Freytags Tehnika Drame
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FREYTAG'S
Dr.
GUSTAV FREYTAG
ELIAS
J.
MacEWAN,
M.A.
TITIRD EDITION.
r/'l
CHICAGO
SCOTT,
Pli
Fn
COPYRIGHT,
1894
By
S.
C.
PRESS OF
THE HENRY
O. SHEPARD CO CHICAGO
CONTENTS.
Biographical Note.
Introduction.
time.
-
-vii-ix
Technique
.
of the
drama
Poetics.
Lessing.
.
works as models.
i-g
CHAPTER
1.
I.
DRAMATIC
of the idea.
ACTION.
in the
The
Idea.
mind
its
of the
poet.
Development
Material and
poet.
real,
transof
formation.
material.
totle.
2.
What
The
is
action.
power.
3.
---..-------and the
Transformation of the
The range
according to Arisg-i8
Dramatic? Explanation. Effg,Cts Characters. The dramatic life of the characters. Entrance
men.
Rareness of dramatic
ig-27
is
Unity.
The
Law.
Among
the Greeks.
How
it
pro-
duced. How the unity of historical material is not secured. False unity. Where dramatic material is to be found. The character in the modern drama. Counter-play and its danger. Episodes. 27-49
----probable.
Social
4.
Probability. What
drama.
is
effects of
the
The
strange.
The
marvellous.
Mephistopheles.
-
The
5.
irrational.
Shakespeare and
Schiller.
49-61
-_-...Private persons.
Weakness of
characters.
Degrading the
61-66
iv
6.
CONTENTS.
Movement and Ascent. Public
Poet dramas. Prince of HoDiburg.
gles.
Inward strugbe omitted. Antony and Cleopatra. Messenger Concealment and effect through reflex action. scenes. Necessity of ascent. Efifects by means of the action itself.
actions.
Nothing important
to
Contrasts.
7.
Parallel scenes.
66-84
What
The
is
himself about
Contrast
Tragic? How far the poet may not concern it. The purging. Effects of ancient tragedy. with German tragedy. The tragic force (moment).
and recognition.
-
revolution
84-103
CHAPTER
1.
H.
THE
CONSTRUCTION OF
THE DRAMA.
Play and Counter-Play.
Two
kinds of structure.
Rise and
fall.
leads.
Drama
of
-
counter-play.
-
Examples.
-
Spectacle.
I
04-1 14
The introduction.
The
The
The
ascent.
tragic force
or incident.
suspense.
the poet.
3.
The
.-.-.Falling action.
catastrophe.
14-140
Dialogues.
Representation.
compared with
tragedies.
The three actors. Scope of their work modern actors. Same actor used to
Cast of
parts.
strengthen effects.
Ideas of
preserved
characters.
The
Ajax as an example.
tion to the
Peculiarity of Sophocles.
His
rela-
myth.
The
40-1 81
Germanic
Drama. Stage of Shakespeare. Its influence on the structure of the pieces. Shakespeare's peculiarities. Its falling action and its weaknesses. Construction of Hamlet. 181-192
.
CONTENTS.
The Five
stage.
Acts.
Influence of
modern
Their
Fourth.
192-209
Development
Examples.
of the act.
First act.
The
five parts.
technical peculiarities.
Fifth.
Wallenstein.
....
Construction of
Second.
Third.
Change
scenes.
.-.--.
of scenery.
Inter-
Monologues.
Different
Mes-
Dialogue scenes.
structure.
Three persons. Ensemble scenes. Their Antony and Cleopatra. Banquet scene in Piccolomini. Riitli scene. Parliament in Demetrius. Mass scenes. Distributed voices. Battles. 216-245
Love
scenes.
laws.
The
galley scene in
and
after-creation.
and characters.
ing to poets.
Schiller.
-
Germans and
-
Latins.
Shakespeare's characters.
-
246-266
Characters
character
stein.
the Material and in the Play. The dependent on the action. Example of Wallenin
The epic hero intrinsically undramatic. Euripides. The Germans and their legends. Older German history.
Nature of
historical heroes.
Mingling of Christendom. Henry IV. Attitude of the poet toward the appearances of reality. Opposition between poet and actor. 266-303
Inner poverty.
Influence
of
opposites.
Lack
of
unity.
Double heroes.
vi
CONTENTS.
Lovers.
evil.
The
action
must be based on
characteristics of
the persons.
Easily understood.
Accident.
of the actor.
The characters in the different The conception of the stage arrangement must be vivid in the poet's mind. The
Humor.
acts.
Demands
of
province
the spectacle
effectively?
----play.
What
is
it
to
write
303-322
CHAPTER
I.
Prose and
Trimeter.
Alexandrine.
Dramatic element
of verse.
323-340
Work.
-
Fitting for
Cutting out.
Length
_ .
of the piece.
Acquain341-366
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.
Gustav Freytag, scholar, poet, novelist,
Silesia, in 1816.
Still living in
critic,
play-
one of the best known of modern German His preliminary education was acquired at the writers. Gymnasium of Oels, which he entered in 1829, at the age In 1835, he began the study of German of thirteen. philology under Hoffmann, at the University of BresLater he continued this line of study with Lachlau.
baden, he
is
mann,
at the
De
initiis scenicce
poeseos
apud
Germanos.
the
Between
this
some
the author of a
Jow-ney (1844), and a volume of short popular poems. In Breslau (1845), ^^ ^^ow (1847), i^ connection with
Julian Schmidt, undertook the
cal
management
of the politi-
and
literary
He continued and entered in earnest upon what has proved the long and honorable career of
his literary work,
man
of letters.
In 1847^ Valentine appeared, followed the next year by Count Waldemir, both society plays, evincing the
author's dramatic power,
and with
his inclination
toward
viii
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.
spirit,
the
manner
of the
younger writers, showing his delicate feeling for clearness and purity of style, his skill in the conduct of the His action, in dialogue, and his genial fresh humor.
next play. The Scholar,
a single
act,
is
than a drama.
The Journalists, was first acted; and it is still one of the most popular modern society dramas represented on the German stage. Perfectly natural and healthful in tone, fidelity it abounds in striking situations, depicts with many important types of German character, amusingly exhibits social rivalries and political machinations, and affords abundant opportunity for the author's effective Another play. The Fabii, appeared in 1859. satire. Freytag's first great novel. Soil mid Haben (1858), translated into English under the title of Debit and
Credit (1859), ^^s
become
a classic.
In
this, his
view of
human human
to
life is
purpose
is
show the value and dignity of a life of labor. It attempts to show that the active, vigorous life of a great German merchant is purer, nobler, more beneficent than the life of a haughty aristocrat, relying only on the
traditional merits of his family; and, in this attempt, the
life
of the ordi-
nary citizen.
(1864),
in
like
second novel.
manner shows
The Technique of the Drama was written in 1863, and dedicated to the author's friend Wolf, Count of Bau-
dissin.
The book
it
though now
for the
first
time trans-
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.
ix
and
later, in
The
and Ingraban; The Nest of the Hedge-sparrows ; The Brothers of the German House; Marcus King; The Brothers and Sisters; From a Little These are all descriptions of German life, City, etc.
Ancestors, including Ingo
Devoted
to the
glory of the
extensive
German
work,
the author's
some
German
character.
In
Karl Mathy ; Story of His Life. Freytag continued to edit Die Grenzboten for twentywhen he went over
His
life,
three years,
to a
new journal
called
Lm Neuen
duced him
Reich.
to public
political writings
having intro-
he became
in 1867, a representa-
North-German Parliament.
officer
On
the
on the
staff of
Crown
till
after
He
gave up public
life in
1879.
INTRODUCTION.
That the technique of
the
drama
is
nothing
the highest
human
has
thousand years
forms, the stage
spiritual
and
moral
nature
the
and
to
of
have experienced
field
great
A
;
wide
a
of
dramatic
has
been
won.
With the
and
political
principles
our notion of
effective
the
beautiful
and
the
artistically
has
of
developed.
Between
the the
sacramentales,
and
drama
of the time of
is
difference
not
less
great
between the
INTRODUCTION.
and
the
complete
It
inclosed
room
of
the
that
modern some
stage.
may be
considered certain
of
dramatic
time
;
in
of
found
artistic
in
means
effects.
of poetry has been advanced through the creations of the greatest poets
self-exaltation that
only
we
art
at present
effects
drama and
is
inclined
of
to
in
look
method
the
work
which
char-
scenes,
treatment of
acters,
easily
creation.
elaborate,
error.
Even an
specific rules,
certain
limitation
founded
popular custom,
piece,
as to choice of material
have been
creative
at
different
best
aid
to
power.
Indeed, they
seems, nee-
INTRODUCTION.
essary prerequisites of that rich harvest of
many
that
and incomprehensible.
We
recognize
still
worked according
in
to craftsin
man's
part
rules
which were
part
common, and
distinct
families
and
Many
of these
according to them
whether the
place
revolution scene
were
in
the
right
and
the
pathos
scene
sympathy.
That
Spanish
fixed
;
rules,
us
but
we
many
and
and
in
formulate a code
of peculiar rules
rules, of course,
These
whom
they were
the
useful,
through
genius
these
gradually
how
to
improve
and
after
lifeless;
and
lost.
4
It
is
INTRODUCTION.
true,
many
aesthetic
marks out
a
limit
for
the
dramatic poetry of a
period
and
is
boundary within
which
the
greatest success
is
not allowed
In
later
considered a hin-
But even we
judgment
of
posterity
if
we
only
possessed
nique.
now
the
We
suffer
narrow
lack
of
limitations,
lack
and uncertain.
Even
to-day,
finds
young poet
difficult to
move upon
and
ease.
If,
age of
composing according
to
the
craftsman's
art
traditions
as
yet
to seek,
and
intelligently
and modern
stage.
on our
To be
sure, these
rules
are
not to be prescribed
INTRODUCTION.
at the dictation of a single
is
essential
they
as
must serve
but
dictator,
as honest helper;
not to be excluded.
It is
former time,
framework of
his
in writing
to later generations.
Two
the
these
Poetics
laws
for
Hellenes.
Unfortunately
us
has
come
down
to
incomplete.
have
made
a
of
corrupt
text
with
gaps,
apparently
together.
disconnected
In
spite
is
chapters,
this
hastily
thrown
condition,
what
we
this
have received
our science of
into
To
the past
is
the remains of
In our
the
art,
text-books
for
on
the
affords
foundation
theory of
our
dramatic
the
work
INTRODUCTION.
dramatic
effects,
of
as
the
to
greatest
his
thinker
of
antiquity
explained them
contemporaries,
it
use
in
considering
work
contains
many
fine
from
the
workshops of
advantage
in
antiquity,
our labors.
the
Germans
this
ste-
nography
of
the
ancients.
His Hamburgische
popular
com-
dramatically
beautiful.
in
The
book,
secure
the
victorious battle
which he waged
this will
French
taste,
affection of
German
is
of
most importance.
his
Where Lessing
elucidates
Aristotle,
understanding of the
Greek does
which has
at
explanation;
restricted
by the
effective,
INTRODUCTION.
Indeed, the
the
best
7
is
plays
of
great
to-day,
exercise their
especially the
charm
Greek tragedies.
to look aside
Whoever
accus-
toms himself
of the
For
About
Colonos,
two
thousand
the
years
after
CEdipus at
Shakespeare,
second
mighty genius
art,
He
created
drama
the
of the
Germanic
races.
His treatment
the
action, his
his
tragic,
his
regulation
of
manner
of
developing
character,
and
repre-
the
introduction of the
the
first
half to
still
the
climax,
many
in a
laws
which
guide
us.
roundabout way to a
the
greatness
great
and significance of
poets,
<-^
The
German
'
easily
the
^^^
'
'-
f^.sbion. lived
INTRODUCTION.
There waj
which they
to
the
technique
we
many
things
in the
following
it
has seemed
desirable to
works.
CHAPTER
I.
THE
IDEA.
some striking event. First appear movements internal conflicts and personal
;
resolution,
collision of
consequence, the
two characters, the opposition of a hero above their connection with other incidents, that they become
rial.
that the
main element, vividly perceived, and comin its entrancing, soul-stirring or terrifyis
prehended
ing significance,
separated from
all
that casually
and with single supplementary, is brought into a unifying relation of cause and effect. The new unit which thus arises is the Idea of the Drama. This is the center toward which further independent inventions are diiected, like rays. ThisTd^a works with a power siii.iiar to the secret power of crystallization. Tl^A. ugh this are unity of action, significance of
accompanies
it,
invented elements,
10
characters,
drama produced.
How
through
show.
the
following
example
will
young poet
In
Duke
The accepted facts in the dead upon the floor. case, and the medical examination indicated that both had come to their deaths by drinking poison. There is a rumor of an attachment between the pair,
which the major's father, the well-known President The sad fate von Boiler, had sought to break off. of the young woman, universally esteemed on account of her modest demeanor, awakens the
sympathy of
all
people of sensibility."
From
ter of
innocent and
maiden.
The
contrast
between the court atmosphere, from which the lover has emerged, and the narrow circle of a little
village
household,
is
vividly
felt.
The
hostile
father
becomes a
An
the
unavoidable
necessity
of
explaining
The
II
unfaith-
intelligible
and to others
while freely
consistency.
inventing,
he introduces an
internal
These inventions are, in appearance, little supplementary additions, but they make an entirely original production which stands over against the original occurrence as something new, and has In the something like the following contents breast of a young nobleman, jealousy toward his beloved, a girl of the middle class, has been so excited by his father, that he destroys both her Through this remodeling, and himself by poison. an occurrence in real life becomes a dramatic
:
idea.
is
From
this
The
place,
and family
name
happened as reported, or what was the character of the victims, and of their parents, or their rank, no longer matters at all quick perception and the first activity of creative power have given to the occurrence a universally intelligible meaning and
;
an
a
intrinsic
truth.
The
;
occurrence
they
could
enter
into
hundred cases, and with the accepted characters and the assumed connection, the outcome would always be the same.
When
own
from the real account some things which suit his purpose the
soul into the material, then he adopts
12
title
and of the
son, the
name
of the
perhaps single
the chief
character which he
this
may
turn to account.
;
Alongside
alities
quarrel-
some accomplice
woman, the
;
new impulses
the piece.
all
these
by the idea of
first
to the mate-
coming
it
thought;
abstract conception.
ity in
On
glow
same time with the idea, bound into an inseparable unity, and that they continually work like a human being producing and
the soul at the
expanding
course,
in
every direction.
It
is
possible,
of
however securely he
bears
it
may
of composition,
come
having
formulated
it
comprehends
it
as the
13
It is possible,
more
however,
it
is
difficult
for
him
growing play
into a for-
mula, to express
well,
in
even
in the
however imperfect
in
this
be recognized
single poets.
way
that
let
is
characteristic of
For example,
be,
Mmy
queen
rival;"
Stuart
incites
"The
the
of
the foundation of
excited
of
jealousy of
to
killing
her
imprisoned
and again
excited jealousy of a
killing of his
las will
life
These bare formube taken from the fulness of many-colored which in the mind of the creative poet is condistinct in the construction of
;
humble beloved."
both pieces, example, that the poet using such a frame work was placed under the necessity of composing in advance the first part of the action, which
in
become
addition
for
explains
impelling
the
chief
characters
becomes
14
the
the accessory characters,. to excite the fatal activity It will be further of one of the chief characters.
noticed
how
is
the con-
and motive of these two plays of Schiller, and how both have a surprising similarity in idea and plan, to the more powerful Othello. The material which is transformed through the
struction
dramatic idea,
cially for his
is
either invented
is
drama, or
the
life
poem.
In
all
of these cases,
at hand,
it
where the
is
has already
Even been humanized by the impress of an idea. incipient in the above supposed newspaper notice, the
remodeling
is
recognizable.
rumor of an attachment," etc., the reporter makes the first attempt to transform the mere fact into a consistent story, to explain the
"There
is
The
practice of
and a
meaning corresponding
tive of the poet.
bility for
it,
demands
of the think-
is
no prerogaand capaall
are active in
persons, and at
times.
transposed for
For thousands of years the human race has thus itself life in heaven and on earth it has abundantly endowed its representations of the
;
15
human
attributes.
Even now,
and respect
itself
in
the
In every
activity
is
if
what
is
real
spirit
some
trait of
narrow
to
life,
make
himself in contrast
The
all
poet-
ical
them
into being.
Whoever
describes the
of a
must
mass of material
sift
out the
Still
must make prominent the most essenmore, he must seek to comprehend the
contents of a
human
life
or a period of time
he
tics
must take pains to discover ultimate characterisand intimate connection of events. He must
also
know
is*
tfie
much
that
external,
present.
In certain cases,
i6
and so explain the and possible meaning He is finally directed in the arrangement is evident. of his work, by the laws of creation, which have
what has been delivered
unintelligible, that its probable
many
things in
common
composition.
Through
his
knowledge and
his art,
he may from crude material create a picture exciting wonder, and produce upon the soul of the reader But he is distinguished the most powerful effect. from the poet by this, that he seeks conscientiously
what has actually occurred, exactly as 'it was presented to view, and that the inner connection which he seeks is produced by the laws of nature which we revere as divine, eternal, incompreto understand
hensible.
To
itself,
with
its
significance for
human
importance.
his
To
own
invention
at his convenience,
To
the
still
however animated
may be through
contents,
;
in' its
is
and the
useful to
most
artistic
treatment by
it
the historian
facilitates his
If
is
comprehenperson
what has
really happened.
in history,
if
he perceives
he
man
if
is
touched
life,
by
17
then
That which
in the historical
character
is
only a subordinate
characteristic
trait,
now becomes
being;
the
the fundamental
of his
gloomy,
poet's
fierce
commander
man.
own
nature; he
ing, reflecting
ter, all
other characters
regulated.
determined,
and
guilt
and
calamities
Through such
stein, a figure
little
Wallen-
in
common
torical Wallenstein.
be on his guard
to appear
lest, in his
what to
his
contemporaries
How much
poet
may be
will
discussed
It
later.
whether the
rapture of
his
poetic activity
is
what
is
or
which he
the
But from
moment when
unfettered
with
freedom,
however
faithfully
he
i8
He
transforms
all
forces.*
(See Notes, commencing page 383.) Moreover, when the poet adopts material which
has already been put in order more or less perfectly according to the laws of epic construction, as heroic
poem, saga,
artistically finished
narrative,
is
Let
it
ennobled through an
the contrar}^, there
for
On
stand
which represents actions and characters as they are developed through each other, a profound opposition
which
it
is
difficult
to
manage.
ca?eated
it
Even the
difficult
poetic
charm
which
these
his soul,
may
render
the
more
for
him
to transform
his art.
its
according to the
vital
requisites of
them The
material,
dramatic.
To
The
characters
reality
from
19
II.
WHAT
IS
DRAMATIC?
of the
and to do, and those emotions of the soul which are aroused by a deed or course of action also the inner processes which man experiences from the first glow of perception to passionate desire and action, as well as the influences which one's own and others' deeds exert upon the soul also the rushing forth of will power from the depths of man's soul toward the external world, and the influx of fashioning influences from the outer world into man's inmost being; also the coming into being of a deed, and its consequences on the human soul.
;
An
action, in itself,
is
is
not dramatic.
Passionate
feeling, in itself,
not dramatic.
itself,
leads to action
is
but for
on a human soul
is
The exposition
thrilling events
the depicting of
are,
of a
course,
Even while
his
man is
which the dramatic expresses not fundamentally different. under stress, and laboring to turn
on
20
what
a dif-
The
man toward
a deed, has
almost
yet,
all
and
it
however indispensa-
ble
,
it is
to the drama,
;
is
principally a satisfying
of excited suspense
hearer,
if
What
is
excited wonder.
art
presents
men
as their
logically
ligible
by external influences, it must use the means by which it can make intel-
to
nature.
the auditor these processes of man's These means are speech, tone, gesture. It
.
its
In close fellowship with her sister arts, with vigorous, united effort she sends her images into the
effects.
THE DRAMATIC
have a very peculiar character
ACTION.
;
21
from the effects of the plastic arts through the force of emphasis and the progressive and regular gradation of the chosen movement, but also from the powerful effects of music, in this, that they flow in
at the
senses,
and excite
intel-
with
rapture
but also
lectual activity.
it is
clear that
demands
I
must have something unusual in their nature' which may distinguish them not only from the innumerable, more manifold, and more complicated beings whose images real life impresses on the soul, but also from the poetic images which are
rendered effective through other forms of
epic, the
art,
the
romance, the
lyric.
The
dramatis persona
it is
nature, not as
aroused and
full of
feel-
power
others.
embody
the
itself
in
a deed, trans-
Man,
in
drama,
must there be represented in him in full activity those peculiarities which come effectively into conflict with other men, force of sentiment, violence of will, achievement hindered through passionate desire, just those peculiarities which make character and are intelligible through character. It
thus happens, not without reason, that in the terms
22
drama ^are_called^clmra^^ are brought forward by which But the characters poetry and her accessory arts, can evince their inner life only as participants in an event or occurrence, tTie course and internal connection of which becomes
of
the people of a
apparent to the spectator through the dramatic processes in the soul of the poet. This course of events,
when
it is
dramatic
art, is
Each
definite
an exact, circumscribed personality is necessary, which must be so constituted that so _much of it as has a purpose may be conveniently perfor each,
and what
is
peculiar to this
ively represented
Those
spiritual processes
apparent in every person represented, specially on the later stage, which is fond of bringing forward a
greater
action.
number
them
But the chief characters must abound in only when these, in_aa.-:appropriate manner,
their real nature with jKDwer and fulness, even to the inmost recesses of their heatts^ can the drama produce great effects. If this last dramatic
exhibit
element
is
is
;
upon the hearer, the drama is lifeless it is an artificial, empty form, without corre'sponding contents and the pretentious co-operation of several
not. forced
;
23
makes
this
hoUowness
the
more
each accordIt
does not
ticipation
it
by costume,
manner
of speech,
entering, to represent in a
manner
suitable to the
even
if
But since the representation of these mental processes, which are the prerogative and requisite of the drama, requires time, and since the poet's time
for the
producing of effects
it
is
limited according to
much
more boldly
'
many
The
human
than
its
of
many
that in the
seen.
This
is first
possible
when
24
reached a certain
and to observe themselves have become accustomed when the impulse to a deed others critically under flex.b.h of degree y and speech has acquired a high longer no is when the individual
force, ancient
but
.s
able
more freely to fashion his own which the dramatic has come tinguish two periods in
to
We
dis-
Cb
This intensification of the time in the ancient human soul appeared for the first Christ, when the before world, about 500 years
the
human
race.
free Hellenic commuyouthful consciousness of the of commerce, with freenity awoke with the bloom participation of the dom of speech, and with the The dramatic spirit of state.
citizen
in
affairs
newer family of appeared the second time, in the Reformation, at the European peoples, after the
mind and spirit, same time with the deepening of sixteenth century, which was produced through the but also among the not only among the Germans,
methods. Centuries Latin races, but by different effort of the before the inception of this mighty various human spirit, not only the Hellenes, but the been already had nations, branches of migrating of art and speech developing the rudiments of a There, was seeking the dramatic.
pantomime which
and the occasioned the song in ceremonial costume, of entrance the Bu playing of popular masques. exhibitions. dramatic power into these lyric or epic
25
was in both cases a wonderfully rapid, almost sudden one. Both times, the dramatic was developed, from the moment it became alive, with a marvellous power to a beauty which, through the Immedilater centuries, it has not easily reached. ately after the Persian wars, came ^schylus,
Sophocles,
and
Euripides
in
close
succession.
Shortly
after
the
Reformation,
first
there
in
appeared
among
England and
all
among
art.
the
Germans,
left
behind through
this
helpless weakness,
But there
is
ning of the dramatic in the old world and in ther\ !new: the drama of antiquity originated in tjjejyric^, choral song that of the newer world rests on Jhe epic enjoyment "in the exhibition of important
;
events.
In the former,
the
in
the
witnessing
of
thrilling
incident.!
\
artistic
'
development
tions
of
art
something essentially
But even
the people, the highest effects of poetry remained the prerogative of a few, and since that time dra-
We may
26
on the part of the leading persons, with loosely connected choruses, hadr-^iQssibly, lyric,
but notdraniatic-beaty^
And among
theliTstoric
many, the greater part contains little more than mangled history thrown into dialogue, some epic material thrown into scenic form, at all events nothing of dramatic character.
Only
two celebrated dramas need here be named. The Hecuba of Euripides shows, until toward the end, only a little progress, and that entirely unsatisfactory, from the_ excited disposition, toward ,a..deed^;
^
first
in the^final
If
Hecuba
nation
this
;
And
again, in Shakespeare's
Henry
V., in
patriotic
which the poet wished to compose a piece according to the old epic customs of
fights,
^yie little
epi-
sodes, there
is
apparent neither Jn
chief ^char-
demand
rip-
ple along
thing.
in
the actions
among
his
people,
it
27
is
For
us,
the play
less
On
the
name only
t Lear,
From
ters,
;
immediately following time, rates Where this life is wantthe significance of a piece.
least that of the
ing,
no
skill
in treatment,
no attractive material,
is
work
alive.
Where
this
dramatic
shortcomings.
III.
UNITY OF ACTION.
By
ing
its
action
is
meant, an
event
or
occurrence,
meaning made apparent by the characters. It is composed of many elements, and consists in a number of dramatic efficients {jnomente^, which become effective one after the other, according to
a regular arrangement.
The
unity.
differ-
28
partly
by
partly
The
French
classics,
and the
strife of
have for us only a literary-historical interest.^ No dramatic material, however perfectly its connections
is
f
'
These incircumstances presupposed must be so far dispensable presented to the hearer, in the opening scenes, that he may first survey the groundwork of the piece,
independent of something presupposed.
not in detail, indeed, lest the field of the action
itself,
be limited
between
'
threads
who appear, and the unavoidable which come together in these, from whatleft
When,
for
Love and
an already exist-
ing love affair forms the groundwork, the hearer must be given a sharp informing glance into this relation of the two leading characters, and into the family life from which the tragedy is to be developed. Moreover, in the case of historical material, which is furnished by the vast and interminable connections of the great events of the world, this exposi-
what has gone before is no easy undertaking and the poet must take heed that he simplify it as
tion of
much
as possible.
29
the
notes
of
a melody
first
is
from
the
introductory
stimu-
chords.
This
stir
of excitement, this
lating impulse,
The end
of
'
however,
represent
the
complete
termination
of
Within these limits, the action must move forThis internal ward with uniform consistency. consistency is produced by representing an event which follows another, as an effect of which that let that which occaother is the evident cause sions, be the logical cause of occurrences, and the new scenes and events be conceived as probable, and generally understood results of previous actions or let that which is to produce an effect,
; ;
be a generally
character already
comprehensible
peculiarity
If
it
i
of
'
made known.
unavoid-
these
perfectly,
drama is called, assigning the Through the motives, the motive i^motivireii) elements of the action are bound into an artistic,
connected whole.
This binding together of
inci-
30
the
distinguishing
characteristic
of
this
species of
art.
Through
this
linking
is
together of
effected.
Let the remodeling of a narrative into a dramatic There lived in Verona action serve as an example.
enmity and feuds of long As chance would have it, the son of one standing. family, together with his companions, play the pre-
two noble
families,
in
sumptuous
into a
disguised
masked ball, given by the chief of the other At this ball the intruder beholds the daughhouse.
ter of his
sion.
enemy, and
in
They determine upon a clandestine marriage and are wedded by the father confessor of the maiden. Then fate directs that the new bridegroom
is
bride,
slain
him
in the duel, is
The
young woman
remove her
pri-
vately from the coffin and communicate her embarrassing situation to her distant husband.
But again
in a
31
He
has-
his native city, and forces his where lies the body of his wife. Unfortunately, he meets there the man destined by her parents to be her bridegroom, kills him, and upon the coffin of his beloved, drinks the fatal poison. The loved one awakes, sees her dying husband, and stabs herself with his dagger.*
back to
way
This narrative
occurrence.
told
ter.
;
is
The
so
came
no close connection.
fate,
gives enjoyment.
V
v
1
The
us,
task of the poet was on the stage, but to the feeling, desire, and make them more evident,
make them
to develop
perceptible in
to
them
in
accord-
He
had, in the
place,
to set forth
;
in a time
and combative-
32
FREYTAG'S TECHNIQUE
OF,
JHE DRAMA.
;
then the
Romeo and
Capu-
house.
it
must
it
Therefore
was
necessary
to
introduce
the
companions of
spirits,
Romeo,
fresh, in uncontrolled,
life.
youthful
play-
ing with
To
this
In contrast
with his
mad companions,
the dejected
Romeo, whose
amorous passion.
lind.
This availed
For this, the masque-scene and the balcony-scene were constructed. Every enchantment of poetry is here used to the greatest purpose, to make apparent, conceivable and as a matter of course, that henceforward the sweet paspassion of the lovers.
sion of the lovers determines their lives.
The accessory
from
this point,
figures,
which enter
For the narrative, it was sufficient that a priest performed the marriage rites, and gave direction to the
unfortunate intrigue
;
such aids have always been at hand as soon, however, as he himself has stepped upon the stage, and by his words has entered the action, he must receive a personality which accounts
;
33
he must be
;
good-hearted and
confidence
church
order to venture
hot-headed brawler
see his purpose, he
in what had gone before, for the peculiar hatred toward Romeo and his companions. Hence the little side scene at the masked ball, in which Tybalt's anger
Romeo.
And
in this
had to bring to bear the strongest motive, to compel Romeo to engage in the. duel. Mercutio must first be slain for this reason, and for the further purpose of heightening the tragic power of the scene, and accounting for
scene
itself,
the poet
into banishment, as
in
done
in the narrative,
would be impossible
the
drama.
To show
known
to
all.
The scene on
34
eve
oration,
which need not be explained here, it arises But this scene was necesJuliet's
character renders
noble.
It
what
is is
must be
shown
later,
icent emotion, of
mighty passion
nature.
despairing determination
may
be found con-
sistent with
her
conflict over Tybalt's death and Romeo's banishment must precede the wedding night, to impart to
which increases the interest in this always delicate But even the possibility of this scene must scene. be made clear. Its accessory persons. Friar LauThe rence and the nurse, are again significant. character of the nurse, one of Shakespeare's unsurpassable inventions,
dentally
;
is,
is,
just as she
she
is
a suitable accomplice
and she makes explicable Juliet's inward withdrawal from her and the catastrophe. Immediately after her wedding night, the command is given to Juliet to be married to Paris. That
the beautiful daughter of the wealthy Capulet would
find a distinguished suitor, and that her father, for whose hot-headedness a sufficient ground has already been laid, would exercise harsh compulsion in the matter, would be conceded by the hearer without further preparation, as probable and a matter of But it is a matter of much consequence to course.
35
important event.
he would throw this dark* shadow upon the great love scene and he would account right distinctly,
;
and
to the
common
ing calamity.
Now
Up to this the weak hands of Friar Laurence. point, the drama has carefully excluded every Even to the jnost minute intrusion of any chance. accessory fact, all is accounted for by the kind of
characters.
Now
a tremendous destiny
:
is
weighing
down
family
a
clandestine
all this is
marriage,
banishment,
new wooing,
sensibility
The
is
intro-
duction of
effective,
explanatory motives
no longer
strata-
Now the
gem
by an accident; for the feeling that it was desperate and presumptuous in the highest degree, to
expose a living person to the incalculable chances of a sleep -potion and burial, has become so strong
in
unhappy result as probable. Thus the catastrophe is introduced and given a foundation. But that the hope of a happy outcome may entirely vanish from the mind of the spectator, and that the inherent necessity of ruin may yet at
the last
moment overtop
36
Romeo must
slay
The death
Juliet
of this stranger
is
the
lovers.
Even when
now
in a fortunate
is
moment
has
and Romeo's
good
fortune, or even
become improbable
to them.
The
The
and
piece contains
still
evince
pose.
The
internal
is
not
No
this
is
more frequently
one
;
and
this disregard
The
Athenian stage suffered on this account totle attempted to meet the evil, when
and Aris-
in his firm
way he
said:
"The
is
action
is
the
first
and most
"The
ones;
action
made to we later
who
are
charm
of historical material,
37
to
present the
of an heroic prince, as he
is
at
is
again reconciled to
in
moving
forces
of the historical
among
speech and
re-
a love episode,
historical picture
He
is
positively a weak-hearted
What he
has produced
has, sure
is
not drama.
of the
He
demands
of his art
he has fash-
ioned the character of his hero simply and according to rule, has not been sparing in additions, small
and
ones.
great, has
Through
all this,
is
at best a
life
weak
reflection of
of the hero
would
have produced,
if
well presented
in
by the
historian;
been
art, is in
Even the poet who thinks more worthily of his danger, when busied with historical matter,
38
The
historical
writer has
life
by the peculiarities of characters, which conjure up a fatality. results, assume which The effect which the intimate connections of an historic life produce, is powerful, and excites wonder.
Determined by such a force of the
in
real,
the poet
life.
The
in
to
him the
last
motive
of an active existence.
German
is
forced by sheer
self,
such a character
dramatic hero,
may
possess
is
all
the qualities of a
what
universally comprehensible
and
significant
a relation between
guilt
he appears as the
;
artif-
essence
the
germ and
pause
a poetic idea.
But
in distrust.
He
his art
or,
indeed,
whether he
his art
is
through
Of
39
hero.
he
garment by the
;
castle wall,
is
the secret of
little
the poet
the historian
knows very
to tell
life,
about
sition
it.
To such
hero
short
do not fashion
themselves completely
;
Now
very numerous.
self to a
The poet
is
very few.
He
is
few
in order to give
them the
of the
which
in
whole had.
is,
He
will see
and how by this means his hero becomes smaller and weaker, and that his historic idea is completed with so little.
with astonishment
difficult this
how
representation of these
selected
Every must have an introduction that will account for it he mnst introduce to the spectator his Hannos, his Ottos, his Rudolphs and Henrys he must to a certain extent make their affairs attractive two or three times in the
poorer than the historian.
one of
it
the
narrow stage
every
the rising
interest
of
hearers will
relapse.
He
will
make
the
40
characters,
however
may
;
and he
one or the other greatly elaborated scene with pure dramatic life, which stands alone in a desert of sketchy, brief suggestions of mutilated history, and
To
idealize
an entire
in
political
human
life
a prodigious undertaking.
