PERCEPTION

Introduction
The concept of perception (means observation, insight, opinion, view, awareness) is very closely related to the personality of a person. We know that people working in an organization differ in terms of physical characteristics, background characteristics (such as training and education) and personality traits. One of the consequences of such differences is that people do not view the things in the same way. Perception is described as a person's view of reality. Every person perceives the world and approaches the life problems differently. Reactions of the people, to different situations, are also different.

Introduction Contd
Perception is one of the most important psychological factors affecting the human behaviour, because perception is the way an individual experiences the situation. Example: Its possible that all employees in a firm may view it as a great place to work- favourable working conditions, interesting job assignments, good pay, an understanding & responsible management- but, as most of us know, its very unusual to find such agreement.

What is Perception?
It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. According to Joseph Reitz, Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about the environmentseeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. The study of these perpetual processes shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of variablesthe objects or events being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs, and the individual doing the perceiving. From the definitions of perception it is clear that perception is composed of various sub processes viz. receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking and reacting to stimuli. Through perception people process information input into decisions and actions.

Factors That Influence Perception

The Perceiver
When a person looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is greatly influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. Have you ever bought a new car and then suddenly noticed a large no. of cars like yours on the road? Your own purchase has influenced your perception so that you are now more likely to notice them. This is an example of how factors related to the perceiver influence what he or she perceives. Among the more relevant personal characteristics affecting perception are attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.

Contd
Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but imaginary world. In such cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking. The focus of attention appears to be influenced by our interests. For example, if you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive.

Contd
Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what we expect to see. A persons past experiences mould the way he/she perceives the current situation. If a person has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he/she would tend to distrust any new friendship that he/she might be in the process of developing. Objects or events that have never been experienced before are more noticeable than those that have been experienced in the past. You are more likely to notice the operations along an assembly line if this is the first time you have seen an assembly line. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, women in managerial positions were highly visible because, historically, those positions were the province of males. Today, women are more widely represented in the managerial ranks, so we are less likely to take notice that a manager is female.

Contd
Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of anticipation of particular behaviour from a person. For example, a technical manager will expect that the non technical people will be ignorant about the technical features of the product. Expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. If you expect police officers to be authoritative, young people to be unambitious, personnel directors to like people, you may perceive them as such regardless of their actual traits.

The Target or Perceived

Characteristics of the person that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Though, it may go against logic and objectivity, but it cannot be denied that our perceptions about others are influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearances, age, gender, manner of communication as well as personality traits and other forms of behaviour. For example, loud people are more likely to be noticed in a group than are quiet ones. So, too, are extremely attractive or unattractive individuals. Motion, sounds, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.

Contd
Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other tend to be grouped together. People dressed in business suits are generally thought to be professionals, while employees dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level employees. Manner of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, affect our perception about others. For example, the choice of words and precision of language can form impressions about the education and sophistication of the person. The tone of voice indicates the mood of the person. The depth of conversation and choice of topics provide clues of people's intelligence. The body language or expressive behaviour such as how a person sits and the movement of his/her eyes or a smile can indicate whether he/she is nervous or self confident.

Contd
The status or occupation of a person also influences the perception. We tend to behave in a more respectful way when we are introduced to the principal of a school in which our child is studying, Judge of the High Court or Supreme Court or a famous cricket player. Sometimes our perception of a person tends to be biased, depending upon the description given to us by other persons. When we meet a person who is described to us as warm and friendly, we treat him differently as compared to meeting a person who is known to be cold & calculating.

The Situation
The context in which we see objects or events is important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence our perceptions. For example, if you meet a person for the first time and she is with a person whom you respect and admire, you will create a favourable image about her in your mind as compared to a situation in which you see her with another person whom you intensely dislike. Of course, the initial impressions may change with the passage of time, but the saying that First impression is the last impression is very valued.

The Situation Contd

Location of a given event is also very important factor in determining the behaviour. For example, a conversation with the boss taking place in a casual reception area may be perceived differently than when taking place in the bosss office with the door closed. Organizational setting also affect the behaviour of the people. For example, an organization setting where people are given an opportunity to interact in a friendly and sociable work situation, they become more trustworthy and less defensive.

