Woodward Life Cycle Costing
Woodward Life Cycle Costing
Woodward Life Cycle Costing
Internattonal Journal of Project Management, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 335-344, 1997
r~/ 1997 Elsewer Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0263-7863/97 $17.00+0.00
PII: S0263-7863(96)00089-0
Especially in the last two decades of an increasingly-competitive business environment, dwindling resources and an ever-increasing need to obtain value for money in all areas of corporate activity, it has become essential that all available resources be used optimally (Griffith, J. W. and Keely, B. J., Cost Engineering, 1978, September/October, 165-168). Physical assets form the basic infrastructure of all businesses and their effective management is essential to overall success. It has thus become essential to plan and monitor assets throughout their entire life cycle, from the development/procurement stage through to eventual disposal. Life cycle costing* is concerned with optimising value for money in the ownership of physical assets by taking into consideration all the cost factors relating to the asset during its operational life. Optimising the trade-off between those cost factors will give the minimum life cycle cost of the asset. This process involves estimation of costs on a whole life basis before making a choice to purchase an asset from the various alternatives available. Life cycle cost of an asset can, very often, be m a n y times the initial purchase or investment cost (Hart, J. M. S., Tetrotechnology Handbook, p. 22, HMSO, London, 1978; Hysom, J. L., Journal of Property Management, 1979, 44, 332-337). It is important that management should realise the source and magnitude of lifetime costs so that effective action can subsequently be taken to control them. This approach to decision making encourages a long-term outlook to the investment decision-making process rather than attempting to save money in the short t e r m by buying assets simply with lower initial acquisition cost. It is suggested project managers should familiarise themselves with what the approach involves, to better appreciate how they might then contribute to the enhanced quality decision making which it makes possible. 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd and I P M A
Keywords: hfe cycle cost(ing), terotechnology, fixed asset acquisition
T h e n a t u r e o f life cycle costing There is considerable evidence to suggest that many organisations, in both the private and public sectors, make acquisitions of capital items simply on the basis of initial purchase cost. With the notable exception of military applications, 5'6 very few assets seem to be appraised on the basis of their total lifetime costs. Two decades ago it was claimed that, "Very few firms appear to undertake life cycle costing studies at the acquisition stage of a physical asset's life, nor do they collect all costs over their life cycles",7'p'v and apart from isolated examples, 8'9 the evidence suggests this
*The concept is not new, and was achvely promoted in the UK by the Department of Industry through its Committee for Terotechnology in the mid- to late-1970s. See Sherif, Y. S. and Kolarik, W. J., Omega, 1981, 9, 287-296 for a brief history of the concept.
situation has not radically changed. Perhaps the two major exceptions to the general rule, apart from the previouslycited military one, lie in the increasing body of evidence citing the application of life cycle costing (LCC) concepts to buildings (construction and use), evident through the work of such as Alexander, 1 Anderson, II Rich, 12 Fullman, t3 Bird, 14 Wiibbenhorst 15 and Ashworth16; and the adoption of the technique in public sector applications, t7'18 In addition, national surveys have indicated that the preparation of cash flow projections at the acquisition stage, and subsequently discounting the figures back to the present using discounted cash flow techniques, are by no means universally applied. As Argenti 19" p z 8 has claimed, "some managers do not know what cash flow is; one can hardly expect them to be able to discount it." Several definitions of LCC exist. As useful as any, and shorter than most, is: 335