Cyclic dramas,
trilosufifice
gies, tetralogies,
may
for this.
single historic
movement may
For,
give the
as
faith
begins
when knowledge
off.
when
history leaves
What
brilliant
history
is
able to declare
most
colors,
;
the
revelations of
human
nature
to
how
shall
him
for this,
when he
his-
torical events?
made
use, in his
two
life
greatest
historical
last
and
for so small
in Wallenstein three
Let
this
example be
taken to heart.
It is true
41
is
Egmont, although
its
characterization of
its
to a certain extent
its
compensated
for
Concerning the
Shakespeare, above
the Germans.
lish
III.
artless
treatment of historical
has given hints to
others,
His historic plays, taken from Enghistory, the structure of which, except Richard we should not imitate, had a far different justi-
fication.
tory, as
At that time there was no writing of hiswe understand the term and as the poet
;
made
he wrought from an abundance, and opened up the immediate past to his nation, in a
artistic figures,
But
he,
the
stage
of
his
time the
;
and we
owe
to
make
use of the
how
duced by a unified and well-ordered action. His Roman plays, if one makes allowance for a few of the practices of his stage, and the third act of A?ito?iy and Cleopatra, are models of an established construction. We do not do well to imitate what he has overcome.
42
greater in the
modern
As
the
and
their representation
a finer finish
tragedy,
only that
one of the older plays of ^Eschylus, The Supplithe vacillating character of the
King
of
Argos
made
how,
in the
had
is
laid the
motive
skilful
surrender of the
Danaids,
protection.
Sophocles
specially
introducing as controlling
of
his characters, for
Antigone,
is
Ajax,
Odysseus.
Indeed,
than
In
Sophocles
in this, that
he delights
in
making more
was
much
known and already prepared network of events, as in the case of Agamemnon, Clytemnestra, Orestes.
This was an advantage to the Greeks, but to us
it
THE DRAMATIC ACTION.
seems a
restraint.
43
With
hero
is
seeking
an action which shall be a luminous center, throwWe will ing light on everything that approaches it.
be able to explain, from his nature, what
is
more
But however rigidly we construct the action according to his needs, it must always be composed of individual parts which belong
profound and hidden.
to the
same
event,
and
is
this
Among
the
against
How,
'
Shakespeare
the
face
of the
sixteenth
already been
mentioned.
Among
Goethe,
in
Tasso and
Iphigcnia.
Love and
an accident that
in his last
and in Demetrius, so far as this play may be judged from notices of it, he has neglected the law? Whenever he approached the bounds of license, it occurred through his delight in episodes and in double heroes, as in Don Carlos, Mary Stuart, and Walle?istei?i.
plays, in Tell,
Of kinds
ends
matic
make
;
action
Material
from
44
on account of the entangled action, are thrown about with too little freedom of moverestrained
in
their
movement
Historical
situations.
greatest
is
opportunities
into a
but
good action. The poet's interest in the characters of his counter-players easily mounts so high that to them
is
accorded a
sympathetic
and a peculiar destiny. Thereby arises a double action for the drama or the action of the piece may be of such a nature as to require for its illumination and completion a subordinate action, which through the exposition of concurrent or opposing relations brings into greater prominence the chief persons, with what they do and what they suffer.
;
Various defects
material,
especially one-sidedness
;
in
may make
is
One
play
all
possible color-tones
but a variation in
mood and
in
many
be
figures, the
in contrast
45
the
con-
To
Iphigenia and
were invented
messa,
tone, the magic charm of which we still feel to-day. The gloomy, pathetic Othello requires opposed to him some one in whom the unrestrained freedom The somber figure of Walof humor is apparent.
lenstein
and
his
companions
in intrigue
imperatively
demands
If,
Max
Greeks classed their plays into those with single action, and those with double
for this reason, the
action, the
less
avoided
the extension of
action.
counter-play into an
accessory
The interweaving
effect.
main
combined
The Germans,
especially,
who
great
of
the
accessory persons
with
Even Shakesin
peare has
effect
occasionally,
in
this
of
the
which the whole parallel action of the house of Gloucester, but loosely connected with the main
and treated with no particular fondness, retards the movement, and needlessly renders the whole more bitter. The poet allowed the episodes develop into an in both parts of He?iry IV. to
action,
46
of which out-
and
this has
made
Every
admirer of Falstaff
ing power,
in
in spite
grant,
general effect on the stage has not the correspondof this charm.
in
Let
it
be noticed,
the
;
passing,
that
Shakespeare's
comedies
he
from
his
genial
he interweaves them with the serious action. The humor which beams from their scenes must
conceal
as
sometimes
material
;
the
harder elements
in
the
when
Among
Grerman poets, Schiller was most in danger of injury from the double action. The disproportion of the
accessory action
rests
in
Don
Carlos
upon
this,
Wal-
a trilogy.
fc
In
Tell,
It is
corresponds
the
heart.
to the
demands
in the
of
the
intellect
and
Whatever,
in
And
it
is
what is indispensable to unity. Yet he may not avoid a deviation from this for
principle, to give only
;
may
47
purpose
contrast.
They
At
a point
characterizing
ation
;
some
significant
of his being in an
some subordipiece
nate person
some subordinate
role of the
may, through ampler elaboration, be developed into By a modest use, which must an attractive figure.
not take time from what
is
And
com-
them
as ornaments,
and
if
to
they ever
different
in
according to
which
they appear.
While
as enlargements of those
must be
felt to
be advantageous
in a
this
in
word
somewhat
That which
so
name
master
consisted,
among
other things, in
this,
that he inter-
48
wove
most part to
Thus,
Ismene
indispensa-
and no longer as episode, but as part of the action. Moreover, where he paints a situation more broadly,
as in the beginning of CEdipus at Colo?ws, such a portrayal corresponds throughout to the customs of our
stage.
Shakespeare
treats
his
episodes
in
almost
Even
those serious
but
much of the beautiful worked in and with this, so much that is efficient for the combined effect, that the severest manager of our stage, who may be compelled to shorten the drama, rarely
there
is
Mer-
nurse,
Queen Mab, and the jests of the the interviews of Hamlet with the players and
with his
examples as recur
superabundantly,
golden ornaments
but he
who approaches to
if
unclasp
with
445
transferred
little
character
The
(the
Galotti
ford),
Riccault,
Lady MilMinna von Barnhelm, indeed, Natha?i The Wise, became models
of the eighteenth century.
in
German episodes
his
In Schiller,
in
the
conjoined action.
iar
to
for
movement, but not always; we would gladly spare some single ones, like
Tell,
Parricida in William
just
is
because
in this case
the
understood purpose
in
so
striking;
and The
Black Knight
dom
in his
Maid
Poetic truth
real life,
tions
ing
is imparted to material taken from by its being raised above its casual connecand receiving a universally understood meanand significance. In dramatic poetry, this is
effected
the essential parts, bound together and unified rby some causative connection, and all the accessory
^
50
poetic truth
is
needed
in
the
The
he gladly
lets
the presump-
and
is
in general quite
human
is
relations
in the
but he
not able
this
he holds close to
brings with him before the stage a certain knowledge of historical relations, definite, ethical and moral demands upon human life, presages and a clear knowledge of the course of events. To a certain extent, it is impossible for him to renounce this purport of his own life and sometimes he feels
;
He
it
it.
That ocean vessels should land on the coast of Bohemia, that Charlemagne should use cannon, That the Jew, Shylock,
is
promised mercy
if
he
will
spectator,
and he
is
human
sacrifices in
kingdom, appears as an internal contradiction between the noble personality of the characters and
the
'
presuppositions
of
the
piece
and however
it
51
may be
That
CEdipus rules
even at the
many
ful supposition.
Now
real,
it
is
well
known
every century,
changed by each advance of human culture. The interpretation of past times, moral and social demands, the social relations, are nothing firmly
established
;
but every
spectator
is
a child of his
is
time
for
com-
monly acceptable,
and the culture of
his age.
And
life
it is
mind
fully
of each per-
son,
and richly he
own
life
He
and most
liberal culture,
teacher, to
draw
his
reason
bounds staked out. He must not exceed these bounds. He must not, in many cases, leave vacant any of the space which they enclose. Where
they arise invisible, they
single
may be
delicate
divined in each
sensibility
case
only through
and
trustworthy feeling.
52
of
dramatic art
are,
so to speak,
of
art,
sociable.
As
the
dramatic work
arts, is
in
combination of several
represented through
is
the
many
mightit
;
yet,
as
a whole, a unit,
which
ily
like
every
human
in
congregation,
influences the
individuals
who compose
certain
agreement
feeling and
contemplation
a
common
opinion.
in the
audience expresses
prodigiously,
reception
degree.
has
felt
how
which the
different
before
differently
constituted
is
audience.
The
invariably directed,
his conception of
by
audience.
He knows
to
it,
that
he must not
it
attribute too
little.
much
too
He
that
it
presup-
positions a
good average
life
of his hearers,
;
who
that
bring
is,
53
If
he succeeds
he
may
most
refined
performance contains.
This consideration must guide the poet most
p
when he
is,
is
tempted
to put forward
what
is
strange
or marvellous.
indeed,
To make charming what is strange, The dramatic art specially has possible.
;
means of making it understood, and of laying upon what is intelligible to us but for this there is needed a special expenditure of force and time; and frequently the question is justified, whether the effect aimed at warrants the expenditure of time
rich
stress
marked out
the midst
of a period of culture to of
extraneous
pictures
peculiar,
can easily be
is
marvellous
in
numerous
peculiarities, circumstances
unknown
meaning
of
is
historian
exceptional cases,
54
with most
treatment,
which deepen a
iarities
color.
life,
of
human
of
immortal
what is common to us and to his successes. blossom Still more the old times, he will avoid presenting such strange peoples as stand entirely outside the great forward movements of civilization. That which is unusual in their manners and customs, their costumes, or even the color of their skins, is distracting and excites attendant images which are unfavorable to serious art
import,
out
effects.
is
mind with
a picturing of
real circumstances,
real.
is
which can claim an interest only But even the inner life of
unsuitable for dramatic expresis
such foreigners
sion
;
for,
in
reality
wanting
them
the
inner
necessary.
And
arouses in the
Anyone who would among the ancient Egyptfellahs, among the Japanese
or even Hindoos,
graphic
interest
people
may be
it
and prejudice
It is
no
55
drama
as
have advanced so
life
opment
cultured
of their intellectual
peoples
of
Greeks, Romans, modern times after these, them, whose nationality has
;
the
grown up with ours, or with the ancient Hebrews scarcely yet the Turks.
culture, like
How
far the
marvellous
Drasisters,
matic poetry
lyric
is
and epic, in this respect, that she can represent only men, and, if one looks more closely, only cultivated men, these, however, fully and profoundly She must arrange historical as no other art can. relations by inventing for them ah inner consistency which is thoroughly comprehensible to human understanding.
How shall
she
embody
the supernatural?
this,
she can do
only
in so far as
ically
ple,
the human,
gods lived
thus hover
in
among
their people
images of household
among many
faith of
the
56
credulous or incredulous,
received
so
is
still
rich an amplification,
artist
The Virgin Mary, St. Peter at the gate of heaven, many saints, archangels, and angels, and not last the considerable swarm of devils, live among our people, credulously associated with
women
in white, the
and dwarfs. But, however alluringly the colors gleam which they wear in their twilight, before the
sharp illumination of the tragic stage, they vanish
into
unsubstantial
shadows.
For
it
is
true
in
they
human
But
In
and
in the
is
conditions of
human
life.
;
this participation
they are
some of the most beautiful legends, the Germans make the little spirits complain that they cannot be happy that is that they have no human soul. The same difference, which already in the middle ages the people felt, keeps them in a different way from the modern stage inward struggles are wanting in
;
them, freedom
fails to test
and
complete wickedness are presentable, because they exclude all inward agitation. Even the Greeks felt
this.
When the gods should rather be represented on the stage than speak a command ex machina, they must either become entirely men, with all the
57
and
Athene,
in the
pro-
logue of Ajax.
spirits
in
better success in
tricks
And
the
whimsical and
humorous representation.
ever be ripe for
political
the
Germans
will
shall
comedy, then
they
satire,
is
and
Mephistopheles.
Here
the genius
of the greatest of
created
favorite
a stage
task of
in his
them seeks
German poets has problem which has become the our character players. Each of own manner to solve, with credit
which can not be solved
youth Voland
;
the
devil,
at best,
the
himself prudently and with spirit to render intelligible the fine rhetoric of the dialogue,
its in
and exhib-
good
humor.
difficult for
The poet has indeed made it exceedingly the player, of whom, during the com-
58
for
all
colors,
from the
true-
hearted speech of Hans Sachs, to the subtle discussion of a Spinozist, from the grotesque to the
terrifying.
And
if
still becomes poson the stage, the ultimate reason is the entrance Mephistopheles appears in of a comic element. some serious situations, but is a comic figure treated
and so far as he produces an effect in a grand style on the stage, he does it in this direction. By this is not meant that the mysterious, that
;
which has no foundation in human reason, should be entirely banished from the province of the drama.
Dreams,
portents,
prophesyings, ghost-seers,
the
upon human
life,
every-
may be supposed
to be a cer-
may employ
this that
strengthening of his
understood
in
ity of his
we
are no longer
much
of side effects
speare was
accessories
and only very sparing use Shaketo the poet. allowed to use this kind of minor
is
now accorded
ments of
his
The
soul-processes of a
man
strug-
among
Sg
more
qualm of conscience, remorse, the power of imaginimage of the frightful, still as something external the murderer saw the murdered rise before him as a ghost clutching into the air, he felt the weapon with which
ation conjured up before the sufferer the
;
,'
dead ringing
in his ear.
Shakespeare and
his hear-
the
III., far
from ourselves. To them this was not yet a bold, customary symbolizing of the inward struggles of their heroes, an accidental, shrewd
invention of the poet,
this
who supported
;
his effects
by
ghostly trumpery
but
it
was
to
essary method,
customary
in
their land, in
artistically excited
;
by
what had been frightful in their own lives, or what For while young Protestantism had laid could be. the severest struggles in men's consciences, and while the thoughts and the most passionate moods
of the excited soul
and
critically
mode
of
i'
Therefore Shake-
speare could
make
6o
But he furnishes at the same time the best example of how these ghost-like apparitions may be rendered artistically worthy of the drama. Whoever must present heroes of past centuries accord-
life
on legendary figures but he will use them as Shakespeare used his witches in the first act of Macbeth, as arabesques which mirror the color and mood of the time, and which only give occasion for forcing from the inner man of the hero what has grown up
;
in his
own
matic figure.
It is to
be observed that
in the
work
of the
mod-
ern poet, such accessories of the action serve especially to give color
by a coloring
and
otherof
The
Black Knight
in the
Maid of
Orleans
is
a disturbing
is
thor-
brilliant,
thoughtful lanpiece.
guage of
allowed
such
an
and
it
who
6i
But Schiller did not bring the Blessed Virgin herself upon the stage he only had her reported in his
;
magnificent fashion.
Had
in
Mother of God
would suggest, then there would have been a better preparation for the later appearance of the evil spirit. In costume and speech, the role is not
advantageously equipped.
torical coloring
Schiller
but the glimmer of the legendar}^ was not to the taste of one who always painted in full colors, and if a playful simile is allowed, used most fondly, gleaming golden yellow, and dark sky
blue.
On
made an admirable
use
The
inmost
struggles of individual
life
;
men must
affect their
treatment
dignified.
The
characters
must correin If
spond to such a meaning of the action, the play may produce a noble effect.
order that
the action
62
is
f
-
sion and extreme agitation, while these elements are wanting to the action, the incongruity is painfully
Euripides' Iphige?iia in
human
soul
exception of Clytemnestra,
or through sudden,
;
unwarranted change of
Menelaus,
Achilles,
feeling
thus
Agamemnon,
in
Shakespeare's Timoji of Athens, the character of the hero, from the moment when he
Iphigenia.
is
Again,
and power,
with
which a gloomy grandeur is not at all and action stand in incongruity That a warm-hearted, trusting spendthrift
to
become
weakness of
own
roundings
all
and
this
instability,
lamentableness of
life
of
We
demand
rightly that
the
hero
whose
63
wholly
the energy of
in his possessing
ners,
and
He
manmust
and his surroundings must be so created as easily to awaken in the hearer a keen interest. It is, therefore, no accident that when an
of his surroundings
;
action
is
laid
in
past
is
time,
it
realm
is
in
which what
greatest and
most important
life
of
mighty spiritual sigpower of will. Scarce any but the deeds and destinies of such commanding figures have been handed down to us from
that have developed not only a
nificance,
but
also
a significant
relations, of
No
recognized
at
drama
may
and that of
contempo-
raries,
a positive disadvantage.
to
They
which
are
now
They
less
exposed
the
compulsion
middle-class
are
same degree
and foreign
conflicts, their
64
So they appear exposed more powerful temptation, and capable of It must be added that the greater self-direction. relations in which they live, and the directions in
right but greater might.
to freer,
which they exert influence, offer the greatest wealth of colors and the most varied multiplicity of figures.
acters
and against
their purposes
is
affairs of
the
contradictions
reality,
and
conflicts.
any realm
of
resulting
hero
may be
It
phere.
whether the opposition to this develops a corresponding activity worthy of consideration. Since,
however, the importance and greatness of the conflict
can be
made
in a
and since these demands increase among such men as belong to the
luxuriance
of
language
life
of
modern
times,
modern
THE DRAMATIC ACTION.
indispensable.
65
For only in this way does he Therefore, receive freedom of thought and will. such classes of society as remain until our own time under the sway of epic relations, whose life
is
is
specially directed
still
by the customs of
the
spectator
their circle
such classes as
circumstances which
decides to be unjust
;
observes
and
finally,
man-
however powerfully passion works in their natures, however their feeling, in single hours, breaks out
with spontaneous, native force.
From what
it
common,
force a
;
or
such motives
may
man
con-
may be
in a position to turn
such
antagonisms to account.
from a desire for who from cowardice, acts dishonorably who through stupidity, short-sightedness, frivolity, and thoughtlessness, becomes smaller and weaker than his relations demand, he is not at all suitable for hero of a
;
He who
serious play.
If a
art,
and
66
from society only suffering, by such work he would probably excite the sympathy of the audience to a high degree but at the end of the play this sympathy would sink into a painful discord.
;
who
receive
The
mon
held
oppressed classes should be an important part of our labor in real life the muse of art is no sister of
;
mercy.
VI.
MOVEMENT AND
RISE OF
THE ACTION.
all that is
im-
and
of
in
The
action must,
first
all,
;
this must be There are great and imporof human activity, which do not make
and
are violent
mighty volition easy and again, there struggles which force to the outside
;
For
who
6y
conall
sion
and
if
this
will
be noticeable
little
ripples.
it is
dramatic
of
his
volition, a political
success or a victory,
capable
of being
And
specially active,
From
warning must be
on the boards.
field of
Of course the
difficulties
which
this
the greatest
;
human
it
not
unsurmountable
of the stage to
but
and intimate knowledge overcome them. But the poet will never degrade his action by reducing it to an imperfect and insufficient exposition of such political deeds and aims he will need to make use of a single action, or a small number of actions, as a background, before which he presents and in this he is infinitely superior to the historian a most
of genius but very peculiar
;
minute revelation of
tions with
human
If
each other.
he
fails to
do
this,
he
will
68
An
rial is
artist,
Even
to
if
he
is
a reformer
by
if
nature,
on thousands of others
indeed,
his
own own
sym-
material misfortunes
may
If
the
mental
are
efforts, the
not
to
show
and by a representation of
quite
as
difficult
spiritual
import.
This
may be
If
as
it
is
undramatic.
lives,
rence in the
danger.
On
good which
as
is
is
known
reported
opposed
to
what the
may be
And
if
is
promoting the scenic effects through the already awakened ardor of the audience for the hero, he must credit his success to the interest which the audience brings
probable
in the case of
popular heroes,
69
itself
has merited.
the poet
is
conscientious, he will
adopt only those moments from the life of the artist, poet, thinker, in which he shows himself active and
suffering quite as significantly toward others as he
was
in his studio.
It is
;
case only
by accident
it
is
such a case
bears a
will
be only an accident,
life
the hero
celebrated name.
Therefore, the
making
the action
The
great-
them
non-representable
moment
of his
life
The
is
in
romance, and
lives are
more intimately
their
known.
as
-
what may be represented on the stage, and what is effective, are not the same in all ages. National custom as well as the arrangement of the theatre direct the poet. We have no longer the susceptibility of the Greeks to epic narratives which are brought upon the scene by a messenger we have greater pleasure in what can be acted, and risk upon our stage the imitation of actions which would have appeared entirely impossible on the Athenian stage, in spite of its machines, its devices for flying and its perspective
Of
course, opinions
to
70
painting,
popular tumults,
And
as a rule
collision of armies,
and
the like.
inclined to do too
direction.
It
much
to
may happen
to the Greek,
may
be
unexpressed.
well
known example
of
such a
defect is in Prince of Homburg, the very piece in which the poet has superbly achieved one of the most difficult scenic tasks, the disposition of an army for battle and the battle itself. The prince has taken his imprisonment light-heartedly when
;
his friend,
his death-warrant
mood
to
naturally
becomes
and he determines
princess.
And
in the
self powerless,
and without
to her,
relates,
he has
seen on his
way
;
men
his
by torchlight
he begs for
though he may
be shamefully degraded.
character of a general.
itself,
even
if
we
And
of the
the
71
confusion he must plunge down redeem himself worthily in the second part of the action. It was therefore a chief task to present the abasement of a youthful heroic nature even to the fear of death, and indeed, in such a manner that the sympathy of the hearer should not be dissipated through contempt. That could happen only by an accurate exhibition of the inner perturbain his
to this, in order to
tions,
even to the
bursting forth
of
the
death
difficult
be performed.
pre-
And
for
here a rule
may
it
is
any reason are necessary to the play, but have on the contrary, upon such passages, the highest technical art must be expended, in order to give poetic beauty to what is in itself unsuitable. Before just this kind of tasks, the artist must achieve the proud feelfor
ing
that
for
him
in
there
are
no unconquerable
difficulties.
Another case
chief effect has
been neglected,
defect
Shakespeare
climax.
The striking thing is that the piece lacks Antony has withdrawn from Cleopatra, has
But the spectator has long
72
amply motived from the first act. Notwithstanding this, one demands rightly to see this momentous relapse, with its violent passions and mental disturbances it is the point on which all that has gone before is suspended, and which must account for all that follows, the
The
flight,
and
his death.
;
And
yet,
it is
sections
divided
up into little scenes, and the joining of these into one well-executed scene was the more desirable,
because the important occurrence
the play, that flight of
tle,
bat-
cannot be represented on the stage, but can be made intelligible only through the short account of
the subordinate
gle of the
But the poet has not the task, let it be understood, of representing through what is done on the stage every individual impulse which is necessary
to the
Such a representation of accessories would rather conceal the essentials than make them impressive, by taking time from the more important it would also divide up the action into too many parts and thereby injure the effects. Upon our
occurring.
stage, also,
many
in the action,
however
excit-
may
73
them, that they must come in as relief from a strongly The spectator must be preworked-up suspense. viously aroused by the excited emotion of the persons concerned.
The length
;
of the narration
is
to
be carefully calculated
unnecessary elaboration,
the
narrative
it
may
cause weariness.
parts
If
contains
individual
of
some
extent,
the narrator's
parts
must be carefully
arranged
in the
arrangement
Icfistein.
is
An
elaborate
is
when the
rapidity.
action
One
is
the portrayal
are represented as
an occurrence
the char-
has
made on
dramatic excitement
quiet narrative
;
it
may be
almost a mere,
it
may
some-
occasion
is
all,
74
tie,
eers
everything
calls
in
of
in
men
are active
widespread commotion.
impressions
indications
:
The
may be
greatly enhanced
by
little
scenic
from without,
of wWch is easily recognized by the These indications and shrewd hints of something in the distance, will be most successful when they are used to show the doings of men not
priateness
hearer.
all
not accustomed
In such a
fail,
may
entirely
because
the audience
to
is
accustomed
produce strange
illusions.
what
is
frightful,
If
it is
terrifying, or horrible
to be
exhibited.
example of the Greeks, and discreetly lay the decisive moment of a hideous deed as much as possible behind the scenes, and
it
bring
it
which
makes on the minds of those concerned, then an objection must be made against this restriction in
favor of the newer art; for an imposing deed
is
75
the action.
First,
if
the dra-
next,
if
we recog-
deed the sudden culmination of an third, if only through inner process just perfected
;
in
may be convinced how the affair really happened, nowhere need we fear the effects on the stage, of
death,
German
Both
moment
Germans rejoiced to picture fighting and rapine. But if the Greeks avoided violent physical
efforts,
blows,
the
ultimate
reason.
The Greek
for violent
movements
of the
body
must be gradual and very carefully managed if it would not be ridiculous. And the mask took away any possibility of represon in the cothurnus
senting the expression of the countenance, indispensable in the
lus
moments
;
of highest suspense,
.^schyjust
this direction
76
as
as
he
dared.
He
Antigone dragged by an armed force from the grove of Colonos, but he did not venture, in Electra, to Orestes and have ^gisthos killed on the stage Pylades must pursue him with drawn swords behind Perhaps Sophocles perceived, as well the scenes.
;
and padding of his actors, horror which the Greeks felt for the moment of Then this is one of the places in the drama death. where the spectator must see that the action comEven if pursued by two men, ^gispletes itself. have defended himself against could either thos them or have escaped them. Through the greater ease and energy of our imitation, we are freed from such considerations; and in our pieces, numerous effects, great and small, rest on the supreme moment of action. The scene in which ,\ / y Coriolanus embraces Aufidius before the household
altar of the
was a disadvantage, upon him by the leather and, too, by the religious
Volscians, receives
its full
significance
first
act,
in
which the embittered antagonists are seen to punish each other. The contest is necessary between Prince Henry and Percy. And again in Love and bitrigue,
how
is
the
In
Romeo
how
and of the loving pair, before the eyes of the Could we believe it, were Emilia Galotti stabbed by her father behind the scenes? And
spectators.
; ;
^^
On
is
of great effects,
when
is
the
deed
itself
which
is
fall into
there
room
the
to
])reparatory to a deed
enter
finally,
into
wherever
in
more
and hold
suspense, than
excited suspense,
the
sorrowfully to relax
We
most powerful
all.
effects
When
in
tive
circum-
stances of the
house
when
press
scene,
upon the
behind the
the
fearful
these effects
has
is
magnificent
the murdering of
King Duncan
Macbeth
For the German stage, the suspense, the undefined horror, the unearthly, the exciting, produced by skilful treatment, through this concealing of momentous deeds, are especially to be esteemed in
78
more rapid course and the more violent excitement of the second part, they will not be so easily made use of. At the last exit of the hero, they can be used only in cases where the moment of death
itself is
where the impossibility of any other solution is a matter of course, on account of the undoubtedly
greater
An
interesting
example of
this
is
Wallenstein.
The gloomy
figure
drawing together of
the
net
all
this
is
in a
long
and powerfully exciting climax after such a preparation, the accomplishment of the murder itself would not add intensity one sees the murderer press into
;
the sleeping
room
which colors
same unearthly suspense the whole act; and the slow awakening
in the
itself,
silence.
First of
all,
this will
be further
material.
treated
the
discussion
of
dramatic
79
the repulsive,
the disgusting,
taste,
the
hideous,
that
shocks
dramatic
which
material
to art,
depends on the crudeness of otherwise serviceable what, in this respect may be repugnant
;
it
cannot be
taught him.
But
his
effects
play.
The
the performance.
At the beginning
;
what is and with slight demands and as soon as the poet has shown his power by some respectable effect, and has shown his manly judgment, through his language, and a firm kind of characterization, the
he acquiesces with readiness, as a
rule, in
offered,
hearer
is
poet's leading.
till
toward
But
becomes more exacting; his capability what is new becomes less the effects enjoyed have been exciting more powerfully, have
for receiving
;
in
many
with increas-
received, weariness
this in view, the
comes
Indeed,
poet must
need
it,
8o
sive.
and
and here brief treatment may be made possible sometimes the heavy exaction is laid on the poet, perhaps even to moderate a great effect but the last acts from the climax on, require the summon;
'
ing of
all
his
resources.
It
is
is
not a matter of
indifference,
where a scene
placed, whether a
first
messenger
recites his
narrative in the
or in the
It
order
Another means
multiplicity of
moods that may be aroused, and of which may bear forward the action. Every piece, as has been said, has a ground mood, which may be compared to a musical chord or a
characters
color.
From
is
neces-
In many cases the poet does not make this necessity apparent by
^
find
it
essential to
cool investigation
artistic
its
for
it
is
an unwritten law of
all
creation,
opposite,
the
one scene
effect,
Among
the Germans,
which they
create, a cer-
8l
many important
it
gaps.
For
in
our plays,
rich in figures,
is
easily possible,
subordinate figure, to
ally
Even Sophocles is to be aids the whole. admired for the certainty and delicacy with which, in every tragedy, he counterbalances the one-sidedness of
some
of his characters,
gested opposites.
for
harmony
all
is
very weak.
Germanic
sidered
race,
from Shakespeare to
admirable firmness
find a character
terpart,
but
is
and in their works we seldom which is not demanded by a counintroduced through cool deliberation,
;
Tell.
It is
a peculiarity of
come
to
him
indistinctly
or
From
mans,
is
this
in
the lumin-
touching moments,
in
moments
trasts,
many persons. Among the Greeks, scenes moved in a much narrower circle, both as to matter and form. The variation is made in this way the scenes
:
82
according to
contents
for each of
Not only sharp contrast, but the repetition of the same scenic motive, may produce a heightened
effect, as well
fine
contrarieties in
case, the poet
In this
must give
peculiar
charm
and that
not be
in the
ment
in the motive.
And
in this
he
will
suffice to produce heightened effects by means already used, provided the same receive a broader elaboration. There is special danger if the
easily
in
strong
ceded
it.
Shakespeare
is
to heighten effects.
good example
the heavy
in
is
and
guilt.
its
soft
repetition
83
between lago and Roderigo. But success with these effects is The repenot always accorded to even great poets.
the
in the little scenes
tition of the weird-sister
same theme
effect. The more ample elaboration in A very remarkable example of the second place. such a repetition is the repeated wooing of Richard III., the scene at the bier, and the interview with Elizabeth Rivers.^ That the repetition stands here
of Macbeth,
is
no strengthening of the
indeed, a
ghostly
resists,
and that
a strong effect
is
intended,
is
The second
ness
;
scene, also,
is
made
;
use of a technique,
it
new
to
he has treated
lines.
according
and response
is
the
same number of
And
our criticism
accustomed to account for a special beauty of the great drama from this scene. It is certainly a disadvantage on the stage.
The monstrous
action
power which
the
thrice-repeated
casket scene
in
the
of
gance
in the
sufficient
charm,
84
WHAT
It is
IS
TRAGIC
well
known how
busily the
German
poets
drama which
is
be,
time.
The
;
tragic should be an
fill
force
his
and
have
The
expressions, tragic
have become
meaning
to different persons.
But
drama
depends on the manner in which the poet conducts his characters through the action, portions their fate to them, and guides and terminates the struggle of their one-sided desire against opposing forces.
Since the poet with freedom joins the parts of
his action so as to
representations of
85
comprehension of the general consistency of all and destiny, must be expressed in a poetic invention, which derives from the inner nature of some important personage stistaining great relations, his deeds and his sorrows. It
things, his view of Providence
is
it
and that
all
for the
good
drama,
in
it is
not at
man
of
good judg-
But it is quite evident that judgment of poets have been quite unlike in different centuries, and in individual poets, Manicannot be graduated in the same manner.
ment and
just feeling.
festly
in his
own
life
a high
will,
according to the
for
own conception
;
cannot be taught
or a scene.
it
meant
in all serious-
about
it.
He must
develop
in
himself a capable
86
and leave to others the high-sounding words, and purification, refining and elevating. Unsettied must is sometimes put into bottles worthy of
guilt
What
is,
in
truth,
dramatic will
have an earnest tragic effect in a strongly moving action if it was a ma7i who wrote it if not, then
;
assuredly not.
The
poet's
own
in any other But the error of former art theories has been that they have sought to explain from the morale or ethics of the drama the combined effect in which sonorousness of words, gesture, costume,
effects in
species of
else, are
concerned.
The word,
different
tragic,
;
is
it
in
two
meanings
the peculiar
which
in
certain parts
of
the
drama
first
is
;
are
either useful
or
indispensable.
The
the
physiological
signification of
the expression
the
To
life
of the spectators,
and
drama
them
in his
87
This explanation, remodeling of a worthy, undivided, complete event, which has magnitude," and and effects through so forth, closes with the words,
Tragedy
is
artistic
**
pity
In
8)
and how it may be awakened. Awakto him exhibiting the whole realm of human sorrows, circumstances, and actions, the obser-' vation of which produces what we call emotion and The word purification (katharsis)^ strong agitation. however, which as an expression of the old healing art, denoted the removal of diseased matter, and, as an expression of divine worship, denoted the purging of man by atonement from what polluted, is evi-i dently an art term adopted by him for the proper'
what pity
ening pity
is
effect
of tragedy
on the hearer.
critical
These peculiar
effects
his
which the
and
it is
differ-
ence.
how
by the excitement of the characters, joined with the mighty suspense which the continuity of the action Far more produces, take hold upon his nerves.
easily than in real life the tears flow, the lips twitch
this pain,
;
however,
is
at the
88
ences immediately after the hero, the same thoughts, sorrows, calamities, with great vividness, as if they
were
his
own.
He
at the
which
same time
raises
him
far
above
impressions
fall
After the
he has been under for hours, he will be aware of a rebound of vital force; his eye brightens, his step is
and free. The dread and commotion are followed by a feeling of security
elastic,
every
movement
firm
in his
is
greater
in
his
collocation
of
words,
emphatic force
now
his
own, has raised him to a high pitch. The radiance of broader views and more powerful feeling which
has
come
into
his
soul, lies
like a transfiguration
his being.
above the moods of the day, comfort after great agitation, is exactly what, in the modern drama, corresponds to Aristotle's " purification." There is no
this elevation
this feeling of unrestrained
among
out
all
came
upon
the
striking.
The
the soul,
effect
no entirely unusual art; but the peculiar which is produced by a union of pain, horror.
