BY MICHEL FOUC/.1.

ULT
Translated from French
by Matthew Barr
With an introduction
by Nicolas Bourria ud
Tate Publishing
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!CrI E FOLJ
THE Bi RTH Of= THE '/! EWER
Nicolas Bourriaud
7
TRI>NSLATOR'S INHWDUCT!ON 21
Matthew Barr
Michel Foucault
I. THE SPACE OF THE CANVAS
1!. LIGHTING
Ill. THE PLACE OF THE VIEWER
! I D E ~ <
33
57
73
80
Michel Foucault:
Manet and the Birth
of the Viewer
BY NICOLAS BOURRIAUD
a Nicolas Bourriaud
MlCH UCAULT:
MANET 1\im THE BIRTH OF THE V I V V I ~
While Michel Foucault was in Tunis delivering his conference
on Manet in 1971, he was given the post of Professor at the
College de France, Paris, the pinnacle of the university's
hierarchy, three months before founding the Groupe
d' lnformation sur les Prisons [G.I .P.I. Paradoxically, this
academic distinction inaugurated the most militant period
in the French philosopher's life, bringing him into line with
the theoretical activist of yesterday, Jean-Paul Sartre,
and the Maoists of the newspaper La Cause du Peuple.
Moreover, this short return to Tunis was not anodyne
for Foucault. It was effectively in Tunisia, where he had
arrived in September 1966 to take up a chair as Professor
of Philosophy, that he encountered pol itical activism for
the first time, finding himself at the centre of a series
of resistance demonstrations against the authoritarian
regime of President Bourguiba. Even if he was, by force
of circumstances, outside France during the events of
May 1968, it was during these three Tuni sian years that
he discovered the world of the militant which would occupy
such an important place in his life over the following years.
At the same time, the expatriated philosopher deepened
his interest in art, notably when he drew up a course on the
10 Nicolas Bourriaud
evolution of painting from the Renaissance to Manet. This
project constituted a recurring and lasting obsession for
him: shortly after his departure from Paris, Foucault had
signed a contract with a Parisian editor for a book which he
had established as 'Le Noir et la surface ['The Black and
the Surface' ) - a work which he would never write. Much
later, shortly before his death, he wrote a final text on this
subject, published in the newspaper Le Monde under the
flaubertian pseudonym of 'Julien L.:hopital .
Meanwhile, the philosopher's main activity in Tunisia
would be the writing of L'archeologie du savoir (The
Archaeology of Knowledge). in which he redefined his work
as that of a 'genealogist', and where he tried a strategic
rapprochement with a group of French historians in
deciding to disengage himself from the structuralism
which had up until then formed the melting pot of his
thought, and which he now perceived as a limit and an
embarrassing reference. From the publication of this book
in 1969, which constituted a sort of general methodology,
it is possible to speak of a 'genealogical turning point' in
Foucault: 'The genealogist,' he wrote, 'is a diagnostician
who examines the relations between power, knowledge
and the body in modern society.'
1
It is well known that,
contrary to the traditional historian, Foucault did not
attach himself to institutions (the clinic, the prison ... ) nor
to ideologies (sexuality, the law ... ). but to specific relations
between knowledge and power which. in any given epoch,
produce these institutions as much as statements: it is
the notion of discourse' which, from L'archeologie du sa voir
1
In Hubert Dreyfus & Pa ul Rabinow, M;chel Foucault: un parcours philosophique,
Par is 1984, p. 157.
... ,,. ;-:
onwards, came to substitute in his thought the concepts of
'episteme' and of 'structure' which took their theoretical
armature from the earlier works.
Already, with Histoire de la folie [History of Madness),
Foucault had resisted the urge to write a book on
psychiatry. Psychiatry speaks of madness, he says, but
madness does not speak, it characterises itself precisely
by its 'absence of oeuvres', by its apparent silence. 'I did
not want to write the history of this language,' he wrote,
'but the archaeology of silence.'
2
He concerned himself
therefore less with this or that social object than with
what happened between and to them - because 'power is
a relationship, it is not a thing.'
3
Apart from aligning himself
with the minor, individuals and with repressed groups, it is
this passion for modelling- philosophical operations which
make apparent, precisely, the space which exists between
social and discursive groups- which doubtless represents
the most tangible common ground between Foucault and
the great French philosophers of this generation: Gilles
Deleuze redefined the world in terms of flows and gaps
between mechanisms; Jean-Fran<;ois Lyotard described it
in the form of a system of connections and of 'differentials
between various conduits of energy; and Jacques Derrida
explored the interval between the oral and the written,
the sign and the trace. Always the space between things,
rather than things in terms of singular objects, the event
rather than the monument. For this generation, thought
is before everything else the creator of a geometry -
such is the nature of their debt to structuralism. Deleuze
i Michel Foucault, Histoire de Ia folie a /'age classique, Paris 1972, p.ll. Published
in English as Michel Foucault. History of Madness , trans. Jonathan Murphy and
Jean Khalfa , Abingdon 2006 .
3
Foucault cited by Frans:ois Dosse. Histoire du structuralisme, voL2, Paris 1992,
p.31 5. Published in English as Oosse, History of Structuralism: The
Sign Sets. 1967-Present, trans. Deborah Gla ss man, Minne apolis 1998.
12 Nicolas Bourriaud
summarizes the Foucaldian method as follows: 'Not taking
a position, but following and disentangling lines'," that is
to say studying historical phenomena, everything but the
present, before finally extracting the visibilities and the
utterances. In the wake of Nietzsche, the other major
influence, these philosophers shared a postulate which
existed not at the origin, nor in the sense of an a priori, but
from heterogeneous plateaux which acted as interpretation.
Foucault's thought thereby affirms itself like genealogical
work, exploring the multiple strata of human discourse as
it distributes itself in the most diverse spaces and objects,
and of which the ' depth' is never to be found.
In this way one could say that beyond a certain predilection
for art [he often repeated that art was the only type of study
which he took real pleasure in writing about], Foucault
seized the subject in the same way as all the others that
he could have tackled: in a transversal manner. The trigger
for his reflection is always the position and function of
this or that artistic event within a given historic grouping.
Such is the bedrock of his passion for Manet , but also of
what he felt for Rene Magritte or Paul Klee, who became
objects of long critical texts, not to mention the magisterial
description of Diego Velazquez's Las Meninas c.1656 that
opens Les mots et les chases [The Order of Things] -which,
as we will see, is not without rapport with Manet.
The interest Foucault sustained for the painter of Luncheon
on the Grass [Dejeuner sur /' herbe] 1863 came first of all from
the fact that Manet proved himself a founder of discursivity,
'Gilles Deleuze. Pourparlers, Par is 1990, p.119.
that he instituted a discursive field', in the same way as
the works of Darwin, Button, Marx or Freud. The famous
conference on 'The Death of the Author, announced in 1969,
applied at the same time a radical distinction between the
proper noun and that which Foucault called the 'author
function', a system which stamps discourses and in so
doing distributes rules among them, in a given society,
in the space of knowledge. Thus Michel Foucault did not
approach Manet as though he were an individual whose life
it was a matter of studying like a collection of anecdotes- to
such an extent that he did not even mention his first name,
Edouard, throughout his conference: instead, he seemed
to describe an intensity, an electric field, an event named
Manet which unfolds in pictorial language. reminding his
audience that he is in no sense a specialist in history of
art. (What does it matter who speaks?' runs the formula
of Samuel Beckett]. More generally, Foucault is less
interested by what the image says than by what it produces
-the behaviour that it generates, and what it leaves barely
seen among the social machinery in which it distributes
bodies, spaces and utterances. Representation? It forms
an integral part of processes of social differentiation, of
exclusion, assimilation and control. Foucault tries hard to
articulate the implicit and invisible strategies that confine
painting , to render visible what it shows, but equally what
it conceals.
With Manet, Foucault finds himself confronted with one of
these figures of rupture, of historical break, who forms
the point of departure of all these works: with regard to
the history of madness, penal incarceration or sexuality,
Foucault begins by locating the tipping points in the field
of knowledge; by identifying, with the clinical precision
which characterises it . these moments where discourse
splits up into a 'before' and an 'after'. What is the event
which inaugurat es modern painting? For Foucault it is
clearly Manet. Why? Because he explodes the discourse
on which western painting IS founded, a knowledge which
he makes appear suddenl y, 'at the very interior of what was
represented in the picture, these properties. these qualities
or these material limitations of the canvas wh: ch paint ing,
which the pictorial tradition, had up until then made it its
mission in some way to sidestep and to mask.'
5
If Foucault's
aim consists of illuminating the unthought-of in institutions
and practices, that of Manet lies in the reinvention of
painting starting from its materiality, which has been
carefully concealed by the ideological device put in pl ace
since the quattrocento, based on monocular perspect ive
and the illusion of the veduta. The space of the canvas, the
lighting, the position of the VIewer: the three levers by which
Manet makes classical painting fly off its hinges.
This rupture would not have been possible without the
equivalent transformation, in a radical manner. of the
pact which links the painted i mage to the real ity that
inspires it. It is the status of the referent whi ch explodes
with Manet, as is the case in the same era in the novels
of Gustave Flaubert. another last ing fascination for
Foucault. Haubert is to the l ibrary what Manet is to
the museum,' he affirms. 'They write. they paint in an
5
See p.30 of this book
essential rap port with what makes t hem paint. with what
makes them write - or r ather with what in pa inting and
in wr1 tin g remains fundamentally open. Their ar t builds
itself there, wh ere the archive is fo rmed.'
