longer for children to get enough money to support themselves for marriage, especially in Germany and Scandinavian countries o 20% of women did not marry, and 15% of women were widows Later marriages had shorter duration because older couples did not spend time with each other o Men had to remarry because older women who had children were more likely to die o Let to premarital conception of children

Arranged Marriages Arranged in the sense that the parents of the bride and groom met before they did themselves o Both people probably knew one another and maybe even had a prior relationship o Marriages were allowed to have emotional feeling, and none of the marriages were ever forced

Family size Nuclear family with a large house and 2-4 kids that survived into adulthood o 7-8 were the norm, and 1/3 died by age 5, and by age 13

Birth Control A conscious effort was being made toward the control of birth, even though birth control has existed forever

Wet Nursing The church and modern physicians both agree on not hiring women as wet nurses for children Increased infant mortality, as kids had to have milk from a relatively unhealthy women

Women liked them simply because they were convenient, but men needed more male heirs, and pregnancy stopped the flow of milk

Loving Families? Parents tended to send their kids off to school or work between the ages of 8 and 13 Widowers and widows often remarried within months of their spouses death o Age disparity between spouses also led to marriages w/ little affection The utilitarian and humane side of remarrying and sending kids off was understandable to some of the contemporary people at the time, but not to some others, and the practice was just as controversial as Wet Nursing

Literary Imagination in Transition Cervantes, who wrote in Catholic Spain, and Shakespeare, who wrote in Anglican England

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of idealism There was a peculiar political and religious atmosphere o Catholic church got the support of many, including Ferdinand and Isabella, but there was an honest Protestant movement (which eventually got taken down by the Inquisition) Devout piety of rulers and chivalrous character of rulers also influenced writers o The works remained very Catholic when compared to England and France o Cervantes worked with the strengths and weaknesses of traditional religious idealism He had only a bit of formal education, and was a worker for a cardinal, a warrior, and a slave until he was arrested for fraud as a tax collector and started to write Don Quixote in 1603 o Don is seen as a man who has gone mad from reading too many chivalric romances, and now himself thinks he can don a suit of armor and dedicate his life to the girl Dulcinea o The foil, Sancho Panza, watches as Don battles with a windmill (which he hallucinates as a dragon) and watches him make a fool of himself in general o Ends in tragedy as Don is forced to renounce his quest for knighthood and has to go die a shamed and brokenhearted man o Sancho and Don were meant to contrast one another but be equal at the same time

William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age

Got married, had 3 children by 1585, worked as a schoolteacher where he gained his literary background He lived the life of a country man and did not care for the pleasures and worldliness of the Puritan world Viewed government through the minds of individual rulers rather than the society as a whole o Politically conservative and patriotic Participated as a writer, an actor, and owner of a theater o His plays were done at court and got patronage from Queen Elizabeth and King James His plays blended together classical comedies and tragedies, medieval plays, and contemporary Italian short stories Thomas Kyd (wrote the first version of Hamlet) and Christopher Marlowe (after whom Shakespeare modeled his tragedies) were both huge influences on him Richard III is one of his earliest histories and is sometimes seen as Tudor propaganda Tragedies are considered his most unique achievement o Four of them in a 3-year period: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth o Most popular tragedy was written 6 years before these in 1597: R&J He struck universal human themes which were rooted deeply in religious tradition o He was immensely popular with contemporaries in Elizabethan England, and today he is the most well-known dramatist of his time, and has the most plays being performed in theaters (as plays) and in films