89
and pleasure, with a great, sustained effort of the fancy and the judgment, and through the perfect
satisfying of our
in all
demands
is
things,
this
The penetrating
force of
dramatic effect
is,
other form of
influence
by any Only music is able to make its more powerfully felt upon the nerves but
art.
;
within the sphere of immediate emotions, which are not transfigured into thought
urous, less inspired.
;
same with us
as they
were
is
in Aristotle's time.
us.
He who knew
most tragic of the poets, that is, one who knew how to produce most powerfully the effects peculiar to a play. Upon us, however, scarcely a play of Euripides produces any general effect, however powerfully the stormy combadly, yet called hint the
in single
Whence comes
little
conception?
and
of
for-
preserved something of
youth.
The
90
climaxes
in
characterized
by
fully
elaborated pathos
of
scenes.
The aggregate
effect
the
old
tragedy
stood
between that of our opera and our drama, perhaps it retained something of the still nearer the opera; powerful inflammatory influence of music-
On
the
ancient' tragedy,
is
which
The
dra-
is,
such a connecting of events as would be perfectly accounted for by the disposition and one-sidedness
of the characters.
I
We
The modern
sponds throughout to the ideal demands which the heart and judgment of the hearer set up in comparison
with the events of reality.
in the
Human
that
is
reason appears
new
;
and
identical
\)f; with
our
divine
remodels
nature,
all
incomprehensible
in the
order of
spirit
and
heart.
modern
elevation
plays,
;
beautiful transparence
and joyous
for
it
helps
to
make
Here
is
himself
hours
91
modern
effect
The
divine
sought
but
it
unity of
the
was very
difficult for
him
to find
forth in single
And
it
and
in
freedom and expansion which raise him far above the restrictions of his Sophocles directed the character and fate of time.
receive
may
an inward
his
heroes
sometimes,
almost
in
the
Germanic
us,
fashion.
free
in
The
epic
An
action
prophecies and
conclusion
; ;
oracular utterances
influence
the
accidental
misfortunes
destiny
of
later
personifications
of
and
as
enemies
between what excites their rage and the punishments which they decree, there is, according to
human judgment, no consistency, much less a rational relation. The partiality and arbitrariness with which they rule, is frightful and terrifying; and when they
occasionally grant a mild reconciliation, they remain
92
like
modesty of man is the highest wisdom. Whoever means to stand firmly by himself in his own might, falls first before a mysterious power which annihiWith this lates the guilty as well as the innocent. its ultimate foundation was in which conception, gloomy, sad, devouring, there remained to the Greek poet only the means of putting even into the characters of his fettered heroes, something that to a certain degree would account for the horrors which they must endure. The great art of Sophocles is
shown,
among
way he
gives
But
enough
remains
it
The
greatness
first
of all in the
force of passions, then in the fierceness of the struggles through which their heroes were overthrown,
finally in the intensity, unfeelingness,
bleness, with
their characters
and inexorado
and
suffer.
The Greeks
effects of the
it
They
struggles.
93
us in the tragedy
From
For him as well as for us, the drama is the disburdening of the? hearer from the sad and confining moods of the day, which come to us through wretchedness and whatavails for our
drama.
But when
how
on the ground that man needs to see himself touched and shaken, and that the powerful pacifying and
satisfying of this desire gives
this
explanation
is,
but
it accepts as the ultimate inner reason for this need pathological circumstances, where we recognize
The
drama
ceasing
fashion.
and
irresistible
desire
to
create
and to
to
repeat
ters,
listener
of charac-
and of destiny, the hearer must make alive in himself. While he is receiving with a high degree of suspense, he is in most powerful, most An ardor and beatifying rapid creative activity.
of sorrow,
who
with
therefore
pain
the feeling of
pleasure
therefore
exaltation
94
And
in
the
trated with
still
with
it,
is
The
spectator
his
life,
and recognizes that the divinity which guides even where it shatters the individual human
acts
in
;
being,
a benevolent
fellowship
with
the
human
as
and he feels himself creatively exalted, united with and in accord with the great worldrace
guiding power.
So the aggregate
is
no
youth of
scenium,
the
The Greeks listened in the green the human race, for the tones of the prowith the sacred ecstacy of Dionysus
into the
;
filled
German looks
world of
illusion,
not less
race
;
The human
we
is
have
all
drama
of
tragic.
The poet
the
word
in a
narrower sense.
at
We
understand by
effects.
it,
also, a peculiar
kind of dramatic
W hen
action,
there
we yet immediately
original
feel
perfectly intelli-
new
95
must possess the three following qualities ( ) it i must be imj3or tant and of serious consequence to t he hero; (2) it must occur unexpecte dly (3) it must,
to the
mind of the
When
the con-
have killed Caesar and, as they think, have bound Antony to themselves, Antony, by his speech
stirs
Romans
up against the murderers themselves the same for whose freedom Brutus had committed
the murder.
When Romeo
is
has married
banished.
Juliet,
he
is
WhenMary
is
has approached
of
Elizabeth
so near that a
possible,
reconciliation
the
two
queen s
Antony, the
upon this, that the spectator comprehends the ominous occurrences as K surprising, and yet inseparably connected with what'
has preceded.
of
feels the
speech
Antony Antony
is
to be a result of the
to Caesar,
and
vious
dialogue
the
speech
hasty confidence which the murderers place in him. That Romeo must kill Tybalt, will be immediately
96
understood as an unavoidable consequence of the mortal family quarrel and the duel with Mercutio
;^
theword
life.
events in real
The
fact,
an intolerant oppressor of
stated,
nothing
tragic.
Overweening desire for rule may have developed in Luther he may have become senile. But from the moment when it becomes clear to us, through a succession of accessory ideas, that this same intolerance was the necessary consequence of that very honest, disinterested struggle for truth, which accomplished the Reformation that this same pious fidelity with which Luther upheld his conception of the Bible against the Roman Church, brought him to defend
;
this
that he
writings
when we conceive
all
his
intolerance with
that
is
in
his nature,
this
darkening of his
produces
in
it
Just so with
Cromwell.
That the Protector ruled as a tyrant, produces, itself, nothing tragic. But that he must do
against
his
will,
because
the
partisan
relations
g7
conservative
against
him
his
his
upon him, could not wrest himself office, this makes the shadow which
free
fell
life
That Conradin, child of the Hohenstaufens, gathered a horde, and was slain in Italy by his adversary, this is not in itself dramatic, and in no sense
of the
word
tragic.
was in order that he should succumb. impressed upon our souls, that the youth only followed the old line of march of his ancestors toward Italy, and that in this line of march, almost all the great princes of .his house had fallen, and that this march of an imperial race was not accidental, but rested on ancient, historical
support,it
But when
it is
union of
Germany with
to
Italy,
then
the death of
Conradin appears
us
that the
With peculiar emphasis, it must again be asserted tragic force must be understood in its
fundamental
of the action.
For our drama, su( events as enter without Being understood, incidents the relation of which with the action is mysteriously concealed, influences the significance of which rests on sup erstitious notio ns^^ motives which are taken from dream-life, pro phesyings, presentiments, have
98
m erely
which
in
family picture
falls
from
its nail,
;
till it
these
effect
tragic
is
incomprehensible to
(
or
appears unreasonable,
weak
or quite intolerable.
\ / denj;,
"^
What
appears to us as an gciis
not appropriate
is
on the
stage.
It
now
several
and
many others, has been tried in Germany. The Greeks, it may be remarked incidentally,
were some\Yhat
irrational
less
They could be
a suddenly
contented
an ominous shudder.
When
this
Aristotle cites
that a
as an effective
example
in
direction,
him
feel
who was
in
we should
is
every-day
in art,
such an accident
it
significant.
But
worthy of success.
connection
^f the s ort. ^ For example, the manner in which he explains, with realistic detail, the poison-
'
99
ous effect of the shirt of Nessos, which Deianeira sends to Hercules, is remarkable.
Th e tragic force, or incident, in the drama js one many effects^__It may enter only once, as usually happens; it may be used several times in the same
of
piece.
Romeo and
and Paris
the
the betrothal of
;
after the
marriage night
the death
position
The
which
is
same
it,
is
demands another
;
place, can
be considered as exceptions
and
it
is
will
be
which the deed of the one of the most impor" T his beginning of the reaction, t antin the play. so metimes united in one sc ene with the cli max, has been noted ever since there has been a dramatic art. The embarrassment of the hero and the momentous position into which he has placed himself, must be
hero reacts upon himself,
is
om
same time, it is the business of this for ce to produce new suspense f or the second part of the piece, a^id so much the more r
impressively represented
;
at the
been
more
brilliant,
of the climax has presented his success. enters into the pla y
all
which
it
must
loo
it mu st not be accide ntal, it must be pregnant wTth consequences. Therefore it' musTlTave^Tmportance and a certain m3gnit_ude. This scene "oFthe tragic force either immediately
Romeo's departure
or
is
joined by
a,
connecting scene, like the speech of Antony after or it is coupled with the climax Caesar's murder
;
Mary
Stuart
or
it is
Love and
letter
it by the close of an act, as where Louise's writing the indicates the climax, and Ferd inand's convic-
from
Intrigue,
tion of the
force.
infi delity_ofJ}l s
the
They
are
not,
;
of
is
it
by several strokes in gradual reinforcement. This most frequently be the case where the catastrophe is effected by the mental processes of the
will
hero, as in Othello.
It is
but
it
passed for
was not indispe nsa ble one of the most beautiful and most,,
,
effective
inventions^
Indeed,
they
classed
this
loi
according to
its
producing a turn
in
the action
ative to
one another
for each of
Revolution [Penpeteia),
is
the
name given by
by the sudplan of the
den intrusion of
of
with
i
the action
itself in
from that of the beginning. Examples of such revolution scenes are the change in the prospects of
Neoptolemus
in Philoctetes,
messenger and the shepherd to Jocasta and the king in Ki?ig CEdipus, the account of Hyllos to Deianeira,
in
Through
was produced a powerful movement in the second part of the play and the Athenians distinguished ca refully between plays with revolu tion and those without. Thos e with revolutio n precially there
;
This
is
in this, that
does not
have a sad ending, but sometimes the sudden reversion to the better.
scarcely
I02
was changed with relation to each other, by the unexpected revival of an old and important relation between them. These scenes of the anagnorisis, recognition scenes, it was especially, in which the agreeable relations ot th e
sons
the action
And
since the
s cenes,
The
subjects of the
The heroes
Greeks offered ample opportunity for such scenes. of Gr eek story are, almost without exception, a wandering ra ce.^ Expedition and return,
are
among
ends.
the most common features of these legAlmost every collection of stories contains
who did not know their parents, husbands and wives, who after long separation came together
children
to
much
of their
lost,
remi-
importance.
of decisive
of former
having
many
movement. Such scenes afforded the old^me poet welcome opportunity for the representation of contrasts in perception and for favorite pathetic performances in which the excited feeling
for a strong
will
I03
an enemy, and just before or just after the deed recognizes him as her own son the son who in his
;
mortal
enemy
own mother,
like
Ion
the priestess
who
is
him recognizes her brother, like Iphigenia the sister who mourns her dead brother, and in the
and
in
in
a beggar,
numerous examFrequently such recognition scenes became ples. motives for a revolution, as in the case already mentioned of the account of the messenger and the
his foot,
these are
some
of the
One may
how important
;
the circumstances
were to the Greeks through which the recognition was brought about by the great philosopher, they
And
it is
a source of satisfac-
tion to observe
Greek, no acci-
the dialogue.
how
refined
and
fully
for a
CHAPTER
11.
the drama
presents those
from the and to a deed, as well as those inward emotions which are excited by his own deeds and those of others.
experiences,
man
up of an
The
structure of the
contrasted
unity, efflux
plishment
soul,
accomdeed and its reaction on the movement and counter-movement, strife and
influx of will-power, the
and
of
counter-strife,
\^
rising
and
sinking,
binding and
loosing.
dramatic
life
the other to
in
its
but
grouping of characters
in
two
parts.
What
And
as
105
must be endowed with a strong life, with a and be in embarrassment, the opposing power must be made visible in a human
representative.
It is
adversary
is
better-
more
of the
in
power and weakness, are variously mingled. But both must be endowed with what is universally, intelligibly human. The chief hero must always stand in strong contrast with his opponents the advantage which he wins for himself, must be the greater, so much the greater the more perfectly the final outcome of the struggle shows him to be van;
quished.
These two chief parts of the drama are firmly united by a point of the action which lies directly in
the middle.
is
the action
the action
now
decisive for
of the
light shall
have a place
fall in
maintains the
allowed
either
cite plays of
itself.
the
highest
justification of
And
io6
which they lived. By one dramatic arrangement, the chief person, the hero, is so introduced that his nature and his characteristics speak out unembarrassed, even to the moments when, as a consequence of external
impulse or internal association of ideas,
perceptible.
in
him the
The
new
cir-
embarrassment and
bition of his
life,
his struggle
which the
is
full
ing and
deed by which
this point
relaxed.
From
own force the life relations in which he came upon the stage. From the climax on, what he has done reacts upon himself and gains power over him the external world, which he conquered in the rise
its
;
of passionate conflict,
now
him.
catastrophe,
it
its irresistible
force.
where the
107
and quiet
after strife
becomes
apparent.
With
this
arrangement,
first
first
part
is
deter;
mined by the depth of the hero's exacting claims the second by the counter-claims which the violently
disturbed
surroundings
great tragedies
put forward.
This
all
is
the
of Shake-
except
Othello
less
and King
the
of The
Maid of
Orleafts,
surely of
double tragedy,
trary,
Walle?istein.
the
in
which suggest the influence of some external forces upon These forces, adverse influences, work his mind. increased activity so long in the hero's soul, with that at the climax, they have brought him into ominous embarrassment, from which, under a stress
comparative quiet,
of passion, desire, activity, he plunges
among
downward
to
the catastrophe.
in
ment of the
different
the
relation of the
is
drama
an entirely
directed.
(Edifijis,
one
ascending
action,
this
themselves
Examples of
Othello
y
construction are
'
King
Lear,
Emilia
Galotti,
Clavigo,
Love
ana
I?itrigue.
io8
this
second method of
life
of the hero
disturbed,
give
direction to his
inward being.
prepared
;
demands a powerful
previously
the
domination of the chief characters enters suspense and sympathy, which are more difficult to sustain in the last half of the play, are firmly fixed upon the the stormy and irresistible prochief characters
;
gress
downward
is
and
thrilling effects.
such
an
not
action.
But
this
method
of
constructing a play
;
is
and
it
is
no
acci-
of the hearer, an irritating feeling which lessens the joy and recreation. For they do
perturbations
who
is
too
much compelled by
the
counter-play, which
him from without. The greatest exercise of human power, that which carries with it the heart of the spectator most irresistibly, is, in all times, the bold individuality which sets its own inner self,
strikes
lo^
which surround
it.
The
essential nature of
;
the
are
drama is conflict and suspense the sooner these evoked by means of the chief heroes themselves
better.
It
is
even by genius,
In
this, as
is
not
a rule, the
regular
climax,
is
But the^ second half, in which greater effects are demanded, depends mostly on the counter-play and this counter-play must here be grounded in more violent movement and have comparatively greater authorization. This
assured
success.
;
it more must be added, that after the climax of the action, the hero must seem weaker than the counteracting figures. Moreover, on this ^count, the interest in him may be lessened. Yet in spite of this difficulty, the poet need be in no doubt, to which kind of arrangement to give the preference.
may
forcibly.
His task
art
is
will
be greater
in this
arrangement; great
But and good fortune must overcome the difficulties. And the most beautiful garlands which dramatic art has to confer, fall upon the successful work. Of course the poet is dependent on his subject and material, which sometimes leaves no choice.
required to
make
talent
first
when contemplating attractive material, is ''does come forward in the play or in the counterplay ?"
no
It
compare the great poets. From the few plays of Sophocles which we have preserved, the majority belong to those in which the chief actor has the direction, however unfavorable the sphere of epic material was for the unrestrained self-direction of
to
the
heroes.
Shakespeare,
art.
however,
evinces
here
He
is
force
which reach conclusions quickly. Vital and marrow, compressed energy and the
impel the piece
the
in
rapid
scene.
very opening
great
German poets
In
of
the
last
century.
They
if
the unusual.
their ;Ileroes
in
many
of their dramas,
it
looks as
in a self-controlled
mood,
let
if they were only and since, to most of the heroic characters of the Germans, conscious power, firm self-confidence and quick decision are wanting, so they
uncertain circumstances,
alone
moved
rather
by external
relations than
by claims
It is signifi-
of a people to
life,
whom
who
a joy-
prosperity, a public
and a self-government,
Schiller,
Even
under-
how
fond of
giving
the
iii
half,
half,
In Love Mid Intrigue, therefore, Ferdiare pushed forward by the and only from the scene between Ferdi-
Louise
enters,
Still
nand and the president, after the tragic force Ferdinand assumes the direction till the end.
worse
is
;
Don
Carlos,
to the action
he
is
kept
in
half,
descending
half.
In
Mary
has
demanded, the intriguers and Elizabeth. Much better known, yet of less importance
the construction of the drama,
plays,
is
for
the distinction of
which originates
in
meaning
plays,
and schauspiel^
is
The
sense
it
occasionally,
on the
stage,
spectacle play are put in opposition as three different kinds of recitative representation, the spectacle
play
tion,
is
no
third, co-ordinate
its
according to
The
112
Even
the
in the
time of
by no means indispensable
Ajax and
Philoctetes,
tragedy.
Of
indeed
also, in the
eyes of the
close,
better.
Athenians,
CEdipus at
Colofios
had a mild
toward the
Even
in
Euripides, to
whom
Aiidromache and
^
in several others,
And
taste
it
which we recognize in our spectators they saw most gladly such tragedies as in our sense of
fate,
and
it
hair.
On
the
modern
stage,
become more
are able to
pronounced.
delineate
We
We
effectively,
and
conflicts of conscience,
oppos-
which men have debated the abolition of capital punishment, the dead at the end of a play may be more easily dispensed with. In real life, we trust to a strong human power that it will hold the duty of living very high, and
expiate even serious crimes, not with death but by a
113
changed conception of earthly existence does not bring an advantage to the drama It is true the fatal ending is, in in every respect.
But
this
the case of
modern
;
events
last
by
last, if
he must
of
its
subjects,
broad
field
which was
the mid-
unknown
to
the
our society.
No
modern
full
life
make
and
is
to their lot
but what
of incident,
what
quiet,
what
is full
of scruple,
and
just
life
we
trust to
With the broad and popular expansion which this treatment has won, it is proper to propose two things
:
first,
tacle play
and the
life
of the
114
found
in
by means of
fine
hero's
stout-hearted
and
vigorous
desire
it is
Otherwise,
in the first
by
sacrificing the
strong
movement
;
of a uni-
ond case, by neglecting to develop the characters, on account of the rapid chess-board performance of
a restless action.
The
first is
Germans
fied
both kinds of
they belong,
FIVE PARTS
action
which
if
one
may
pyramidal structure.
rises
from the
catastro-
to the climax,
and
falls
115
the
rise
Between these three parts lie (the parts of) and the fall. Each of these five parts may
is
usually
composed
rise,
(^c)
cli-
max,
y^^'^-'^
[d)
return or
fall,
(^)
is
hi
\ff/'
struction.
through which the parts are separated as well as bound together. Of these three dramatic moments,
or crises, qnej^vdliGhJLQdi.cates the begjnn^^
.
of the
the rise
action,
third,
the second, the beginning of the counterbetween the climax and the return the which must rise once more before the catas; ;
trophe,
catastrophe.
They
force
first
the tragic
moment or force, moment or force, and the moment or oFThe last suspense. The operation of the
"necessary to
IS
every play
third are
be discussed
in their
The
Tntroductio7i.
It
was the
in
ancients to
communicate
ii6
having dramatic
life
and
ing scene
and
in the
cation of the
word,
In Euripides,
it is,
by a
careless return to
the older
ment, which a
masked
figure
ence, a figure
like
Aphrodite
slain
Polydorus
is
in
Hecuba.
Shakespeare, the
;
prologue
entirely severed
it
is
it
contains civility,
Since
it is
no
German
but allows
as a festive
greeting which
distin-
chance
us,
In Shakespeare, as with
the
introduction has
,
into
the right
place
A
it is
filled
become an organic
\Yet,
in
been able to
in
Well-
known examples
ful of all
are The
s
of Heilbronn, Wallensteiri
: ;
117
as a separate piece,
it
is
compelled to give
into
must again have an introduction, a rise, a proporBut such presuptionate climax, and a conclusion.
positions of a drama, the circumstances previous to
favorable
the poet
in
He
tions in
some
fulness
pendent interest
sufficient time.
first,
possible only
by using
difficulties
arise in this
amply
broad
allotted
this, will
be shortened
its
probably
drama, that
it
distracts
and
satisfies,
instead of preIt is
nearly
No
ii8
drama
at
action,
it
must
once briefly characterize the environment. Besides, the poet will have opportunity here, as in a short
overture, to indicate the peculiar
as well as the time, the greater
mood
of the piece,
vehemence or quiet with which the action moves forward. The moderate movement, the mild light in Tasso, is introduced by the brilliant splendor of the princely
garden, the quiet conversation of the richly attired
ladies,
the garlands, In
the adornment
of
the
poet
painter.
Mary
breaking open
and Kennedy
In Nathaii the the returning
good
Wise, the
excited
conversation
is
of
Nathan with
contrasts
in
Daja
the
an
excellent
introduction
the
inwardly
are
disturbed the
In
Piccolomini,
there
greetings
of
the
the
gradually
rising
fine
movement.
is
But
the
greatest
master
of
beginnings
Shakespeare.
street,
In
Romeo and
in
Juliet,
day, an open
brawls
and the
;
clatter
of
the
swords of
gloomy, desperate
in
and again in Richard III., no striking surroundings, a single man upon the
stage, the old despotic evil genius,
who
controls the
iig
speaking
expedient
first
the prologue.
It
So
in
each of his
artistic
dramas.
may be
it is
Of
course, Clavigo
is
of the household
a brief excited
movement,
first
more quiet
exposition.
Occasionally this
whom
his stage
is
Thus
in
in
Macbeth, the
of the battle. So where the conference and strife between the tribunes and the plebeians form the first strong stroke, to which the exposition, the conversation of Cassius and Brutus, and the holiday
entrance of
in Julius
Ccesar,
procession of
Cassar,
is
closely joined.
Also
in
Now
ning,
is
sounded
of different persons
brief but
deep emotions
to
in the
chief characters
may
first rip-
precede the
I20
Emilia
Galotti,
the
waves
force,
in the
news of
impending
goes from the conversation at Clavigo's desk, through Mar^^'s dwelling, to the beginning of the
action
itself,
the
visit of
Beaumarchais to Clavigo.
may
in
background, as
If
Goethe's Iphigenia.
earlier
times,
Sara
is
Sampsoji,
Clavigo
have
not avoided
the
introduction, their
example
The
it
exposition
distracting;
should
its
be
kept
free
from
anything
task, to
if
it
best accomplishes
first
short
introductory chord
followed by a wellis
conthe
nected with
the
following
Ccesar,
scene
containing
Stuart,
exciting force.
steiriy
Julius
Mary
Wallen-
The
is
representa-
not
insurmountable.
In
the
arrangement of
mastery
must
is
of his material
and
it
generally an embarrassthis
ment
of his
seems
121
fitting of
the counter-party into the exposition be impracticable, there is always still time enough to bring them forward in the first scenes of the involution. Without forcing all possible cases into the same
may
hold firmly
fini shed
3,
moment
of the!
excited action.
'ThTExcithig Force.
which becomes the occasion of what follows or where the counter-play resolves to use its lever to set
the hero in motion.
will
half
by
his
^
remains an
\x\.
the action.
Julius
impelling force
by the conversation with Cassius, gradually becomes fixed in the soul of Brutus. In Othello, it comes into play after the stormy nightscene of the exposition, by means of the second conference between lago and Roderigo, with the agreement to separate the Moor and Desdemona. In Richard III., on the contrary, it rises in the very
Caesar,
which,
and
as a
matured plan
its
in
In
both cases,
122
the piece
in Othello,
at
in
Richard
where the villain alone rules in the first scene. In Romeo a?id Juliet, this occasioning motive comes to the soul of the hero in the interview with Benvolio,
masked
ball
as parallel
scene, the conversation between Paris and Capulet, which determines the fate of Juliet both scenic moments, in such significant juxtaposition,
form together the impelling force of drama, which has two heroes, the two lovers.
Galotti,
it
this
In
Emilia
as
in Clavigo,
;
it is
the arrival
Stuart,
it is
in
Mary
drama
but
it
is
this greatest
poem
how
the laws of
demanded obedience
too, has
its
to dramatic form.
This poem,
precedes
topheles
into
;
room.
What
is
exposition
the
dramatically
animated
action
;
it
has
its rising,
and
its
falling half
it
ance of Mephistopheles,
to Faust
from there
it
123
aside from
is
not brought
As
which
It
is
neces-
end of the
first act.
movement with
is
special care.
If
weak
for him, as in
Romeo and
it.
Juliet,
There-
fore,
Romeo,
In three
his
Shakesrepeat a
to
inclination to
As
in
the
is
scene in Othello,
variation of the
sisters,
"Put money
in
thy purse,"
who
the
so
is
ghost which
Hamlet.
What
at the
/
*
becomes the
it is
From
stage
under very
;
diverse forms.
It
may
fill
a complete scene
It
it
may
be comprised
in a
few words.
124
adversary
lution,
it
may
which by a succession of representations may be allured from the soul of the hero himself. But it always forms the transition from the introduction
to the ascending action, either entering suddenly,
like
Mortimer's declaration
in
Mary
Stuarty
and the
Telly
or gradually
developing through the speeches and mental processes of the characters, like Brutus's resolve to do
the
words are pronounced, but the significance of is emphasized by the suspicion which Caesar, entering meantime, expresses. Yet it is for the worker to notice, that this force seldom admits of great elaboration. Its place is at the beginning of the piece, where powerful pressure
scene
is
tion
resting-place.
and preparation, and does not offer a single but it It must not be insignificant
;
that,
takes too
fol-
or that
the
suspense which
causes,
may
The resolution of Cassius and Brutus must not come out in distinct words, in order that Brutus's
following
consideration
of
the
matter,
and the
may seem
a progress.
125
moderate
has
made
bring
I
i
it
it
too
into
its
conspicuous.
operation as soon
introduction
possible
for
only from
forward
does
earnest
is
to
first
Mary
ture.
Stuart,
for
example,
is
The
action
has
been
started
'
are
the interest
sion, involution
given
direction.
In the
modern drama
of three hours,
little
significance.
If
it
The following
them now, and opportunity must Such peractivity full of meaning. are of importance in the last half, must
for
eagerly desire
audience.
now to make themselves known to the Whether the ascent is made by one or
depends on material
be
In any case, a resting place in the
in the structure of a scene, is to
and treatment.
action,
and even
126
so expressed that the dramatic moments, acts, scenes, which belong to the same division of the action, are joined together so as to produce a unified chief
!fcene,
In Julius
CcBsar, for
paratory
scene,
it,
and
scene
of
the
contrast
belonging to
of our stage
tifully constructed,
;
and with this group, those scenes are closely joined which are grouped about the murderOn the other hand, scene, the climax of the play.
the
rising
movement
in
of
this
ascending group
ball
;
is
as follows.
masked
servants
ters;
and four
forces
Capulet
conversation
stirring
of the
up mat;
con-
Juliet
Second stage:
short
Romeo) and
The marLaurence and Romeo; second scene, Romeo and companions, and nurse as messenger; third scene, Juliet, and nurse as messenger; fourth scene, Laurence and the lovers, and the
Third stage:
riage; four parts; first scene,
127
Fourth stage
Tybalt's death
fighting
Then follows the group of scenes forming the climax, beginning with Juliet's words, " Gallop apace
you
fiery
farewell,
It
were a
with thee
farewell."
one must
In the
masked
ball,
little
is
in beautiful
are
concealed.
Tybalt's
death
is
have a
loftier swing, a
The arrangement
cially laid for
of the piece
very careful
the
each
in
rise,
is
common
for
is
mans.
In Love
mid
Intrigue,
example, the
the announcement of
Wurm
From
(the
two
scenes;
128
the son to
Second stage: (Ferdivisit Milford). nand and Milford) two preparatory scenes great chief 'scene (the lady insists on marrying him).
; :
Third stage
Two
preparatory scenes
great chief
Ferdinand
resists).
Fourth stage:
letter,
Two
scenes
The climax
follows this:
the two
must be owned, is, with some awkwardness in the order of scenes, still, on the whole, regular, and worthy of special consideration, because it is produced far more through the correct feeling
of the play
is,
The import
;
it
painful
of the
young
As
be
i
movement,
it
may
only
said,
sity
of
not
an enlargement
in
if
several
last,
last,
or the
M
]
j
must preserve the character of a chief scene. The Climax. The climax of the drama is the place in the piece where the results of the rising movement come out strong and decisively it is almost always the crowning point of a great, amplified scene, enclosed by the smaller connecting scenes of the rising, and of the falling action. The poet
129
all
the
skill of his
order to
make
vividly
crea-
artistic
own mental
;
in
those
it
dramas which
him in the direction of the fall. Splendid examples are to be found in almost every one of Shakespeare's plays and in the plays of the Gerleads
mans.
in Ki7ig Lear,
and the judgment stool, perhaps scene with the is one of the most effective that was ever put on the stage and the rising action in Lear, up to the scene of this irreof the three deranged persons,
;
pressible madness,
is
of terrible magnificence.
The'
scene
is
here used
humor
is
and
because this
the audience, in spite of the awful commotion, perceives with a certain surprise that Shakespeare uses
artifices to
Edgar
is
no fortuIn this
banquet scene
in
Macbeth
instructive.
had been so powerfully worked out, and so richly endowed with the highest dramatic poetry, that there might easily be despair as to the possibility of any
further rise in the action.
And
yet
it
is
effected
130
struggles with
his conscience,
festivity
in
the restless
dor give the most effective contrasts, are pictured with a truth, and in a wild kind of poetic frenzy,
which make the hearer's heart throb and shudder. In Othello, on the other hand, the climax lies in the great scene in which lago arouses Othello's jealIt is slowly prepared, and is the beginning ousy.
of the convulsing soul-conflict in which the hero
perishes.
the prostration of
Again,
plays.
in Schiller,
powerfully developed in
all
the
first
must appear
relief
it
what follows
it
will
be brought into
as a rule, be represented in its development from the rising movement and its effect on the environment therefore, the climax naturally forms
;
ward.
In the case where the climax the
is
connected with
downward movement by a tragic force, the structure of the drama presents something peculiar,
131
This
This
force
must
receive
attention.
is
best confol-
by a division
our close of
It
is
it
belongs
is
an act; and
this
best
by a gradual modulation of
a
sharp
note.
matter of
indifference
whether
this
scenes is effected by uniting them into one scene, or by means of a connecting scene. A splendid example of the former
is
in Coriolanus.
is
inev-
through
The
tragic force,
what seems about to become the highest elevation of the hero, becomes by his untamable pride just the opposite he is
;
overthrown.
denly
stage
is
it is
gradually on the
it
as
and
what
overwhelming
close of
perceived at
points,
the
the
scene.
The two
bound
effect.
But,
132
is
for there
is
immediately
joined to
pathos scene of the farewell, which forms a transiand yet after the hero has tion to what follows
;
moods
of those
remaining behind, as a trembling echo of the fierce excitement, before the point of repose is reached.
still
more
the
Mary
Stuart.
is
Here,
also,
mood
of
Mary,
this
mood
beth
;
scene
is
bound by
connecting song to
Mary and
Eliza-
and
ominous
strife,
set forth in
development
is
scenes
is
polated
passage of beautiful
and
the return.
drama with
tragic force a
part,
magnitude
and
expanse of
the middle
which
if
the
may be
carried out,
133
changes
^
I
the
one with a
^
double apex.
The most
difficult
Up
to
the the
consummated, a pause ensues. Suspense must now be excited in what is new. For this, new forces, perhaps new roles, must be introduced, in which the hearer is to acquire interest. On account of this, there is already danger in dis-j traction and in the breaking up of scenic effects. And yet, it must be added, the hostility of the counter-party toward the hero cannot always be easily concentrated in one person nor in one situation sometimes it is necessary to show how frequently, now and again, it beats upon the soul of the hero and in this way, in contrast with the unity and firm advance of the first half of the play, the
the deed
is
; ;
Aher
second
this
is
may be
most
ruptured,
in
many
parts, restless
where
difficult to
And
and on account of the greater significance of the strugof the satisfaction already accorded the hearer,
gle.
Therefore, the
first
134
this part
that the
number
of
persons be limited
effects
as
much
as possible,
be comall
an advance
in interest.
One
ially
thing more.
lays claims
move
toward a momentous close, which affects his whole There is no longer time to secure effects by life.
means
ful
of
little
artifices, careful
elaboration, beauti-
details,
neat
motives.
The
essence
of
the
ward
powerfully
the
audience
sees
understands the
ultimate
connection of events,
of the poet
est
;
the
purpose
in
effects
the
midst of his
to
contribute to this
his
work
his
knowledge, of
spiritual
nature.
and of what meets the wants of his own Every error in construction, every lack in
characterization, will
now be keenly
Even
felt.
;
Therefore
only great
is
great effects.
are
now
a certain energy.
How
passes, cannot be
by rule, farther than that the return makes a a less number desirable than, in general, the rising movement allows. For the gradual increase of
these effects,
it
will
be useful to
insert, just
before
135
the catastrophe, a finished scene which either shows the contending forces in the strife with the hero, in the most violent activity, or affords a clear insight
into the life of the hero.