6
In other words,
Manet' s painting refers to painting and imitates nothing
but it self. The introduction of the theme of th e archi ve.
a concept whic h plays a crucial role in the fouca ldian
method , sounds here like an identificat ion mark: this
infinit e 'murmur' - al most Borg esian - by which he
identifies th e painter. is equally that which he evolves
himself, and his manner of descr ibing this 'oeuvre
which extends it self into the space of existing [pictures)'
recall s the su bjec t whi ch constit utes his own wr itings:
the space of discourse. In th is, Foucault clearl y places
himself alongside Stephane Mallar me, who t hought th at
the world was made to culminat e in a book; with Paul
Valery, for whom the history of literature coul d have been
seen to be written without a singl e pr oper noun being
pronounced; or eve n with Andre Malraux, whose th eses
on th e 'Imaginary Museum had so deepl y marked the
int ellectual life of his t i mes. by affirming the aut onomy
and the transcendence of the hi story of art .
Th e first audacity of Manet, accordin g to Foucault . consisted
of making a witness out of the viewer by showing him that
the fig ures direct their gaze toward a bl ind spot , outside
of the canvas. Analysing the celebrated The Balcony (Le
Ba/con\1868-9. he insists on the fact that the three figures
are l ooking at something that the viewer cannot see. ' We,
we see nothing .. .' With A Bar at the Folies-Bergere (Un bar
M1chel Foucault, 'S:ms ti tre. postf ac e to Flaubert in Dits et crits, vol.1 .
Paris 200 1. p.321.
aux Folies-Bergere] 1881-2, Foucault refines and extends
his reasoning: the mirror's reflection is unfaithful; there
is distortion bet ween what is represented in the mirror
and what should be shown there. The painter is at once
here and there, his point of view is at once descending
and ascending; as for us, we can neither place ourselves
nor determine where the painter is placed. With A Bar at
the Folies-Bergere, the viewer has no assigned position -
nowhere in reality could a gaze perceive this disposition
of figures and their reflection, convincing though it is at
first glance, which depicts a waitress at a bar in front of
her customer. With Manet, painting brutally ceases to be
a normative space which assigns to the author and viewer
their respective places in the service of a general idea
and freezes their status, and becomes a space in relation
to which the viewer must place himself, reminded of his
mobility and his ontological disinclination before a flat
object, deprived of depth, which the light strikes in full
shot - especially that which illuminates Olympia 1863.
Thus, what vouches for Manet's painting is the definite
birth of an individual exiled from his certainties regarding
his place in the world, and plunged violently into a universe
where the mirror. the pictorial surface and physical
reality see themselves from now on divided to form three
distinct realities. Mane! thus invents the 'picture-object',
the picture as pure materiality, a simple coloured surface
which comes to clarify a light whose unreality is such
that the viewer is commanded to position himself as an
autonomous subject, lacking the possible means by which
to identify himself or to project himself into the artwork he
' .. ,. ___ ::- ..
\'it: .' .,
confronts. Through this device, Manet invents the figure of
the modern viewer, questioned by a pictorial object which
renders him conscious of his presence and of his position
within a much lar ger system. The path he inaugurates will
lead to the famous formula of Marcel Duchamp: 'It is the
viewers who make the pictures.'
In the text- written partly in Tunisia- of a conference given
to the Circle of Architectural Studies in Paris in March 1967,
Foucault developed the notion of 'heterotopia', in which we
can, in light of the Tunis conference, perceive the painting
he must have studied, and which had obvious value in the
echo it produced with Manet's paintings
7
Heterotopia, which
represents, Foucault writes, a constant among all human
groups, can be defined as an anti-location. It consists of
an ensemble of 'places outside of all places, even though
they are at the same time effectively localizable'. He thus
imagines describing and establishing the typology of these
other spaces, even evoking a possible 'heteropology' which
would be the 'challenge at once mythical and real of the
space in which we live .s Contrary to utopia, which maintains
an analogical rapport with the reality it surrounds, this
heterotopian place is one of separation. The list Foucault
makes only gathers together the dissimilar spaces of the
cemetery, the brothel, the sailing ship on the ocean, the
psychiatric clinic, the festival, the honeymoon, sacred
places ... In a strange coincidence, these spaces (those of
sexuality, of madness and of the sacred) correspond to
those studied by another great commentator on Manet,
Georges Bataille, inventor of ' heterology, defined as the
'I Michel Foucault, 'Des Espaces Aut res. confer ence given to the Circle of
Arc hitec tu r al St udies , 11. March 1967 in Oits et ecrits, vo l. 2, Pan s 2001 , p.1571.
'I bi d, p. 1575.
,,
science of the radically other, of waste, of scrap materi al
or the immaterial , of the shapeless ... One could go as far as
to say that the painter of Olympia constitutes the inv1sible
stitch between these two majortwent ieth-centurythinkers,
for whom the th eoretical preconceptions are numerous.
S1nce the adjective shapeless is, according to Bataille, 'a
term which serves to declassi fy, demanding generally that
every object has its form' , it is one which devotes itsel f to
the study of that which escapes for m, one could say, to the
order of discourse-' It would seem, however. that Foucault
was largely helping himsel f to Bataille's fvfanet in order
to prop up his own i ntuitions. Thus this 'sinking of the
subject' percept ible in Manet's pictori al practice, fi nds
equal support in A Bar at the Folies- Bergeres, described
as a 'bewitching of the light which reflects the game onto
a mirror of vast dimensions', a mirror before which the
real crowd 'i s but a reflection in its magical light'.''' The
crucial role of light, silence, figures redu ced to the level of
things, divergence of gazes, the strangul at ion of discourse:
Bataille signposted the ground shared by Foucault . This
does not hide, however, the author's debt to La litterature et
le mal [L iterature and Evill: i n 1963, Foucault had contributed
to the homage pai d to Bataille by the review Criti que, with a
long text on t he experience of transgression, in which he
insists on the Bataillean figure of the 'disgusted eye'.'
2
Four
years later, in respo nse to a question about his 'spir it ual
mast ers, he spoke of his passion' for Bataille, and of the
pl ain ' inter est ' that he fuelled for Georges Oumezil or
Claude Levi-Strauss, so t hat one might beli eve Bataille
was even more decisive i n his philosophical training .'
3
Is it
1
Georges BataiUe. Le dictionnaire critique, Orh?ans 1993 , p.33. L'ordre du
discours (The Order of Discourse) is the tit le of Foucautt' s 1971 pub licat ion,
whi ch set s out hi s influential theories of discour se.
r Georges Bata!lle. Manet . Geneva 1983_ The text was first publ: shed in 1955
ibid . p. SS.
:'Michel Foucautt, 'Preface ala transaression', in Oils et ecrits , vol. i . Pans
2001 . p.261 -
not possible that one even detects in Foucault, in numerous
places. some echoes of Bataille s style of thought? Bataille
wri tes: 'The whole of Olympia distinguishes itself as the
evil of a crime or as a spectacle of death .. Everything in
it is sliding towards an indifference to beauty.'
14
Or again:
'The bourgeoisie could not at first admit that the world
had reduced itself to what it was and that only a single,
wordless man remained.''" In the l ast pages of Les mots et
les chases [The Order of Things!. one can read these lines:
the figure of man, recent ly appearing, had 'the effect of a
change in the fundamental arrangement s of knowledge.
[ .. . ] If these arrangement s were to disappear j ust as
they had appeared. [ .. . ] one could certai nly bet that man
would disappear, like a face in the sand at the edge of the
sea.'
16
A specific object linki ng Manet , Bataille and Foucault is
none other than the mirror, 'pl ace without place. whi ch
the l atter situates. very significantly, between utopia and
heterotopia, and defines as a composite of both : 'It is from
the mirror that I find myself absent from the place where I
am,' he writes, 'as long as I see myself t here.'
17
Such is the
discrete yet decisive role of painting in the theoretical work
of Foucault: absolute heterotopia, a one-way mirror in which
the mastery of man is effaced in his real life. it constitutes
a suff iciently deep rupture in western discourse to have
inflected the theoret ical elaboration of Michel Foucault on
space and time, serving as a grid for our modes of thinking
and behaviour. This ruptu re produces a long silence; it is
from this silence that the archaeol ogist is made.
13
Michet Foucault . 'Qui etes- vous, professeur Foucault ', in Oits et ecrits, vo l.1.
Paris 2001, p. 642.

~ Bataill e, Orleans 1993, p.69 .

. , Ibid , p.72
16
Michel Foucault, Les mots et /e s chases , Paris 1990, p.398. Published in
Engl ish as Michel ;.-oucault, The Order of Things, Abi ngdon 2001.
Dits et f}c rits. voL2. Paris 2001. p.1575.