Perceptual Process
Perception is a process of receiving and interpreting stimuli. Perceptual process begins when stimuli are received through sensory organs. Most stimuli are screened out; the rest are organized and interpreted based on various information-processing activities. The outcomes of the process are covert (means secret or hidden) and overt (obvious, clear, evident, open) behaviours.

Perceptual Process

PERCEPTUAL INPUTS OR STIMUS

OBJECTS

PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM

PERCEPTUAL OUTPUTS
ATTITUDES

RECIEVING EVENTS OPINIONS REACTING SELECTING BETIEFS PEOPLE CHECKING ORGANISING FEELINGS INTERPRETING

BEHAVIOUR

CHARACTERISITICS OF THE SITUATION

CHARACTERISITICS OF THE SITUATION

1. Perceptual Inputs/Stimuli
A number of stimuli are constantly confronting people in the form of information, objects, events, people etc. in the environment. These serve as the inputs of the perceptual process. A few of the stimuli affecting the senses are the noise of the air coolers, the sound of other people talking and moving, outside noises from the vehicular traffic or a street repair shop or a loud speaker playing some where plus the impact of the total environmental situation. Some stimuli do not affect the senses of a person consciously, a process called subliminal perception.

2. Receiving Stimuli
Stimuli are received by us through the sensory organs vision, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Sensory organs perceive not only physical objects, they also perceive events or objects that have been repressed. We may not be able to report the existence of certain stimuli, but our behaviour reveals that we are often subject to their influence. Stimuli may be external or internal. Examples of external stimuli include light waves, sound waves, mechanical energy or pressure, and chemical energy from objects that one can smell and taste. Internal stimuli include energy generated by muscles, food passing through the digestive system, and glands secreting behaviour-influencing hormones. When deprived of sensory stimulation, people suffer from disorientation, confusion, and emotional disturbance, and are vulnerable to persuasion and pressure. Under these circumstances, people tend to engage in warding off depression by dwelling on past experiences.

3. Perceptual Mechanism
When a person receives information, he/she tries to process it through the following sub processes of selection, organization and interpretation.

(A) Perceptual Selectivity

Many things are taking place in the environment simultaneously. However, one cannot pay equal attention to all these things, thus there is a need of perceptual selectivity. Perceptual selectivity refers to the tendency to select certain objects from the environment for attention. The objects which are selected are those which are relevant and appropriate for an individual or those which are consistent with our existing beliefs, values and needs. For this, we need to screen or filter out most of them so that we may deal with the important or relevant ones. The following factors govern the selection of stimuli : i. External Factors ii. Internal Factors

i.

External Factors

Nature: By nature we mean, whether the object is visual or auditory and whether it involves pictures, people or animals. It is well known that pictures attract more attention than words. Video attracts more attention than still pictures. A picture with human beings attract more attention than a picture with animals. Poetry attracts more attention than prose. Location: The best location of a visual stimulus for attracting attention is directly in the front of the eyes and in the centre of a page. When this location is not possible in a newspaper or a magazine, a position in the upper portion of a page is more favourable than one in the lower portion, and the left side receives more attention than the right hand side.

Contd
Colour: Colour is used to attract attention and portray realism. In a mass of black and white, a modicum of colour catches the eye. Colour can be used to emphasise the attractive features of a product or to create a suitable atmosphere. High technology products such as cameras are usually produced in black or methylic finishes although some have been marketed with a less serious, more sporty image, in bright primary colours. Some products, such as cars, come in a variety of colours, but others such as toothpaste, are in a limited range of colours. Colour has a psychological impact on an individual. It is well-known that some colours act as a stimulant and others act as a depressant.