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Defining the cost structure involves grouping costs so as to identify potential trade-offs, thereby to achieve optimum LCC. The nature of the cost structure defined will depend on the required depth and breadth of the LCC study, and a number of alternative structures have been proposed. Thus White and Ostwald 2 divided costs into the three categories of: engineering and development; production and implementation; and operation. Figure 2 illustrates the three stages. Whilst also developing a model based on three categories, those selected by Callick 23" p 2 were designated the costs of use, ownership and administration, whilst Jeffery24 proposed a categorisation comprising engineering, manufacturing, distribution, service costs, sales costs and refurbishment. In spite of these different cost categorisations, in the end the detailed costs of each component will depend upon the particular project, system or product under consideration. According to Harvey 22' p" 344, "The important point is that the structure must be designed so that the analyst can perform the necessary LCC analysis and 'trade-offs' to suit the objectives of the project and the company concerned." A cost estimating relationship is a mathematical expression that describes, for estimating purposes, the cost of an item or activity as a function of one or more independent variables. Historically-collected costs will normally be the basis of such estimates, utilising linear, parabolic, hyperbolic, etc., relationships. Establishing the method of LCC formulation involves choosing an appropriate methodology to evaluate the asset's LCC. One that has stood the test of time is that proposed by Kaufman. 2s Kaufman has provided one of the most original contributions ever to the body of LCC knowledge, whereby he developed a formulation based on the eight-step approach indicated below and shown in Figure 3. establish the operating profile; establish the utilisation factors; identify all the cost elements;
L C C procedures
In an article which comprehensively reviewed the LCC technique, Harvey22 proposed the general procedure for LCC analysis summarised in Figure 1. In Figure 1: The cost elements of interest are all the cash flows that occur during the life of the asset. From the definition of LCC previously provided it will be apparent that the LCC of an asset includes all expenditure incurred in respect of it, from acquisition until disposal at the end of its life. Whilst there is general agreement that all costs should be included, opinion varies as to their precise identification.
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Step 1: The operating profile (OP) describes the periodic cycle through which the equipment will go, and indicates when equipment will, or alternatively will not, be working. It comprises the modes of start up, operating and shut down. Step 2" Whilst the OP tells us the proportion of time the equipment will be operating or not operating, the utilisation factors indicate in what way equipment will be functioning within each mode of the OP. Thus, even within the 'operating' mode, a machine might not be working continuously. Step 3: Every cost element or area of cost must be identified. Step 4: The critical cost parameters are those factors which control the degree of the costs incurred during the life of the equipment. Stevens 26 has suggested the most significant of these are: time period between failures (Kaufman's 'MTBF');* time period between overhauls; time period of repairs (Kaufman's 'MTTR');* time period for scheduled maintenance; energy use rate.
Background
The objectives of LCC identified by the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors 3 are: to enable investment options to b e more effectively evaluated; to consider the impact of all costs rather than only initial capital costs; to assist in the effective management of completed buildings and projects; to facilitate choice between competing alternative. The LCC approach identifies all future costs and benefits and reduces them to their present value by the use of the discounting techniques through which the economic worth
*See Fricker 27 for a development of these concepts. t A n alternative approach is then to ignore inflation completely, and when applying Step 7, discount at the real rate of interest, rather than a money rate, which, following Fisher, 29 may be defined as rmoney=(1 +rreal) (1 +i)-1, where r is the rate of interest and i is the rate of inflation.