BY MATTHEW BARR
This lecture on thi r teen paintings by Edouard Manet does
not present the kinds of complex theoretical issues which
conf ront a translator of Foucault's maj or works , such
as The Order of Things or Discipline and Punish, works
deeply rooted in a French phenomenological tradition and
the specialized rhetoric of a very eliti st educat ion . The
openi ng of the lecture was not the only t ime that Foucault
emphasised his lack of t raining as an ar t hi storian and the
ar gument here rests firmly on a formal analysis. This being
so, great care has to be taken to render the precision of
the ekphrasis, the observations of detail and the thi ng often
overlooked. It shoul d be obvious that thi s is a transcript ion
of a recording of a lecture and this i n itself presents
some stylist ic oddities which cannot readily be removed
without producing a wholesal e rewr it e of the text. Spoken
sent ences tend t o be longer than those of a text intended
for publication and I have freq uently followed the French
transcription in using semi-colons in order to try to clar ify
long passages. One curious habit is the repetition of nouns.
Here again, it is tempting to remove them, but that woul d
be to impose a personal style and mask what must have
been a very idiosyncrat ic and forceful lecturing st yle.
Perhaps the greatest di fficulty of this text for the translator
[and the r eader! is to try to imagine exactly what Foucault
is refer r ing to when he points out details of the works
under discussion. Where this seems unambiguous, I have
supplied the information in square brackets. Sometimes,
however, it is not possibl e to be certain and in these cases
I have left readers to decide for themselves . It is only by
chance that this lecture alone survives as a recording from
a series on !vlanet delivered variously at IVIi l an, New York
State, Tokyo, Florence an d Tunis between 1967 and 1971
and so caut ion must be exercised in building arguments
about Foucault's broader thought from what must remain
an intriguing fragment.
BY MICHEL FOUCAULT
26 Michel Foucault
f
i
l'
i
THE OBJECT OF
I would like to begin right away by excusing myself because
I am a little tired. It seems that what I have done, during
the two years that I have been here, is to spread myself so
thinly that I no longer have a spare minute when I am back
in Tunis; the day is spent in conversations, discussions,
questions, objections, answers and such like, and so I've
arrived here late in the day almost exhausted. ' Anyhow, I
would ask you to forgive my lapses, my mistakes, perhaps
even the limpness of my exposition.
I would also like to excuse myself for talking about Mane!
because, of course, I am not a Manet specialist; nor am I a
painting specialist, so it is as a layman that I would speak
to you about Manet. What I would like to convey to you
broadly is this: I have no intention whatsoever of speaking
to you in general about Manet; I will be presenting to you,
I believe. no more than about ten or twelve canvases by
this painter which I would like. if not to analyse, at least to
explicate in certain areas. I will not be speaking in general
about Manet, not even about the aspects which are most
important or least known in Manet's painting.
1
Foucault gave these lectures on Tuesday evenings.
?'?
2S M.ichet F'oiJtautt
Manet always appears in the history of art, in the history
of nineteenth-century painting, as someone, of course,
who modified the techniques and the modes of pictorial
representation, in such a way that he made possible this
movement of Impressionism which occupied the forefront
of the history of art scene during almost all of the second
halt of the nineteenth century. It is true that Manet is
really in effect the precursor of Impressionism, it is really
he who made Impressionism possible; but it is not this
aspect of Manet with which I am concerned. It seems to
me that Manet in effect did something else, that perhaps
what he did was something even more than simply making
Impressionism possible. It seems to me that, beyond
even Impressionism, what Mane! made possible was
all the painting after Impressionism, is all the painting
of the twentieth century, is all the painting from which,
in tact, contemporary art developed. This deep rupture
or this rupture in depth which Manet brought about, is
without doubt something slightly more difficult to situate
than the set of modifications which made Impressionism
possible.
2
Those things which in Manet's painting made
Impressionism possible, as you will be aware, are
relatively well known : new techniques of colour, the use
of colours if not pure then at least relatively pure, the
use of certain forms of lighting and luminosity which had
not been fully recognised in earlier painting, etc. On the
other hand, the modifications which made possible, beyond
Impressionism, in a way over Impressionism, the painting
2
The concept of rupture in art and artistic practice was an important
one for Foucault and a number of his co ntempora ries. especi ally in
Philippe Sollers's arts journal Tel Que/, to which Fouca ult himsel f
contributed. See, for example, Marcelin Pleynet, 'Les Problemes de
l'Avant-Garde.' Tel Que/, Spring 1966, p. 81.
which was to come afterwards. these modifications are. I
believe. more difficult to recognise and to situate. I believe
that these modifications can even be summarised and
characterised with one word: Manet in effect is one who for
the first time. it seems to me, in western art, at least since
the Renaissance, at least since the quattrocento, allows
himself to use and in a way to play with, at the very interior
of his paintings, even at the interior of what they represent.
the material properties of the space on which he paints.
This is more clearly what I want to say: since the fifteenth
century, since the quattrocento, it was a tradition in
western painting to try to make the viewer forget, to
try to mask and sidestep the fact that painting was put
down or inscribed on a certain fragment of space which
could be a wall, in the case of fresco, or a panel of wood,
or again a canvas or eventually even a piece of paper;
to make the viewer forget, therefore. that the painting
rests on this more or less rectangular surface and in
two dimensions. and substitutes for this material space
on which the painting rests a represented space which
denies, in a sense, the space on which it is painted; and
it is in this way that painting, since the quattrocento. has
tried to represent three dimensions even while it rests
on a plan of two dimensions. It is painting which not only
represents the three dimensions, but privileges. in every
possible way, great oblique lines and spirals in order
to mask and negate the fact that the painting was still
inscribed inside a square or a rectangle of straight lines
cut at right angles.
2 -7
3c t-1 iche\ Foucault
Painting has tried equally to represent an interior lighti ng
in the canvas or even a lighting exterior to t he canvas,
coming from the ba ck or from the right or left, in a manner
which denies and sidesteps the fact that t he painting
rests on a rectangular surface, really lit by a real light
source. which evidently varies however with the picture's
placement and with the daylight. It must also deny that the
picture was a piece of space in front of which the viewer
could be displaced, around which the viewer could turn,
so that consequently he can grasp an angle or eventually
grasp the two sides and that is why painting, since the
quattrocento, has fixed a certain ideal place, from which
and only from which, one can and must see the picture;
3
so that, if you like, this materiality of the picture, this level,
rectangular surface, really lit by a particular light outside
of itself, all of this was masked and sidestepped by what
was represented in the picture itself; and the picture had
represented a deep space lit by a lateral sun that one was
seeing like a spectacle from an ideal place.
There, if you like, is the game of sidestepping, of hiding, of
illusion or elision which painting had practised since the
quattrocento. What Manet did [it is in any case one of the
important aspects, I believe, of the changes contributed
by Manet to western painting] was to make reappear, in
a way, at the very interior of what was represented in the
picture, these properties, these qualities or these material
limitations of the canvas which painting, which the pictor ial
tradition, had up until then made it its mission in some way
to sidestep and to mask.
3
1 have translated 'saisir' into 'grasp here. the French verb
also containi ng the double sense of a physical hold and an
understandi ng. This notion of 'fixing the viewer's posit ion and the
interest in works that appear to quest ion this tradit ion recalls
Foucaul t 's well-known analysis of VeL3zquez's Las Meninas at the
beginni ng of The Order of Things [19661.
The rectangular surface, the large vertical and horizontal
axes, the real lighting of the canvas, the possi bility for the
viewer of looking in one way or another, all of this is present
in Manet's pictures, and given back, restored in Manet's
pictures. And Manet reinvents [or perhaps he invents) the
picture-object, the picture as materiali ty, the picture as
something coloured which clarifies an external light and
in front of which, or about which, the viewer revolves.
This invention of the picture-object, this reinsert ion of the
materiality of the canvas in that which is represented, this I
believe is at the heart of the great change wrought by Manet
to painting and it is in this sense that one could say that
Manet really turned upside-down, beyond what could have
foreshadowed Impressionism, all that was fundamental in
western painting since the quattrocento.
So it is this which I would now like to show you by way of
the facts, that is to say in the pictures themselves, and I
will take a series of pictures, a dozen canvases which I
will try to analyse a little with you; and if you wish, for the
convenience of the exhibition, I will arrange them under
three rubrics: firstly, the manner in whic h Manet treated
the very space of the canvas, how he played with the
material properties of the canvas, the superficiality, the
height, the width, how he played with the spatial properties
of the canvas in what he represented on this canvas. That
will be the first group of pictures that I wi ll study; next, in
a second group, I will try to show you how Manet treated
the problem of lighting, how in these pictures he used not
a represented light which lit the interi or of the picture, but
how he used real external light. Thirdly, how he also played
wi th the place of the viewer in relation to the picture; and
for this third point , I will not study a group of pictures, but
a single one which, moreover, no doubt typifies Manet"s
oeuvre, which is, moreover, one of the last and one of the
most disruptive Manets, A Bar at the Fo/ies-Bergere.
,'i =:.:- ~ \ l ..
'THE T ~ E
c
J
So, if you will, the first group of problems and the first
group of canvases: how is it that Manet represented space?
At this point we are going to move to the sli des. so we must
turn out the lights.
Music in the Tuileries ! 1862l
Here you have one of the first canvases painted by Manet,
a canvas still very classical; you know that Manet had an
entirely classical training: he worked in the conformist
studios of t he period, relati vely conformist. he worked
with [Thomas] Couture and he mastered and possessed
the whole of the great pictorial tradition; and in this canvas
-it dates from 1861-62- one can say that Manet still uses
all the traditions that he had learned in the studios where
he studied.