Contd
The Effects of Different Colours Colour Violet Blue Brown Green Yellow Orange Red Psychological Effect Aggressive and tiring Restful Exciting Very restful Exciting Exciting Very stimulating Temperature Effect Cold Cold Neutral Cold/neutral Very warm Very warm Warm Distance Effect Very close Further away Claustrophobic Further away Close Very close Close

Contd
Size: Generally, objects of larger size attract more attention than do smaller ones. Size always attracts the attention, because it establishes dominance. The size may be the height or weight of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to an advertisement in the newspaper. A very tall person will always stand out in the crowd, on the other hand, a very short person will also attract attention. For example, a 6 foot 4 inch supervisor may receive more attention from his subordinates than a 5 foot 10 inch. A full page advertisement will always catch attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section.

Contd
Contrast: An object which contrasts with the surrounding environment is more likely to be noticed than the object which blends in the environment. Example: The EXIT signs in the cinema halls which have Red lettering on a black background are attention drawing or a warning sign in a factory, such as DANGER, written in black against a red or yellow background will be easily noticeable. In a room if there are twenty men and one woman, the woman will be noticed first because of the contrast.

Contd
Movement: The principle of motion states that a moving object receives more attention than an object which is standing still. A moving car among the parked cars catch our attention faster. A flashing neon-sign is more easily noticed. Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more attention drawing than a single one. Because of this principle, supervisors make it a point to give the necessary directions again and again to the workers. Similarly, the same advertisement or different advertisement but for the same product shown again and again on the TV will have more attention as compared to an advertisement which is shown once a day.

Contd
Novelty and Familiarity: This principle states that either a novel or a familiar external situation can serve as an attention getter. New objects in the familiar settings or familiar objects in new settings will draw the attention of the perceiver. A familiar face on a crowded railway platform will immediately catch attention. Because of this principle, the managers change the workers jobs from time to time, because it will increase the attention they give to their jobs. Anything novel attracts attention fast, for example, humour, animation, and unusual graphics in an advertisement stand out and are noticed.

ii.

Internal Factors

Learning: Although interrelated with other internal factors learning may play the single biggest role in developing perceptual set. A perceptual set is basically what a person expects from the stimuli on the basis of his learning and experience relative to same or similar stimuli. This perceptual set is also known as cognitive awareness by which the mind organizes information and forms images and compares them with previous exposures to similar stimuli. A number of illustrations have been used by psychologists to demonstrate the impact of learning on perception. Contd

Examples:
a.

Learning creates an expectancy in an individual and expectancy makes him see what he wants to see. Take the following figure for example, it takes a few seconds for the reader to realize that there is an extra the in the sentence. One tends to read the sentence, because of the prior learning in the triangle as Bird in the hand.

Contd
b.

In this figure, the individual is caught in "Verbal Response Set." He is likely to read the last words "Mac-Hinery" instead of machinery.

Contd
Motivation: Besides the learning aspects of the perceptual set, motivation also has a vital impact on perceptual selectivity. For example, a person who has a relatively high need for power, affiliation or achievement will be more attentive to the relevant situational variables. For example, when such a person walks into the lunch room, he may go to the table where several of his co-workers are sitting, rather than a table which is empty or on which just one person is sitting. Another example is that a hungry person will be more sensitive to the smell or sight of food than a non-hungry person.

Contd
Personality: Closely related to learning and motivation is the personality of the perceiving person. For example, the older senior executives often complain about the inability of the new young manager to take tough decisions concerning terminating or reassigning people and paying attention to details and paper work. The young managers, in turn, complain about the 'old guards' resisting change and using paper and rules as ends in themselves. Different perceptions in young and old are due to their age differences. Further, the generation gap witnessed in recent years definitely contribute to different perceptions.

(B) Perceptual Organization

Perceptual organization is the process by which people group stimuli into recognizable patterns. Selection gives way to organization, and the stimuli selected for attention now appears as a whole. For example, most people have a mental picture of an object made of wood and having four legs, a seat, a back, and armrests: an image of a chair. When people actually see an object having these characteristics, they are able to organize the incoming information into a meaningful whole and recognize the object to be a chair.

Factors in Perceptual Organization

a. Ambiguous Figures:
Perceptual organization becomes a difficult task when there are confusing and disorganized stimuli in the external environment.