The
is
the
potion,
monologue of Juliet, before taking the sleep and the sleep-walking scene of Lady Mac-
is
well under-
more violent the downfall of the more vividly must the end be felt the less the dramatic power of the poet in advance in the middle of the piece, the more pains will he take toward the end, and the more will he seek to
the climax, the
hero, so
much
;
the
make
does
Shakespeare never
constructed
pieces.
in
his
regularly
new
effects
it
him such a necessary consequence of the; whole previous portion of the piece, and the master
for
is
This talented
is
man
that
it
necessary, in
good time
mind
for this
for this
^
I
Edmund
Romeo
tells
circumstances
reason,
slay
Lear and
still
Cordelia;
for
this
must,
136
Paris,
order
that
the
moment, no longer thinks of Tybalt's death, may not, after all, cherish the hope that the piece will for this reason, must the mortal close happily toward Coriolanus be repeatedly Aufidius envy of
;
words,
"Thou
and Coriolanus must utter these great hast lost thy son;" for this reason
murdering of Hamlet by means of a poisoned rapier. Notwithstanding all this, it is sometimes hazardous to hasten to the end without interruption. Just at the time when the weight of an evil
destiny has already long
whom
ing
relief,
in
it
is
an old, unpretentious
audience
This
;
poetic
device,
give
the
for
is
moments means of
the
end.
a prospect of
relief.
a few done by
a slight hindrance,
is
a distant possibility of a
happy
release,
thrown
in
way
Brutus
it
cowardly to kill one's self the dying Edmund must revoke the command to kill Lear; Friar Laurence may still enter before the moment when
Romeo
kills
himself;
Coriolanus
;
may
yet
be
Macbeth is still invulnerable from any man born of woman, even when
acquitted by the judges
Burnam Wood
is
approaching
his castle
even Rich-
137
is
old
Sophocles used
it
pose in Antigone ;
with
Creon
is
softened,
;
if it
saved.
upon
we regard
Yet
it
it
make good
or
must not be
insignificant
it
must be made
to
grow out
it
essentially
and out of the character must not come out so prominent changes the relative position of
the rising possibility, the spec-
the parties.
tator
Above
pelling force of
of the drama what the ancient stage In it the embarrassment of the called the exodus. chief characters is relieved through a great deed. The more profound the strife which has gone forward in the hero's soul, the more noble its purpose has been, so much more logical will the destruction of the succumbing hero be. And the warning must be given here, that the
The Catastrophe.
The catastrophe
;
is
it
is
misled by modern tender-heartedness, to spare the life of his hero on the stage. The drama must present an
poet should not allow himself to be
action, including within itself all
its
parts,
excluding
138
all else,
if
has in
not
make
life
impressive.
As
lies
for the
power and
vitality of
an existence which
may
will
new
life,
;
Concerning the end of the heroes, however, it must be said, the perception of the reasonableness and necessity of such a destruction, while reconciling, and elevating, must be vivid. This is possible only when, by the doom of the heroes, a real adjust-
ment of
conflicting forces
is
produced.
It is
neces-
words of the drama, to recall that nothing accidental, nothing happening but a single time, has been presented, but a poetic creation, which has a universally intelligible meaning.
sary, in the closing
To
good
the
more recent
It
poets,
the catastrophe
is
accustomed to present
sign.
difliculties.
This
is
not a
to
requires unembarrassed
is
judgment
not opposed to
the feeling of the audience, and yet embraces collectively the necessary results of the piece.
Crude-
ness and a
weak
sensibility offend
139
But the catastrophe contains consequences of the action and necessary the only the characters whoever has borne both firmly in his soul, can have little doubt about the conclusion Indeed, since the whole construction of his play.
and confirmation.
;
may
rather
it
fin-
may come
into contradiction
noticeable in
where the somnambulism at the close, corresponding to the beginning, and manifestly having a firm place
in
is
not at
all
in
accord with
conclusion,
acts.
Similarly
in
Egmont,
in
the
Clara, as freed
Holland
transfiguration, can be
not consistent.
fol-
First,
made
from the nature of the characters. Further, the poet must deny himself broad elaboration of scenes must keep what he presents dramatically,
;
from ornament
tion
and
in dic;
must
I40
confine the scenes with their indispensable connections within a small body, with quick, pulsating life
;
as the action
is
in progress,
new
of
or difficult stage-effects,
especially the
effects
/
/
'
There are many different qualities of a poetic which are called into operation in these eight parts of the drama on which its artistic structure To find a good introduction and a stimularests. ting force which arouses the hero's soul and keeps it in suspense, is the task of shrewdness and experience to bring out a strong climax is specially the business of poetic power to make the closing catastrophe effective requires a manly heart and an
nature,
; ;
to
make
the return
the most
difficult.
poetic
spirit,
In addition,
ideas, that
requires a
good subject and some good good luck. Of the component parts
of ancient or
discussed,
all
drama
modern times
is
composed.
III.
The tragedy
of the Athenians
still
exercises
;
its
not
its
contents, but
;
work
the tragedy
141
and give
it
more
artistic structure
and more
is
profound meaning.
of Sophocles,
the tragedies
will
we can
demands and
limitations,
What
is
easily
found
The tragedy
used
ally
in the
the speeches of
introduced
The tragedy
the
moments
of highest excitement,
tragedy
won
by
part.
They have
a magnitude,
and so
that can
powerful a dramatic
movement
is
there
much
The
serve
by individual characters,
almost entirely as
in
and and
not
lyric-musical,
But
already
the
time
of
142
ground,
its
was
tial
loose,
sank from
its
confidant of the chief characters to a quite unessenpart of the drama, choral songs of one drama were used for another and at last they represented nothing but the song which completed the interval
;
between
in
acts.
But the
itself.
the action
an indispensable
tragedy.
first
we can no longer
imitate.
In
them
These long-winded gushings of inner feeling had so great a charm for the audience that to such scenes unity and verisimilitude of action were sacrificed by the weaker poets. But however beautiful and full the feeling sounds in them, the dramatic movement is not great. There are poetic observations upon
one's
own
ing portrayal
these
peculiar relations.
The
the
first
of
with
modern times, although in sometimes represents the sympathising hearer, sometimes the hearer who responds. That extension of the old dithyrambic songs,
logues
monothem the
chorus
first
which appeared
143
costume with simple pantomime, then to dramas with a well-developed art of representation, was effected by means of an action which was taken almost exclusively from the realm of Hellenic Isolated attempts of heroic legend and the epic. poets to extend this realm remained, on the whole,
Even before ^Eschylus, a commake use of historical material the oldest drama of yEschylus which has been preserved for us, made use of historwithout success.
poser of oratorios had once attempted to
;
ical
our
on
Greek tragedy little imitation. Such a restriction to a well-defined field of material was a blessing as well as a doom to the Attic stage. It confined the dramatic situations and the dramatic effects to a rather narrow circle, in which the older poets with fresh power attained the highest success, but which soon gave occasion to the later poets to seek new effects along side-lines and this made the decay of the drama unavoidable. Indeed,
ishing time of the
;
was taken and the essential conditions of the drama, an inherent opposition which the highest skill did not suffice to conquer, and at which the talents of Euripides grew powerless. The species of poetry which before the developrial
ment
of the
subjects
144
scenes
the
play.
It
among
later, to
tom gave
have epic poems read to them. This custo the tragedy longer accounts of occur-
occupied more space than would be accorded to them in the later drama. For the stage, the narraHeralds, tive was imbued with dramatic vividness.
messengers, soothsayers, are standing roles for such
recitals
;
as a rule, the
and the scenes in which they appear have, same disposition. After a short intro;
then
words.
exchanged question and answer at last is compassed in brief The narrative comes in where it is most
;
The
last exit of
the
hero
is
was a
accuser and
of
the
defender.
The highest
development of Greek judicial oratory, but also the artificial manner in which it was sought to
artistic
produce
effects,
fine
sophistical
rhetoric, intruded
and determined the character These scenes, also, conof the speaking scenes.
stage,
sidered
a whole,
are
fashioned
according to
little
established rules.
The
first
actor delivers a
speech
145
sometimes exactly equal length then follows a sort of rotation verses, each four answered by another
four, three
by
three,
then then
is
second speeches
till
he who
to
The
last
by interpolated speeches of the chorus, has not the highest dramatic movement, despite the interchange of finished oratory, and in spite of the externally strong and progressive
interrupted and divided
animation
of view
;
it
is
it is
seldom convinced by the other. another ground for it is not easily allowed to an Attic hero to change his opinion on account of the orations of some one else. When there was a third role on the stage, the colloquy preserved the character of a dialogue sudden and repeated interlocking of the characters was infrequent, and only momentary if the third role entered into the colloquy, the second retreated the change was usually made conspicuous by the insercial.
One
party
is
Indeed
this
had
still
Mass-scenes, as
we understand
pathos-scenes,
orations,
known on the
ancient stage.
The
action
ran
through these
colloquy-scenes,
messenger-scenes,
and
If
announcements of
official
146
recognition-scenes, the
one adds to these the revolution-scenes, and the aggregate contents of the
craft.
prescribed by the
poets
is
preserved for us
to give
greatest
and for this reason, what is constant in his works is most varied and, as it were, concealed. In another way, the construction of the drama was modified through the peculiar circumstances under which its production took place. The Attic
tragedies were presented in the flourishing time of
festivals.
At
dramas
147
Three tragedies of
The
bound
into one consistent action, which was taken from the same legendary source. So long as this old trilogy-form lasted, they had the nature of
action to a close.
this
worthy of confidence
far a
How
heightening of
and
action,
of situations,
but
it
follows
And
exalted
mood
The
;
cos-
was usually prescribed the strictly according to the custom of the festival actors wore masks with an aperture for the mouth, the high cothurnus on their feet, the body padded, and decked with long garments. Both sides of the stage, and the three doors in the background, through which the actors entered and made their exits, were
roles
through
;;
148
who were
called
The
;
who
costume
added a third. The Attic theatre never, in its most palmy days, exceeded three solo actors. This restriction of the number of players determined the technique of the Greek tragedy, more than any
other circumstance.
It
will
demanded
must be first and
Sopho-
To
this
and sing
at least six
One
III.
of the
roles
1
is
Richard
lines, of
This includes
128
Our
is
which more than 200 are usually omitted. is no song, the costume
convenient, the voice
is
much more
of a different
kind,
gesture,
is
incomparably greater
149
on the whole, the creative work for the moment, much more significant; there is a very different
For our actors to compass the task of the ancients, would present no unconquerable difficulties, but just that which presents itself to the inexperienced as an alleviation, the prolonging the work through ten hours. And if
expenditure of nervous energy.
they set up
ent task
in
ancients, with
is
some show
performed
the scantiness
of
movements and
in a
attitudes,
remarkably
fine culture in
him
of his victory
that the
all
know how
worked
all
in the usual
Among
In
in
in
I50
festal
subordinate
or for of
parts corresponding to
his
character,
But even
in this
full liberty.
The
his
personality
on
in
us.
the
stage
his
role,
by
re-
the case
of
with
He
mained
in the consciousness
the Athenian, in
of costume,
who sought
And
on the
stage was
more
like
an important were
not,
The
somewhat
differently
colored.
The
first
significantly
for his entrances and exits; he played the most distinguished persons, and the strongest characters. It would have been against his professional dignity to represent on the stage, anyone who allowed himself to be influenced or led by any other He character in the piece the gods excepted. specially was the player of pathetic parts, the singer and hero, of course for both masculine and feminine his role alone gave the piece its name, in case roles
"the
151
the action
other-
name
strictly
adhered to by
There were
But the subordinate which each of them must undertake, and which corresponded to each of the chief roles, were, so far as was at all possible, distributed according
to their relations to the chief roles.
The
chief actor,
and com-
panion
in
sentiment
the
parts 'of
friends
and
and
From
all
kind of
but
we might
call
inartistic,
which had for the Attic poet, and the Attic stage, The next duty of the actor not a little significance.
was specially to indicate every one of the roles he assumed in a piece, by a different mask, a different tone of voice, a different carriage, and different gestures.
And we
that
much
had conformed
and become
152
established
make-up and
deliv-
of old
women.
in
But a second
became by the audience as something proper to himself, and effective. The actor on the Attic stage became an ideal unity which held its roles together. Above the illuthe actor,
in his individual parts,
and was
felt
ing remained to the hearer, that they were one and the same
;
and
this
away
When Antigone was led whole excited soul of Tiresias rang behind the tone of voice in which his threat was made to Creon the same tone, the same spiritual nature in all tHe words of the messenger who announced the sad end of Antigone and of Haemon, Antigone, again touched the spirit of the audience. after she had gone away to death, came continually back to the stage. By this means there arose, somepeculiar dramatic effects.
to death, the
;
where we,
When
same actor presents Orestes and Clytemnestra, son and mother, murderer and victim, the same quality of voice suggests the blood relation to the audience, the same cold determination and cutting sharpness of tone it was the role of the third
in Electra, the
actor
which the
action
of
the
play produced.
153
must have been, in the eyes of the Greeks, a danger to the effect of the play, not
at the climax, this
in this
much
of
But
Vv^hen,
imme-
diately afterwards, from the mask of Teucros, the same honest, true-hearted nature still rang in the voice, only more youthful, fresher, unbroken, the
felt
Ajax took a
lively part in
Particu-
the
use of present
means
of
to
In each of the
Women
it is
who
whose death
is
announced, became
who
;
circumstances of
pus at Colonos, of Jocasta, of Antigone, of DeiaIn Philoctetes, the return of the same actor in
is
various roles
effects,
on.^^
of
this
be a discussion later
effect
through a
les-
154
of.
on
Goethe saw
in
Rome.
some liberties in the structure of the action, which we no longer allow. The first hero could be spared
from
his chief role during longer parts of the play
as in Afitigone
and Ajax.
When,
in the
Trachi-
through
ward. absent
for-
The maid
Hercules,
of the prologue,
who
refers to the
Lichas,
his
herald,
who
gives
And
this
others,
the
first
The almost
super-
human effort of a day's acting could be endured only when the same actor did not have the longest
and most exacting groups of
chief role
roles in all three trage-
among the Greeks, remained The dies. that of the protagonist, who had the dignity and the
pathos requiring great
effort,
even
if
to this part,
was
we
call
;
parts,
parts
for
155
somewhat even
distribution of the
lines of the
three tragedies,
among
The plays
of
more by the character of their action than by their construction,, from the Germanic drama. The section of the legend, which Sophocles used for the action of his piece, had
served, are distinguished
peculiar
presuppositions.
represent the
restoration of an already
;
what
sup-
is
of the Germans, conhad its for premises, a certain if sidered in general, insufficient order and rest, against which the person of the hero arose, producing disturbance, confusion, crime, until he was subdued by counteracting forces, and a new order was restored. The action of Sophocles began somewhat later than our climax. A youth had in ignorance slain his father, had married his mother; this is the premise how this already accomplished, unholy deed, this irreparable wrong comes to light, is the play. A sister places her happiness in the hope that a young brother in a foreign land will take vengeance upon the mother for the murder of the father. How she mourns and hopes, is terrified at the false news of his death, is made happy by his arrival, and learns about the this is the play. Everything of avenging deed
The drama
horrible
deed
fall
156
avenger,
An
which
communicates to the hospitable city him the secret blessing which, according to an oracle, hangs over the place of his
gratefully
receives
burial.
A
she
command
lies
of the
prince, buries
field
;
her brother,
therefore
who
slain
is
sentenced to
in destruction.
To
a wandering
body
a magic on account of her grief at this, the wife kills herself and has her body burned.^*^ A hero, who through a mad delusion has slain a captured herd instead of the abhorred princes of his people, kills himself for shame but his associates achieve for him an honorable burial. A hero, who on account of an obstinate disease of his army, is left exposed on an unlove,
;
;
inhabited island,
is
through those
has
demanded
means of restoring
is
What
in the
But
if
have been
treatment
is
allowable
to
pass
lost plays,
this
myths
does
not
seem
universal
157
We
recognize
distinctly that
^schylus
of
in
his
trilogies
legends
ment.
the
considered
longer
portions
the
end piece of the legend, or with more convenience than art, announced what had preceded, in an epic
prologue.
In both of his best pieces, Hyppolitus and
is
on premises, which would newer pieces. This order of the action in Sophocles allowed
built
in
but
it
prem-
most
unusual
circumstances,
heroes were
influenced.
The
and
ecstatic
of
conscience,
and
in the
sentiment and
hero
himself through
an awful
how any one conducted himself after reaching a momentous conclusion, this invited picturing; but how he struggled with the conclusion, how the terrible calamity that pressed this, it upon him, was prepared by his own doings,
thing fearful
by
little,
158
Euripides
;
is
more
flexible in this,
and more
similar to us
this
was no unconditional excellence.- One of the most finished characters of our drama is Macbeth
it
yet
may be
stage he would
weak, unheroic
have been thoroughly intolerable, what appears to us most human in him, and what we admire as the greatest art of the
;
conflict with
this
would
Greeks.
tions
sensitive to vacillatheir
first
of
the greatness of
in
heroes
actor
consisted, before
all,
firmness.
The
a character
who
would allow himself in any matter of consequence, to be influenced by another character in the piece. Every mental disturbance of the leading persons, even in subordinate matters, must be carefully GEdipus hesitates accounted for and excused. about seeing his son Theseus makes all his representations of obstinacy in vain Antigone must first
; ;
to listen
is
not to yield.
had yielded
ing of the
he would
To be
sure,
Neoptolemus changes his relation to Philoctetes, and the audience was extremely heated over it; that he did so, however, was only a return to his
159
We
Antigone as
and he was only second to consider Creon in a grateful part to the Greeks he was
character,
are
inclined
to this
character, the
Just
makes him appeal to us, his being convulsed and entirely unstrung by Tiresias, that of the poet to artifice bring a new suspense into the
action
in
the character.
And
that the
same
trait in
the family
and
in
the play
announcement, but
then
himself
human
trait
Attic
for us a
criticism
seems to have established as a reproach against the poet, who brought forward such undignified instability twice in
one tragedy.
it
If
of
accomplished,
occur
catastrophe of Ajax
except
in
is
in
the
which the
the
laid
new
situation.
The struggle
his
of the
egotistic
purpose ended with his life. The Germanic hero, with reference to his destiny, is therefore, very different, because to him the purpose
position of the
of his existence, the
beyond
his
individual
The
spectators
bring
with
them
to the
Germanic
i6o
own
sake,
own
power of
free self-
direction, must serve higher purposes, let the higher which stands above them be conceived as Provi-
body
politic, as
The
annihilation of their
life is
not ruin,
In
same sense
upon the Athenians they felt here humanity of a life which, beyond mere existence, and indeed by its death, rendered a high
a strong hold
forcibly the
;
From
this, too,
The Furies.
Here
tunates of the
upon the
art.
life,
but to their
pity,
produced by
practical closing results, however useful to home and country, leaves us moderns unmoved. But it is always instructive to note that the two greatest
tomed
to breathe
same theory of life* in which we are accusand to see the heroes of our stage.
Sophocles fashioned his characters and his situations under such constraint is remarkable.
How
power of
His feeling for contrasts worked with the force of a nature, to which he himself could not
161
Athene, in Ajax.
because
Menelaus's.
The same
piece gives
in
every
scene a
tion,
in
good
is
manner
of his crea-
which
effects,
we
easily
di-
understand
vine.
how
it
something
Everywhere
one
each
the
sponding to
The climax
of the piece
is
How
man under the adventurous presuppositions of the piece The warm-hearted, honest, hot-headed hero,
!
Greek army, had been several times churlish toward the gods then The convulsing despair misfortune came upon him. of a magnificent nature, which is broken by disgrace and shame, the touching concealment of his deterthe ennobled Berlichingen of the
;
mination to
warrior,
act,
die,
who by voluntary
first
movements
in
the char-
acter of the
great scenes,
piece.
First, as contrast
i62
ture of
himself.
Here he
is
still
a monster,
stupid as
site of
half asleep.
He
is
The situation was as ridiculous was dismal the poet guarded himself, indeed, from wishing to make anything different out of it. Both counter-players must
ment
of shrewdness.
it
on the stage as
accommodate
straint.
themselves to the
depressing con-
Odysseus receives a slight tinge of this ridiculous element, and Athene receives the cold,
scornful
hardness.
It
is
which was needed by what was being represented, a developed with unscrupulous severity, contrast created, not by cold calculation, not through unconscious feeling, but as a great poet creates, with a
certain
natural
necessity,
yet with
perfect,
free
consciousness.
In the same dependence upon the chief heroes, the collective roles are fashioned, according to the conditions
was the "other self" of Ajax, the true, dutiful brother Teucros then, there were the second roles, his wife, the booty of his spear, Tecmessa, loving, anxious, well knowing, however, how to oppose the hero and there was his friendly rival, Odysseus
;
finally,
more pru-
dent brother, whose hatred was under control out of regard for policy.
When,
in
163
were reconciled at the grave, from the compact which they made, the Athenian would recognize
very distinctly the opposite of the opening scene,
madman.
also, the
Within the individual characters of Sophocles, unusual purity and power of his feeling for
in contrasts,
are
He
The heroes
violently,
:
legend,
resist
they brook only a certain and human freedom whoever will endow them with more, from him they snatch away and tear into shreds the loose web of their The wise poet of barbarous on the stage. myths
dramatic
characters
measure of inner
life
the Greeks recognizes very well the inward hardness and untamableness of the forms which he
must
the
Therefore, he takes as
itself
as
possible
into
drama.
He
finds,
prehensible outline of
his action
needs
it,
and
logical congruity.
pride,
And
the
way
like a
mild
commander
i64
their disposition,
boldest,
he
is
which he has them plunge and that even the Athenians compared such The defiant effects to the loosing of bloodhounds.
of the fearful one-sidedness into
;
sisterly
mortally
wounded
deadly
conflict.
But over against this groundwork of the characters, he perceives again with marvellous beauty and certainty just the corresponding gentle and friendly quality which is possible to his characters,
with their peculiar harshness.
appears
in his heroes,
complementary color
almost
and
this
opposed
is
to hate, fidelity to
friends
opposed to treachery,
almost
most delicate brilliancy of color. Ajax, who would have slain his foes in mad hatred, displays an
unusual strength of family affection, true-hearted, deep, intense love toward his companions, toward
the distant brother, toward the child, toward his wife;
Electra,
who almost
clings
lives
mother,
with
the
expressions
of
165
crying out
that
in
pain and
anguish,
he
may hew
asunder his
own
joints,
Only the
opposite directions
thrice,
show only the required supplementary colors Creon Odysseus twice, both in each of their pieces
shaded off, Ismene, Theseus, Orestes. Such a uniting of two contrast colors in one chief character was possible to the Greek only because he was a great poet and student of human
differently
nature
that
is,
human
existence,
And
human
this
life
of every
in
character
to
produce the
an enchanting
illusion, in
;
symwhich he
in
knows how
it
on the stage.
ancient
ing than
those
Romeo,
to so simple
an original form.
And
they are, of
i66
ment
of
of humanity.
But on
less admirable and For he knows how to design them with simplicity, but with a nobility of sentiment, and fashion them in a beauty and grandeur of outline that excited astonishment even in ancient times. Nowhere are loftiness and power wanting in either
enchanting.
chief
characters
is
or
accessory
characters
every-
where
^schylus embodied
the
characters of the
feature,
in
which
made
his
Prometheus, Clyintensified
temnestra,
Agamemnon, Sophocles
and supplementary when Euripides went and created pictures imitating reality, which
;
were
like
living
beings, the
threads
of
the
old
overcome the
difficulty
which
premises of his plot seemed peculiarly unfavorable to a powerful action proceeding from the hero
himself.
In the
last
hours
of
its
calamity,
tt
167
upon them from without, so much higher the power becomes with which they battle against it. Whatever already in the first ascending half of the piece, fate or a strange power works against the
hero,
it,
but as
it.
He
is,
impelled
to
tinctive
manner
be the
thus
If
any one ever stood in a position of defence dangerous to a play, it was poor King CEdipus. Let it
be observed
how Sophocles
the more
opposition
dismal
his
cause becomes
to himself, so
much
the
more
These are some of the conditions under which If the plays of Sophothe poet created his action.
cles together
same time
the action
as our plays,
is
on the average,
require, yet
much
For aside
The
action, according
way
half
an evening.
The
transitions
from scene to
;
entrance
connect-
little
The number
of divisions
only in
i68
the later time of the ancient tragedy was the division into five acts established.
of the action were separated
The
different parts
by choral songs.
Every
to our
one of such
ceding
acts.
parts,
finished scene
it,
pre-
by
its
It
the day
not
;
were
separated
stage.
Indeed, the
may be explained
he was as
and
and
flying
machine
its
fastenings
must have
been taken from the view of the spectator before the beginning of a new piece.
Another
is
it
recognizable to us,
The
drama were set off from the rest of the structure, much more markedly than at present. The introduction was called the prologue embraced one appearance or more of the solo-players, before the
;
first
all
the essen-
tials
by a choral
The
conclusion, exodus,
falling action
by a choral
song, was composed of scene-groups, carefully worked out, and included the part of the action which we moderns call the catastrophe. In Sopho-
169
the prologue
is,
preserved, an
movement,
It
in
all
three, actors
other.
piece,
contains,
choral song.
The first choral song follows the prologue after this comes the action with the entrance of the first excitement. From here the action rises in two or more stages to the climax. There are in Sophocles,
;
sometimes, very
selves,
them-
which occasion
all
this ascent.
the
And when
and unexpectedly,
From
arranged.
The catastrophe
;
itself is
com-
it
consists
not of a
brilliant
group of scenes,
lie
the
messenger
lyric
part, the
pathos scenes,
connected by slight
the
transition scenes.
same
power,
in all
of progressive intensity.
The
I70
have conprologue
trolled the
work
of the conclusion.
The play
of A?Ltigo?ie contains
and catastrophe five parts, of which the first three form the rising movement the fourth, the climax
;
besides
the
fifth,
the return.
Each
lows
maiden,
piece
is
as fol-
the
command
of
The
son and his conby self-inflicted death. In a dialogue scene, which affords a contrast between the heroine and
king,
this account, loses his
sort,
on
ing force,
brother.
excit-
to bury her
after the
and
his
com-
mand
second
The
has
to
-step is
who
been
seized,
the
expression
of
her
resistance
who
declares
will die
with her.
The
and when Creon remains inexorable, the despair of the lover. The messenger scene has been followed so far by dialogue scenes, continually increasing in excitement. The pathos scene of Antigone, song and recitation, forms the climax. This is followed
171
lead her
away
to death.
From
The
pro-
announces calamity awaiting Creon, and punishes his obstinacy. Creon is softened, and gives orders that Antigone be released from the burial
phet, Tiresias,
vault
where she
is
imprisoned.
the
Creon,
The
is
and the messenger of the catastrophe the friendly accessory players are Ismene and Hsemon the coun;
ter-player, with
less
is
is
Creon.
Eurydice
possesses
The most
pus.
It
artistic
all
play of Sophocles
King
(Edi-
drama, besides variations in songs and chorus, revolution scene, recognition scene, pathos scene, finished
announcement of the messenger at the close. The action is governed by the counter-play, has a short comparatively weak climax, and a long ascent,
descent. The prologue brings out all three actors, and announces, besides the presupposed conditions, Thebes under CEdipus during a plague, the exciting that Laius's murder force, an oracular utterance,
shall
From
;
by two
steps.
by CEdi-
rendered sus-
172
picious
hints in
ambigu-
Second step, strife of CEdipus with Creon, separated by Jocasta. After this, climax interview of CEdipus and Jocasta. Jocasta's account of the death of Laius, and CEdipus's words, **0 woman, how, at your words, a sudden terror
and departs
;
seizes
me !"
Up
summoned up
;
a violent
although he
the feeling
now
upon
his soul.
His role
unfathomable self-contempt
ends, the second begins.
in this
place the
first
From
downward, with magnificent execution the suspense is increased by the counterplay of Jocasta for what gives her the fearful certainty once more deceive QEdipiis the. effects of
again
in
two
steps
The
On
construction.
catastrophe
of the
fall
;
consists
and two
The play contains not only the strongest dramatic effect which we have received from Soph-
173
because
of ifischylus
comparing it with the. Lib atiofi Pourers and the Electra of Euripides, which treat
in
the
same
material,
we recognize
distinctly
how
the
two pieces in ^schylus's trilogy, he peris treated entirely as an accessory figure forms the monstrous deed of vengeance by command of and as the tool of Apollo, deliberate, composed, with no trace of doubt or vacillation, like a warrior who has set out upon a dangerous undertaking and only the catastrophe represents
; ;
this
chief
part
of
the
old
is
subject
dramatically.
What
of an extremely energetic
shaped for the requirements of the stage in a most striking manner, by changes in feeling, through will and deed. In the prologue, Orestes and his warden give the introduction and the expocharacter, but
sition of the exciting force (arrival of the avengers),
which works
rising action
dream and
stage of the
presentiment of Clytemnestra.
follows this
:
The
first
Chrysothemis the news that she, the ever-complainshe persuades ing one, will be put into prison
;
Chrysothemis not to pour upon the grave of the murdered father the expiating libation which the
Conflict of Electra
different
174
news on the two women pathos scene of Electra added to this, the first step of the return. Chrysothemis returns joyfully from her father's grave, announces that she found a strange
effect of this
a friend
must be
kill
near.
^gisthos, rages against the resisting ChrysoOrestes as a stranger, with the urn
;
Second stage
mourning of Electra, and recognition scene of enrapturing beauty. The exodus contains the representation of the avenging
containing Orestes's ashes
deed,
tra,
first in
What
if
is
unfavorable for dramatic treatment. That an old man, wandering about the country, should bestow the blessing which, according to an oracle, was to hang over his grave, not upon his ungrateful native
city,
such a subject
seems to the casual patriotic feeling of an audience, rather offensive. And yet Sophocles has understood how to charge even this with suspense, progressive elevation, passionate strife between hatred
and
But the piece has a peculiarity of conThe prologue is expanded into a greater whole, which in its extreme compass corresponds
love.
struction.
to the catastrophe
it
consists of
scenes,
two
parts,
each
composed
of three
little
connected by a
175
moment
solo players
The
first
brings the
pursued by those of
here the action rises
land,
Thebes.
his
From
great
conflict
scene
with
powerful
movement.
Creon
enters,
home but Theseus maintains power and sends Creon away. Hereupon follows the return action, in two stages The daughters, rescued by Theseus, are brought back to
that he shall return
his protecting
;
the old
entreats
man
own
selfish ends,
reconciliation
with
his
father,
and
his
father's return.
ciled
Antigone expresses
fidelity of a .sister.
the mysterif^us
oration
scene
By
the expansion of
becomes
The
permanent scene-forms, like the contents of the what we also know from old
that
this
accounts,
last
176
Perhaps the earliest of the plays of Sophocles which have come down to us is The Trachi?tia?i Women. Here, too, is something striking in construction.
The prologue
far
remaining
first
half
first,
arrival of
Hercules
whom
Climax:
In her honest
man
had
whom
he had
slain
to the
care of a herald.
stage,
The
sending
magic.
the garment
that there
is
something unearthly
in
the
The
parts
first,
Here follows the catastroph^i^lso in two a messenger scene which announces the
Deianeira
;
death
of
then
is
brought forward,
suffer-
demands of his son the burning of his body on Mount CEta. The tragedy, Ajax, contains after the prologue in three parts, a rising movement in three stages
;
first,
and
177
determination to die
which
it
would
finally,
Ajax
will not
come out
Hereupon follows the climax the pathos scene of Ajax and his suicide, especially distinguished by this, that the chorus has previously
absent hero.
left
character of a monologue.
action in three parts
;
Now comes
the return
first,
now
enters
Menelaus,
trophe at
who
last,
The
catas-
an intensifying of
Agamemnon,
the
form
tion.
between Odysseus
made
first
clear
part
scenes
force in
group of three connected after this come the climax and the tragic two scenes, of which the first is a two-part
;
Just
The
first
song
is
178
Only
in the
middle stands a
choral
song.
The
but in (Edipus
not
only
in PhilocIt
is
not an accident.
may
be
command
scenes,
of form,
and the
that this
drama
with marvellous
through a wide
soul-
circle
convulsing power.
The circumstance
of hor-
and immediately following, soul-devouring mental anguish, have never been delineated so boldly and But the honest, embittered, obso magnificently. stinate man affords no opportunity to the action This, therefore, is itself for dramatic movement. placed in the soul of the second actor, and Neoptolemus
is
Philoctetes forward by
deception.
Philoctetes
as the
port
upon him
helper
;
who promises
to
this
own
land
and he delivers to
But the sight of the sick man's severe sufferings, the touching gratitude of
179
humanity which
is
shown him,
;
and with an inward struggle, he confesses to the sick man his purpose of taking him with his bow to the
Greek army.
Philoctetes
The reproaches
increase
further
of the disappointed
excitement
lence.
is still
Philoctetes seized
At the beginning
is
honesty of Neoptolemus
seus
against Odys-
himself
he gives back to
Philoctetes
the
deadly bow,
the
to follow to
army
him
now
his
achievement must be to
man and
his ship
who
and
is
concluded dramatically,
;
piece into
play,
life
of the
is
nowhere
plays
of Hercules
in the
of Philoctetes.
fitness,
sion,
an excrescence,
:
is still
two directions
his
it
shows how
i8o
He
pre-
of
all
by
inner dramatic
movement
After a
So
between Neop-
is
at
an end.
come
to
a mutual agreement.
at a
The
OdysWith the seus, now represents the highest interest. fondness which Sophocles also elsewhere shows for even his third man, he has here specially dignified
that personage.
in
the prologue agreeably expressed the well-known character of Odysseus, the latter appears immediately in a disguise in which the spectator not only
knows
of
in
is
a shrewd
Odysseus and
he appears as Odysseus
of the whole
action, in order to
his opposition
becomes continually
At
last, in
the catas-
shortly before
the
divine
hero becomes
on high, the warning voice of Odysseus rings out his form, apparently protected by the
;
i8i
more
to express oppois
and
this
sharp
When, only a short time perhaps above the same spot where
is
Odysseus's figure was seen for a moment, the transfigured form of Hercules
visible,
mand
of
in
a mild
Odysseus and in this last repetition of the same command, the spectator perceived nothing new entering from without but rather he perceived more vividly the irresistible power of the keen human intelligence which had struggled through the entire
;
sification,
IV.
recognized by the works of higher art as well as by the inclination of the public, and most of all by
still
the
first
Shakespeare filled with dramatic life the old customs of a play-loving people from a loosely woven
;
i82
narrative,
drama.
But even
some
brilliant
Attic theater.
To him
also, the
on the construction of
in his later time,
stage.
formed a smaller
below.
cony above, from which steps led to the front stage The chief stage had no drop curtain; the divisions of the piece could be separated only by
pauses
;
with us now.
leave
was not
possible, as
it
is
on our
all
incomplete.