4
Already a number of things must simply be signalled: you
see the privilege that Manet accords to the great vertical
lines which are represented by the trees. And you see that
Manet's canvas organises itself according to, at the back,
two large axes: a horizontal axis which is signalled by the
last line of the figures heads and then the large vertical
' Thomas Couture 11 815-791. history and genre painte r, tutor to
Man et for six years.
Michel. Foucault
Music in the Tuilenes
1862
Oil on canvas
76.2 x 118.1 em
National Gallery. London. Lane Bequest. 191 7
axes, which are indicated here with, as though to repeat
them or rather as if to emphasise them, this small triangle
of light from which all the light which illuminates the front
of the scene spills out. The viewer or the painter sees this
scene very superficially from an aerial viewpoint, in the
same way that one can see a little of what happens behind,
but one does not see it very well- there is not much depth,
the figures in front are in a way masking almost completely
what happens behind, from which derives this effect of
a frieze. The f1gures form a sort of flat frieze here, and
the verticality extends this fr ieze effect with a relatively
shortened depth.
The Masked Ball at the Opera {1873-4!
So now, ten years later, Manet comes to paint a picture
which is in a sense the same and which is like another
version of this same picture, that is 'An Evening at the
Opera', sorry, The Ball at the Opera. In a sense, it is the same
picture you see: the same types of figure, men in outfits
with top hats, some feminine figures with light dresses,
but you see that, already, the whole spatial balance is
modified. The space has been filled, closed from behind;
the depth which I was telling you was not very marked in
the preceding picture but which existed nonetheless, this
depth, it is now closed, it is closed by a thick wall; and
as though to signal clearly that there is a wall and that
there is noth1ng to see behind. You note these two vertical
pillars and this enormous vertical bar here which frames
the picture, which in a way doubles inside the picture
the vertical and the horizontal of the canvas. This large
35
rectangle of the canvas, you find it repeated inside and it
closes the depth of the picture, preventing, consequently,
the effect of depth.
Not only is the effect of depth effaced, but the distance
between the edge of the picture and the back is relatively
short such that all the figures find themselves projected
forward; far from there being depth, you have on the
contrary a sort of phenomenon of relief; the advancing
figures and the black of the costumes, equally of the
dresses, the black absolutely blocks all that the clear
colours could have done, in a way, to in fact open the
space. The space is closed at the back by the wall and at
the front by these dresses and costumes. You do not really
have space per se, you have only something like packages
of space, packages of volumes and surfaces which are
projected forwards, towards the viewer's eyes.
The only real opening or rather the only opening which
is represented in the picture is this very curious opening
which is here, right at the top of the picture, and which
does not open onto a true depth, which does not open
onto something like the sky or the light. Remember, in the
previous picture, you had a small triangle of light, a small
triangle which opened onto the sky and from where the
light spilled out; here, by a sort of irony, the light opens onto
nothing but what? Well, you see the feet and the trousers
and the rest, that is, the whole group of figures beginning
to repeat; as though the picture restarted here [at the level
of the balcony], as though it were the same scene and this
2 The Masked BaH at the Opera
1873-4
01l on canvas
59.1 x 72.5 em
National Gallery of Art, Washington .
Gift of Horace Havemeyer i n memory
of h1s mother, Louisine W. Havemeyer
:7
3S Michel Foucault
one indefinitely: the effect, consequently, of a tapestry. of
a wall, the effect of painted paper that you see extending
itself all along. with the irony of two little feet which swing
here and which indicate the fantasy character of this space
which is not the real space of perception, which is not the
real space of the opening, but which is the play of these
surfaces and these colours spilled and repeated indefinitely
from top to bottom of the canvas.
The spatial properties of this rectangle of canvas are thus
represented, manifested. exalted by what is represented
in the canvas itself, and you see how Manet, by relating
to the previous canvas, which treated basically almost the
same subject. has entirely closed up the space. but how
this time it is the material properties of the canvas which
are represented in the picture itself.
5
The Execution of Maxirnilienl1868l
Do you want to move to the next picture. which is The
Execution of Maximilien? A picture which dates from 1867.
evidently, and where you find once again, as you can see,
most of the characteristics which I have just signalled with
regard to The Ball at the Opera; this is an earlier picture,
but you already have here the same procedures. that is to
say a violently marked and compressed closing of space by
the presence of a large wall, a large wall which is no more
than the repetition of the canvas itself; whereby, as you can
see. all the ligures are placed on a narrow band of earth.
so that you have something like a staircase. the effect of
a staircase. which is to say, horizontal-vertical and. again.
5
Foucault had been interested in this phenomenon for some t i me,
having remarked in The Order of Things upon Velazquez's i nclusion
of an easel in Las Meninas and made the same observation in 'Ceci
n'est pas une pipe, his essay on Magritte first published in the
journal Les Cahiers du chemin in 1968.
something like a vertical, a horizontal which opens up with
the small figures [on the wall] who are watching the scene.
You see, however, that one has here almost the same effect
as a moment ago in the scene in The Ball at the Opera, where
you had a wall which was closed and a scene whi ch began
again there; and so you have here, hanging on behind the
wall , again a small scene which repeats the picture.
Now, if I show you thi s pi cture, it is not simply because it
gi ves once again. or it gives in advance these elements that
one must find again later in The Ball at the Opera. it is for
another reason: you see that all the figures are therefore
pl aced on t he same narrow little rectangle, on which they
have pl aced their feet- a sort of staircase behind which you
have a large vertical. They are all drawn close on this small
space, they are all very near to one another, so near that, as
you see, the rifle barrel s are touching their chests. I should
have mentioned, however, that these horizontals and the
vert ical position of the sol diers amounts. once again, to
nothing more than mul tiplyi ng and r epeati ng inside the
pi ct ure the large horizontal and vertical axes of the canvas.
In any case the soldiers here touch at the tip of their rifles
the figures that are there. There is no distance between
the firi ng squad and their victims. Now, if you look, you
can see that these figures here (the vict ims] are smaller
than [the executioners] there, even though normally they
must be of the same size, as long as they are very exactly
on the same plane and they are arranged one according
to the other with ver y l ittle space to arrange themselves;
t hat is to say, Manet makes use of t his strongly archaic
1868
Oil on canvas
252 x 302 em
Kunsth alle Ma nnhe im
technique which consists of making the figures diminish
without dividing t hem out across the plane (which is the
technique of painting before the quattrocentol. He uses this
technique to signify or symbolise a distance which is not
actually represented .
In his picture, in the space which he g1ves himself. in this
tiny rectangle where he places all the figures, it is very
evident that Manet could not represent distance. Distance
cannot be given to perception; one does not see distance.
On the other hand, the diminution of figures indicates a
sort of purely intellectual and non-perceptive recognition
that there must be a distance between the victims and
the firing squad; and this imperceptible distance, this
distance which is not given to the gaze, is simply signalled
by this sign which is the diminut ion of figures. Beginning,
as you can see. to evolve in the very interior of this small
rectangle that Manet gives himself and where he places his
figures are some of the fundamental principles of pictorial
per ception in the West.
Pictorial perception must be like the repetition, the
redoubling, the reproduction of the perception of everyday
life. What had to be represented was a quasi-real space
where distance could be read, appreciated, deciphered in
the way that we ourselves see a landscape. There, we enter
a pictorial space where distance does not offer itself to
be seen, where depth is no longer an object of perception
and where spatial positioning and the distancing of figures
are simply given by signs which have no sense or function
except inside the picture; that is, by the relationship, in
some ways arbitrary, in any case. purely symbolic, between
the size of the figures here [the victims] and the size of the
figures there [the executioners].
The Port of Bordeaux (Hl71)
Would you now like to move to the next picture which plays
with another proper ty of the canvas? In those which I've
just shown you, The Ball at the Opera or The Execution of
Maximilien, what Manet was using, what he was playing
with in his represe ntation, was above all the fact that
the canvas was vertical, that it was a surface in two
dimensions, that it had no depth; and in a way Manet was
trying to represent this absence of depth by diminishing
as far as possible the very thickness of the scene which
he represents. Here, in this picture, which dates from the
year 1872 if I remember correctly. what is in play, as yo u
see, is essentially the horizontal and vert ical axes
6
These
horizontal and vertical axes are really repetitions inside the
canvas of the horizontal and vertica l axes which frame the
canvas and which form the very frame of the picture. But,
as you see, it is equally the reproduction of a sort, in the
ver y grain of the painting, of all the horizontal and vertical
fibr es which constitute the canvas itself, the canvas in
which it has material.
It is as though the weave of the canvas was in the process
of starting to appear and show its internal geometry, and
you see this interlacing of threads which is like a sketch
represented on the canvas itself. If, however, you isolate
'I t is likely that he does not remember correctly- this work is now
generally accepted to date from 1870-1.
t. Thl Port ot Bordeat!X
1871
Oi l on canvas
66 x 99. 5 em
Private col\ect ion, Swit Zerland
this part, this quarter [the top left]. this sixt h perhaps,
of the canvas, you see that you have a game of almost
exclusively horizontals and verticals, which are cut like
right angles, and those among you who are in the spirit
of Mondrian's picture of a tree, or rather the series of
variat ions that Mondrian made on trees, you know, during
the years 1910-14, there you see the very birth of abstract
painting. Mondrian treated his tree, his famous tree out
of which, at the same time as Kandinsky, he discovered
abstract painting, a little like Manet treated the boats in Port
of Bordeaux. From his tree, he finally extracted a certain
play of lines which match up to the right angles and which
form a sort of framework, a draughtboard, a framework of
straight horizontal and vertical lines. And so, in the same
way, in this tangle of boats, in all the activity of this port,
Manet has come to extract this, this game of verticals and
horizontals which are the geometrical representation of
the very geometry of the canvas in which it has material.