Contd

For example, when we first glance at the lines in below figure, we tend to conclude that they epitomize disorganization. Then we suddenly begin to realize that it is a drawing and could represent either a duck or a rabbit, and then it fluctuates between the two images.

b. Figure Background:
Figure-Ground principle is generally considered to be the most basic form of perceptual organization. This principle simply implies that the perceived object or person or event stands out distinct from its back ground and occupies the cognitive space of the individual. For example, as you read this page, you see white as the background and black as the letters or words to be read. You do not try to understand what the white spaces amidst the black letters could mean. Likewise, in the organizational setting, some people are more noticed or stand out than others. For example, an individual in the organization might try to focus his entire attention on his immediate supervisor, trying to be in his good books, completely ignoring his colleagues and how they feel about his behaviour.

c. Perceptual Grouping:
Grouping is the tendency to curb (means control or limit) individual stimuli into meaningful patterns. For instance, if we perceive objects or people with similar characteristics, we tend to group them together and this organizing mechanism helps us to deal with information in an efficient way rather than getting bogged down and confused with so many details. This tendency of grouping is very basic in nature and largely seems to be inborn. The principles of grouping first defined by Gestalt psychologists include similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity.

i.

Principle of Similarity

The principle of similarity states that the greater the similarity of the stimuli, the greater the tendency to perceive them as a common group. The principle of similarity is exemplified (means demonstrate) when objects of similar shape, size or colour tend to be grouped together. For example, if all visitors to a plant are required to wear white hats while the supervisors wear blue hats, the workers can identify all the white hats as the group of visitors. Another example is our general tendency to perceive minority and women employees as a single group.

ii.

Principle of Proximity

The principle of proximity or nearness states that a group of stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example, several workers working on a machine will be considered as a single group so that if the productivity on that particular machine is low, then the entire group will be considered responsible even though, only some people in the group may be inefficient. Contd

The following demonstrates the proximity principle. The eight circles in the fig. are seen as pairs of two, three, or four, depending on their nearness to one another.

iii. Principle of Closure

The principle of closure relates to the tendencies of the people to perceive objects as a whole, even when some parts of the object are missing. The person's perceptual process will close the gaps that are unfilled from sensory input. Speaking from the point of view of an organization, if a manager perceives a worker, on the whole, a hard worker, sincere, honest, then even, if he behaves in a contradictory way sometimes (which is a kind of a gap), the manager will tend to ignore it, because it does not fit in with the overall impression, that he has about the worker. Another example, if a manager facing a complex decision may be able to develop a fairly accurate understanding of the issues even though some details may be lacking. Based on experience and imagination, the manager can fill in the missing information needed to make a decision. Contd

For example, in the following figure the sections of the figures are not complete, but being familiar with the shapes we tend to close the gaps and perceive it as a whole :

iv. Principle of Continuity

Continuity is the tendency to perceive objects as continuing patterns. For example, in an organization, the tendency to perceive continuous patterns may result in an inability to perceive uniqueness and detect change. Another example, in business forecasting, a common continuity error is to assume that the future will simply reflect current events and trends. Contd

In the following figure, we see curved and straight lines as crossing each other and having dots in common, but it requires some effort on our part to perceive a straight line becoming a curved line at one of these intersecting points or junctions.

d. Perceptual Constancy:
This concept gives a person a sense of stability in this changing world. This principle permits the individuals to have some constancy or stability in a tremendously variable and highly complex world. If constancy were not at work, the world would be very chaotic and disorganized for the individual. There are several aspects of constancy: i. Shape Constancy ii. Size Constancy iii. Colour Constancy For example, in an organization, the worker must select a piece of material or a tool of the correct size from a wide variety of materials and tools. Without perceptual constancy the size, shape and colour of objects would change as the worker moved about and it would make the job almost impossible.

i.

Shape Constancy

Whenever an object appears to maintain its shape despite marked changes in the retinal image. For example, the top of a glass bottle is seen as circular whether we view it from the side or from the top. Another example, imagine the confusion you would experience in a crowded car park if your car was seen as a different object according to the different retinal images produced from different viewing positions-front, side, and back.

ii. Size Constancy

The size constancy refers to the fact that as an object is moved farther away from us we tend to see it as more or less invariant in size. For example, the players in cricket field on the opposite side of the field do not look smaller than those closer to you even though their images on the retina of the eye are much smaller.

iii. Colour Constancy

Colour constancy implies that familiar objects are perceived to be of the same colour under varied conditions. For example, the owner of a red car sees it as red whether looking at it in bright sunlight, in dim illumination, or under yellow street light.