In Shakespeare's plays,
the
all
before the
borne
off in
even the dead must thus be an appropriate manner. Only the inner
;
drawn apart and drawn together without trouble, and denote a convenient change of scene. First, the front on which, for instance, Romeo space was the street, and his companions entered in masks when they had departed, the curtains were drawn apart, and there was the guest-room of the Capulets, as indiCapulet came cated by the servants in attendance. forward from the middle of the background and greeted his friends his company poured in upon
183
When
had departed, the middle curtain was drawn behind Juliet and the nurse, and the stage became a street again, from which Romeo slipped
behind the curtain to be out of sight of his boisterous friends
who were
calling him.
When
these
became a garden, Romeo appeared, ^^and so on. Everything must be more in motion, lighter, quicker changing of scene-groups, a more rapid coming and going, a more nimble play, a closer concentration
of the aggregate impression.
this
Attention
is
called to
oft discussed
cause this
manner of dividing
smaller divisions
his plays.
The number
;
sometimes
all.
What seems
ment.
up of the
action,
was
less perceptible
commotion. Processions, battles, scenes full of figures, were preferably seen and belonged, notwithstanding the scanty equipment which on the whole the spectacular drama of the time posin
men
violent
i84
street.
In Shakespeare's time,
several roles
;
now was
own
tiful
and clothe beauOnly the parts of women, which were still played by men, preserved something of the ancient character of stage play, which made the spectator a confidant in the illusion which was to be produced. Upon such a stage appeared Germanic dramatic
distinctive personality entirely,
Shakes-
peare's technique
that
we
still
strive to
And
he has, on the
recur to
him continually
therefore, in
this
place,
will
be mentioned.
place, the
;
change of
above
his scenes
is
too
side
all,
the
little
Where he
binds together a
the corresponding
nyimber of scenes,
we must form
When,
for
example,
in Coriolanus, the
185
act
the piece
where
this presses
entirely at a loss,
on our
make
these fleet-
But
compose the scenes more strictly heroes and represent their emotions chief the for and movements in a smaller number of situations,
we
are obliged to
fuller elaboration.
we admire
the mighty
power
excitement in the way of his heroes and impels them swiftly in rapid upward stages to a momentous His method of leading the action and the height. characters beyond the climax, in the first half of the play, may also serve as a model to us. And in the
catastrophe itself is planned with and scope of genius, with no attempt at overwhelming effect, without apparent effort, with concise execution, a consequence of the play,
second
half, the
the sureness
part
which
fills
In
by the customs of
est
In
much many of
restrained
the greatis
dramas of
divided
which have
only to
inserted
i86
make
The
inner conditions
and the concentration so necessary here fails. It is so in Hamlet, in King Lear, in Macbeth, somewhat Even in Julius CcBsar, so in Antony and Cleopatra.
the
return
action
splendid
and Cassius, and the appearance of the ghost but what follows is again much divided, fragmentary. In Richard III., \h& falling action is indeed drawn
;
do not
in
effect to the
immense power
of the
first part.
We
from a relic of the old custom of telling the story on the stage by means of speech and responsive
speech.
As the dark suspicion against the king works upon Hamlet as Macbeth struggles with the as Lear is continually plunged idea of murder deeper into misery as Richard strides from one
; ;
;
crime to another,
first
this
must be represented
in the
The
ego,
its
itself. But from this point on, where the will has become deed, or where the impassioned embarrassment of the hero has reached the highest degree, where the consequences of what has happened are at work
and the victory of the counter-play begins, the significance of the opponent becomes, of course, As soon as Macbeth has murdered the greater.
187
king and Banquo, the poet must turn the efforts of the murderous despot toward other men and events
;
an end.
with
When
Coriolanus
is
new
relations
and
a
new purposes.
is
When
Lear
flies
about as a
close,
new uses
It is
a greater
number of new motives, perhaps, too, of new persons, may be introduced into the piece it is
;
must
sary
of
all
makes necesmore external action and a broader elaboration And it is also not at the engrossing moment.
surprising that Shakespeare right here yielded
to curiosity
more
stage.
and
allowable
on our
But
is
it is
repel the feeling that the poet's ardor for his heroes
certainly
action,
not
so in
Romeo,
Juliet,
It is
indeed,
is
concealed
the
so
much
more powerfully
lie in
the
i88
return action.
strikingly so in
is
King
Lear.
only an episode or
also no
divided
;
narrative in
effect
mad
scene of Lear
Similarly
in
is
intensifying of
first.
Macbeth,
is
through
life
The
finished witch
Mac-
few
attractive figures
of the coun-
ter-play fill this part, in an arrangement of scenes which we may not imitate and only occasionally the great power of the poet blazes up, as in the catastrophe of Lady Macbeth. Manifestly, it is his greatest joy, to fashion from the most secret depths of human nature, a will and a deed. In this he is inexhaustibly rich, profound, and powerful. No other poet equals him. If he has once rendered his hero this service, if he has
;
processes culminating in
him
Even
the
in
Hamlet, there
action.
is
a noticeable weakness in
return
probably
it
by the poet;
was
he has mysteriously
at
long intervals
have taken from the play the beautiful proportion, which is only possible in a simultaneous moulding
of
all
parts.
Hamlet
is,
of course, no precipitate of
189
moods from
half a
human
life,
like Faust;
little
contradictions
Jn tone and
much
the greater
indeed,
receives something iridescent and ambiguous, from the fact that deeper and more spirited motives were introduced into the texture of
Something of the old manner of bringing narrative upon the stage clung also to the poet's last revision some places in Ophelia's exit
the rising action.
;
and the graveyard scene appear to be new-cut diamonds, which the poet has set in while working
over the earlier connection.
Nevertheless
tinctly in a
it
is
dis-
scheme, the
combination of the
What
drama from the constituent parts already discussed. is according to plan, what is designed for a certain purpose, has not been found by the poet entirely through the same consideration which is
necessary to the reader
when
Much
come
ful,
is
it
has
into being as
by natural
necessity, through
is
creative
power
in
thought-
considerate, has
doubted, then
decided.
But
or
the laws of his creation, whether they directed his invention secretly and unconsciously to himself
;
whether, as rules
creative
known
power
IQO
The key-note
Hamlet
in a
on the platform
exposition
itself
The
room
of state, before
3.
Connecting
inform
action.
Hamlet
of the
Interpolated
exposition scene
accessory
The family
of Laertes.
i.
Introductory key-note;
2.
to
Hamlet.
him.
4.
3.
Chief part,
it
his confidants.
chief
excite-
ment
lies
counter-players.
has
Two
the
scenes
transition to what follows. Second king determines to put the a test Hamlet to stage by means of a play. A great scene with episodical
king;
:
iqi
the
actors.
Hamlet's
:
transition.
Third stage
i.
the counter-players,
2.
Hamlet's
celebrated
4.
monologue.
3.
Hamlet
warns Ophelia.
suspicious.
These three stages of the rising action are worked out with reference to the effect of the two others the first becdmes an introduction, the broad and agreeable elaboration of the second forms the chief part of the ascent the third, through the continuation of the monologue, beautifully connected with the second, forms the climax of the group, with sudden descent. Fourth stage, which leads up to
;
the climax
suspicion,
the
i.
play,
confirmation of Hamlet's
Introduction.
2.
and
king.
courtiers.
3.
The rendering
Hamlet,
with
a
Transition,
Horatio,
and the
the
courtiers.
Climax.
praying.
this,
scene
prelude,
king
to
Hamlet
hesitating.
Closely joined
the
Hamlet, during an
interlittle
Two
what follows the king deThese three scenetermines to send Hamlet away. groups are also bound into a whole, in the midst of
which the climax stands.
At
Fortin-
192
First stage on the way. Ophelia's madness, and Laertes demanding revenge. Side scene Hamlet's letter to Horatio. Second stage A scene Laertes and the king discuss Hamlet's death. The announcement of the queen that Ophelia is dead, forms the conclusion, and the Third stage transition to what follows. Burial of
bras
Hamlet
Ophelia.
elaboration.
The
Hamlet and
Laertes.
:
Catastrophe.
Introductory scene
Hamlet and
transition, the
Horatio,
As
announcement of Osric
Arrival of Fortinbras.
The
half.
The
as
little
side
scenes
without
the
action,
through
the
episode with
grave-diggers,
The work
and
of
is
of ancient brevity
vigor.
V.
THE FIVE
The drama
ACTS.
of the Hellenes
was
built
up
in a reg-
came
Iq3
The drama
in a
change of finished scenes and accessory scenes, by steep ascent, up to a lofty height and from this
;
stages.
The whole
in violent
and sublime
art has
effects
The German
stage,
promon
which
blossomed, col-
The
ascent
lofty
it
is slow, the altitude which is attained is less and of longer continuance and gradually, as
;
The
had a material
influ-
The
parts of
now be disposed
in
five
separate
divisions
they
drawn farther apart from each other. The transition from the old way of dividing the action to our The five acts, was, of course, long ago prepared.
meritorious
method
of binding
together
different
represented, failed
already
in
Shakespeare
in his
certainly shorter,
dramas, breaks
194
With the
came
also the
who
By
this
Moreover, by
means, the
distinctly
more
bril-
action,
trast in color
tracts
became peculiar pictures which form a conand tone. Every such change diseach makes a new tension, a new intensifying,
little
necessary.
Therefore
produced
Each
act
For
each, a striking of chords to give the keynote, a a climax in strong relief, an were desirable. The rich equipment for scenic surroundings compelled a restriction of the frequent change of place, which in Shakespeare's
short
introduction,
effective close,
illustra-
and the laying of longer parts of the action in the same room, and in divisions of time following immediately upon one another. Thus the
number
of scenes
became
quiet,
less,
the whole
more
195
forces
more
artistic.
One
great advantage,
however, was offered by closing up the stage. It would now be possible to begin in the midst of a situation, and end in the midst of a situation. The spectator could be more rapidly initiated into the action, and more quickly dismissed, without taking in the bargain the preparation and the solution of what had held him spell-bound and that was no small gain which was possible five times in a piece, for the beginning and the end of the effects. But this advantage offered also a danger. The depic;
now
in the
On
German poets
act^
sight,
till
produced their
with a sustained
introducing with
all
movement
to the
of scenes and effects which corresponded measured and formal sociability of the time.
in-
drama
the
ris-
ing action
return
sity of
;
the
the catastrophe.
the
same fashion
Of
first
196
first act,
of the
fall-
taken
whole.
rule,
in the third
the other
and component
fifth acts,
parts
of these
Naturally
made
no accident.
it.
The Roman
But only since the development of the modern stage among the French and Germans, has the present construction of the
play been established in these countries.
In passing,
parts
of
it
may
be remarked that
the five
a
the
action
will
smaller
number
The
three points,
Even
its
course in
one
act,
nizable.
its
significance
for
the
has also
its
peculiarities in construcis
great
number
Still,
of variations
possible here.
Every
its
material, every
right.
poetic personality
demands
at
from a majority of works of art hand, some frequently recurring laws may be rec-
own
ognized.
The
rule,
still,
as a
moments
or forces
the intro-
197
the
first
scene of
the rising
action.^
thing,
effects
about two
lesser climaxes, of
last
may
be the most
Galotti,
;
the prince at
his
work-table
is
the key-note
is
the exposition
in
the
lies
The
first
ascent
in
the two
piece
;
women
mood
of the
and the talk with Alphonso is the exposition. Following this, the decking of Tasso with wreaths by the princess is the exciting force the entrance of Antonio and his cool contempt for Tasso is the first stage of the rising action. So in Mary Stuart, the forcing of the cabinets, the confession to Kennedy, the entrance of Mortimer, and the great scene between Mary and
their succeeding conversation
;
In William
where the three actions are interwoven, there stands after the situation near the beginning, which
gives the key-note, and after a short introductory
first
exciting force
flight
Baumgarten's
this,
and
res-
cue.
Then
After
the
first
iqS
Tell
force, in
the conversation of Walter Fiirst and Melchthal the making of Melchthal's father
;
and
as
Swiss to delay at
Riitli.
its duty in our dramas, to lead up to the action with increased ten-
The
ter-play
place in the
act.
Whether
progressing movement,
received a
hearer
;
has
already
number
of impressions
therefore in this,
act,
will
the
in
Lessing does,
with an introductory scene, in which the Galotti family are briefly presented, then the intriguers of
Marinelli expose their plan.
Then
lows
in
first
agitation
the
prince
proposition
Appiani.
The
beautifully
the excited
close.
mood
the family as
an excellent
The
just
two acts
two stages of the ascent the approach and in sharp contrast, his
:
199
with Antonio.
The second
;
act in
Mary Stuart,
other counter-players
it
first,
Mary and
upon
Elizabeth
further,
the
conversation of Mortimer
Tell, finally,
its
compasses
exposition of
;
Attinghausen family
confederated
Riitli.
The
its
must
strive to concentrate
brought out
in
strong
if
bound with a
of the third
is
and
and
after
the
attack.
explanatory
announcement
tration
regarding the
the
The
of
pros-
of
Emilia
declaration
the
out-
The
movement.
which the princess makes to Leonora of Following this, comes as her attachment to Tasso.
200
first
between Leonora and Antonio, in which the latter becomes interested in Tasso and resolves to estabIn Mary Stuart, the climax lish the poet at court.
and the tragic force lie in the great park scene, which is in two parts following this and connected with it by a little side scene, is the outburst of Mortimer's passion to Mary, as beginning of the falling action the dispersion of the conspirators forms the
;
;
The
third act of
which con-
house,
between Rudenz and Bertha the third, the greatly the shooting elaborated climax of the Tell action,
of the apple.
The
act of the
the great
German
its
in a
scene of
much
significance.
On
among
into
us
the
If
impracticable,
still
one must be on
his
guard
The
newcomers
The
fourth act of
201
in
two
parts.
new
counter-play.
how
by
to
giv-
scenes to the
Her great
Odoardo, as the second stage. The high tension which the action receives by this, closes the act
effectively.
its
course in
just
Tasso with Leonora, and Tasso two scenes with Antonio both are concluded by Tasso's monologues. The regular fourth act of Mary Stuart
;
will
be discussed
later.
In William
Tell,
the fourth
two stages for the falling action his escape from the boat, and Gessler's death. Between these, stands the return action for the Attinghausen family, which is interwoven
act for Tell himself contains
;
The
act
of
the
catastrophe
contains
almost
In Emilia
Galotti,
an intro-
father,
then the
catastrophe,
The same
tion of
introductory conversa-
202
poem be
restored to
him
ual
acts
Mary
result
of
using a material
which has kept the heroine in the background since the middle of the piece, and has made the counterplayer,
person.
The
first
scene-
death,
contains her
pathy.
that of
catas-
the great
The
in
two
parts,
is
only a situation
Of
spite
all
German dramas,
most
its
intricate construction.
is
of
on the
The Piccolomini.
Had
presented
it,
an
commander, but
is
abandoned by
drama
for rising
and
falling action, a
not insignifi-
But with
this
is
203
wanting to the action. For a deliberate which was firmly in the mind of the hero from the beginning, excluded the highest dramatic the working out of the conclusion from the task,
treason,
Wal-
must be presented
his relations
as he
is
turning traitor,
gradually,
compulsion of
of the idea,
so another conception
and an extension of the action became a general is, through excessive power, contentions of his adversaries, and his own pride of heart, brought to a betrayal of his commanding he seeks to seduce the army to revolt, but officer is abandoned by the majority of his officers and soldiers, and slain.
necessary,
With
the
this
of the action
hero, to
climax,
to
the
upon treason then comes a part, the seduction of the army to revolt, where the action hovers about the same height finally in a mad plunge, failure and destruction. The conflict of the general and his army had become the second part of the
determination
play.
The
army
at Pilsen.
Exciting force
dor, Questenberg.
Second
act,
rising
movement;
banquet scene.
Third
act,
through
evil suggestions,
204
forced
with
the
Swedes.
is
Climax
Scene with
Octavio
Wrangel, to which
the gaining of
General
Buttler for
the
emperor.
a
Fourth
Close of the
act,
scene with
cuirassiers.
Fifth
Wallenstein in
In the broad and fine elabowhich Schiller did not deny himself, it was ration impossible for him to crowd the material so rich in figures and in forces, so full of meaning, into the frame of five acts. Besides, the character of Max very soon became exceedingly important to him, for reasons which could not be put aside. The necessity of having a bright figure in the gloomy group created him and
;
the wish to
make more
In
intimate
relation
to
with
;
Max,
Friedland's
lovers,
daughter grew
womanhood
and these
quickly
pictures characteristic of
Schiller,
won
deep import
in the soul
panding
far
beyond the
Max, placed
between Wallenstein and Octavio, pictured to the eye of the poet a strong contrast to either he enthe episoditered the drama as a second first hero cal love scenes, the conflicts between father and
; ;
son,
panded
205
high-
who
his
father
leading a
and separates
has
him, to his
become a traitor, and separates himself from own destruction and that of the woman
he loves.
This action presents,
in its
whom
rising
which
not
to
;
is
Trust them
they
The
Thekla
in the
After the
two scenes, the separation of Max from his father and the separation of Max from Wallenstein Thekla receives the anafter this the catastrophe
of
;
:
nouncement of the death of her lover, again in two With the illumination of two such drascenes. matic ideas, the poet concluded to interlace the two actions into two dramas, which together formed a dramatic unit of ten acts and a prelude.
In The Piccolomiiii, the exciting force
is
a double
in
the camp.
The
;
Max
and Thekla
2o6
Max
surroundings
is
introduced.
The
catastrophe
by Max.
Walle?istei?i s
scenes with Questenberg, the interview of Wallenstein with the faithful ones,
also, a great part
acts.
of the
first,
the
rumored capture of Sesina, closely connected with the interview between Wallenstein and Wrangel the climax is the revolt of the troops from Wallenfarewell of the cuirassiers. But the catasstein, news of the death of Max, trophe is double together with Thekla's flight, and the murder of Wallenstein. The scenes interwoven from the action
of The
Piccolomini are
the interview of
Max
with
Max from Walmessenger scene of the Swedish capalso one scene tain, and Thekla's resolve to flee and conclusion of the second act, the climax of the
her relatives, and the separation of
lenstein, the
;
Now, however, such an interweaving of two actions and two pieces with each other would be difficult to justify,
if
itself
of the
whole tragedy
rises
and
with a certain
first
207
the catastrophe
of
The
Walle7isteiii s
Death.
last
drama,
lovers,
there
are two
one
the
for
the
double
drama.
It is
known
and
Walleiisteiri s
first
Death.
two acts of the latter, and the separation in spirit of Max from Wallenstein. This was, of course, an advantage for the action of Max. But with this arrangement, the scene with Wrangel, i. e. the portentous deed of Wallenstein, and besides
originally, the
this
Buttler's
apostacy to Octavio,
Death, and the
i,
e.,
the
first
ascent of
Walle?istei7i s
first
return of
;
and
tage
this
;
fell into the first of the two pieces would have been a considerable disadvanfor then the second drama would have con-
Wallenstein and
and the catastrophe of the two heroes, Max and in spite of the magnificent execution, the tension would have been too much lacking to this second half. Schiller conof the return,
;
cluded,
therefore,
rightly,
to
make
the
division
farther back,
and to end the first play with the great By this conflict scene between father and son. division, The Piccolomi?ii lost in compactness, but
Walleiistehi s
Death gained
in
an indispensable order
2o8
of construction.
made
hour, and that he by his regard for the structure of the parts, than by regard for the unequal time which the two parts would take for repthis alteration
at the last
The
completed piece,
effect of the
might think.
He
whole the individual parts of the artistic structure took their places in the whole according to a certain What was conformable to laws, natural necessity. in the combination, he has in nowise made everywhere so distinct, through conscious deliberation, as we are obliged to do, getting our notion from the completed masterpiece. Nevertheless we have the right to point out what follows a law, even where he has not consciously cast it in a mould, reflecting upon it afterward as we do. For the entire drama,
Walle?istein, in its division,
partly as
it,
and again
an entirely complete
art.^^
much
arrangements render it impossible to represent the whole masterpiece at one performance only in this way would be seen the beautiful and magnificent effects, which lie in the artistic sequence of parts.
;
As
now
given, the
first
is
always at
200
circumstances, and of
its
much space
two
acts.
With a continuous
*'
repre-
would come into right relations. The splendid prologue, The Camp," the beautiful pictures of which one only wants more powerfully condensed through an undivided action, could
sentation, all this
It is
it
will
be a
the
German
witness
his
greatest
drama
in its entirety.
It is
other,
For even when both pieces are given, one after the no role exacts what would overtax the powers
of a strong man.
The
ble
formance offers. But, indeed, such a performance would be possible, if only as an exception, at a great festival occasion, and if only in another auditorium than our theaters. For what exhausts the physical strength of both player and spectator in
less
is
upon the
eyes,
which
able
CHAPTER
III.
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
I.
ARRANGEMENT OF
The acts German term
PARTS.
into the
exit
and
for
units
are formed.
by the combination of which the acts But the dramatic passages out of which
exit,
a greater
number,
This passage,
movement, takes its form through the various stages in which the creative power of the poet works.
single
dramatic
The
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
themselves in such single
parts,
211
while the
great
However
different
units are
diverse the
work
of the creative
power
in
minds may be, these logical and poetical formed in every poetic work by necessity and anyone who gives careful attention, may easily recognize them in the completed poem, and perceive
in
less
power,
of
fervor,
poetic
fulness,
and
as
firm,
neat
method
work.
needed to represent a connected series of poetic images and ideas, which somewhat sharply divides These itself from what precedes and what follows.
passages are of very unequal length
sist
pages
they
may
may, placed
in juxtaposition,
in-
he is and characteristic
;
is
creat-
scenes.
Out of the dramatic moments, the poet composes This foreign word is used by us with variIt
ous meanings.
first,
the
stage-room
itself,
212
is
To
the
of
several
by the same
Since a change
of scenery
is
and the scene of the director do not always exactly coincide.^" An example may be allowed here. The fourth act of Mary Stuart is divided by the poet into twelve parts (entrances), separated by one shifting of scenery within the act into two director scenes. It consists of two little scenes and one great scene,
The first scene, the composed of two dramatic a short key note, which gives
scenes.
is
the tone of the act, the despair of Aubespine, (2) The secthe strife between Leicester and Burleigh.
ond scene, Mortimer's end, connected with the preceding by Leicester's remaining on the stage, ( Leicester's connecting monologue, (2) interview between Leicester and Mortimer, (3) Mortimer's
i
death.
The
third
more
artistically constructed.
first and second, and consists of ten
four, the
in a
quarrel of
contrast.
The
movements
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
the last of these, Davison and Burleigh,
213
is
the
the
fifth act.
It is
the creating spirit, from a completed and now and then the critical judgment is But they deserve greater attention than in doubt. has so far been accorded to them. </ It was said in the last section, that every act must be an organized structure, which combines its part of the action in an order, conformable to a purunits
of
drama
pose and an
tator
effect.
In
it,
must be guided with a steady hand, and increased it must have its climax a great, strong,
;
elaborate scene.
ate climaxes,
If
it
must be united by means of shorter scenes, like joints, in such a manner that the stronger interest will always rest on the later elaborthese
ate scene.
t^ike the
parts,
act,
as well as finished
which
is
adapted to express
import with
An
must be represented with profusion, in effective progression, and the results of the same be indicated by telling strokes after its catastrophe, toward which it sweeps forward, richly elaborated the conclusion must come, brief, and rapid for once its
it
;
;
214
word is too much. And as it is to be introduced with a certain rousing of expectation, so its
useless
expression of the
important personalities,
at
the
The
no unwarranted desire of the player, however much they are misused by a crude effort for effect. The marked division at the end of the scene, and the
necessity of transferring the suspense to what follows, rather justify
them
as an artifice, specially at
by the
useless changas
ing of costumes.
It
much
this
and when a change of costume is necessary, have regard to it in the arrangement of the
practice
five
may, according
what
fol-
The
acts
tion,
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
215
part of the action, of closing effects which, on account of the shifting of scenery hard to manage,
and the introduction of new crowds, occasion delay. But even the shifting of scenery within the limits For every of an act, is no indifferent matter. change in the appearance of the stage during an
act,
makes
and the
in
modern
by the drop
tell,
is
curtain.
impossible to
made only
it
ended.
In
must be the poet's zealous care to make any change of scenes in the act unnecessary and it will be well if during the process of composition, he relies on his own power" to
view of this inconvenience,
;
for frequently
it
may
not to have
greatest
it
occur
in the acts
elaboration,
specially
full skill
of the poet
necessary in
most
easily
overcome
of the action.
and
this,
a great effect.
By
2i6
surroundings
more intelligible in the alternating light and shadow. The poet must, therefore, carefully watch his fervid feeling, and examine with care what dramatic forces are for the essentials of his action, what for accesHe must restrain his incHnation to depict sories.
fully certain kinds of
characters or situations, in
;
if,
charm of this habit, if he must deviate from this law and accord to an unessential force broader treatment, he will do it with the understanding that by special beauty of elaboration and finish, he must atone for the defect
however, he cannot
resist the
The subordinate
new
will
it
be
member,
brevity.
Here
is
suggestive
n.
make
it
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
his action
217
in the
new
cient order
while
it
smooth flowing sentences, neither elevation nor contrasts are developed with any power. Of course,
there
in the
is
for
even
the
though unschooled,
correct thing, in
is
accustomed
essentials
to hit
;
what
is
many
known
rules.
v Since the scene is a part of the drama, set off from other parts, and is to prepare for the meaning of what follows in itself, to excite interest, to place a final result in a good light, and then to lead over to what may follow in the next scene, minutel}'
examined,
it
will
be found to contain
five
parts,
drama.
For
it is
A.
feels,
demands something.
In
In
exhibition of feeling,
it
is
desirable
2i8
but that
it
indicate the
through A.
harmless.
to be
be the business of a scene to render B. harmless its proposed result, B's promise to be
;
not needed.
If
the scene
in
moves forward in a direct line but But great danger of becoming wearisome.
it,
it
is
if
B.
puts himself on his defensive, and persists in continuing the disturbance or denies
is
as far as possible
from the wish of A. From here, an approach of points of view begins, the reasons put forth by A.
show themselves
strongest,
till
B. yields.
But since every scene points to what follows, this pyramidal structure is frequently changed into the
profile of a shore-beating
line,
and short
falling side,
beginning,
ascent, final
result.
According
tain,
to
the
number
scenes are
to
subject
varied arrangement.
observing chorus,
to
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
to the hearer
;
219
would be very acceptable but it is So great is the influence of the struggle of each man, on every purpose of the drama, that every isolation of an individual must have a special justification. Only where a rich inner life has been concealed for a long time in the genoften not the case.
eral play, elation.
will
does the auditor tolerate its private revBut in cases where artistic intrigue playing
the audience a confidant, the spectator*' the quiet expression of an individual
;
make
cares
little for
Mono-
numerous opportunities which our stage offers for characters to expose their inner lives, and with the changed purpose of dramatic
the
effects
art,
modern drama.
hearer, they
need
in
commotion, they must always be constructed dramatically. ^ Something presented on one side, something on the other side; final result, and indeed,
result that
itself.
final
the
rising action
The second
celebrated
220
Hamlet's
it
soul,
but no advance at
the action, as
introduces no
new
volition of the
hero
it
The
previous
monologue, on the contrary, a masterpiece of dramatic emotion, even this, the outburst resulting from the previous scene, has as its foundation a
(i)
"The
actor
I
in the
earnestness; (3) to the work! I will institute a play, in order to win resolution for an earnest deed."
ing scene
is
at
the interview with the players produces on the character of the hero, and on the course of the action.
become
fa-
In Schiller's and
great
Lessing would
effects,
even
in
if
our iambics.
Next
iments by messenger
epic.
is
Since
it
produced
that
may be
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
ger, or
221
An
intense counter-play
inter-
of course,
outdoing
it.
Schiller,
who
is
Wal-
In the beautiful
life,"
is
in
human
and
"We
Wallenstein's inspi-
power appear nowhere so In the announcement powerful as in his narratives. of the Swede, however, the dumb play of the mortally wounded Thekla is in the strongest contrast with the behavior and the message of the active Moreover, this drama has other descripstranger. for example, the Bohemian cup and the tions, room of the astrologer, the curtailing or removal of which would be an advantage on the stage. The most im[)ortant part of an action has its
and
prophetic
place
in
tne
dialogue
scenes,
specially
scenes
something
perception
perception,
emotion
have
against
with
us,
deviating from the uniform method of the ancients, found the most manifold elaboration. ^The purpose
of every colloquy scene
is
to bring into
prominence
222
dialogue was a
immediate influence on the soul of the participants, the modern dialogue understands how to persuade,
demonstrate, bring over to the speaker's point of
view.
of the hero and his adversary Greek tragedy, rhetorical wordcontests but they grow out of the character and and the hearer is spirit of the persons contending
The arguments
;
carefully instructed
how
far
how
far
must draw his motives truly from the depths of his own being. But in order that what has a purpose, or what is true, may be fully conceived by the hearer, there is needed a certain trend of speech and reply on the stage, not in the regular course, conformable to custom, as among
the Greeks or old Spanish, but essentially different
from the way in which we undertake to convince any one in real life. To the character on the stage, time is limited he has no arguments to bring forward in a continuously progressive order of
;
effects
hearer,
ation.
in
explaij;i
impressively for
his
situ-
and
may be
many
and may
;
rest
son
may
finally
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
not, as a rule, possible
effective.
223
it
on the stage, as
is
not
Therefore,
it is
In our plays, the reasonings of one strike waves against the soul of the other, broken at first by resistance, then rising higher, till, perhaps, at last they rise above the resistance itself. It happens according to an old law of composition, that freforce.
like
each
made two
is
excursions,
hearer
sufficiently
he
They correspond
much
to the joy of
the Germans
in a rational discus-
Celebrated roles of
Marinelli,
Carlos
in
Clavigo,
Wrangel
in
Wallenstem.
Since
must so fashion the dialogue it makes for the becomes impressed upon the hearer, the
the
poet
progress which
which they
and
in
The matter
will
be
224
simplest
whom
if
he attacks
rations
occur,
the
victory of
one, or
is
the
attacked person
is
more
the
tractable, there
a gradual
of
coming
over.
A
is
scene of
such
persuasion,
simple structure,
Cassius presses,
a
three
is
The middle
finish.
part
You
Not
is
The
piarts:
i.
Cassius,
"Much
hoped
without,
is
from
you"
(frequently
interrupted
with
attention
?
to
"
Caesar).
3.
2.
''What
shall
Caesar
more than we
"
Our
**
wills
I
make
us free."
Conclusion, Brutus,
will
con-
sider it."
But
if
It
in
another place
and
turn
agreement again
The
inner
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
service to the action or the characters.
225
By unconnected
field
talk,
it is
numerous reasons and counter-reasons, and the to give the lines a sharper turn but on the whole, the structure remains in form, as was indicated in the comparison with a roaring wave a gradual movement upward to the climax, result, a short
;
close.
This
is
between Egmont and Orange, indeed the best wrought part of the drama. It is composed of four
parts,
after
Orange "The queen regent will depart." Egmont "She will not." First part. Orange: "And if another comes?" Egmont: "He will do as his predecessor did." Second part, Orange: "This time, he will seize our heads." Egmont: "That is impossible." Third part. Orange: "Alba is under way; let us go into our province." Egmont: "Then we are rebels." Here there is a turn; from this point, Egmont is the aggressor. Fourth part, " Egmont You are acting irresponsibly." Orange "Only with foresight." Orange: "I will go and
:
The
last
uniting of these
a harmonious spirit
forms a
fine
The scenes between two persons have received special significance in the new drama, scenes in which two persons seem decidedly to cherish one They have not originated in opinion, love scenes.
226
and spectators, but through an original mental characteristic of the Germans. Ever since the earliest times, love-making, the approach of the young hero to a young maiden, has been specially charmIt has been the ruling ing to German poetry.
poetic inclination of
and a nobility of which the ancient world knew In no direction has the contrast of the nothing. ancient peoples shown itself more with Germans markedly through all the art of the middle ages, even to the present, this significant feature is notice;
able.
Even
in the serious
drama,
it
prevails with a
attractive
higher
justification.
all
This
the
most
earth,
and
lovely relation of
is
brought into
mentary contrast,
effect.
During the poet's work, indeed, these scenes are and everyone will not succeed in them. It is not a useless work to compare with each other the
not the most convenient part of his creation
;
scenes with
scene,
Romeo
at the
masked
the
ball,
the balcony
before and
in the
after
Gretchen
the
actor's art
garden.
In the
Romeo
scene,
difficult
in
it,
sion
is
the
polite
words, which
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
Shakespeare's only
time,
227
the growing
feeling
appears
in "lightning flashes.
plunge him. The first balcony scene has always been considered a masterpiece of the poetic art but when one analyzes the exalted beauty of its
one is astonished to find how eloquently, and with what unrestrained enjoyment, the spirits
verses,
so massed that we sometimes almost feel the art to For the third, the morning scene, the be artful. idea of the old minnesongs^ and popular songs, the song of the watchmen, are made use of in a most charming manner. Goethe, also, in his most beautiful love scene has made poetic use of popular reminiscences he has composed the declaration of love, in his own manner, out of little lyric and epic moments, which though not entirely favorable for a great effect, he interrupts through the incisive contrast, Martha and Mephistopheles. This circumstance, also, reminds us that the dramatist was a great lyric poet, in that Faust retires for the most part, and
much
is
Gretchen.
parts of
composed
is
of
wonderful
To
He
succeeded best
in
228
The Bride of Messina. But in William Tell, the scene between Rudenz and Bertha is without life and even in Wallenstei?i, when such a scene was quite necessary, he has through the absence of Countess Terzky put a damper on it Thekla must keep the loved one from the camp and from the astrologer's room, till finally by herself for a brief time, she can
; ;
The brilliant examples of Shakespeare and Goethe show, also, the danger of these scenes. This, too, must be discussed. The utterance of lyric emotions on the stage, if it is at all continued, will, in spite of all poetic art, certainly weary the hearer it becomes the dramatic poet's profitable task then, to invent a little occurrence in which the ardent feeling of the loving pair can express itself by mutual
this
participation in a
moment
of the action
in
way he
The sweet
itself,
he
will
rightly avoid;
and where
it is
inevitable,
he
The entrance
gives
it
a different character.
As through
the third
man
man
often
becomes,
in
whom
heart.
are,
in
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
229
and thereby take on the nature of is known. The course of the scene becomes slower; between speech and response, a judgment enters which must, also, present itself to
his disposition,
something that
the
hearer with
is
some
significance.