This game of the weave of the canvas you will see again
shortly in a manner at once amusing and for this period
absolutely scandalous, in the next picture which is called
Argenteuil.
Argenteui l 0 8741
Would you like to move to the next canvas? You see the
vertical axis of the mast, which repeats the edge of the
picture, this horizontal here which repeats this other one;
and the two large axes which are therefore represented
inside the canvas, but you see what it is that is represented,
it is precisely the weave, the weave which comes from
S Argenteuil
1874
Oil on canvas
149 x 115 em
Musee des Beaux-Arts de la Vi lle de Tournai, Belgique
o In the Greenhouse
1879
01 l on canvas
115x150cm
Nat ionalgaler ie. St aatlic he Museen zu Berli n
the vertical and horizontal lines; and the character, at
once popular, unpolished, and the figures, and what is
represented in this canvas, no more than a game for
Manet, a game which consists of representing in a canvas
the very properties of a weave and the interlacing and the
matching up of the vertical and the horizontal.
In the Greenhouse 11879i
Would you like to move on to the next canvas, which is
called In the Greenhouse and which is all the same one of the
most important of Manet's canvases for understanding the
manner of his play [it seems that Foucault had a problem
at this point in finding his reproduction - the recording
is broken here, indicating that a few seconds were lost].
... the vertical, the horizontal and this interlacing of the
very lines of the picture. You see how space, the depth of
the picture is restrained. Immediately behind the figures
you have this tapestry of green plants which no gaze could
pierce and which unrolls absolutely like a background
canvas, absolutely like a wall of paper which could have
been there; no depth, no l ighting pierces this space, this
forest of leaves and stems which peoples the greenhouse
where the scene occurs.
The figure of the woman here is entirely projected
forwards, the legs themselves are not seen in the picture,
they extend beyond it; the woman's knees extend in a way
out of the picture from which she is projected forwards
for there is no depth and the figure behind is toppling
over entirely towards us with this enormous face that
47
48 Michel Foucault
you can see, which is shown somehow very close to us,
almost too close to be seen , while he has tipped forwards
and is arranged in such a short space - the closure
therefore of space and of course the game of verticals
and horizontals, the whole picture barred by this stage,
the back of this seat, the line of the seat which finds itself
repeated firstly here, a second time there, a fourth time
here, a line which is found doubled in white this time by
the woman's umbrella; and now for the verticals, all of
this grid here, with simply this small, very short diagonal
to indicate depth. The whole picture is structured around
and starts from these verticals and hor izontals.
And if you now add that the folds of the womans robe
take the form of vertical folds here [below the waistband],
but that you have all this fan-shaped movement of the
woman's dress here [across the seat]. which means that
the first folds are towards the horizontal like these four
fundamental lines, but that. in turning, the dress ends
by almost achieving the vertical, you see that this play of
folds which goes from the umbrella to the womans knees
reproduces by turning the movement which runs from the
horizontal to the vertical; and it is this movement that is
reproduced here. Now add that you have a hand which
hangs [the woman's left hand] and a hand going the other
way [the man's left hand] and you have at the centre of
the picture, on a clear ground, reproducing the axes of
the picture, the same vertical and horizontal lines that
you find in dark lines constituting the very armature of
the seat and the interior architecture of the picture. And
here, therefore, you have the whole game which consists
of deleting, erasing and compressing space in terms
of depth, and on the contrary intensifying the lines of
verticality and horizontality.
So that is what I wanted to say to you concerning the play of
depth, of vertical and horizontal in Manet. but there is still
another way for Manet to play with the material properties
of the canvas; because the canvas is really, in effect, a
surface, a surface which has a horizontal and a vertical,
but it is moreover a surface of two faces. a verso and a
recto, which in a manner still more vicious and malicious,
if you like, Manet will set in play.
The Waitress !18791
And here is how: if you move to the next picture, which is The
Waitress, one has a curious example. In effect, what does
this picture consist of and what does it represent? Really, in
a sense. it does not represent anything in so far as it offers
nothing to see. In effect, you have in total here and for a
total, in this picture, this figure of the waitress which you
see very close to the painter. very close to the viewer, very
close to us, who has a face turned suddenly turned towards
us as though a spectacle has suddenly presented itself in
front of her and attracted her gaze. You see that she is not
looking at what she is doing, which is putting down her beer
glass. but her eye has been attracted by something that
we do not see, that we do not know, which is there, in front
of the canvas. Otherwise. the canvas is composed of one,
two, or at the most three other figures; in any case one or
two which we almost do not see since between them we
see hardly anything but the receding profile and after that
we see nothing except the hat. Rather, whoever they are
looking at, they are themselves looking [back] at them in
exactly the opposite direction. What do they see? Well, we
know nothing about it, we know nothing since the picture
is cut in such a way that the spectacle which is there, and
by which these gazes are attracted, this spectacle is also
hidden from us.
Consider now, if you will, a painting of the classical type- it
doesn't matter which. It happens to be very traditional in
painting that a picture represents people in the process of
looking at something. For example, if you take Masaccio's
The Tribute Money fc.1425]. you see that the figures are in
a circle and are looking at something. That something is
a dialogue or rather an exchange of a coin between Saint
Peter and the ferryman. There is therefore a spectacle, but
this spectacle that the figures in the picture are watching,
we know it, we see it, it is given in the picture.
Here though [in The Waitress]. we have two figures who
look but, firstly, these two figures do not look at the same
thing and, secondly, the picture does not tell us what
these figures are looking at. It is a picture where nothing
is represented except two gazes, two gazes in two opposite
directions, two gazes in the two opposite directions of the
picture, recto verso, and neither of the two spectacles
which are actually followed with so much attention by
the t wo figures, neither of these two spectacles is given
7 The Waitress
1879
01l on canvas
77.5 x 65 em
" .--, ;., : ~ t -:..
Musee d"Orsay, Pa ri s
Michel Foucault
8 Saint- Lazare Station
1872-3
Oil on ca nvas
93.3 x 1.11 .5 em
Nat ional Gall ery of Art. Washington.
Gift of Horace Have meyer 1n memory
of his mother. Louisi ne W. Havemeyer
to us; and to underline this, you have the curious irony
of this little part of a hand that you see [on the left) and
this small part of a dress. The effect is that, in an earlier
version of this picture, Manet has represented what was
seen by these figures; what is represented is a cabaret
singer from a cafe concert in progress there [on the left).
taking place, a singer or the suggestion of a dance step (a
version which can be found in London); and afterwards this
version, this second version which I am showing you now.
7
And so Manet, in this second version, has cut the spectacle
in such a way that it is as though there is nothing to see, that
the picture should consist of these gazes turned towards
the invisible, showing nothing but the invisible and doing
nothing but indicate by the direction of these opposing
gazes something which is necessarily invisible since it is in
front of the canvas and what is seen here is on the contrary
behind the canvas. From one part of the canvas to another,
you have two spectacles which are seen by the two figures
but at its root the canvas, instead of showing what is to be
seen, hides and conceals it. The surface with its two faces,
recto verso, is not a place where a visibility manifests itself;
it is the place which assures, on the contrary, the invisibility
of what is seen by the figures that are in the foreground
of the canvas.
Saint-lazare Station (1872-31
This is clear in this picture [The Waitress]. clearer still in the
one you are going to see now which is called Saint Lazare
Station. Here, you have a new version of the same trick; of
course you see always a new version of the same verticals
7
Daniel Defe r! has clarified this, suggest i ng that there are not
exactly two versions, but that Foucaul t means Corner of a Cafe
Concert c. 1878-80. This canvas was cut in hal f by Manet duri ng its
execution and the left-hand portion i s now i n the Oskar Reinhart
Collection in Winterthur, Switzerland.
and the same hori zontals that we have found before: these
verticals and these horizontals which define a certain plan
in the picture, in a sense the plan of th e canvas, and so you
have two figures as we had a moment ago in The Waitress,
two figures who summon us, head-to-tail, one looking in
our direction, the other looking in the same direction as us.
One turns her face towards us, the other on the contrary
turns her back to us. What the woman is watching - and
you see that she watches it with a great sort of intensity-
is a spectacle that we cannot see since it is in front of the
canvas; and as for what the little girl is looking at, well,
we cannot see it since Manet has deployed here the smoke
of a train which is just passing, in such a way that we, we
have nothing to see. And to have seen what they see, we
would have had either to get over the shoulder of the little
girl or to have walked around the picture in order to see
over the woman's shoulder.