Step 5: All costs are first calculated at current rates. Step 6" All costs (despite the fact that Kaufman only mentioned labour and material) need to be projected forward at appropriate (that is, differential) rates of inflation. 28 The difficulty in projecting such figures should not be underestimated, since lack of precision here can lead to inaccuracy in the final calculations. However, inflation rates, like interest rates, have something of the 'self-fulfilling prophesy' to them, and if forecasts from 'experts' are
337
Life cycle costing: D G Woodward o f a project or series o f project options can be assessed. In order to achieve these objectives the following elements o f LCC have been identified: initial capital costs; life o f the asset; the discount rate; operating and maintenance costs; disposal cost; information and feedback; uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. recurring cost, whilst a low discount rate will have the opposite effect. The discount rate may reflect the effect o f only the real earning power o f money invested over time or it may also reflect the effects o f inflation. Much of the literature in this area offers little in the way o f firm recommendations regarding the final selection o f an appropriate rate - - estimates vary between 3-4/0 and in excess o f 20%. Further, there is a variety o f views within the general discourse regarding the actual composition of the discount rate. The most popular methodologies appear to be: at the current or expected rate the organisation must pay for the use o f its borrowed funds; at the rate of return that could be expected from the loaning o f money, but which is denied to the organisation by the need to fund its own projects (sometimes referred to as the opportunity cost); at the lowest rate of industrial borrowing for a financially sound, well-established company; a test discount rate can be used based on the assumption that when inflation rates are reasonably low there is a stable relationship between inflation and base rate, implying a real discount rate o f 4%; investments in long-term treasury bonds can be assumed to have no risk. Therefore, the discount rate can be taken as the Treasury bond rate less an allowance for the expected rate of inflation. The appropriate discount rate will vary significantly from organisation to organisation and will need to be determined by the skill o f the industrial accountant rather than by mere arbitrary selection. As in the case of estimating the appropriate rate o f inflation, calculating the relevant discount rate is rarely easy. However, help is available from the financial management sub-discipline of accounting, where over the years many sophisticated techniques have been developed to assist with this particular problem. Operating and maintenance costs LCC is all about operating physical assets to minimum cost. Accordingly, estimation o f operating and maintenance costs is essential to minimise the total LCC of the asset. The operating costs o f an asset would include direct labour, direct materials, direct expenses, indirect labour, indirect materials and establishment costs. The estimation o f these costs is based on both predicted and actual experience of the performance o f similar assets. 35 In most organisations estimates regarding productive assets are made by the engineering department. Maintenance costs include direct labour, materials, fuel power, equipment and purchased services. Maintenance costs can normally be broken down into smaller classifications such as: regular planned maintenance; unplanned maintenance (responding to faults); intermittent maintenance (for major life refurbishment). A regular, planned, preventive maintenance policy reduces the downtime costs but resources are used in the form o f maintenance expenditure. The 'run it until it breaks' approach, on the other hand, reduces the maintenance expenditures but increases the downtime loss. This inverse relationship is illustrated in Figure 4. 36 It is essential that a regular, planned maintenance policy is maintained for those items o f equipment that incur high
Initial capital costs The initial capital costs can be divided into three subcategories of cost, namely: purchase costs; acquisition/finance costs; installation/commissioning/training costs. Purchase costs will include assessment o f items such as land, buildings, fees, furniture and equipment. They can be estimated by obtaining quotations from suppliers and agents. Finance costs include the cost effect o f alternative sources o f funds and gearing. 31 The other costs include the costs o f installing the machine and the costs of training workers to operate it. In a nutshell, the capital cost category includes all the costs o f buying the physical asset and bringing it into operation. Life o f the asset The forecast life o f an asset is a major influence on life cycle analysis in view o f the exponential nature o f the effect o f this variable. There are five possible determinants o f an asset's life expectancy: 32' p 29 Functional life - - the period over which the need for the asset is anticipated; Physical life - - the period over which the asset may be expected to last physically, to when replacement or major rehabilitation is physically required; Technological life - - the period until technical obsolescence dictates replacement due to the development of a technologically superior alternative; Economic life - - t h e period until economic obsolescence dictates replacement with a lower cost altemative; Social and legal life - - the period until human desire or legal requirement dictates replacement. Stone33, p. 52 drew attention to the importance o f the influence o f the forecast life of an asset in life cycle analysis because: "Errors of five or ten years in the predicted life will not make very much difference to the predicted equivalent costs when the life is fifty to sixty years. The errors in predicted costs, and hence design decisions, are likely to be greater when the life of the asset is taken substantially shorter than conditions warrant than when ... longer than justified." The discount rate As the life cycle costs are discounted to their present value, selection o f a suitable discount rate is a crucial decision in a LCC analysis. 34 A high discount rate will tend to favour options with low capital cost, short life and high 338
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Figure 4 The maintenance-cost relationship annual maintenance cost forecast, for example, as a percentage o f replacement costs. Data, and hence information, also need to be collected during the asset life cycle to facilitate monitoring o f the asset's performance in operation and provide a source o f intelligence on which to base future decisions. It is the data capture and information feedback system which closes the control loop and which, in practical terms, will be the governing factor in the success or failure o f the LCC element - - leading Knipe 37" p 51 to conclude: "Unless some provision is built into management control for continuous monitoring of various aspects - - and with it some form of 'alarm' system, - - it is only too easy for the individual to become complacent, accepting what is being done as the ultimate in control."
downtime costs whereas items o f equipment incurring low downtime costs can be attended to or replaced as they wear out. The key factor is to find an optimal level o f maintenance service in order to be consistent with the organisation's objective o f attaining minimum total cost.