Or
the third
player
come more
rapid,
acter
is exacted, while he must put the charand import of two persons in one scale. Finally, -the third and most infrequent case is that each of the three sets up his will against the other two. Such scenes are sometimes serviceable
They have
:
really
in
in
monologues
III.,
thus the
scene with
Margaret
Richard
where one
But
signifi-
contrasts
when
at least
ment
in
our drama.
;
tragedy
230
animated action
most For it is a truth not sufficiently regarded, that what originates from many, or consists of many things, excites and holds attention less than what receives its vividness or comes alive from the soul of the chief figures.
is
executed
in
them.
The
ticipants
is less, and the remaining of many paron the stage may easily distract the eye or the curiosity, rather than attract and arouse. On
characters
is
that
by
keep the audience busily occupied and relieve the suspense created by the chief heroes or they help
;
to
call
chief figures.
They
hardly need be mentioned that their peculiardo not always become apparent when more For when a than three persons are on the stage.
It
ities
scene
may
on
The
first
ensemble scene
the whole
demands. They are like invited guests, whose mental activity the poet must, as invisible
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
host,
231
have incessant
care.
the action, he must perceive clearly the effects which the individual processes, speech, response, produce
on each of the participants in the play. It is evident that one person must not express in the presence of another person on the stage, what
one is not to hear the usual device of an aside must be used only in extreme cases, and for a few But there is a greater difficulty. A role words. must also not express anything to which another person present is to give an answer which, according
this
;
to his character,
is
useless
In order to be
of persons, the
and a clear vision for stage pictures. For every individual role influences the mood and bearing of every other, and has a tendency, besides, to limit
the freedom of expression of the others.
In such
show
itself
in
it
contrast,
through sharp
persons
stage,
strokes.
^ And
all
is
well to
of the collected
rendered
difficult
which incloses
a hall;
and
if
the poet does not take definite preoften impossible to do, this
cautions, as
it is
makes
But
further,
the
own way.
The poet
232
broken up into fragments by the greater number of participants and made to move forward monotonously in little waves and as he arranges the persons in groups, he must likeaction are not
;
movement
limit
the
movement
of
the
leading
:
characters.
Hence the value of the principle the greater the number of persons in a scene, the stronger must be the organization of the structure. The chief parts must then be so much the more prominent, now the individual leading moods in contrast with the majority, now the cooperation of the whole stand in
the foreground.
easily
concealed,
those
places
in
the
is
made
in
to appear
upon
to
individual
single
When
such a case, a
suffice
is
needed
to the
separates the
him
suddenly to interrupt the dramatic movement of the majority, and convert all the others into silent and
inactive spectators of the private revelations of an
individual.
The more
moves forward
in
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
individual becomes.
233
When
a certain
height and
momentum,
is
not always
art,
to afford the
inmost mood.
the third law
room for a desirable exhibition of his Hence for such scenes, the value of
:
and that would for their roles. For here arises an inner opposition between the requisites of single roles and the advantage of the whole. Every person on the stage demands a share for himself in
say
all
that
is
be necessary
with
the
other
is
characters
of
the
scene
allows
it.
The poet
Even
chief characters
must sometimes accompany with dumb play, when in real life opportunity would be given to engage in
the conversation.
is
On
acter
becomes wearied
is
and
sinks
into
stage
wrong
its
which
done
to his
It
part
far
less,
he feels
higher necessity.
means of
the
a not
unknown employment,
afford to the
play,
dumb
same time a
shall
valuable in a
234
scene, that
allowed
in a great painting
showing
numerous
tion.
figures in vigorous
lines
so in the
strong current of a scene rich in figures, the reprenecessary for individual characters must
In order that the
attractively
may be
able
to
practice
such
the
number
of players as
much
as possible.
additional role
makes the
setting
more
difficult,
Every and
These
external
considerations
in
alone will
determine the
his
composing
ensemble
what figures are absolutely indispensable. Here comes an internal consideration the greater the number of accessory persons in a scene, so much the more time it claims.
:
The
They
But they must be used in such pieces with moderabecause more than the others they make success depend on the skill of the manager, and
tion,
because
inner
in
life
minute portrayal of
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
the
235
mental
processes,
is
which
claim
the
highest
dramatic
interest,
in this division
cealed.
One
of
Shakespeare
part of
gdi\-
contains no chief
the action,
and
is
essentially a situation
But
it
receives
at the close of
a place
demand-
make
a variegated
the
introduced by a short
is
ants, as
The
scene
sents
itself is
in
three parts.
The
of
first
part pre-
the
haughty utterances
the
reconciled
236
triumvirs,
ton, Lepidus, to
referred
second, in terrible
contrast,
;
is
the
secret interview of
the third,
introduced by the bearing out of the drunken Lepidus, is the climax of the wild Bacchanalia and rampant drunkenness. The connecting of the three parts, as Menas draws Pompey aside, as Pompey
again in the
the carouse,
in the
company
is
Not
word
whole scene
;
without
its
cance
moment
persons
for
the
manager,
as
well
as for
the
roles,
the
whole is adapted in a masterly way. From the through first news of Antony across the Nile, which the image of Cleopatra is introduced even into this scene, and the simple remark of Lepidus, **'You have strange serpents there," through which an impression is made on the mind of the hearer, that prepares for Cleopatra's death by a serpent's sting, to the last words of Antony, "Good; give me your hand, sir," in which the intoxicated man
of
like fine
chiseled
frame.
comparison of this scene with the close of the banquet act in The Piccolommi, is instructive. The
internal similarity
is
is
obliged to
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
before his eyes.
237
Here
also,
a poetic power
is
to
and here
is
is
a great
the
structure.
But what
is
characteristic
of
are partly of an
episodical
nature
the whole
extensively.
This
last
justification.
For
and
it
the
action,
;
the acquisition
the
portentous
if
signature
it
greater place
The con-
nection of parts
is
comes an introductory conversation between servants, which is spun out in disproportionate dimenthe description of the drinking cup has no sions right to take our attention, because the cup itself has nothing further to do with the action, and the numerous side lights which fall from this description upon the general situation are no longer strong enough. Then comes an action, also in three parts: first, Terzky's endeavor to get the signature from
;
accessory persons
the
first,
with Max.
of the scene
very
careful.
Octavio, through
tion
group of
generals
238
toward
son
name, attention
is
through the search for the wanting completely turned to Max. Herefirst
Max.
The
Besides,
we
out of
the Riitli scene, and the first act Both are models which the beginner in dramatic wofk may not imitate, but may study carefully, in their sublime beauty. Whatever must
;
upon
In the
Riitli
scene,
the
moderately restrained
one,
execution broad,
First, there is
It
consists
of
three
of
arrival of the
under
forester,
interview
Let
it
by a
triple
cantons.
Two
and form a
little
and
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
discourse of those present
the action begins.
First,
is
239
sufficiently
emphasized,
in five
appointment for public meeting, with parts. short speeches and hearty participation of th* subordinate persons
;
second, after
this,
Stauffacher's
powerful address
and
means of release from the despotism of the governors, and disagreement over the conclusions. Finally, fifth, the solemn oath. After such a conclusion of the action, there is the dying away of the mood which takes its tone from the surrounding With this rich organizanature, and the rising sun.
tion,
is
especially attractive.
The middle
point of this
whole
group
of
dramatic
incidents
or
;
forces,
comes out as climax after as contrast, the restless commotion in the this masses, the dawning satisfaction, and the lofty exaltation. Not less beautiful is the treatment of the numerous accessory figures, the independent seizing upon the action by single little roles, which
Stauffacher's address,
in their significance for
other with a
fication.
certain
republican equality of
The
greatest
model
is
the
opening scene
in Demetrius,
the
Polish parliament.
240
The subject of this drama makes the communication of many presupposed conditions necessary the peculiar adventures of the boy, Demetrius, demanded a
;
made
the epic
recital of the
indi-
masses.
condensed repetition of the same by the archbishop, and the first waves which are thereby excited in the gather(2) the short,
ing, (3) the entreaty of Demetrius for support, and the increase of the agitation, (4) counter argument
and protest of Sapieha. The scene ends with tumult and a sudden breaking off. By means of a slight dramatic force, it is connected with the following dialogue between Demetrius and the king.
The excitement
Demetrius, there
tion,
of the
subordinate
characters
is
few
except
from
the
all
the mass.
perceived and
felt
mood
its
in ad-
vance
narrative of Demetrius, in
elegant
Goethe has
atic effect
left
unless
as
we
are to
scenes in Gots
such.
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
Egmo7it lack in powerful
241
promenade
in
Faust
is
commotion composed of
the beautiful
little
him
idle,
un-
The action scenes in which great masses work, demand the special support of the manager. If our
stages have already, in the chorus personnel of the
number of players, and these are accustomed to render service as stage-walkers, yet the number of persons who can be collected on the
opera, a tolerable
stage
is
when
populace scene,
in
a fight, in a great
uproar.
The
that
is
the
little
empti-
crowd
led
in.
It
is
modern stage
great masses.
is little
Now,
ment of such scenes is for the most part in the hands of the manager but it is the poet's task through his art, to make it easy for the manager to produce the appearance of a lively multitude on the
;
stage.
persons
requires
this
attention,
242
number
by
good
multitudes which
make themselves
noticeable by
such as
Iffland
Maid of
avoid
this.
as
much
as
possible,
the
opportunity for
On
multitude surges in violent commotion, populacescenes, great council assemblies, camps, battles, are
sometimes desirable. For populace scenes, the beautiful treatment of Shakespeare has become a model often patterned
after,
almost always
cries of the
and enlivening
its
incitement
from individual leaders. By means of a populace scene on the stage, other effects may be produced,
not the highest dramatic effects, but yet significant,
which till the present time have been little esteemed by our poets. Since we should not give up verse in populace scenes, another treatment of the crowd is offered than that which Shakespeare
loved.
is
Now
the
introduction
of
impossible.
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
fulness
in
243
of poetic
beauty which
of
is
so enchanting
the
choruses
the
actors
Bride of Messi?ia.
is still
animated, concerted play conceivable, which connects the leader with the multitude as well as places
him over against it. Not only short cries, but also speeches which require several verses, receive an increased power through the concert recitation of several with well practiced inflection and in measWith the multitude introduced in this ured time.
way, the poet will be put
in a position to
;
give
it
change and to the whole together, between the clear tenor and powerful bass, he will be able to produce numerous With this concert shades, modulations, and colors. speech of great masses, he must take care that the meaning of the sentence, and the weight and energy of the expression correspond that the words are easily understood and without discord; that the individual parts of the sentence form a pleasing
in
the action
in the
four,
contrast.
It
is
movement
ulace
scenes
an accepted
one, which
scheme.
effective.
The way proposed here is only more In making use of it, the poet may conand by alternating
in
244
many
animated quarrels
countably neglected
gible scream.
it is
The poet
will
do
well, therefore, to
how
In order
the
he must have
first felt
bad repute on the German and are avoided by the poet with foresight. The reason is, again, that our theaters do such things badly. Shakespeare has an undeniable fondBattle scenes are in
stage,
movements of masses. He has not them in his later pieces and since
;
little
respect of the
means by which
ter,
one
is
he would willaway from them if his audiences them so well. But upon such a
martial-spirited people,
who
passionately cultivated
manner of physical
and technique were evident, and when the conventionalities of the stage did not
make them
deplor-
able.
Aufidius,
in
like the fight of Coriolanus and Macbeth and Macduff, the camp scenes Richard III. and Julius Ccesar, have such weight
Scenes
STRUCTURE OF SCENES.
245
and significance that it is evident with what confidence Shakespeare trusted in their effects. In more recent times, on the English stage, these martial scenes have been embellished with a profusion of
accessories,
and
in
enhanced
much occupied
is
with
them.
If
Germany
there
too
little
of this
effects
which can
render him
little
best arranged,
duty.
and see to
it
CHAPTER
IV.
THE CHARACTERS.
I.
POETS.
The fashioning of the dramatic characters, among the Germanic peoples, shows more distinctly
than the construction of the dramatic action the
progress which the
human
art
race has
made
since the
appearance of dramatic
altitude
among
the Greeks.
Not
its
above the historic periods of a world spread out to full view, and the consequent development of
an historic sense, declare and explain
Since
it
this difference.
means of the poetic and histrionic arts to represent upon the stage the appearance of an individual life,
even to
illusion,
won
The
itself
poetic
most immediately
the invention of
dra-
characteristics
help him
good
training, experience
but
when
the capability
246
THE CHARACTERS.
247
for a sharp defining of characters is small, a work, perhaps correct from the point of view of the stage, may be created, but never pne^pf real significance.
If,
'f
good hope
may be
figures
cherished, even
for a
collective
in this
picture
quite lacking.
help
is
gained from
any
other part.
The
we have received
the characters.
What
on the
work can
own
breast
and what he
The
poet's
culiarity of
man, to perceive
the observer's
is
and beyond
this,
what
this
is
it,
what
is
characteristic of
received as affording
his
enjoyment.
With
power of poetic creation becomes an art, man transforms all that surrounds him into personalities, to which, with busied imagination, he attributes much
of
the character
peculiar
to
human
beings.
In
and scattering
fiery darts
248
cows and sheep, from which a divine upon the earth. Also the creatures which inhabit the earth with man, he perinto celestial
thus bears, foxes, wolves. Every man himself one of us imputes to the dog and to the cat ideas and emotions which are familiar to us and only because such a conception is everywhere a necessity
of
;
and a pleasure, are animals so domesticated. This tendency to personify expresses itself incessantly: in intercourse with our fellow men, daily at our first meeting with a stranger from the few vital expressions which come to us from him from__sjn;; gle^jvords, from the tone of his voice, from the expression of his countenance, we form the picture of his complete personality we do this especially by completing with lightning rapidity the imperfect impressions, from the stock of our phantasy, ac; ;
cording
sions, or
previous impres-
what has been previously observed. Later may modify the image which has fallen upon the soul, may give it a richer and deeper development but already, at the first impression, however small the number of
;
characteristic traits
logical, strictly
may
be,
we
perceive these as a
in
computed whole,
is is
ognize what
is
ground of
times
sity
it
what
in
creating of a form
;
works
to
THE CHARACTERS.
each one a stronger or a weaker capability each a rapturous necessity.
;
249
it
is
to
Upon
this
fact
rests
the
efficacy of dramatic
characterization.
The
produces the
life,
artistic
pressions of a person
comparatively
Even
in
few
exthat
charact^istic being.
is
able to
number
of characterizing traits,
much
too small
figures,
How
is
this
For
this
reason
;
the secret of
suggesting
through
his
enjoy a character
ity of
artist
attained only
by the
self-activ-
the receptive spectator, meeting the creating helpfully and vigorously. What the poet and
is,
the
in
itself,
only
single
strokes
grows an apparently richly gotten-up picture, in which we divine and suppose a fulness of characteristic life, because the
but out of these
250
The method
ent poets,
is
of fashioning characters,
by
differ-
It varies
with
and different peoples. The method of the Latin races is very different from that of the Germanic races. With the early Germans, the enjoyment has always, from the first, been greater
different times
in the invention of characterizing details
;
with the
unit-
compactly
men
represented, in
an
artistically
interwoven
action.
The .modern
inner
rare,
what
the
is
peculiar, indeed
what
is
specially
has
greatest
is
charm
for
him.
But the
from the point of view of convenience and adaptability to purpose he makes society the
;
German
does
of
he
is
their
make them interesting to each other in the counterplay. Where the special task is the accurate representation of a character, as in Moliere, and where
characteristic details elicit special admiration, these
and the hypocrite, are inwardly most nearly complete they are exhibited with a
characters, the miser
;
monotony
tions
;
at last
wearisome,
in spite of the
excellence in delineation on
life is
lacking to
THE CHARACTERS.
them
251
the
processes
of
coming
into
being, the
growth of character.
the stage
We
prefer to recognize on
how one
makes
of
a subject of value,
what stimulates
peculiar
;
to creative activ-
especially the
transformations
mind for these he invents the action from them beams the color, the warmth, the light, upon the accessory figures the Latin has been more strongly attracted by the combinations
som
first in
;
his creating
ments to the dominion of the whole, suspense, intrigue. This contrast is old, but it comes down
to the present time.
It
is
more
difficult
for the
German
ceived characters
lace easily
and spiritedly
This
The
literature of
little
that can be
highest products of
comes from
their
weaker
tal-
characters,
command
attention
in
neat elaboration
and admiration; but they lack, as a whole, and power to excite feeling.
Germany
and where neither the poetic idea nor the characters lay claim to poetic value, the shrewd invention of
252
mated
life, is
found entertaining.
the Germans, that which is most highly dramatic, working out of the perceptions and feelings in the soul, into a deed, comes to light more seldom, yet once in a while, in irresistible power and beauty in art, with the Latins is found more frequently and more productive the second characteristic of dra-
matic creation,
the
the invention
work
of the counter-play,
weaknesses.
But
the
ferent
further, in the
method
is
of characterization
diverse
very
dif-
distinctness with
sented
to
the
hearer.
is
pre-
is
the
admiration.
learn
it
We
it,
and we
from many sources, that his audience did not consist entirely of the most intelligent and cultured people of old England we are also justified in supposing that he would give to his characters a simple texture, and accurately expose their relation
;
from
all sides.
This does
the case of
in
;
The
spectator,
in
remain
uncer-
indeed
is
evident just
THE CHARACTERS.
how
characters,
253
from the
first
and
to
truth.
in his
fail
make
the
it
they
wish.
And
may be
of Shakespeare,
highest
other poet.
But
depth
is
audience
and
Indeed,
many
of
them have something about them peculiarly enigmatical, and difficult to understand, which perpetually allures toward an interpretation, but is never entirely comprehended. Not only such persons as Hamlet, Richard III.,
lago, in
tial
whom
and single
real
come
stage
into this
tion,
but such
as,
stride
fashion.
Let the judgments be tested which for a hundred years have been pronounced in
with which our
Germany on
To
254
Brutus
the
noble,
patriotic
hero.
An
honest
commentator sees
a politician
immovaby profes-
with which, from the introduction forward, the poet has treated Brutus and Cassius as impractical fools,
and
aristocrats.
in the
The
same Caesar whom his commentator has held up to him as a pattern of the possessor of power, a hero inwardly wounded to death, a soul in which the
illusion of
and marrow.
Who
is
right
Each
of them.
And
composed, or
distinctly
in
Each
;
of
them
feels
that
excellently
created, live
and the
if
the
Shakespeare's art of
character
what is Germanic method of creation, as peculiar to the opposed to that of the old world, and that of those peoples of culture, not pervaded with German life. ^=What is German is the fulness, and affectionate
fervor which forms
masterpiece of
art,
life
THE CHARACTERS.
to seize
255
While the German upon the pictures of reality, the variegated threads spun by his teeming fancy, he
its
upon
peculiarity.
conveniently casts
combined
to the individual, and again the perfect freedom which has intercourse, for a purpose, with this image as with an esteemed friend, have, since the old
German dramatic
art
therefore, there
in
traits,
a spiritual
characters,
is
not
destroyed, but in
its effects, is
greatly enhanced.
is
The Brutus
is
of
Shakespeare
a high-minded
;
he
he has the
but not the
enthusiasm to venture
a majestic hero
life,
who
and who has proved his own excellence in a time of selfishness and pretentious weakness; but with the lofty position, which he has given himself above the heads of his contempoa great
raries,
ambition
fear.
has
and secret
his life a
The
fearless
256
he
such a business;
itself intelligible,
it
not because
tion,
but because
all
from
his
To
diffi-
culties.
In the
first
part
into
Casca
in
comes prominently
about him;
the
foreground
the
is
heard
are
he
and
the
other
conspirators
But he who observes more carefully, sees the reason for this, and perceives that this figure which he made so benevolently prominent at first, the poet throws aside immediately
to the audience.
without ado.
ment which, by way of exception this time, Brutus and Cassius let fall concerning Casca. To him and
to the piece, the
man
;
is
an insignificant
simple
tool.
In
many
strikingly silent
moves
them forward
in their
embarrassment.
The underit is
which we occasionally
clear
upon
it
from without.
the cele-
Richard
III., in
No
and the
THE CHARACTERS.
role,
257
of the of
most
difficult.
many
figures which,
poet
much
the actor.
is
Through
transform
able to
new beauty.
the role.
man
is
distinctly seen,
is
who, more
accustomed as
and spectator to observe men in the better society, and v/ho understands how to conceal or let peep through, the characteristic weaknesses which are behind the forms of good manners. In this style, most of his courtiers are fashioned. Through such
silence,
more gaps to fill than any other dramatist Sometimes his words arc merely like the but everypunctured background of embroidery thing lies in them exactly indicated, felt to be
the actor
does.
;
effects.
Then
the
by good acting, beholds a rich, well-rounded life, where in reading, he saw only barren flatness. It once in a while happens to a
poet, that
little
for a character.
Thus the
role of
good
it
come
which
Much
in
258
some
of explanation,
easily
What
is
as has
already been said, the t reme ndous inipellin^ force which operates in his chief characters. The power with which they storm upward toward their fate, as^
far as the
cHmax^f
the drama,
life
is
irresistible
in al-
And when
from which by an overpowering might they are drawn downward in confusion, the suspense has been
relieved for a
moment
in
a portentous
come
dividual portrayals, the most sublime that the new drama has produced. ^The dagger scene and banquet scene in Macbeth, the bridal night in Romeo and
Juliet,
the
in
hovel
scene
in
Lear,
the visit to
the
mother
ius,
are examples.
poet
this
in the characters
yard scene
however celebrated melancholy observations are ^and the close decline, when com
moment
even
in
first half.
In Coriolafius,
the second half
lie in
in Othello, the most powerful. This however, has other technical peculiarities.
Shakespeare's
art
of
characterization
was
difficult for
THE CHARACTERS.
time,
it is
259
natural that
we
very clearly.
conceiv-
and that of the German tragic poets, Lessing, Goethe, and While in Shakespeare we are reminded Schiller.
able than his treatment of characters,
many
accessory char-
he
still
broad and agreeable presentation of internal conditions upon which the heroes reflect and they with an introspection sometimes dismal
;
make
In the
German dramas,
violent.
Of
all
German
understood
how
Among
his
contemporaries in
vidual
is
art,
and
is
in just this
s/
effect of telling,
vi^Lexpressipns, whic^^
is,
by
their
in his
tragic figures,
in Schilis
of
dramatic types
not
Sara,
Emilia,
26o
ing confidants
father, the
range themselves
the
all
dignified
rival,
written ac-
And
of the variations
wonderful.
He
is
a master in
as
passions
express
themselves
the
middle
classes,
where
nobility
of soul
conveniently
all is
And how No
what seems^^Jn reading, so restless and theatrically excited, comes into its right proportion only through representation on the stage. tOnly at single moments, his dialectic of passion
him
fails
to give the
it
over-refines
ting quibbles.
where they do not belong and sometimes in the midst of a profound poetic invention, there is an artificial stroke which cools instead of strengthBesides much in Nathan the ening the impression. example of this in Sara Sampson, Wise, there is an III. 3, the passage in which Sara discusses passionately with herself whether she shall receive her
pand
to
father's letter.
This stroke
is
specially to be
;
made
;
for this
in
purpose, also,
it is
to be treated as a suggestion
it
broad elaboration,
would be
painful.
yet, Lessing's
pieces will be a
THE CHARACTERS.
fine
26r
and they will still preserve the fond respect of the artist on our stage, if only a more manly culture shall make the spectator more sensitive to the weakness of the return action in Minna von Barnhelm, and Emilia^ GaFor the great man erred in this, that violent Iptti.
school for the
actor
;
German
passion suffices to
matic, since
it
make
a poetic character
dra-
depends much more on the relation in which the passion stands to power of will. His passion creates sorrow and excites sometimes in the
spectator a protesting pity.
ters
vacillate
that of his
and thither by and when they are brought to commit an ominous deed, this often lacks the highThe tragic development in Sara est justification. Melfort perpetrates the Sampson rests upon this indignity of appointing a rendezvous between his former mistress and Miss Sara in Emilia Galotti, the maiden is stabbed by her father, out of
hither
Stjll his
is
chief charac-
this
strong
emotion
caution.
nobility
moods, is not accompanied with a correonly too fresponding mastery of performance quently a time is perceived in which the character, even the best, was not firmly drawn out, and hard;
gives
one.
>-62
artistic effects of
The
made
against
Goethe's
by him and
Weislingen,
Clavigo,
Egmont,
more scanty
have
of the restin
his figures
life,
the emoartificial
tions
Lessing's
characters
nothing
In
disturbs
the inexhaustible
is
charm
lacking.
the
first
place,
indispensable to great
Goethe did not attain these effects particularly by the power of his characters, not by the action, but by the unsurpassable beauty and sublimity with which he made the spirit of his heroes ring out in words. There especially, where
even
if
from
traits,
his
lyric feeling
is
seen, in little
a magic
Thus operates
in
effective
;
the
men do
;
forward
in-
deed, they
THE CHARACTERS.
stage,
263
which they do not merit, and appear as good and their good quali;
are
known only
good
to
turn their
which he
What makes
is
masterpiece
not
its
fulness of dramatic
If, is
of Faust himself.
make sublime
skilful
effects
and
mighty
dramatic movement
and adapted to and the connection of the dialogue is For the greatest beauty of Goethe's admirable. plays is the scenes which have their course between two persons. Lessing understands how to occupy three persons on the stage, with great effect, in pasin single
scenes
;
is
compact,
the stage
sionate counter-play
number
Schiller's
with
firmness,
and
superior
certainty.
method
of
delineating
character in his
youth
years.
is
without
ception
loss.
He shows great progress, but not entirely What a transformation from his conof
beautiful
souls
which
in
The Robbers
During more than half a century, the splendor and nobility of Schiller's characters have ruled the
German
stage
his style
264
beneath
it
there
lies
a wealth of dramatic
life,
covof
This dramatic
life
plays.
won such
significant
advance
bj^evity,
is
To
more elevated
stage,
His
His
time,
their
characters,
also,
ones,
have
And
specially
elaborated
his
that
to
peculiar
quality
to
of
impressively
enunciate
the
hearer
in
many moments
in the
the
they do
it
manner of highly
;
men
for
a beautiful,
depends for them on passionate feeling; and_ the mood which sounds forth from their souls is followed by a meditation, an observation,^- as we all know, often of highest beality, through which the moral grounds of the excited feeling is made clear, and the confusion, the embarrassment of the situation, through an elepicture,
vation
to
higher standpoint,
It
is
appears
for
the
moment
method
cleared away.
of strong passion,
will certainly in
in
some
among
our successors.
But
it is
THE CHARACTERS.
it
265
manner of feeling and perpeculiar to the cultured Germans which was ceiving at the end of the last century, as no other poetic method does, and that upon it rests a part of the effect which Schiller's dramas produce to-day upon
perfectly repeats the
the people
who accords
even
to
in
characters
so
many
resting
places,
movements, knows how to keep these in extreme tension ahnost all have a strong, inspired, inner life, a content with which they stand securely
excited
;
In this embarrassment,
to
whom
; ;
becomes fatal thus the Maid, Wallenstein, Max, Thekla or who at least need a strong shock to their
inner
Caesar
life,
to be brought to a deed, like Tell, even and Manuel. Therefore, the impassioned
"^
is
in the last
always dramatic
by the rich detail and beautiful characterization with which he equips the accessory Finally, the greatest advance which Gerfigures.
often covered
man
art has
is
that in a powerful
tragic material, he
man, of the
will
state, of faith.
because the
of
characters streams
In this, he does so
much
266
need
less
other poet.
11.
epic,,
and
his
own
him.
It
is
given to the
German
be the
If
pleasure in
it,
fashioned
is
is
invented for
;
it.
The
contradiction
and character of a hero do not appear as they do to the historian, who at the end of his work draws the results of a life, or as they appear to a reader of history, who from the impressions of different adventures and deeds, gradually
paints for himself the portrait of a man.""
tive
The
crea-
power comes into the ardent mind of the poet more ^ in such a way, that it brings out vividly and with charm, the character of a hero, in single
THE CHARACTERS.
*floments
of
in
its
267
moments
in
poet, situations;
of
life
in
and separate.
first
But
beginning of
poetic conception of
possible.
in
this
acter otherwise
deemed
character which
the action,
to
is
useful to the
of
of
becomes a fundamental
the being,
which
all
ties
are subordinated as
is
supplementary adjuncts.
Em-
able to perceive
him
poeti-
action.
Worms,
or at the
mo-
threat-
the
emperor
268
he retains
;
all
it
ther.
To
is
there
a struggle to
become
itself,
a whole,
it
contains
of the
And
each new
forces
member
which develops
to
its
acter something of
essary
understanding.
the
action
is
is
fully
Of course the
creative
in
accessory picture or
counter-portrait.
;
He
takes
what he can use in details but what he creates from this, is brought out freely according to the demands of his action, and with additions of its own is molten to a new mass. A striking example is the character of WallenIt is no accident stein in Schiller's double drama. that the figure in the poem was fashioned so different from that of the historical picture of the imperial general. The demands of the action have given him his appearance. The poet is interested in the
from
this
historical Wallenstein
Adolphus,
this
man
is
He
THE CHARACTERS.
unclouded
conception of
the
political
269
situation.
drama the business of which was to portray the end of his career, had the fewest possible prea
Now
supposed conditions to represent, as the hero becomes a traitor by degrees, through his own guilt,
and under the stress of his relations. Schiller saw in his mind's eye the figure of Wallenstein, as from
premonitions
first
it
seeks to learn
it
its
vision), then as
comes
in
men
themselves
from him.
moments
of action.
Now
it
if
would show the hero actually weaker, more shortsighted, smaller, than the opposing powers. Therefore, in order to preserve his greatness and maintain interest in him, a leading, fundamental trait of character must be invented for him, which should elevate him, and prove him free and independent, self-active before what allured him to treason, and which should explain how an eminent and superior man could be more short-sighted than those about him. In the real Wallenstein, there was something of this kind to be found he was superstitious, believed in astrology but not more than his contem;
poraries.
useful.
This
trait
little
could
be
made
poetically
But as a
it would have been of little use had to be ennobled, spiritually refined. So there arose the image of a thoughtful, inspired, elevated man, who in a time of carnage, strides over human
at in his character,
it
270
life
the heights
where he believes he sees the silent And the same sad, dreary
him out of, and above external relations for the same fundamental characteristic of his being, a certain inclination to equivocal and underhand dealing, groping attempts and a feeling about, might grad;
of
its
own kind
was found
istic
inward being.
its
But
this character-
irrational force
it
held spell-bound
;
it
placed him,
the
it
remained a great
anomaly.
In order to
work
tragically,
same
characteristic
must be brought
the Piccolomini
out, but
that this
same
not called
ominously advanced, by a secret need of something to honor, something to trust, and that this trust in men, which Wallenstein has confidently
made
destroy him,
must
it
very near
;
to our hearts
gives
In such a
connection of
cause and effect, and to round them out to a dramatically effective action,
his-
THE CHARACTERS.
torical character feature
271
by
feature.
So
his adver-
sary,
Octavio,
too,
tendency to give an inner connection with Wallenstein, of course in dependence on his character. A
cold intriguer,
who draws
who
sufficed he must be placed and be intellectually exalted, near the chief hero and if he were conceived as friend of the deno matter from what sense of duty, luded one, who, surrenders the friend, so it would be to the purtrust him,
;
pose to invent a
trait of
character in his
life,
which
gloomy
material, a
warmer
life,
and touching feelings, the author created Max. This poor, unsuspecting child of the camp, was at once the opposite of his father and of his general.
little,
contradiction to
own presupposed
was not
it
conditions,
in
which
it
and had
grown up
for Schiller
if
motive to anything,
It satisfied
him that
this being,
through character
and aptness, could come into a noble and sharplycut contrast with the hero and his opponent; and
so him,
mined even the form of the drama. Considered on the whole, then, freak, a chance discovery of the
it
poet,
272
formed
Wallenstein
and
his like
counter-player.
And
own
characteristic of Schiller to
visibly
imbue which
tion,
all
fill
his his
heroes
soul.
with
the
thoughts
design,
we
The
was quite otherwise. Mastery in meditation and pondering is not, in Wallenstein, brought into equilibrium by a decisive power of will. That he listened to the voice of the stars, which at last becomes the voice of his own But he is represented as heart, would be expected. The Countess dependent on his environment. Terzky directs him Max re-directs him and the
characteristic
age
has
disappeared,
hinders,
Surely
it
was Schildisad-
of resolution
but vacillation
is,
with
us, a
internal
intelligent consideration,
is
hardly necessary to
confess that
it
warm many
in essentials,
is
with a natural
same thought
unconsciously
THE CHARACTERS.
active with the poet, the
273
in
intellec-
Not only
is
the transformation of
historical characters
shown
authors
heroes.
It is
power
may
care,
seek, for
some purpose,
of a hero\
recognized
are
valuable
for
purposes
of
characterization.
of
that
poet's
plays.
tials,
conform to the needs of the action, and is separated by a wide gulf, from the historic Henry.
But what
is
ing, as well
drama a strange
traits
coloring.
richly
to
How-
ever numerous
character are,
the most
it
the
will
in
this
endowed
seldom appear
an actor as
For similar reasons, the introduction and use of historical heroes whose portraits have become specially popular, for example Luther, and Frederick the Great,
is
very
difficult.
The temptation
is
traits of
274
the
figure
as
are
not
essential
to the
reality,
in
the midst
invention,
of
unfettered
remarkable,
painfully
desire to
The
present the
most accurate
reflection of
the real
Even the
is
and
perhaps surprised
less
acters
is
effective,
because he
history.
The requirement
life
is
easily given
;
that
must be
felt
in
must be
as
But such a
rule, so
generally expressed,
will,
many
cases, afford
where the discord between the ultimate demands of his art, and of the historian's art, and even of many
a poetic truth, prepares secret difficulties.
It is
him and cause no derangement. For in historical culture and in the knowledge of the earlier relations of civilization, keeps an eye upon the historical culture of its dramatists. The poet must have care that he do not
service to
THE CHARACTERS.
-time
275
givejus hemes tOQJlttle.Qillie. import of their own and that a rnodern perception and feeling in
the characters do not appear to the educated spectator in contradiction to the
well-known embarrasslife
of the soul in
The young
own
times, a certain
in
most important
works of
in
historical
modern
time, so
self-conas, for
shrewdly
and Raumer have represented. But not less dangerous is the opposite temptation into which poets come through the effort vividly
instance,
Stenzel
and
in
purpose.