You see how Manet plays with this material property of
the canvas which means that it is a plane, a plane which
has a recto and a verso; and, up until now, no other painter
amused himself by using the recto and the verso. Here,
he uses it not only in the way that he paints the front and
back of the canvas, but in a sense by forcing the viewer
to have the desire to turn the canvas around, to change
position in order finally to see what one senses must be
seen, but all the same is not given in the picture. And it
is this game of invisibility assured by the surface of the
canvas which Manet sets in play inside the picture in a
manner that, as you see, one could say is all the same
vicious, malicious and cruel, since it is the first time that
paint ing has presented itself as something invisible that
we watch. The gazes are there to indicate to us that there
is something to see, something that is by definition, and by
the very nature of the canvas, necessarily invisible.
1866
Oil on canvas
161x97cm
Musee d'Orsay. Pari s
ll. LlGHTlNG
Would you like to move on to the next canvas, which
brings us to the second series of problems I would
like to speak to you about? These are the problems of
illuminat ion and lighting.
The Fifer !18661
You know this picture. The Fifer, which dates from 1864
or 5, a picture which, at that time, had some scandalous
repercussionsB You know that Manet - and this is no
more than the sum of what I have been saying up until
now - entirely removed the background of the picture.
You see that there is no space at all behind the lifer;
not only is there no space behind the f iler, but the fifer
in a way is placed nowhere. You see the space where
he places his feet , this stage, this floor, is indicated by
almost nothing; this t iny shadow, this very light grey mark
here, which marks the difference between the bottom of
the wall and the space on which he places his feet. The
staircase, which we have seen in the preceding pictures,
is even removed here. There is nothi ng to serve as a
' The date of Le Fifre is actual ly 1866.
place where he positions his feet except this very light
shadow. It's definitely a shadow, it's definitely nothing at
all, it's definitely the void on which he places his feet.
But what I would like to say most about The Fifer is not
this, but the manner in which is it illuminated. Ordinarily, in
traditional painting, as you know very well, the light source
is always situated somewhere. There is, either from th e
very i nside of the canvas, or from outside, a luminous
source which is directly represented or simply indicated
by rays of light : an open window indicates that the light
comes from the right for example, or from above, from
the left, from below, etc., and outside of the real light
which strikes the canvas, the picture always represents.
in addition, a certain light source which sweeps the canvas
and provokes upon the figures there all the falling shadows
which form the modelling, the relief, the hollows, etc. It
is that whole systematisation of light which was invented
at the beginning of the quattrocento and to which, as you
know, Caravaggio, to whom a particular homage must be
paid here, gave regularity and perfect systematization.
Here, on the contrary, you see that there is absolutely no
light coming from above or from below, or from outside
the canvas; or rather all the light comes from outside of
the canvas. but strikes it absol utely at the perpendicular.
You see that the face presents absolutely no modelling,
simply two li ttle hollows either side of the nose to indicate
the eyebrows and the hollows of the eyes. You notice,
however, that the shadow, practically the only shadow
which is presented in this picture, is this tiny little shadow
here under the hand of the fifer and which indicates that in
effect the lighting comes from absolutely opposite since it
is behind the fifer, in the hollow of the hand, that the only
shadow of the picture is drawn, with this one [under his
left foot] which assures stability, as you see, this tiny little
shadow, which is the indication of the rhythm that the fifer
prints on his music in tapping his foot: as you see, he lightly
raises his foot which gives, from this shadow [under the
left foot] to this one [in the right hand]. the large diagonal
which is reproduced clearly here by the fifer's flute case.
So we have an entirely perpendicular lighting, a lighting
which is the real lighting of the canvas if the canvas in its
materiality was to be exposed to an open window, in front
of an open window.
Traditionally, it was common in painting to represent in the
picture a window by which a fictive light swept the figures
and gave them their relief. Here, we must admit a canvas,
a rectangle, a surface which is itself placed in front of a
window, a window which illuminates it in absolutely full
shot. Manet evidently did not fulfil this radical technique
of suppression of an interior light and its replacement by
real exterior and frontal light the moment he put it into
play; and in one of his most celebrated pictures, the first
of his great pictures, you are going to see that he used
two lighting techniques concurrently.
59
Luncheon on t ~ ~ Grass (1 863l
Would you like to move to the next picture? It is the famous
Luncheon on the Grass. I will not attempt to analyse this
Luncheon on the Grass it in its entirety - there is evidently
a great deal to say on this subject. I want to speak simply
about lighting . In fact, in this picture, you have two systems
of lighting which are juxtaposed and which are juxtaposed
in depth. You see in eff ect that in the second part of the
picture, if one allows that this line here, of the grass, splits
the picture in two, you have a lighting which is a traditional
lighting with a light source coming from above, from the
left. which sweeps the scene, which illuminates this large
meadow from the bottom, which strikes the back of the
woman, which models her face. in one part plunged in
shadow; and this lighting comes to an end here on two
clear bushes [this can't be very clearly seen because
the reproduction is not very good). two clear and slightly
dazzling bushes, which are in a way the meeting points of
this lateral and triangular lighting here and here. You have,
therefore, a triangular lighting which sweeps the woman's
body and models her face: traditional lighting, classical
lighting which leaves the relief and which is constituted
by an interior light .
Now, if you take the figures in front, what characterises
them is the fact that they are lit by a completely different
light which has nothing to do with the preceding one which
comes to an end on these two bushes. You have a lighting
which is frontal and perpendicular, which strikes, as you
see, the woman and this entirely nude body, which strikes
10 luncheon on the G ass
1863
Oil on canvas
208 x 26 4 5 em
Musee d"Orsay. Par;s
6;' Mithed. Foucault
it from directly opposite: you see that there is absolutely no
relief. no modelling. The woman's body is a sort of enamel
as in Japanese painting. The lighting comes only brutally
and from opposite. It is this lighting which strikes equally
the face of the man, which strikes equally this profile [of
the male figure on the right] absolutely flatly, without relief,
without modelling, and the two dark bodies, the two dark
jackets of these two men. are the culminating and end
points of this frontal lighting. just as the two bushes here
were the dazzling and culminating points of the interior
lighting: an exterior lighting blocked by the bodies of two
men and an interior lighting repeated by the two bushes.
These two systems of representation. or rather these two
systems of manifesting light inside a picture. are juxtaposed
here in this very canvas, are in a juxtaposition which gives
this picture its slightly discordant character, its internal
heterogeneity; an internal heterogeneity which Mane! tried
in a way to reduce or perhaps rather to underline - I don't
know- by this hand which is here. this clear hand which is
in the middle of the picture [that of the male figure on the
right] . Remember, however, the two hands that I showed
you a moment ago In the Greenhouse, and which were the
reproduction by the fingers of the very axes of the picture;
so here you have this hand with its two fingers, one finger
which points in this direction; or this direction, which is
precisely the direction of the interior light, of this light
which comes from above and from elsewhere. And on the
contrary the finger is bent, bent towards the outside, on
the axis of the picture. and it indicates the origin of the
light which strikes here, in such a way that you have in
this hand-play the fundamental axes of the picture and the
principle- at once of linking and of heterogeneity- of this
Luncheon on the Grass.
Olympia !1863)
Would you now like to come to this, on which I will be
brief? I will not say much to you about this picture, simply
because I am not capable and it is too difficult; I would
like simply to speak to you on the subject of lighting; or, if
you like, I'm going to speak to you about the point of view
which can be taken concerning the rapport between the
scandal that this canvas provoked and a certain number
of its purely pictorial characteristics and, I believe,
essentially, the light.
This Olympia, as you know. caused a scandal when it was
exhibited at the 1865 Salon; it caused a scandal that one is
obliged to leave aside. There were the bourgeois types who,
visiting the Salon, wanted to put their umbrellas through
it, so indecent did they find it. But the representation
of feminine nudity in western painting is a tradition
which revives in the sixteenth century and one has seen
many others before Olympia caused a scandal. What is
scandalous, then, about this painting, which did something
which could not be tolerated?
Art historians say, and evidentl y they are quite right , that
the moral scandal was no more than a clumsy way of
formulating something that was an aesthetic scandal : one
6-3
11 Olympia
1863
Oil on canvas
130.5 x 190 em
Musee d'Orsay, Pa ri s
does not tolerate this aesthetic, this use of tone. this great,
Japanese style painting, which is ugly and which is meant
to be ugly. All of this is absolutely true. I ask myself if there
is not , in a slightly more precise way, another reason for
the scandal which is li nked precisely to the lighting?
In effect - unfort unately I've forgotten to bring it - this
canvas must be compared to one which serves up to a
point as a model and a foil; you know that this Venus, finally
this Olympia of Manet, is the double, the reproduction,
always spoken of as a variation on the theme of nude
Venuses. reclining Venuses and in particular the Venus of
Titian [Venus of Urbina 1538] . In Titian's Venus, you have
a woman, a nude woman who is slightly reclining in this
position. Around her there are curtains, a source of l ight
from above, to the left, which softly lights up the woman,
which illuminates, if I remember, the face, in any case
certainly the breast and the l eg. and which is there like
a gilded space which caresses her body and whi ch is in
one way the principle of the body's visibility. If the body of
Tit ian's Venus is visible, if she gives herself to our gaze, it is
because there is this space. this luminous, discrete, lateral
and golden source which surprises her, which surprises
her in some ways among her and among us. Here is this
nude woman, dreaming of nothing, looking at nothing, and
there is this light which, indiscreetly, strikes or caresses
her, and us viewers who surprise the game between this
light and this nudity.