(C) Perceptual Interpretation

Perceptual interpretation is an integral part of the perception process. Without interpretation, selection and organization of information do not make any sense. After the information has been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information. In fact, perception is said to have taken place only after the data have been interpreted. Several factors contribute towards the interpretation of data. More important among them are perceptual set, attribution, stereotyping, halo effect, perceptual context, perceptual defense, implicit personality theory and projection.

(D) The Process of Checking

After data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check whether his/her interpretations are right or wrong. One way of checking is for the person himself/herself to indulge in introspection. He/she will put a series of questions to himself and the answers will confirm whether his/her perception about an individual or object is correct or otherwise. Another way is to check the validity of the interpretation with others.

(E) The Process of Reacting

The last stage in perception is the reaction. The perceiver will indulge in some action in relation to his or her perception. The action depends on whether the perception is favourable or unfavourable: it is positive when the perception is favourable and negative when the perception is unfavourable. For example, a worker responds favourably to the motivational intentions of a manager provided his or her understanding about his or her boss is favourable. The response is negative when his or her perception of the managers behaviour is unfavourable.

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Contd
For example, if a supervisor believes that an error made by his subordinate, is due to reasons beyond his control, that is due to external factors, such as bad equipment, his perception of his subordinate's work will be different from that if he attributes the error to his own gross negligence. This behaviour, based on his perceptions, would also then vary depending on the kind of attributions he makes. If the supervisor attributes the error due to external factors beyond the control of the subordinate, he might perceive the subordinate as capable and trustworthy and help him as much as he can. On the other hand, if he attributes to the personal negligence of the subordinate, he would perceive him as irresponsible and try to get rid of him.

The Attribution Process

Rules of Attribution

Attribution TheoryContd

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Contd

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Selectivity works as a short cut in judging other people. People, sometimes, distort meanings so that, they may fit with what they want. The simplest way of avoiding hasty or wrong decisions being made due 10 selective perceptions is to seek other people's perceptions of reality in the same situation in order to make a better assessment of the situation.

Contd

Under the halo effect the person is perceived on the basis of a single trait. For example, if a person is kind he may also be perceived as good, able, helpful, cheerful, nice, intelligent and so on. On the other hand, if a person is rude, he may also be perceived as bad, awful, unkind, aggressive, harmful and wicked. The halo effect is a very common type of error committed by the managers where evaluating the subordinates. A manager who himself is very punctual would view his subordinate who is always at work on time, more favourable than those who are not. This one trait of punctuality can influence a supervisor's rating of the employee's productivity and quality of his product more favourably, even if his actual performance is not up to the mark.

The Halo Effect: A Demonstration

Contd

Contd
It is easy to judge others if we assume that they are similar to us. A manager who loves challenging work may assume that all others like challenging work too. If you yourself are honest and trustworthy you take it for granted that other people are equally honest and trustworthy.

Contd.

Some examples of common stereo types are that Americans are materialistic, Japanese are nationalistic and Germans are industrious. Generally, a person is likely to categories the others according to some common group characteristics such as sex, race, religion, nationality, occupation or organizational affiliation. From organizational point of view, some of the established stereotypes are that managerial positions are the domain of the males. Age is another stereotype which presents problems in the organizational environment. Such capabilities as physical, psychological and intellectual are sometimes presumed on the basis of the age of a person.

Specific Applications in Organizations

1.

Employment Interview
Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments of applicants.

2.

Performance Expectations
Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

3. 4.

Performance Evaluations
Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.

Employee Effort
Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making

Perceptions of the decision maker

Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational DecisionDecision-Making Model

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Problem clarity Known options Clear preferences Constant preferences No time or cost constraints Maximum payoff

Steps in the Rational DecisionDecision-Making Model