Then the
poet
is
which we take in the easily intelligible, the universally human, and in still greater danger of building the course of his action upon singularities of that past, on the transitory, which in art gives
interest
And
At
this
dangerous point,
it
is
profitable to
276
tarry a
Since
it is
who
what we
in
moex-
and
situations,
much
is
that
is
not universally
is
human and
istic
intelligible to
When,
murder
as in
of a king
prince
in these
and innumerable
from the
peculiarities
and customs of
their
times.
If these figures
epic, in
dependence of the individual upon the example of upon custom and usage, is much greater, in which man's inaer being is not poorer in strong feelothers,
ing,
but
is
much poorer
in the ability to
express
it
then the characters of the by means of speech, drama can not at all represent, in the essential For since upon the thing, such an embarrassment. sta^e, the effect is produced not by deeds, not by
beautiful discourse, but
by the
exJaibitiQa of aneiital
THE CHARACTERS.
277
and naivete of their old prototypes in reality. Now the artist would, of course, be easily forgiven for endowing his people with a fuller, stronger, and richer life than they had in the real
world,
if
show a degree
and a
dialectic of passion,
which stand
in the
the actual
embarrass-
rived
for
finest
it
contains
But now, perhaps the action makes it necessary that this same character have the women of his harem drowned in
diction
sacks, or
have them beheaded. Then the contrabetween action and character crops out inThis
is,
evitably.
by the
Then
it
requires
to conceal
tradiction
from the spectator the latent conbetween the material and the vital needs
278
of the action.
historic pieces
love scenes in
present peculiar
difificulties.
Here,
is
local color.
The poet
as in the case of
he can.
in
of
The
quiet struggle of
which are undramatic and yet not to be dispensed with, occurs in almost every action taken from heroic legend or the older histories.
already
even
if
dramatic requirements.
The
and adventures of
events
in
deeds
of
which
but
it
is
possible to detach
The heroes
while
themselves
single
characteristic
peculiarities
are
powerfully
developed.
nationality,
They stand upon the heights of their and display a power and greatness as
;
and the momentous results of their lives are frequently just what the dramatic love and hate, selfish desire, conflict poet seeks,
people can invent
and destruction.
THE CHARACTERS.
the fondest recollections of a people
279
entertainment
of
millions.
flexible
centuries, they
were
still
with
of them have come to us which they underwent in a great epic the most of them, in their essential contents, are not, even according to our culture,
tion of the action.
Many
the
elaboration
;
What
is
here said
cycles
is
or less
applicable
to the great
of
more Greek
Romans, of
Middle Ages. Indeed, upon a closer inspection, the characters of the epic tradition differ much from the persons
necessary to the drama.
It
is
true,
the heroes of
Homer and
human
tinct personalities.
surging feeling,
;
not entirely
they derive
ominous deeds from his passions. In the poetry of early times, the knowledge of the human heart, and the sane judgment which might explain a man's destiny from his virtues, faults, and passions, are admirable. Not so well developed is the capa-
28o
The
life
in little
which are often perceived with a surprising fineness what lies before, the quiet labor within, what follows after such a deed, the quiet
anecdotal
:
effect
on the
of.
soul,
is
dis-
posed
How
ers
man
asserts himself
among
strangers,
is
powthe
duels,
chief
which stand against him, to relate this charm also, describing high festivals,
;
is
battles,
adventures of travel.
is
The expression
of
feeling
complaints,
prayer to
speaker holds up
an elaborate picture.
The speech
feeling.
of the hero
is
Thus the
are
soliloquies of
in
made
Where
upon the
secret plots
also
single person,
hand.
THE CHARACTERS.
enchanting person,
poet's heart,
281
who
brief,
is
lives so
powerfully
that
in
how
!
the
in
the narrative
It
characteristic
these
German poems,
less
mono-
much
numerous than
in
hand,
every peculiarity
elaborated
the
chief
characters,
with
special
vividness
and
beauty.
shadowy forms
resented to
But as soon as one conceives of these powerful, of legend as human beings, and rep-
the
them.
{produce the
bics
most powerful
effects,
common-
place.
times like the old water sprites and goblins of ancient folk-lore, with
soul.
The
must be a transformation and intensifying of characters, by which they may become human and intelligible to us. We know how attractive such labor was to the Greeks.
first
work
of the poet
in their
old heroic
was peculiarly favorable. It was bound to the life of their present by a thousand threads, by local traditions, divine service, and the plastic arts.
The more
liberal culture of
282
portant changes to be
transferred to
made
them
utmost
freedom
fare,
as
raw material.
And
is the history of an inward war-( which great poets waged with a realm of ma-|
terial that so
much
laws
the
of
more
fundamental
dramatic
how
opposition between
its
field
material
and the
of
his
of representation
None
how
ing,
None
has ventured to
and the understanding of his audience none has done so much to aid the actor's art. Everywhere in his pieces, it is perceived distinctly that the actor and the needs of the stage have won
;
significance.
his
roles,
effective
from
point
of
view, an
advance
acting
in itself,
undeniable right of
the
to
drama, yet
contributed in this
way
if
What was
strike as repulsive,
made
to
and act
like
ungovernable Scythians.
His Electra
THE CHARACTERS.
is
283
an oppressed
woman from
a noble house,
who
in
but
is
we can
scarcely believe
Agamemnon.
When in Iphigeiiia i?i Aulis, mother and daughter, entreating aid, place their hands on the chins of Achilles and Agamemnon, and taking an oath, according to the custom of their people,
seek to
soften
these
to
refuses his
hand
men
and
was
in itself
an excellent
histrionic
motive
but
it
to the
customary movement of the masked and and while this advance of the draped persons
;
actor's art
reduced
woman, and made the proposed slaughtering her more strange and untrue.
In
many
other
cases,
the
of
to the desire of
his
player
great
song effects, that suddenly and without motive, he interrupts the intelligible and agreecourse
of
his
able
action,
trait,
by
this
ragings,
With
spectacular' effects,
the
connection
of
events
momentum
for
becomes a subordinate matter, the tragic lost,_the persons become vessels is different kinds of feeling; and sportive and
284
and entirely
pieces
for
how
others
have
secure
and the
must be repeated
what detracts from the poetic greatness of Euripides is not specially the lack of morale, of the manbut ners and habits of the time, so peculiar to him it is the natural and inevitable disorganization which
;
must come
into the
Of
disadvantage to light;
for the
later
poets,
who
all
in setting a
;
task for
but this
adequate advance
We
Germans
;
are far
is
more unfavorable
world
in ruins.
to the
epic legend
it
for us a
Even
where our science has spread knowledge of it, throughout broad circles, as of Homer and The Nibelungen, the knowledge and the enjoyment of it
THE CHARACTERS.
are the prerogative of the learned.
285
become
much
realistic
than
of
the
in the
upon our
stage, Tristan
wounding had
married one
woman
as a low-lived
monster
will
mood
of
in the
To
us Ger-
than
the
legend.
For a
Middle Ages
is
And
yet, in
the
life
of
our
German
indeed and
still
that
more makes a
less
transparent than a
Roman
The
;
man
is
far greater
every individual
is
more
The impressions that in which he moves. upon the soul from without, are quickly covered with a new tissue, given a new shape, receive a new color, by the exercise of an active imagination.
circle
fall
is
incisive, energetic
286
but
of
nature,
the
person's
own
life
demands.
rears
;
The egotism
and
ready
is its
of
the
individual
easily battle
force.
itself,
just as
The
original simplicity of a
may
be
combined in the same man with effective cunning and with vices which we are accustomed to consider the outgrowth of a corrupt civilization.
this
And
and
way
It is
people as well as
among
ordinary
of
rendered
difficult.
We
are
to
judge
th^
man
and judge
his time
according to
Let
the
it
average
of
among
centuries
the
of
people
the
one
Ages,
this
the
it
in any Middle
difficult
and
is.
be
perceived
how
the
Could
we judge
from
penalties
which the oldest popular justice inflicted upon all kinds of abominable crimes, or from the horrible practices at the Court of the Merovingians ? There was still almost nothing of what we call public
THE CHARACTERS.
opinion,
historians give us the impression of
287
men who
merit
confidence.
When
Even
in the case
of events which seem very clear and are received by us in a dazzling light, we perceive a lack in our
comprehension,
little
not
only because
but also
we know
too
of
that
time,
because we do not
down
to us, as
in its causative
connections and in
life.
its
origin in the
germ
of a
human
carefully investigate
and the
name,
in
order
provide some
time,
with
bold
historical
But he would, in fact, hardly find a For this noble mass of dramatic dramatic material. material is embedded in the rock of history, and
almost always only where the private, familiar
of the heroic character begins
;
life
there
one must
know how
If
to look for
it.
one discovers
undramatic.
epic poems,
For as
it is
is
of those
life,
288
that the
the existence of his will, have found nor have from the hero himself no expression observer. The from an expression they found
thoughts,
people,
its
poets,
at
its
man
;
sharply
and well
ceive
the
moment
the
of
his
at
least
is
Germans
with
deed
they perpene-
great
tration,
what
characteristic
of the expressions of
his
life,
ments
in
which
his life
Even speech has but a meager expression for the mner processes up to the deed; even passionate excitement
is
it
has
upon
and in the light which it throws upon the environment. For the intellectual conditions, and the reaction which the occurrences have upon the sensibilities and character of the man, every technique
others,
of^ representation
fails,
interest fails.
Even the
is
deas
not
frequent in the
narrative
is
comparatively dry
rehearsal of events
interrupted
vital
more
trait
or less
by
a
of impor-
here
mighty deed.
Preferably in
We
till
know
that
till
after
the
Reformation, indeed,
century, this
after the
middle of the
last
same no-
THE CHARACTERS.
tion
289
that
was not infrequent among educated people, and it has not disappeared yet from among our
of dramatic
life
people.
The poverty
every hero.
makes
difficult to
But
in the
made
in
their
character
at
mysterious.
Already
in the
inclination to
make
Not the things themwas the chief thing to The images of the
what they
signify,
who are more versatile, quicker to endowed with greater receptivity, than
But not
in the beauti-
clear
manner
they worked it over slowly and quietly and what flowed from them had a strong subjective coloring, and an addition from their own spirit, which we might, in the earliest times, call lyric.
and action
full
narrative of the
upon which
290
is
Germans
and has made themselves, rather than their physical power and martial rage, a terror to the Romans. No other popular morality has conceived of woman so chastely and nobly no pagan faith has overcome the fear of death, as the German faith has for to die on the battlefield is the German hero's honor and joy. Through this prominence of spirit and courage, of ideal perception and
print,
; ;
early
receive in
sition,
life,
compo-
which lends them, now a remarkable greatness and depth, now an adventurous and unreasonable appearance.
deli-
To
remained a terror the danger of battle weighed him down it was not dishonorable to him, in one sense,
;
unarmed foe it was by no renown prudently to avoid the danger of confliict, and strike from behind an unsuspecting victim. The German hero, on the contrary, the same one who from fidelity to his commander performs the most atrocious act which a German can, and cunningly hits an unarmed man from beto slay a sleeping or
;
means the
least
THE CHARACTERS.
hind,
291
just
and
if
he only announces at the right time that danger is Supernatural beings have prophesied deat hand.
struction for
him and
;
his friends,
if
the
momentous
journey
is
continued
make
a return possible
where death threatens him, a word to the benevolent king, an honest ancourt,
may
his
silent.
Still
more
he and
and enrage
embittered ene-
mies
playfully
and with the certain prospect of death, they challenge and incite to bloody strife.
To
and unreasonable
but
it
honor and
life.
pride were of
is
this
ideals
however unreasonable they were long before the development of chivalry, the duty of honor, of fidelity, the feeling of manly pride and of one's own dignity, contempt for death, and love for individual men, often had a strength and power which we can scarcely appreciate, and do
not always recognize as the governing motive.
ancient times, in a
Thus swings the soul of the German in the bondage which to us is often no
292
longer recognizable
-superstition,
and
fidelity
resolution to
civilization.
in the
And
into
Middle Ages, the great cycle of moods, laws, and fantastic reveries, which surged in with Christendom. While on one side, the incisive contrast in which the
gentle faith of renunciation stood to the rude inclinations of a victorious, war-like people, the contradiction
between
duty
life,
and
inclination,
between
it
increased greatly,
in a striking
corre-
manner, to
which the German had long practiced. When mstead of Wuotan and the slain Ase-god, the Father of the Christians and his only begotten Son came
The
the
life after
And
which in quietness had controlled magic word, to the approaching animal, to the drinking-bout, to the premonitions of heathen priests, and the prophesies of wise
human
volition, to the
women, came the demands of the new church, its blessing and its curse, its vows and its shrifts, the
priests
reckless
and the
beautiful
Near the houses of asceticism. women, were reared the cloisters of the
THE CHARACTERS.
nuns.
293
dominion of the Christian faith, characters have been drawn in their deepest how perception and motives of action principles have become more manifold, more profound and artistic, is shown, for instance, by the numerous figures from the time of the Saxon Emperor, where pious devotion was practiced by the most distinguished persons, and men and women were driven hither and thither, now by efforts to win the world for themselves, now by the penitent wish to reconcile heaven to themselves. Any one who has ever felt the difficulty of understanding the men of the Middle Ages, who were formed by the thoughtful nature of the Germans and by the old church, will complete these
since the
;
How,
is
repeated,
the soul of
tent's
In
may answer
this
question by a
noble art effect, he will first let the historian tell what he knows about it; and he will learn with
astonishment
situation,
account,
how different the conception of the how uncertain and scanty the received and how troublesome and difficult it is to
his hero.
That he did not go to the pope with inward contrition, this haughty powerful man, who hated, in the Romish priest, his most dangerous opponent, is
easy to comprehend.
294
in his
mind the
bitter
necessity of this
step,
and had not put on the penitent's garment without a grim mental reservation, is to be assumed. But he came just as little as a crafty politician, who humiliated himself by a cool calculation, because he perceived a false step of his opponent, and saw growing from this surrender, the fruits of future For Henry was a Christian of the Middle victory.
Ages.
However
something God, and to the heaven of the Christian, there was no other way than through the church. Gregory sat on the bridge to heaven and if he forbade, the angels, the new battle-virgins of the Christian, would not lead
uncomfortable, something frightful
;
to his
torment him?
now
pride, higher
we
temptible to
us,
accomplished
subject
;
task.
Of course he
is
master of his
historical character
THE CHARACTERS.
at will,
29S
It is
wall of
who
was to undergo a severe chastising. What did the But just as binding as possible, poet care for that? is his duty to fathom to its deepest recesses the real
Not only the sad penitent, but the cold politician, will become falsities under such an examination. The poet has to form the character of the prince out of component parts, for which he does not find in his own mind the correnature of the emperor.
and which he has to convert into intuitions and warm perceptions through reflecThere are few princes of the Middle Ages tion. who do not appear, in the essential occurrences of their lives, and measured by the standard of our civilization and habits, either as short-sighted
sponding
intuitions,
not
seldom
The
his
The poet
he
fills
warm
with a
life
he endows them with modern speech, good share of reason and of the culture of
; ;
our times
and he forgets that the action in which is taken from a former age and can not be so much transformed, and that it accords
he has them move,
ill
extremely
human endowments
296
past,
and
from the
existence, allure
national
the epic
materials allured
Now
laid
figures
this
reason to be
aside as useless
transformation which he
bound
to
is
undertake with
not possibly so
similarity to the
historical
person
disappears, and whether the irrepressible presumptions of the action are not inconsistent with his free
creation of character.
This
will certainly
be some-
Not
less
worthy of note
His task
;
is
the actor,
of figure, of
this
passionate emphasis of the voice, pantomime, of gesture. Despite all abundant means, he may almost never, and just
the
as an adjunct in this,
he has
in the
without great
and
beautifully
and
it
passion
expresses
may make on
stage, the
observer.
its
On
the
appearance
to
have
effect in the
distance.
Even
in a little
is
theater, a comparatively
large auditorium
of passion.
THE CHARACTERS.
account of the distance, not at
all
297
real
life.
And
at
further,
it
is
make
itself
every
moment
for
it
is
n ot the passion
of
it
it
must always
poet
choice
flit
for
effects.
The The
less
distinctly,
into view,
to all these
can
not
often
afford
For every
their
trast
idea, for
demands
purposed
play
every
single
itself more broadly, a careful must take place, in order that the highest effect be attained. Thus dramatic art must constantly listen to nature, but must by no means copy; nay, it_must mingle with the. single features which nature affords, something else that nature does not offer, and this as well in the
moment
presents
progressive rise
speeches as
in the acting. JFor poetic composition, one of the most ready helps is the wit of com-
298
parison,
the
picture.
This
oldest
ornament of speech comes by natural necessity, everywhere, into the discourse of men, where the
soul, in a lofty
mood
To
the
every
civilization,
power-
spirited creation.
But now
it is
poet
freedom and
moments
this
speech, of unrestrained
circumstances.
soul
is
it.
And
Our
yet here
lies
his style
may seem
too
artificial
for the
passion./
means moments of
'^
good
taste.
It is
well
known
makes
that
and
this
in his pathetic
passages
use
of
mythological
;
comparisons
and
often
splendid
imagery
on
account, there
in the
multitude of beauti-
from nature.
culture
;
The
fine
among others
German
Schiller's,
but even
THE CHARACTERS.
rhetoric intrudes
299
is
not propi-
is
percep-
between nature and art, this occurs most in the case of the most secret and Here again, the love scene must genuine feelings. In real life, the expression be once more recalled. of this sweet passion which presses from one soul to another, is so tender, is in so few words, is so modest, that in art it brings one into despair. A
tible a contradiction
may
Just
all
speech.
immediate
the
moments
of
Only through
skill of
vibrations of passion.
actors
which
poet,
is
must use an abundance of speech and action The actor may, of improbable in nature.
enhance and supplement the l^jguage of the but that he secure
;
course,
in
conformity
and therefore the actor requires also the creative activity of the poet, which gives, not an
;
300
the
artistic.
In the face of these difficulties which the expression of higher passion offers,
if
and true to life as his talents would allow, to compress the single moments to a strong climax, and to expand as little as possible the embellishments of For while these reflection, comparison, imagery. give fulness to the lines, they too easily cover up
act
If
every
is
most indis pensable in the delineation of violent emotion butl the poet must know most surely that he is here-\
is
;
Another
The poet
every force,
is
presented to him
mighty rapwhile
all
way
is
perfectly clear
that
gone before,
life
all
comes
after, vibrate as
in
a gentle
harmony
in
his mind.
What
reveals'
the real
of his characters,
what holds
spell-
bound
h^
in
words.
THE CHARACTERS.
The expression which he
sion,
30I
own apprehen-
mind. While he is concerned in words the spiritual essence of his persons, and in creating for .them an outward form, the effect of the words which he writes being only imperfectly clear, he accustoms himself but gradumoreover, the enclosed space ally to their sound of the stage, the external appearance of his persons, the effect of a gesture, of a tone of voice, he feels
endowed in embodying
in
only incidentally,
On
the
now more, now less distinctly. whole, he who creates through speech,
demands of the reader or the demands of the actor, especially
art.
he himself
is
correspond
now
But the poet of greater feeling and perception must give a full and strong impression through speech; and the effects which one soul produces on
another are brought about thus
:
its
internal
power
or
more
art,
powerful
treatment,
actor,
certain
breadth of elaboration.
hand, with his
ing, seductive speech.
The
on the other
302
His aim
to attain
hend so
clearly.
By
of hatred, of contempt, he
may
often express
more
to
make
own
art.
The
in
In the struggle of
pantomime
actor
all
the subsequent
pressed
in his speech,
only as a lengthening.
necessary in acting which
much
is
un-
fully following the poet, and as much as possible working out the poet's purposed effects, even with
self-renunciation,
is is
a matter of course.
But not
seldom
his right
lines, for
vention, technique,
tions
restric-
upon him which the poet does not find cogent. But with this right which the actor has, in view of his labor, the poet will have the more difficulties to overcome the further he keeps aloof from the stage, and the less distinct to him in single moments of his
creative activity
is
his
THE CHARACTERS.
ters.
303
He
will also
self
how he may
however,
since
it is
He
must
art.
not,
And
much
as possible the
artist,
HI.
MINOR RULES.
The same laws which have been enumerated
for
magnitude, and be
of the
nature,
fitted for
life.
a strong
ad-
No
miser, no hypocrite,
;
no scoundrel
thoughts
f\\Q
in the
human mind,
in
variety
the
directions
which
infi-
spirit,
nitely different.
art,
like every
form of
a
sum
life,
man's
se-
o nly
art.
wh at
sej-ves the.Ldea
304
and are easily intelligible, will serve the action. Richard III. of England was a bloody and unscrupulous despot but he was not such always nor toward everyone he was, besides, a politic prince and it is possible, according to history, that his reign appears, in some directions, a blessing to England. If a poet sets himself the task of showing the bloody rigor and falseness of a highly endowed,
;
misanthropic hero-nature,
acter,
it is
embodied
traits
in
this
char-
of moderation
to
some extent
trait of
poet dare
And_as the
in
ceedmgiy__small,
every
bears
an
it
than
bears in reality.
chief figures
It is
is
But whatever
is
necessary in the
them.
The
drain
Even
it
which
has to illuminate
accustomed
still
to be very distinct.
The
other
first
an-
application
to
the
characters
The drama
all
whom
the
THE CHARACTERS.
persons,
305
however
gre'at their
selvesJn^jlifEerent gradations.
action
is
is
essentially
dependent on
the
first
that the
action
condition
is
that
must be directed mostly toward one person, and he must learn as early as possible who is to occupy his attention before all
the interest of the spectator
other characters.
number
a
of great
roles
is
limited
few
is
and
it is
common
ing
more
tainty as to
what
interest
also
its
one practical
toward a
effects
Whoever deviates from this fundamental law must do so with the keen perception that he surrenders a great advantage and if his subject matter makes this surrender necessary, he must, in doubt, ask himself whether the uncertainty thus
;
arising in the
effects, will
be counterbalanced by
xOur drama
exception.
Where
bound by
privi-
leges, and are conceived as a unit. Thus in Romeo and Juliet, Love mid Intrigue, The Piccolomini, also in
3o6
will
and Cressida. But even in this case, the poet do well to accord to one of the two the chief part in the action and where this is not possible, he should base the inner development of the two upon
Troilus
;
corresponding motives.
in the
In Shakespeare,
first
Romeo
is
;
second
opatra^
Antony
in
death.
But while
chief hero
is
this
appears as early as
The Robbers
and
in
more
Tell,
striking,
Mary and
Eliza-
and Wallenstein;
is
the
Swiss,
This inclination
had only been strengthened by his acquaintance with Greek tragedy not seldom in his dramas, it comes into
easily explained.
Schiller's pathetic strain
;
So under his hand, there were disjoined two tendencies of his own nature, which were transferred to two separate persons, one of whom
energy.
received the pathetic part, the other the leading
part of the action, the second sometimes also receiv-
How
first
dered
less
prominent the
hero,
who was
the
finds
it
more
difficult to
THE CHARACTERS.
avoid.
307
The
trait of character,
and. not
in a subtlety of
Above
not
all,
a decided
proceed from
which has no motive, or from such weaknesses as in the eyes o^ our observant audiences lessen the
enrapturing impression.
Etnilia Galotti,
is,
in
her father,
we demand
more
virile
courage.
That
is
in-
In Lessing's time,
the ideas of the public regarding the power and arbitrariness of royal rulers
were so
tion
had a
than
has now.
And
The
any
more powerfully.
that
is
impossible.
The
father
must seek
still
it
For
it
the
3o8
rascally prince,
own innocent
daughter.
That would have been more according to custom, and humanly truer. Of course this tragedy could
not bear such an ending.
that
lies
And
this
is
an evidence
in
what
is
worthy of consideration
in
the piece,
The German
of Lessing
atmosphere
struggled,
effect
spirit
still
difficult.
like noble
Romans
makes
of
the
thought,
"
Death
in
free ?"^^
it is
When
face
in the
surroundings,
oppressive
burden
must be lightened^y the complementary side of his personality, which turns toward him an increased degree of respect and sympathy. This is successfully done in Goetz von Berlichinge?i and Wallenstein ; it was tried, but did not succeed in Egmont. The Greek author of The Poetics prescribed that
the
characters
interest
law
is
of the heroes, in order to awaken must be composed of good and evil the still valid to-day, and applicable to the
;
changed conditions of our stage. The figures, and all the material from which the German stage makes, preferably, its poetical characters, are from real life. Where the poet deems figures from legend worthy
of use,
he attempts more or
a
less successfully to
more
liberal
humanity and a
which
invites to the
idealization of his-
And
THE CHARACTERS.
307
changeable goodness or
chief
characters.
Art,
;
restriction
upon him
in
for a character
which allows
picture/
;
represented
itself,
its
will
be an
artistic
whatever
may be
_
taste,
The choice
habits,
of the poet
is
morality,
his
listener,
the
public.
It
quence to him, to inspire his audience with admiration for his hero,
and
to
audience to
and mental
In order to
processes
compelled to choqse
their characters, but
and power of
also
gives
r^Q
villains.
Richard
and lago are models, showing how beautifully the poet can fashion malevolence and wickedness. The strong vital energy, and the ironical freedom in which they play with life, attaches to them a most significant element which compels an unwilling Both are scoundrels with no addition admiration. qualifying circumstance. But iji^the selfof a
consciousness those
of
superior
natures,
they
control
about
them with
security.
an almost
close
superhuman
they
power
is
and
On
inspection,
Rkhard
where duty
The incongruity between an iron spirit and a deformed body, became for him the foundation of a cold misanthropy. / He is a practical man, and a prince, who does only such evil as is useful to him,
is
aad
lago
is
;
far
more a
wickedly
he
He
destroying the
another officer
his wife.
Moor, that Othello has preferred to him, and has been intimate with
is
All this
truth,
it is
untrue
and so
is
far as
it
con-
tains
any
treachery.
of a creative
power
to
make own
attacks,
stir
upjl
He was more
difficult, therefore, to
be made worthy
THE CHARACTERS.
of the
311
whom
environment, and his great purpose gave a certain importance and greatness and therefore
;
Shakespeare endowed him more copiously with humor, the beautifying mood of the soul, which has the single advantage of throwing upon even the hateful and low a charming light.
The
of a
basis of
humor
is
superior^
power
in sportive caprice.
The
them
:
epic poet
who
in his
own
in
may
exhibit
twofold manner
he
make these humorists, or he can exercise his own humor on them. The tragic poet, who speaks only
can
first,
This
modern
produces
the
and a liberating
its
influence.
drama,
The conditions
hero
is
of
;
quiet, deliberation
out into
situation the
^^
intrudes.
mor
character
may be
^4^
312
It must have strong impelling force, and delaying. beyond this, a powerfully forward-moving action. y Now, it is possible so to guide the humor of the drama that it does not exclude violent commotions
own and
another's
fate
is
enhanced,
through a
But
a
this
is
not to be learned.
And
'
confidence
fancy,
is
secure
upon an author of
When
gift,
he makes him-
and
rules,
and compels
his
He who
and tries in vain to paint gift strives for it something of that embellishing into his scenes brilliancy with which genius floods everything. was explained above, how in our drama, J:he characters must give motive to the progress of the action, and how the fate which rules them must
^,
It
not be anything else than the course of events brought about by the personality of these characa course which must be conceived every ters,
the hearer as reasonable and probable, however surprising individual moments may come Jo him. Right here the poet evinces his power if he knows how to fashion his characters deep and great, and conduct his action with elevated thought^, and if he does not offer as a beautiful invention
moment by
THE CHARACTERS.
what
lies
313
And
with
purpose,
may be
emphatically
nected structure
in
cause and effect form the iron clasps, and that what
is
all in
the
modern drama.
But now mention must be made of an accessory motive for the advancement of the action, a motive
which was not mentioned
in the
former section.
In
may
is
receive as a
the
has
niischance.
When
its
what
being developed
in the
it
been,
in
essentials,
grounded
acters,
then
When
in
in
King
the
Edmund
it
when
A?itigone,
have pronounced,
these
appears as an
accident that
and
in
When
in
Wal-
Icnstein,
strongly empha-
what incomprehensible suddenness the Swede has disappeared. When in Romeo and Jtiliet^ the news of Juliet's death reaches Romeo before the message of Friar Laurence, the accident appears of But decisive importance in the course of the piece.
314
this intrusion of a
however striking
it
may
be,
is
;
at
bottom no motive
only the result
it is
to
The characters have caused a portentous decision depend on a course of events which they can no The trap had already fallen, which longer govern. Edmund had set for the death of Cordelia Creon had caused Antigone to be locked up in the burial vault; whether the defiant woman awaited starveition or chose a death for herself of this he had no
;
hands of an enemy that Wrangel had good grounds to make the resolve of the waverer Romeo and Juliet have irrevocable, was evident.
come
and extremely venturesome measure, which the priest had thought of in his anguish. In this and
similar cases, the accident
characters
under
overpowering
choice.
pressure
and his piece, it is no longer accident, that is, not something extraneous which bursts asunder the
joints of the action
;
but
it is
other,
ters
;
a necessary con-
Ineans is to be used with prudence, and is grounded in the nature of the characters and
actual situation.
THE CHARACTERS.
315
For guiding the characters through individual acts, a few technical rules are to be observed, as has They will be brought forward, already been said. Every single in this place, briefly, once more.
person of the drama
attractively as
is
to
as
possible
and where an
artistic
effect lies in a
roles,
The
action,
it
later a
enters
the
motive for
that
be laid
the
beginning, in
full
order
extent
it
the
spectator
may
to
enjoy to the
the
the pleasure of
corresponds
character.
exactly
the
of the play.
As
an
except
of
that
little
episodes, or a
modest
painting
a situation, are
thus
allowed.
The
which prepare the moods, must also at the same time present the ground texture of the hero. Shakespeare manages this with wonderful skill. Bepiece,
still
unem-
express the
3i6
teristically
ard
III., illustrate. It
is
not
are
intro-
duced
act.
in
soliloquy, or
in
Tasso, Clavigo.
Egmont
the second
of
inti-
mates
characteristic
unembarrassed
The
;
heroes.
the hero
presented
first
in rich
mirrorings in
Camp, and
in
the
but
Wallenstein himself appears, introduced by the astrologer, in the circle of his family
and
is
friends, out
seldom
re-
moved.
It
new
is
roles in the
The
spectator
inclined to
consider
with
mistrust
the
leading of
the
roles
care not
make
impatient.
endow-
ment,
cltTractive presentation,
most
effective detailed
delineation, in compact treatment. Excellent examples of elaboration are, besides those already named, Deveroux and Macdonald in Wallemtein, while Buttler, in the same piece, serves as model
of a character
for the
last
whose
active participation
is
saved
part,
not
towed
as
dead weight
THE CHARACTERS.
through the
changes.
Finally,
care,
first,
317
its
internal
when
is
talk
but
all
that others
weight
in
is
seen coming-
into being,
growing
of
if
the connections
the action.
may be
the
fatal
commends
wish,
it
his
in
the
poet's
is
not
qualities.
The
must occur with strict regard to the tableaux, or grouping, and the demands of scenic representation. For even in the conducting~6f a scene, the actor, as opposed to the poet, makes his demands prevail, and the poet does well to heed them. He stands in a delicate relation with his actor, which places
obligations on both sides.
is
the same.
Both exercise
;
their
the poet as
And
the poet will soon learn that the German actor, on the whole, adapts himself with a ready fervor and zeal to the effects of the poet, and seldom bur-
3i8
place his
own
art in the
effect, in
many
cases
may be
piece, a divis-
ion of interests.
The poet
will
if
it is
necessary
acter in single
moments
of an action.
Experience
falls into line
derstands his
own
art.
For the
to labor as a participant in
when he
right,
good
strong
ef-
economy
of his strength,
a convenient ar-
rangement of scenes,
must
be as much a matter
These requirements may be traced back to two great principles, to the proposition which may be stated: The stage effect must be clear to the poet while he is composing and to the short but very imperative proposition The poet must know how
; :
hjs characters.
in
mind the
he must perceive
as
THE CHARACTERS.
they occur gradually on_the stage.
role allow,
If
319
more
fre-
this
them
if
sumes it to come at a later moment of the scene if he forces the actor into a position which does not allow him to complete his movements unrestrained and effectively, or to come into the proposed combinaif he does not remember tion with a fellow actor which of his roles every time begins the play, and which continues it further, if he leaves one of the chief characters unoccupied for a long time on the stage, or if he attributes too much to the power of the final result of this and similar diffithe actor, culties is a representation too weak and fragmen;
; ;
tary
stage, of the
dramatic
In
poet
may have
perceived clear
all
and effective
spected.
in its course
And
this,
tom.
For
there
is
to be practiced,
under a competent stage director. The old requirement that a poet must adapt his
characters to the special line of
work
it
of the actors,
is.
than
really
Well
320
ment
stage
;
of chief roles,
have been abandoned by our having once received an artist into the
prescriptions and prohibitions, they
circle of
it
made
first rank and they separated the bonfrom the "youthful hero," by a wide chasm, almost impassable. Meantime, there remains so much of the custom as is useful for the actor and
side of the
vivajit
towards
tain
its
special
roles.
setting of
new
of
stock
dramatic
his
developed within
the
quality of his
them, he
to the
in
is
uncertain.
If
now
accustomed readiness of different specialties the same role, the setting will be difficult, and
sharp,
;
sly,
concealed, an unscrupulous
scoundrel
in his family,
warm
in feeling, dignified,
;
honored and honorable, no improbable mixture his image on the stage would strike one very differently,
when
him; probably
in
any
setting, the
one side of
his nature
would
fall
short.
This
is
no infrequent
case.
The advantage
of
THE CHARACTERS.
correct
setting
321
according to special
capability of
dangers of an inappropriate setting, can observed in witnessing any new piece. be The
actors, the
sureness of his
of
an unusual
stage
character
of importance to him.
is
He
is
only to
know what
actors.
most convenient
at last
it is
for himself
and
his
And when
To
create
the
actor,
the word.
Body and
is
and deed.
see to
it
that he
perfectly this
effects.
knows how to use worthily and mighty stock of means for his artistic
the secret of his
art,
And
the
first
thing
last,
is
only
truly, even to however strongly feeling breaks forth from the private life as de^re and deed, and however strong impressions are made from without upon thcT
details,
SQiil
of the hero.
fulness,
moment
in
of the proit
and
finds
special
joy
portraying
in
322
beautiful_iQi?lfi-4faks.
will
set Jiis
actors the
and
will
make
powers.