Disposal cost
This is the cost incurred at the end o f an asset's working life in disposing o f the asset. The disposal cost would include the cost o f demolition, scrapping or selling the asset, adjusted for any tax allowance or charge upon resale. Such costs would be deducted from the residual value o f the asset at the end o f its useful life.
Introduction
It is usual to make appropriate entries in the asset register, once an asset has been installed, for the purposes of audit, stock control and calculation of depreciation. LCC necessitates the provision of additional information, and it may also be necessary to restructure existing data-collection systems in order to provide the data now required. Most organisations will already be providing forms giving much of the detail required, so all that might be necessary is a revision of the coding system applied to the documents which are an integral part of the existing paperwork system. By ascribing additional codings, it should be possible to ost
Exactly what cost components should be included in the LCC exercise is not the subject of total agreement, and it is probably very valid that opinions should differ. However, the list that is developed must be adequate to identify the potential interaction and trade-off between the cost components. In the very process of defining the significance of these costs and cost-relationships, the accountant will be able to assist in determining the information output required, and justify the need for collecting and collating information to generate LCC information. Since it is apparent that a LCC analysis can only be as good as the input data, considerable thought must go into Life-cycle costing functions Physical asset functions
Data sources The data requirements to produce a LCC analysis are extensive, and will probably be an amalgam of information obtained both in-house (principally from the operation of similar machines), and of performance forecasts provided by the supplier or manufacturer. It is probably advisable to have a checklist of all aspects which potentially contribute to the cost-effectiveness of a particular capital asset, 4~ and cost-effective trade-offs can then be performed amongst the parameters. If all the required information is not available from the supplier or manufacturer, other sources may need to be investigated such as trade associations or other users of the same equipment. What is essential is knowledge of reliability, capacity utilisation and maintenance procedures, leading to an understanding of the relationship between the capital costs of specification, design, acquisition and disposal, and the revenue costs of operation and maintenance. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 6, 7, p' 15 which shows the relationship between capital and revenue costs, the potential trade-off between costs and engineering features, and the organisational functions of an enterprise. Depending on the importance of physical assets to an enterprise and the cost of compiling LCC records, it may be worth developing an integrated LCC database. The items that might be incorporated are indicated in Figure 7. 42, p 15 The absence of an appropriate data collection system means, according to Powley,43' p 141, "the decision is all too often influenced by a manual search of unsuitable records and recourse to the vagaries of human memory - Financial functions Organisational functions (Design (Development (Acquisition Disposal (Operations {Maintenance
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Design features for a life cycle costing database The essence of the LCC approach is to obtain, record and use data on current activities but for the benefit of future asset acquisition decisions. The feed-back of LCC experience to equipment manufacturers is, for example, of crucial importance. What better guide can there possibly be than user experience? A case study -- South Yorkshire Passenger
Transport
notoriously unreliable if the person in question feels that the correct answer may reflect unfavourably on his abilities." In addition, the use of the database suggested earlier will be valuable in promoting improved management planning and control. The exercise will indicate where records are duplicated or could be simplified, and where information is lacking or inadequately recorded.