66 Mtchet Foucault
Or here, you see that if Manet's Olympia is visible it is
because a light strikes her. This light is certainly not a
soft and discreet lateral light, it is a very violent light which
strikes her here, full shot. A light which comes from in
front, a light which comes from the space found in front
of the canvas, which is to say that the light, the luminous
source indicated, which is assumed by the very lighting
of the woman, this luminous source, where is it, if not
here, precisely where we are? That is to say, there are not
three elements- nudity, lighting and we who surprise the
game of nudity and lighting, there is [rather] nudity and us,
we who are in the very place of lighting; in other words,
it is our gaze which, in opening itself upon the nudity of
Olympia, illuminates her. It is we who render it visible; our
gaze upon the Olympia is a lantern, it is that which carries
the light; we are responsible for the visibility and for the
nudity of Olympia. She is nude only for us since it is we
who render her nude and we do so because, in looking
at her, we illuminate her, since the whole of our gaze and
the lighting add up to one and the same thing. Look at a
picture and the lighting, it is no more than one and the
same thing in a canvas like this one and that is why we
are - every viewer finds this - necessarily implicated in
this nudity and we are to a certain extent responsible. You
see how an aesthetic transformation can, in a case such
as this, provoke a moral scandal.
The Balcony 11868-91
So that is what I wanted to say to you about this game of
lighting in Manet, and now, what I have said about space
and lighting I would like to synthesise briefly in a picture
which will be the penultimate one that I'm going to speak
about: The Balcony.
Would you like to move on to the next canvas? Here, in this
canvas, I believe we have the combination of everything
I have been saying up until now. Unfortunately, again
here. the reproduction is very poor. You have to imagine
a slightly larger picture; the photographer has, in a very
stupid manner, cropped the picture. There you have the
green shutters, a green much brighter however than we
see here, and the shutters, the persiennes to be precise,
with very numerous horizontal lines which frame the
picture.
9
You have, therefore, as you see, a picture which
is structured very manifestly by vertical and horizontal
lines. The window itself very precisely doubles the canvas
and reproduces its verticals and horizontals. The balcony
which is in front of the window, or rather the ironwork
which is in front of the window, reproduces once more
the verticals and horizontals, the diagonals serving only
to support and to highlight these large axes. If you add to all
that these shutters that you do not see [in Foucault's poor
reproduction]. you see that the whole picture is framed by
these verticals and horizontals. Far from wishing to make
the viewer forget the rectangle on which he paints, he does
nothing but reproduce it, insist on it, double it and multiply
it in the very interior of his picture.
9
' Persiennes' are shutters with moveable slats.
67
Miche! Foucault
What is more, you see that the whole picture is in black and
white with this one colour that is not black and white. as
though it were the fundamental colour, the green. It is the
very inversion of the quattrocento formula, where the large
architectural elements must be plunged into shade, merely
represented in the dark, with figures who themselves
carry the colours, these great blue, red and green dresses,
etc., as you see in the figures from paintings in that epoch;
therefore, the architectural elements are light and dark,
black and white, and the figures are traditionally coloured.
Here, you have the exact opposite. The figures are in black
and white and the architectural elements, instead of being
swallowed up in the semi-darkness, are on the contrary
exalted and accentuated in a way by the garish green of the
canvas. So much for the vertical and the horizontal.
With regard to the depth, there again Manefs game here
is particularly vicious and cruel because the picture opens
well, through a window, onto a depth; but you see that
this depth is eluded here just as completely as a moment
ago in La Gare Saint-Lazare [Saint-Lazare Station] where the
landscape was eluded by the smoke from the train. Here you
have a window which opens onto something which is entirely
obscure. entirely black. One distinguishes with difficulty a
very vague reflection of a metallic object, a sort of teapot
there with a little boy carrying it, but it's barely visible.
And all of this great hollow space, this great empty space
which must normally open onto a depth, why is it rendered
invisible to us and why does it render us invisible? Well, very
simply because all of the light is exterior to the picture.
'!2 The Balcony
1868-9
Oil on canvas
170 x 124.5 em
Musee dorsay, Paris
69
70 M!chel Foucau\t
Rather than penetrating into the picture, the light is
outside, and it is outside precisely because the viewer is on
a balcony; we must assume that the midday sun strikes the
balcony head on, strikes these figures here, on the point
of eating away the shadows; and you notice these large
white layers of the dresses in which absolutely no shadow
is drawn, just a few sparkling reflections; consequently no
shadow, and so every shadow is behind, because, by the
effect of back-lighting of course. one cannot see what there
is in the room; and instead of having a light-dark picture,
instead of having a picture where light and shadow mix
together, you have a curious picture in which all the light
is on one side, all the shadow on the other, all the light is
from in front of the picture and all the shadow is from the
other side of the picture, as if the very verticality of the
canvas separates a world of shadow, which is behind, and
a world of light, which is in front.
And at the limit of this shadow which is behind and of this
light which is in front, you have these three figures who
are in a sense suspended, who rest almost on nothing;
the best proof that they rest on nothing is this: look at this
little foot of Berthe Morisot's sister here [the figure on
the right]. this little foot which swings like so, as though
it had nothing on which to rest. It is like in Giotto's Saint
Francis Giving His Mantle to a Poor Man, the figures do not
really stand on anything. The three figures are suspended
between the darkness and the light, between the interior
and the exterior, between the room and the daylight. They
are there: two whites, one black, like three musical notes,
, --,-::-,:;:.
they are suspended at the limit of light and darkness;
notice something of a Raising-of-Lazarus aspect to this
picture, at the limit of light and darkness, of l ife and death.
And Magritte, the Surrealist painter, as you know, made a
variation on this picture where he represented the same
elements, but instead of the figures, he represented three
coffins.
10
It is really this limit of life and death. of light and
darkness, which is here manifested by these three figures;
these three figures of whom one could say, moreover,
that they too look towards something, that they look with
intensity towards something which we do not see.
And here again, invisibility is almost signalled by the fact
that the three figures look in three different directions. all
three absorbed by an intense spectacle which, evidently,
we cannot know, one because it is in front of the canvas,
the other because it is to the right of the canvas, the third
because it is to the left of the canvas. And in any case,
we, we see nothing, we see only the gazes, not a place
but a gesture and always the gestures of hands, folding
hands, unfolding hands, hands actually unfolded; gloves
put on, gloves about to be put on and hands without gloves,
and it is this same turning gesture which is at root the
gesture which makes the three figures. It is simply this
circle of hands which unifies here again, as before in In The
Greenhouse and as earlier in Luncheon on the Grass, these
divergent elements of a picture which is nothing other than
the brilliance of invisibility itself.
;o Rene Magritte, Le Balcon de Manet 1950, Museum van
Hedendaagse Kunst, Ghent, Belgium.
ii
''2 Michei. Foucault
13 A Bar at t l,e Fo! ies-Bergere
1881-2
Oi l on canvas
96 x 130 em
Th e Sa muel Courtauid Trust ,
The Cou rtauld Gallery, London
l!i. T ~ P E OF THE viE ER
A Bar at the Folie::A!ergere ('1881-!1
And now, if you wish to move to the final painting,
it is on this that I will finish. This brings us to the third
element about which I would like to speak to you, no
longer space, no longer light, but the very place of the
viewer. It is the last of Manet's great paintings. it is the
Bar at the Folies-Bergere, which can be found i n London.' ' It
is a pi cture whose strangeness, evidently, I do not need to
point out to you. But the strangeness is not really strange
since it is a picture whose elements are really very well
known: the presence of a centr al figure of whom one makes
the portrait in a sense for her alone. and then behind this
figure, a mirror which reflects to us the very image of
this figure. It's something very classic in painting, for
example, the Portrait of Countess d'Haussonville by lngres
is exactly on this model: you have a woman, behind
the woman a mirror and in the mirror you see the
woman's back.
11
Un bar aux Fo/ies-Bergere 1881-2, The Courtauld Gallery. London.
74 Michel Foucault
Meanwhile, Manet's picture. engaging with this tradition or
this pictorial habit, is at the same time radically different
and one can very quickly point out the differences. The
principle, as you see, is that the mirror occupies practically
all of the background of the picture. The edge of the mirror
is this gold band here [running behind the figure's wrists].
so that Manet closes the space with a sort of plane surface,
as though with a wall. And it's the same technique as in
The Execution of Maximilien or The Ball at the Opera: behind
the figures, immediately behind them, rises a wall. but in
a very vicious way Manet has, on this wall. and by the fact
that it was a mirror, represented what there is in front of
the canvas. in such a way that one does not see. so that
there is not really any depth. It is the double negation of
depth since not only does one not see what is behind the
woman, because she is immediately in front of the mirror.
but one does not see behind the woman what there is in
front of her. That is the first thing one should say about
the picture.
Equally, you see that the Lighting is one which is entirely
frontal and which strikes the woman in full shot here.
Again. Manet has simply in a way repeated the malice
and the cunning in representing the frontal Light inside
the painting, by the reproduction of these two Lamps; but
this reproduction is evidently the mirrored reproduction.
therefore, the Light sources pay themselves the Luxury of
being represented in the picture while in reality they come
from nowhere but outside the picture. in the space in front.