Whilst the maintenance of adequate records is a prerequisite of a LCC exercise, clearly past records are only of use to the extent that they are useful in predicting the future, Whilst forecasting is notoriously inexact, that should not dissuade those engaged in LCC from attempting it. In no way, in other words, is it "time to abandon forecasting and to consign it with witchcraft and oracle consulting to the misguided foibles of a past era."44" p. 28 Even if sufficient data is available in current terms for a LCC analysis, the problem still exists of how to project those figures into the future. What statistical methods are available to the accountant to help him/her forecast the future cash flows associated with ownership of a particular fixed asset? These essentially fall into the three categories identified of intuitive, casual and extrapolative. For the effective application of LCC, it is not sufficient that a first-class information system be created. It is necessary in addition that feedback occur for the benefit of everyone both inside and outside the organisation. Concern should therefore not only be with collecting, validating, analysing and presenting factual data for LCC purposes, and in monitoring progress. Active engagement in the feedback process is also a pre-requisite. Unless the information system set up in support of LCC is used as an integral and efficient part of the organisation, it will be impossible, or at the very least very onerous, to make correct decisions vital for capital investment programmes. 342
This case study relates to South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Co. Ltd (SYPT) as the organisation existed in 1990 (aspects of confidentiality having prevented an earlier exposure of the information here presented). SYPT's principle activity is the provision of passenger transport services by road. Its tumover in the year 1990 was 51,416,000 which included revenue from bus ticket sales, service tender receipts and proceeds from private hire. Its fixed assets were worth 28,885,000 out of which passenger vehicles accounted for about 11,775,000. The company purchases vehicles, which form a major part of the capital expenditure, on a regular basis and the decision to purchase them is based on the LCC technique. In the mid-1970s LCC was introduced into the company as a result of the availability of sophisticated computer systems and increased information technology which enabled collection and analysis of information in a more comprehensive manner. Prior to this the information had been collected manually and the required level of detailed analysis was not possible. Additionally, support via Government grant (substantial at the time) ceased. This enhanced the need to minimise total LCC rather than merely minimising initial purchase cost. In 1990 the company purchased 50 Volvo/Alexander single deck vehicles and 50 Mark III Dodge/Reeve Burgess midibuses. The company received a warranty of seven years from the manufacturers in respect of certain major components, such as the engines. From previous experience
Conclusion
LCC is a concept which aims to optimise the total costs of asset ownership, by identifying and quantifying all the significant net expenditures arising during the ownership of an asset. As Mott 45 ' p ' 121 has maintained: 'Every year numerous purchases of buildings and equipment are based on the acquisition cost alone. Purchasing officers and other managers may be beguiled by a seemingly attractive acquisition cost for which "benefit" their firms will pay in later years through high running costs or a short life. Lowest purchase price does not necessarily minimise total cost over the whole life of the asset and therefore does not maximise profits.' By examining trade-offs between the different cost areas, LCC attempts to ensure the optimum selection, use and replacement of physical assets. Its use throughout Britain, in all types of organisation, is to be actively encouraged. LCC is concerned with optimising value for money in the ownership of physical assets, but its achievement depends upon the supply of accurate, relevant and speedy information. This flows from the operation of current assets, suppliers and other users of similar assets, and by application of appropriate statistical techniques to forecast future costs of ownership. Very careful thought must be devoted to the design of the management information system necessary to capture this wealth of information. This paper has provided some pointers to those interested in pursuing the LCC approach to asset acquisition.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance provided to this research by Mr Chris Dyal, of South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Co Ltd, in the provision of data from life cycle costing analyses undertaken by that company, and to Akhil Khanna, an MBA student at Sheffield University Management School, who collected the empirical information. Parts of this paper were previously 343
David Woodward ts currently Acting Head of the Division of Accounting and Fmanee at Staffbrdshtre Untverst o" BuMness School, based at Stokeon-Trent in the Potteries region of the UK, havmg moved there recently from Sheffield Umver.*tO' Management School He has a first degree m economics, two masters degree~ tn management ~ubjects. and i~ profes~'lonally quailed m both banking and accounting His bu~inea3 experience spans banldng, stockbrokmg and industrial accountmg. David's research interests cover many aspects of the accounting domain, but he ts principally mterested in the concept of corporate social responsibili O' and Its reportmg, the accountant/ engineer mterface, and UK jomt-venture acttvi O" in mainland China. He has attracted research funds and pubhshed in all three areas
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