So here you have the reproduction and the representation
_: ~ ;
of light sources at the same time as the lighting which
actually strikes the woman from outside. But these are
doubtless no more than relatively singular and partial
aspects of the picture. Much more important no doubt
is the manner in which the figures, the elements rather,
are represented in the mirror. In principle, all of this is a
mirror, therefore everything that must be found in front of
the mirror is reproduced inside the mirror; one must find
the same elements here and there. In fact, if you were to
try to count and find the same bottles here and there, you
would not manage it, because in fact there is a distortion
between what is represented in the mirror and what must
be reflected in it. But evidently the great distortion is in the
reflection of the woman here, since you are obliged to see
the reflection of the figure here [on the right of the picture].
You do not need to have lots of optical ideas to realise this
- one senses it in the unease one feels in looking at this
picture - that in order to see the reflection of a woman
who would be placed here, to see it there [on the right], the
viewer and the painter must find themselves, if you like,
slightly over here where I place my stick, that is to say, very
much sideways. And at this moment, the woman placed
here could really have her reflection, finally one would
see her reflection here, towards the extreme right. For
the womans reflection to be shifted towards the right, the
viewer or the painter themselves must also shift towards
the right. Do you agree? It is very evident that the painter
cannot be shifted towards the right because he does not
see the girl in profile but from opposite. To be able to
paint the womans body in this position, he must be exactly
75
opposite; but in order to paint the woman's reflection
here on the extreme ri ght, he must be there. The painter
therefore occupies - and the viewer is therefore invited to
occupy after him - successively or rather simultaneously
two incompatible places: one here and the other there.
Meanwhile there is a solution which would allow things
to be fixed: there is one instance in which one could find
oneself in front of the woman, absolutely face-to-face with
her, and then see her reflection here. The condition is that
the mirror was oblique and receding, that is, in the bottom
left over there and disappearing in the distance. This would
be possible. of course, one could envisage it, but since you
see there. the edge of the mirror parallel to the marble
plane which is at the edge of the picture here, you cannot
admit that the mirror runs diagonally down there and
consequently one has to admit two places for the painter.
But something else must be added. You see here the
reflection of a figure which is about to speak to the woman.
It must therefore be assumed that in this place which must
be occupied by the painter is someone whose reflection is
here [in the upper-right corner]. Or, if there is someone
in front of the woman speaking to her, and speaking to
her as closely as we see here. there would necessarily
have been on the woman's face, on her white throat, and
equally on the marble, something like a shadow. There is
nothing: the lighting comes full shot, striking without any
obstacle or cover whatsoever the whole of the woman's
body and the marble; so for what has been reflected here
[i.e. the male figure in the upper right corner]. there must
have been someone and yet in order to have the lighting
like this [on the womans face and the marble surface].
there must have been nobody. Therefore, along with the
centre and right inconsistency you have the present or
absent inconsistency.
You tell me again that this is perhaps not fundamental, that
this place at once empty and occupied is perhaps the place
of the painter; and when Mane! has in this way left empty
the space in front of the woman and then represented here
someone who looks at her, is it not his own gaze which he
has given the reflection here and of which he has indicated
the absence there? The presence and absence of the
painter, his proximity towards his model, his absence. her
distance, finally all of this would be symbolised by that
[empty space]. To which I respond, not at all, not at all
because, as you see here, the face of this figure which one
may suppose is the painter [even though it does not look
like him I. this face looks at the waitress from above, he has
a plunging view onto her and consequently onto the bar, and
if it really were the gaze of the painter represented here
or reflected here, he would have to, if he were currently
speaking to the woman here, see her not as we see her, at
the same height, he would have to see her from a plunging
view and we would therefore see the bar from a totally
different perspective. You see how in reality the viewer and
the painter are at the same height as the waitress, perhaps
even a little below her, hence the very small distance that
there is between the edge of the marble and the edge of
n
78 Michel.. Foucault
the mirror. The distance is very compressed because there
is an ascending view and not at all this plunging view which
is indicated here.
You have, therefore, three systems of incompatibility: the
painter must be here and he must be there; he must have
someone here and he must have no-one there; there is a
descending gaze and there is an ascending gaze. This triple
impossibility, whereby we know where we must place
ourselves to see the spectacle as we see it, this exclusion, if
you will, of every stable and defined place where we locate
the viewer, is evidently one of the fundamental propert ies
of this picture and explains at once the enchantment and
the malaise that one feels in looking at it. While all classical
painting, by its system of lines, of perspective, of vanishing
point, etc., had assigned to the viewer and to the painter
a certain precise place, fixed, constant, from where the
spectacle was seen, so that in looking at a picture one very
clearly saw from where it was seen, if it was from above
or from below, from an angle or from opposite. Here, on
the contrary, in a picture like this one, or in any case in this
one, it is not possible to know where the painter has placed
himself in order to paint the picture as he has done it. and
where we must place ourselves in order to see a spectacle
such as this. And you see that with this last technique,
Manet plays with the picture"s property of being not in the
least a normative space whereby the representation fixes
us or fixes the viewer to a point, a unique point from which
to look. The picture appears like a space in front of which
and by rapport with which one can move around: the viewer
mobile before the picture, real light striking head on,
verticals and horizontals perpetually doubled, suppression
of depth. So you see the canvas in which there is something
real, material, in some ways physical, is about to appear
and to play with all its properties in representation.
Manet certainly did not invent non-representative painting
because everything in Manet is representative, but he
made a representational play of the fundamental material
elements of the canvas. He was therefore inventing, if you
like, the 'picture-object', the 'painting-object', and this
no doubt was the fundamental condition so that finally
one day we can get rid of representation itself and allow
space to play with its pure and simple properties, its
material properties.
INDEX
A
archive. theme of 15
B
backgr ounds 57- 8
Bataitle, Georges 17- 19
Literature and Evil 18
Buffon. Comte de 13
c
Caravaggio 58
classical tradition 29- 30, 78
colour 68
lighting 58- 9, 60, 68
co lour
classical tradition 68
in Manet's works 28
Coutur e, Thomas 33
D
Darwin, Charles 13
'The Deat h of the Author 13
Deleuze. Gilles 11-12
Derrida,Jacques 11
discursivity 12-13
Duchamp, Marcel 17
Dumezil , Georges 18
F
Flaubert. Gustave 14- 15
Foucault, Michel
L'archealagie du savoir 10-11
Histaire de la folie 11
Les mots et les chases 12. 19
' Le Nair et la surface' 10
Freud, Sigmund 13
G
Giotto
Saint Francis Giving His Mantle
to a Poor Man 70
Groupe d' lnformat ion sur les Prisons 9
H
heterotopia 17-18, 19
Impressionism 28
lngres, Jean Auguste Domini que
Por trait of Countess
d'Haussanvill e 73
K
Kandinsky, Wassily 44
Kl ee. Paul 12
l
Levi-Strauss. Claude 18
L'hopital, Jul ien 10
lighting in Manet' s works 14, 28, 30, 31-2, 79
The Balcony 67- 71: fig.12
A Bar at the Folies-Bergere 74-5, 77; fig.13
The Fifer 56-9: fig.9
Luncheon an the Grass 60-3; fig .10
Olympia 63-6; fi g.1 1
Lyotard, 11
M
Magritte. Rene 12
Le Balcon de Manet 71
Mallarme, Stephane 15
Mal r aux, Andre 15
Manet , Edouard
Argenteui l 44- 5, 47; fig .5
The Balcony 15, 67- 71; fig.12
A Bar at the Falies-Bergere 15-16, 18, 32.
72-9; fig .13
The Execution of Maximilien 38-42, 74; fig.3
The Fifer 56- 9; fig .9
In the Greenhouse 46- 9, 62, 71; fig.6
Luncheon an the Grass 12. 62- 3, 71: fig.10
The Masked Ball at the Opera 35- 8, 39, 42,
74; fig .2
Music in the Tui leries 32-5; fi g.1
Olympia 16, 18, 19, 63 - 6; fig.11
The Part of Bordeaux 42-4; fig.4
Saini-Lazare Station 52-6, 68; fig.8
traini ng 33
The Waitress 49-51 , 53, 54; fig.?
Marx, Karl 13
Masaccio
The Tri bute Maney 50
materialit y, picture as 14, 16. 29- 31 , 79
mirrors 19, 73-5
Mondria n. Piet44
N
Nietzche, Friedrich 12
p
pol it ical activism 9
s
Sartr e, Jean-Paul 9
scal e i n Manet's works 39, 41-2
space in Manet's works 14, 16, 30-1, 33-55. 78- 9
Argenteuil 44-5, 47; fig.5
The Balcony 67-8; fig.12
A Bar at the Folies-Bergere 74-9; fig .13
The Execution of Maximil ien 38-42. 74; fig. 3
The Fifer 57-8; fig.9
In the Greenhouse 46-9. 62: fig.6
The Masked Ball at the Opera 35-8, 39. 42,
74; fi g.2
Music i n the Tuileries 32-5: fig.1
The Part of Bor deaux 42-4 : fig .4
Saini-Lazare Station 52-6, 68; fig.8
The Waitress 49-51, 53, 54; fig.7
struc tural ism 11
T
Titian
Venus of Urbina 6 5
Tun isia 9
v
Valery, Paul 15
Velazquez , Diego
Las Meninas 12
viewer in Manet's works 14, 15- 18, 30- 1,32
A Bar at the Falies-Bergere 72- 9: fig.13