Again it must be said, no technique teaches how one must begin, in order to write in this way.
CHAPTER
V.
an indispensable element of poetics. There are many dramas of a high order, favorite
verse
pieces
in
upon our
stage,
dramatic
subjects
is
claimed, prose
composed in prose. At least from modern times, it is the most appropriate expression
and sentiments as can be placed real life. But the serious drama hardly concludes to abandon the advantages which verse affords, in order to win
of such thoughts
those of prose.
It is true,
easily, indeed, in
It is easier in
it,
many
respects
more dramatically.
of
acters
it
offers,
from
the
construction
the
everything
is
constrained
it it
adapts
itself
quickly to every
frame of mind;
verse
humorous delight a
;
which
is
very
difficult to
it
trasts,
more
movement.
323
324
tages
counterbalanced by the
exalted
mood
the
hearer
While prose easily incurs the risk of reducing the work of art to copies of ordinary
maintains.
reality,
speech
into
in
characters
the
he is in the presence of a work of which bears him away from reality, and sets him another world, the relations of which the human
perfect freedom.
Moreover,
the limitation which is placed on logical discussion, and sometimes on the brevity and incisiveness of expression, is no very perceptible loss. To poetical representation, the sharpness and fineness of proof-
and
antithesis,
which verse
favors.
>
In the
rhythmic ring of the verse, feeling and vision raised above reality, float as if transfigured, in the hearer's
and it must be said that these advantages can be very serviceable, specially to subjects from
soul
;
modern times
above the
common
Prince of
life, is
most
necessary.
How
this
Hamburg shows, but the treatment which Goethe gave the undramatic material of The Natural Daughter, though the verse of this drama is not
written conveniently for the actor.
established
preponderating
325
verse
brief
In
its
we
it
example,
in
and
of
the
poet thus
inclined
easily
toward a
into
rich,
sonorous
expression,
falls
the
temptation
line
and a half or two lines, which it would be better to extend in an uninterrupted, and thus finer flow of words. But the pentameter has the advantage of the greatextending part of a sentence into a
est
it
can.
adapt
more than any other kind of verse to changing moods, and follow every variation of the soul in time and movement. The remaining kinds of verse which have been
itself
used
in
ing too
marked
limit
a peculiarity of sound,
and more
than a
is
little
characterization
by speech, which
The German trochaic tetrameter, which among many other measures for instance, Immermann used
effectively in the
like
all
catastrophe of
verse, too
trochaic
uniformly with
the
time-
natural
The sharp
beats which
feet
make
in the
it
in the
German
lan-
326
The iambic hexameter, the caesura of moods. which stands in the middle of the third foot, the tragic measure of the Greeks, has, so far, been used
but
little in
it
Germany.
From
its
translations from
the Greek,
rigidity
which do not essentially belong to it it movement and is capable of many variations. Its sonorousness is majestic, and full for rich expression which moves forward in long undulations, and is splendidly adapted to its use. It has
has a vigorous
its
even
in the
the
fifth
uneven
or
length.
Against
there
is
syllables
stand
seven,
eight
if
a feminine
ending.
second
half verse,
is
This after-
and the foretone of the mascuending contributes to give weight, sometimes, hardness. The Alexandrine, an iambic hexameter,
;
lies
and
In
divides the line into two equal parts, cuts the dis-
course too
markedly
effect
is
in
the
German drama.
is
French,
this
its
language
the
verse
accent
much more
and broken up in a greater number of ways, not only through the capricious and movable word accent, but through the free rhythmic swing of spoken discourse through a mingling and prolongation of words, which we cannot imitate; and
covered
327
on a greater prominence of the element of sound, sonorousness, with which the creative power of the speaker knows how to play in an original
manner.
ment, yet
Finally, there
is
hexameter of The Nibebingen, in the new language an iambic hexameter, the fourth foot of which may be not only an iambus, but an anapest, and always has the
little
used,
the
first
thesis.
What
is
characteristic
to the
German
language,
in
is
the
verse,
measures,
as a rule,
syllables in
the
first
impassioned progress.
relations of the
narrative,
It is
possible that
its
nature,
German language,
avails for
animated
and v/ins some significance for one species of comedy. To the elevated drama, rhyme, which in this measure, two long verses cannot dispense with as a connecting element, will always seem too harmonious and sportive, however well it may be modified through a rapid transition of voice, from
one
line to another.
328
indispensable.
little
The
the
more
interrup-
But
further, interest
the dramatic
movement
come
its
contrast with
itself, will
calls attention to
be
counted a distraction.
also
the
ground
that
should
easily
our drama
color
for
in
becomes
gives
to
stronger.
Inserted
prose
always
imitation of
reality
and
for
this
disadvantage
is
in-
moods
The iambic pentameter has a fluency German poet, whose soul has accustomed
its
the
itself in
soarings, to think
and
feel
most
its
is
easily during
But
still
perfectly
And
so
distinctly this
poet's quality,
which
is
new piece
able to
perceive
329
power
it
developed or
easier for
always
much
Of the Germans
not.
course,
is
to feel the
life in
becoming manner
in verse.
is
make
it
correct,
chief
and secondary
feminine
mascu-
endings,
endings,
must
come out
and
in
according to
well-known laws,
regularly
pleasing variations.
If
and succeeded in writing musical verse with pleasing flow and pithy substance, his verse is cerand the more difficult tainly not right undramatic Now the poet must acquire another labor begins. art of rhythmic feeling, which shall occasion, in
tion
;
uniform flow
in
was said, that in French, the Alexandrine was animated and varied by the introduction of irregular
The
On
in
the
hand, there
is
given to the
German
an
330
unusual
expressing the
movements
or transposing single
The rhythmic movement of the excited comes more into relief among the Germans,
connection and division of sentences,
the Latin races in the sonorous swing
in the logical
than
among
of their recitation.
life
enters
by
checking
infinite
it,
turning
it
this
way and
The
verse must
accommo;
obediently to every
mood
of the soul
it
must seek to correspond to each, not only through connection of its rhythm but through the logical For quiet feeling sentences which it combines. and fine mental action, which move forward in repose and dignity or with vivid animation, he must use his purest form, his most beautiful euphony, and
even flow of eloquence.
In Goethe, the dramatic
If feeling rises
in quiet beauty.
the
flows out in
more
adorned, long-breathed
rush
in
long waves,
derating
stronger
verse,
single
fill
and
the
next;
then
short
331
all
quietly and
So in Lessing. But the expresbecomes stormier and wilder; the rhythmic course of the verse seems wholly disordered now and again a sentence from the end of
sion of excitement
;
torn from
its
con-
and attached
;
to
what has
speech and what follows grammatical connections .the first word of a the two important places, sentence, and the last, are separated from others and become independent
;
members
fect
;
of a sentence
instead of the
quiet
alternations of
strong and
verses with
a long series of
is
hardly to be recognized
syllables
even
in those in
unaccented
the
regular
or
groups,
over which,
course,
the
swiftly,
massive,
heavy words throng together, and the parts of the This verse tumble against each other as in chaos.
is
the
dramatic
verse,
in
as
it
powerful effects
in spite of all
Kleist,
thus
whirls
finished,
Shakespeare.
with a dramatic
As soon
in
life.
in
332
rule
quietly, but to be
this purpose,
it is
tion of sentences be
made
and
off
the
speaker,
break
in
unintelligible
;
finally, that
indistinct
words are to be carefully avoided. Spoken speech yields its thought, sometimes with more ease, sometimes with more difficulty.
reader hardly notices,
A dissonance
which the
when pronounced, distracts marked in a degree. Every obscurity offends and in the connection of sentences makes the actor and
the hearer uncertain, and leads to false conceptions.
But even
and
spirited
explication,
the
reader
is
occupied spectator.
On
things clearer.
The
reader in a
which are not made plain by the usual particles of logical sentence sequences but he follows with an effort which easily becomes exhaustion. To the actor, on the contrary, such passages are the most
;
welcome as the foundation of his creative work. By means of an accent, a glance, a gesture, he knows how to render quickly intelligible to the
hearer, the last connection, the omitted ideas neces-
333
and the soul which he puts into the words, the passion which streams forth from him, become a guide which fills out and completes for the hearer the import of the suppressed
and fragmentary speech, and produces perhaps a It happens that in reading, long powerful unity.
passages of verse give the impression of the
cial,
artifi-
picture of
intense
Now,
with
it is
it
;
where the But just so often the poetic art has the best right; and the fault is in the reader, because his power of following and
for his art
left
specially powerful
poet has
is
not so active as
it
should be.
the
It is
of style in Lessing.
The frequent
interruptions in
questions
pro-
reading as
tions,
artificial
unrest.
on
this account,
is
is
with
actors.
Still
more
the
striking
always
true.
In
restlessness,
feverishness,
life
inner
which
struggles
violently,
its
sometimes
helplessly for
reflection.
expression, finds
corresponding
not
is
334
infrequent,
unnecessarily
in
;
For the most part, he has a practhis he wishes to make very prominent individual ideas which appear of importance to him. But that seems to him important sometimes, which can really claim no significance; and the frequent recurrence of little leaps aside from the direct line of the action, distical
no explanation.
purpose
The
be increased,
as
in
the Gersingle
man
drama, by parallelisms,
well
of
an excellent
means
The expansion which the rhythmic sweep of the Greek drama had, the Germans cannot imitate.
Owing
we
are in a
in
position
to set over
against
one another
our
unit,
dence and contrast of accent. In a recitation, which makes the logical side less prominent, and
brings
allows
the
voice
may
the
and
in the reply
nothing
incomprehensible
us
in
it.
335
were a number of recitation melodies, or refrains, which were specially invented for each piece, or
were already known to the hearers, and which without elevating the speaking tones of the recitation to
a song,
not to be used by
us.
Even
beat,
in
For our kind of dramatic any artifice which restrains the movements of characters and their The pleasure from the rhetoric of such sentiments. counter-speeches is less than the danger that the truth of representation may be lessened by artistic The poet will, therefore, do well to limitation.
three, a limit
set.
composition
rebels
against
modify
it
the severity
and appearance of
interspersing
artificiality
this
may be done by
in
parallel
propositions
verse,
with
is more moderns than in earlier times for historical culture has greatly enhanced our sense for, and interest in what deviates from our own life. Character and action are conceived by the poet in the peculiar circumstances which the time, the
adjunct
of
every
subject
matter
developed
among
us
manner
of speech
and of dealing,
336
have in and the forms of intercourse, Whatever of contrast with our own time and life.
his costume,
tume,
the
These
He
It
perceives
as determined
piece.
them good
the
color
is
an important
works
at
beginning of the piece, at once stimulating and it remains to the end a enchanting to the hearer
;
charming ingredient, which may sometimes serve to cover weaknesses in the action. These embellishing colors do not develop in every poet with equal vividness they do not come to But light with the same energy in every subject. they never entirely fail where characters and human
;
They
are indispensable
drama.
torical
Color
and the romance, as they are to the is of the most importance in his;
themes
it
helps here to
characterize the
itself,
heroes.
feeling
it
The
and
its
dramatic character
volition,
must, in
its
much
it.
nearer a cultured
man
its
of
But
it
is
between the
;
man
and
in history
in the
drama
the hero
his action
The newer
337
it
express in
the
costume which
gives to the
is laid,
the social
position,
and many
presented.
We
are
German stage with dagger and wig, and Semiramis adorned her riding coat with much strange tinsel, and her hair with many jewels and striking trimmings, in order to give herself a foreign appearance.
Now, on many prominent stages, imitation of hiscostume has gone very far but in the majority of cases, it remains far behind the demands which the audience, in its average historical knowledge, is justified in demanding with respect to
torical
;
scenic equipment.
It is clear
that
it is
but
is
just as
clear that
its
it
multitude of
patrons by forcing
heroes into a
costume which, perhaps, nowhere and never, cerIf the poet tainly not in this century, was possible.
must keep aloof the antiquarian enthusiasm of the over-zealous from the clothing of his heroes, because the unusual, the unaccustomed in accessory does not advance, but rather disorders his piece, he will
oftener
have occasion,
in for
instance, a
Hohen-
gold-beetles,
brilliancy
Henrys and proves by their intolerable that they were never struck by a blow
from a sword.
338
and stage
the
rococo table
scene from
century,
the spectator.
diflficult
In order to
make such
and
remissactors,
nesses
remote times, to prescribe exactly upon a page devoted to that purpose, not only the scenic
apparatus but the costumes.
the language.
more than
prose.
But
;
it
it
shade
allows even to words a slight tint in dialect. In subjects from remote times, a language must
This
is
the
creating
This strange
the
suggespeculiar
on the mind of
its
by
its
accents,
syntactical structure,
popular forms
hand, the
of expression.
And
with
pen
in
poet
comparison,
proverbial
dialect.
is
Among
every foreign
people
benefi-
whose
cial,
literature
accessible, such
work
is
339
in
own
earlier times.
former periods,
tive to the
as
the Sclavonic
a far
power of imagination. The sense of the had not been evaporated through a long sciwords everywhere there attached to them entific labor something of the first mental expression, from the popular mind where they originated. The number
;
of proverbs
is
large, as also
is
the
number
of terse
forms and
Biblical
may
his talent
Such ingredients the creating in mind upon their melody amplifies almost involuntarily, the ground
hold firmly
;
tone and
moods
works of
still
little
traits of character,
anecdotes,
many
striking things
his pictures.
What he
each item
value.
may
signify
something to him
it, is
but the
of highest
This
mood which he
;
forsake him
even while he
scenes,
it
through
the
will
other,
340
and
act,
their
movein
For
in
at
every point
the
drama,
in
every sentiment,
every
that which
clings to
what
is
humanly exalted
is
It is
seldom neces-
not to do too
;
much
with these
colors
is,
for his
highest task
characas are
them,
in
such
vital
expressions
in
intelligible to
every time
the
is
visible
in
characters, in the
What
is
to
his
play by color,
as
an imitation of
reality, as his
heroes are,
it is
free creation.
But
much
the
more
to conjure
up a picture
in
it
upon himself
he perceived to be attractive.
CHAPTER
THE POET AND
Great
is
VI.
HIS WORK.
past peoples
and times, specially in the century of who form the judgment and excite
This
is
per-
what has affinity for it and casting off what resists But during a time of weak rest of the national it. spirit, this inheritance was a disadvantage for the
creative activity of the poets, because
it
favored a
Only a few years ago, in Germany, it was almost an accident whether an Athenian or a Roman, Calderon or Shakespeare, whether Goethe or Schiller, Scribe or Dumas, attracted the soul of the young poet into the magic circle of their style and their forms.
lack of distinctive style.
The poet
a beneficiary
incited
usually,
to
his
is
thereby
He
has,
no
life
342
attracts him.
in lyrics
;
he
ring out
last
the
the
the
on the stage,
showed But as external relations laid no restrictions on them, and now one, now another field attracted more strongly, the circle in which their power moved with
poetic
greatest capability in one of these directions.
come
The
comedy
alone.
also,
to
whom
of
a necessity, lives,
he does not
from the theater. He may write or not. External pressure, a mighty lever to move talent, is almost
entirely
wanting.
The
theater
has
become
the
of the dignity
and
loftiness
HIS
WORK.
343
of different centuries.
and, again, what affords the great most singular multitude most pleasure, thriists all else aside. The resources of material for the poet have become almost boundless, the Greek and the Roman worlds, the Middle Ages. Sacred writings and poetry of the Jews and Christians, even the peo-
open
But
this offers
choice becomes
difficult,
and
is
almost an accident,
is
in a
condition to
preferably.
the
German
exclusively,
as
it
or
German,
richly
not yet
itself,
come when
flows
the dramatic
of the people,
out
in
and unimpeded.
Gladly
of
would we see
the
new development
That
it
is
still
is
no
in
accident.
Only
The
reading drama
of a time in
is
which the
among
a people, or has
344
disappeared
The
species
is
an old one.
Already among the Greeks pieces were written for recitation, and still more of the Latin recitation pieces have been transmitted to us. Among the Germans, the reading drama, from the early comedies of nun Hroswith, through the stylistic attempts of the first humanists, even to the greatest poem of
our language, has a long history.
is
Infinitely varied
the
poetical
But the
effects,
employment
their species,
tion,
of poetic
form
for
dramatic
against which
reader protests.
In the pages of this book, the attempt has been
show that the technical work of the composer is not entirely easy and free from pains. This kind of poetry demands more from the poet than any other. It demands a peculiar, but rarely found capability for representing
to
made
dramatic
the
mental processes of
;
men
of
significant
and
and certain poetic endowment, and a knowledge of men, as well as what in real life, is called character; an accurate knowledge of the stage and its needs must be added. And yet it is striking,, that of the
HIS
WORK.
345
It is indeed serious work to write a romance which merits the name of work of art but every educated person with constructive skill and knowledge of men, who has not attempted anything as a poet, may offer something readable, wherein single significant impressions of real life, what he
;
felt,
Why
muses, so
What
enemy
friends,
their
into a
poetical
which the closest combination of an always rare constructive energy, with an unusual, firm, secure mastery of the forms of art, is the assumed condition of lasting success ? Does a secret longing of man for what is most lacking in him, possibly, lead him astray ? And does the
dilettanti, just
for this
drama
in himself,
because
all
body
Undeniably,
the
attempts
such
persons
and hopeless. But the poet who has been equipped for all his life
we
and patient
he must
He
must, how-
employment
feel
another means
of
advancement
346
what
charming
in
a subject, and
it
deliberation to carry
natural.
is
genius, he
must
make
;
himself
for
inti-
he must
is
how
to prove
whether a subject
in
this,
useful,
the
essentials.
first
Even
judgment must
from the
moment watch
to him,
over his
;
warm
heart,
of composition arises
a play which
The imagination
the beginner's
and the nest is built beneath the first He who is warned by experience, budding branch. and tests too long. Often it is not critical becomes
an accident that suggests a subject to the soul, but
the
mood and
own
life,
which attract the fancy in a definite direction. For the soul works secretly upon a piece before it and what it demands finds hero and chief scenes
;
is
that this
may
The
nent.
difficulties
materials offer,
which the various subjects and have been made sufficiently promi-
But he who finds it difficult to decide, may it depends on the power of his talents whether, in most events, they are changed into a
consider that
useful action.
positive poetic
a few rnoments
HIS
WORK.
347
traits in
may
dramas,
it is
just as necessary to
make
that this
may have
it is
its
movements about
How
Let
it
and perilous
life,
to
make
use artistically of
an historical
which the heroes awaken, and the patriotic enthusiasm which the poet and the spectator alike bring to
make them specially adapted to the drama. The old German history offers comparatively few heroic figures whose remembrance is dear through
them,
Hapsburg houses ? The purposes for which they conquered and died are perhaps condemned by the convictions of the present time the
Staufen, or
;
have remained with no occurrences easily understood by us for the popular mind, they are dead and buried. But further, the
struggles of their
life
;
heroes
who
of
still
live
in
the
memory
of the
new
restrictions
which narrow
Just
this
the
freshness
his
creative
power.
patriotic
348
dom
character,
sentation
"Old
But
Fritz,"
fre-
quently failed.
it is
not at
necessary to
the
make
historical
kings and
generals,
heroes of an historical
drama, which can be constructed advantageously on only a little period of their historical life. Much
profitably
may
be exhibited
How
Mary
is
Don
Carlos,
in
is
The
Phillip
of the
former play
play.
how an
historical character
to be used as a partner in a
With the
life
of
multitude of figures
characteristic traits
connected, of
whom
;
single
and these
whose
life
One
punishment, one
defiant
its
consequences, one
scene
him an abundant
And
such
traits
and
his-
HIS
WORK.
349
conscious of his
art,
of
and of modern times, than from such stock as is offered him from the other species of poetry. For the serious drama, material taken from romances and modern novels is not of much account. If Shakespeare used material from novels,
his
and a powerful
conclusion
are
already
In the elaborated
shows
its
power
fre-
and the embellished and agreeable elaboration of the men and the situations in the
to the dramatist;
romance,
may
He
will
hardly do wrong to
the property of
another
if
from
very
For
if
he
is
an
artist,
will
The
tragic poet
is
any material already at hand. less often, and with more difficulty than one would suppose. Among the great dramas of our stage, just as it once was in ancient times, there are few which are not constructed from already used material. For it is a
But indeed,
this
happens
characteristic of the
perceives
more
350
in the life of
ular figure
imagination
not so
easily
made
and powerful, that there is inclination to steady and assiduous labor. And yet one conviction the poet may keep in his quiet soul, that no material is entirely good, little wholly bad. From this side also, there is no perfirm
put upon
it
Every subject has its inherent and disadvantages which the art of the poet is so far able to overcome, that the whole gives the impression of beauty and greatness. These weaknesses are to be recognized, but only by the practiced eye and every work of art gives the critic, from this point of view, occasion for the exercise of his functions. He who judges must be on the lookout, that in the face of this deficiency,
fect
work
of art.
difficulties
he understands whether the poet has done his duty, whether he has used all the means of his art, to master or to conceal.
In the joyful consciousness that he
is
beginning
a gallant work, the poet must sternly take his position over against
test
it,
to him,
and
the
move about
He
will
have
make
from
reality.
To
oul,
the
first
in his
single
belong characteristic utterances of the hero in moments of his inner agitation or powerful
In order to increase the
activity.
number
of the
HIS
WORK.
in
f^
his hero.
order to inten-'^^^'^^
he
will
life
He
will, therefore,
make good
reward
;
studies,
for
from
it
of visions
in
and pictures which may be readily joined imagination to the growing work. The grateful
soul of the
details, a
German
will
he has
in this
as
much
as possi-
which
fast
is
But
let
him hold
his
plan,
He may
whole,
this
write
is
out
of
his
plans or
not;
on the
not
much
account.
Elaborate
make
single
but they have the disadvantage, that they easily clog the imagination, and render more difficult the
necessary
sheet
is
transformation
and
elimination.
One
enough
352
one another, must be clearly fixed in mind, in all and so the results of each single scene. essentials
;
Then during
Of
acters
stand
He
and they impel him. It is a joyful process which he notices in himself as the conceived characters, through his creative power and under the logical
force
of
events,
become
living
beings.
expressed and
new
suddenly there flames up a beautiful and great And while the goal and resting-place by effect.
the
way
It is
ment,
cheering and
;
strengthening
favorably
above the most violent agitation, through the fancy which in the most passionate
for
endowed poet
parts of
nerves
cheeks,
almost to
the
spirit
convulsion
and
reddens
his
hovers
choosing freely,
and ordering and arranging systematically The labor of the same poet is different at different moments. Many of these appear to him brilliant
their previously
perceived effects
move
his spirit
animatedly
only as
what has been written down appears a weak copy of a glowing inner picture,
;
HIS
WORK.
;
353
other
moments
;
the
the
nerve-tension
if
not
strong
the creative
Such scenes,
The force of creative energy, too, is quite varyOne is rapid in the labor of writing down what is composed to another, forms take shape
ing.
;
and do not express themselves fluently on The more rapid workers do not always have paper. Their danger is that they often fix the advantage. the images too soon, before the work of fancy has
slowly,
It is
often possible
moment
when the
is
completed.
The maturing
;
an important matter
not consciously at
work.
Not unimportant
the
order of sequence in
For one, the well trained imagination works out scenes and acts
regular succession
;
for another,
it
seizes on,
now
has
this,
now
What
As soon as concepis to be written. and vision and feeling are recorded in words, they stand face to face with the poet as an outsider
ence on what
tion
354
giving direction
may come
mood,
later.
Whoever works
advantage that
in the regular
mood
develops from
He
will
not
little
and gradually,
It
Whoever, on the other hand, sets before himself what the sportive fancy has vividly illuminated, will probably supervise more securely the aggregate effect and movement of his masterpiece
he
will,
however,
labor,
have to
traits.
now here, now there, during his make changes in motives and in indiThis was, at least
in single cases, the
vidual
work
of Goethe.
When
on account of the finished work, then the reaction which prevails everywhere after a highly excited frame of mind, begins. The soul of the poet is still very warm, the aggregate of beauty which he has created, and enjoyed while creating, the inner image which he has of its effects, he embodies still unconfused
in
It
appears to him,
in a
according to the
or a vast success
;
mood
on the whole,
normal state
power which
his
work
if
attests.
he
is
work put
oil
HIS
feel,
WORK.
355
been
said,
yet
oscillations, in themselves.
in
tinguished
action,
by a vivid conception of the scenic is broken, the effects more exactly harmonized by transitions at another time, it flows more agreeably for the reader than for the And however rightly the poet may have actor.
the discourse
;
perceived the
sum
from the produce on the receptive mind, have had more of his attention than their sound, and their mediation with the spectator through the
actor.
to the
poet, an ideal
body demanding
treatment.
in
As
comprehenaudience of
It
of
connections
slower,
so
the
has
comprehension of the
for
for
connections
is
quick,
great,
is
its its
demands
preference
powerful
definite
movement
are
kinds of situations
inordinately developed.
his
The poet will therefore be compelled to adapt work to the actor's art and the demands of the
356
public.
"adapting"
the poet
is
passages poet
is
wrongly
in
bad
repute
it
is
rather
work
of the
German
accustomed
to begin with a
weak develop-
ment of the sense of form) the greatest benefit which can be conferred upon his piece, an indispensable prerequisite to presentation on the stage,
the one
is
means
of
insuring
success.
Further,
art
it
the
actor's
must
in-
poet
which adjust the demands of the spectator and the claims of the'poet; whoever with quiet enjoyment perceives clearly, at his worktable, the poetical beauty of a piece, thinks, not
willingly,
how
the
light of
who
of
have
chosen
the
their
explaining to
contemporaries
the
beauties
look down with contempt stage, which custom of the on unmercifully mangles the most beautiful poetry. Only from the brush of a careful manager do the beautiful forms in the masterpieces of Schiller and
of the greatest poets,
tradesman's
in
Of
have a technical director, who with delicacy and understanding arranges the pieces so as to adapt
them
to the stage.
Very adverse
is
HIS
WORK.
it
357
may
means
into
means should not bring that ill-repute and if one would depreciate
;
much is merely the justification of many single of personal opinion omissions is sometimes doubtful. The direction of
in this
Now
adapting of a piece,
;
a theater,
effect
which
has, as a matter
in
of
course,
the
on a particular stage
welcome
To
an able actor
who
is
specially esteemed
by the
main what is unnecessary when he expects some good result from it, he may take an accessory effect from a role whose setting must be imperfect, if he is convinced that the actor is unable to bring
;
it
out.
work must
it
He
can accomplish
himself
;
if
He must
to
management
But he
abridge his
with
self-
will,
358
them where
judgment
first
is
his
artistic
conscience
does not
make
his
But since
the
soul,
The
disturbance
is
in
the
pleasant peace of a
just rejoicing in a
completed
;
work,
as
is
but
it is
wholesome as a draft of fresh air in the sultry summer. The poet is to respect and love his work so long as he bears it about as an ideal, and works upon it; the completed work must be dismissed. It must be as if strange to hirn, in order that he may gain freedom for new work. And yet the poet must attempt the first adaptaIt is an tion, while his work is still on his desk.
unfriendly business, but
it
is
necessary.
Perhaps
some
been dear to him, he has more broadly elaborated than a slight warning of his conscience now
approves.
Nay,
it is
moment when he
considers
it
done,
is still
Now the time has come when he may repair what he slighted in his former labor. He must go through scene by scene, testing in each he must
;
HIS
WORK.
359
he must try to make the picture of the scene vivid he must hit upon at each moment on the stage the exact position of the entrances and exits through which his persons come upon the stage and leave he must consider, also, the scenery and the properties, whether they hinder or whether they aid
; ;
as
let
Perhaps
for to
discover prolixities
may
easily
come
to the front
;
way
to
or the
Let him inexorably expunge what does not conduce to the worth of the scenic structure, howLet him go ever beautiful it may be in itself.
quent.
further
act,
and
art
test the
whole
acts,
and
fully,
Let him exert his change of scenery within when by such a change the act will
be twice broken.
At
the
first
must be
possible.
he considers the acts concluded, their combination of scenes satisfactory, then let him
if
And
compare the climax of effects in the single acts, and see that the power of the second part correLet him raise the climax sponds also to the first. by an effort of his best poetic power, and let him
36o
have a sharp eye upon the act of the return. if the hearers should not be satisfied with the
trophe, the
act.
fault
lies
frequently in
the previous
The time
itself
will
We
read with
most
Even Shakespeare's
much
to,
were they given unabridged, in a small auditorium where more rapid speaking is possible; they would not require, on the average,
be accustomed
hours. The German unwillingly closed in a theater, a play which now tolerates This is a takes much longer than three hours. circumstance in no way to be disregarded for in
the
time
which
extends beyond
this,
however
it is
may
by the withdrawal
ing ones.
of single spectators
and
not
is
a disadvantage, that in view of a great subject and great elaboration, three hours
a very short time;
especially on our stage, where from the time of a
five-act play, during the four intervals
fully a half
it
between
acts,
hour
is lost.
Of
all
the
German
;
poets,
HIS
WORK.
361
which after its arrangement for the stage contains an average of five hundred As a lines to the act, exceeds the allotted time.
five act play,
rule,
considered the
limit
which
is
or lighter
flow
of
also
through
itself
this,
demands
many
divisions, pauses,
;
movements
of masses, pan-
lastly,
;
most of the stage pieces of our great ;^^but the poet would now vainly appeal to their example. For their works all hail from a time in which the present stage usage was not yet adopted, or was less comcourse,
Of
pulsory.
And
finally, in
liberty of old
friends, to
stage,
be changed.
The poet
and if beyond the stage must once more examine it with reference
as
may be
feared, extends
time, he
to
what
may be
omitted.
362
When
icism,
he has ended
improving
his piece
as
much
as
possible,
it
then he
may
for the
public eye.
friend
is
For
this
indispensable.
The poet
will
seek such a
one
in
To him he will send his work in manuscript. Now begins a new examination, discussion, abridgement,
till
the wording
is
on the stage.
necessary to
it
If
make
conform
to
its
purpose,
is
If
it
it
is
possible for
him
will
be very ad-
vantageous to him,
much, however, bedisadvantages and the perceives once at cause he defects of his work (for to young poets, self-knowledge comes seldom so quickly), as because, to the
not
so
many weaknesses
become apparent
first
being performed.
that a poet's
first
It is true
stage
is
brave heart.
pain
;
The abbreviated
and the striding on the half-dark stage becomes painful on account of the secret uncertainty, and his consideration of the imperfect renderingof the actor. But this connection has also something that is
refreshing and instructive
:
the
trials,
the
appre-
HIS
WORK.
363
And
with
tolerable
success
of
the
play,
the
remembrance of the occasion remains, perhaps, a worthy possession of the poet in his later life. Here a warning. The young poet is to take part foi a few times in the rehearsal and in the presentation.
He
is
to
make
the
a
wishes
of
the
actors.
comBut he is
hobby of his pieces. He is not to warmly he is not to seek the applause of new men too zealously. And, further, he is not to play the director, and is to mingle in He the rehearsal only where it is positively urged. is no actor, and he may scarcely, in the rush of rehearsal, correct what an actor is failing in. Let him notice what strikes him and let him discuss
not to
make
this later
in the
The
is
test of
if
work that
may
first
read
The good
influence
which he
way.
may
The
has hindered in
Germany
the
364
Germany, before its course upon While the reputation of a the rest may be assured. piece which comes from the stronghold of Vienna
different parts of
its
it
gives prestige.
in
What
Leipsic,
and a success in Hanover insures no success in Meantime, the connection of the GerBrunswick.
man
theaters reaches so
far,
Lack
is,
what
the
is
available everywhere
in
German
If a
stage.
first
appearance,
its
more
extensive.
of
making
use
to different theaters
toxommit the manuscript to an agent to be pushed. Now, the Society of Dramatic Authors and Composition at Leipsic,
rights
by
its
and
interests of its
;
members among
its
the differ-
ent theaters
it
appearance on
Whoever hasi (honoraria) and percentages. do with theaters, as a young writer, cannot now' dispense with the support of this society and it is
;
to his interest to
become
this,
it
a
is
member.
desirable
for
But besides
youngj
365
come
themselves,
their
and professors.
with theatrical
In this
life,
way he becomes acquainted demands and its needs. first piece let him take a midits
is
manuscript
not
make
the
prompter
let
weep over
him give
it
him
some
Besides,
it is
desirable
He
needs the
warm
;
dewill
it
facilitate
the study of
the
the author
it
men
of
To
fresh
the
German
greater
need of
suggestions,
any thing else for, in this way he attains most easily what too generally is lacking, an accurate knowledge of what is effective on the stage. Even Lessing learned this by experience. If the poet has done all this, on the reasonable success of his piece, he will soon, through a somewhat extensive correspondence, be initiated into the
;
secrets of stage
life.
366
And
this
finally,
when
the
in
way
brilliant suc-
cesses
without haughtiness
to
He
will
and fashion
realm of the
his self-consciousness
and
in the airy
and the spectators, to 'make something of himself worth more than being a technically educated poet
steadfast man,
who
not only
perceives
the
who
shall
it
be honestly
in his
own
INDEX.
subordinate time of
construction of
Acts,
five 192,
Abasement
of hero
71
71
11, 32,
44 360
196 210
Accessories, essential
Accessory figures
Achilles
V Accidents
44 62,179, 283
311, 314
Acropolis
148 Ig2
and verse
Actors,
331
145, 148
Act defined
divisions of
of ascent of catastrophe of climax of introduction of return
number
210
igg
201
personality
special roles
--149, 257
330
162
356, 358
'j^)^
three
201 Acting^_Greek-----^.,^^X4Qi_i52
^gisthos ^schylus-25,
174
42,
75,
n,
173
22, 27,^36
305
Agamemnon
Furies
Libation Pourers Persians
29
^j 160
173
141
42, 141
chief thing
89
44 61 42
61
Suppliants
After-creation
double importance of
influence of character--
246
62, 177, 283
Agamemnon --42,
length of
360, 361
94
154,
magnitude of
movement in
probability of
progress of
qualities of
rising
reflex.
66 Alexandrine
74
Alphonso
367
36S
INDEX.
--
Andromache
Anne-Antigone, loj^iy^*
plot of
112
Auerbach
Aufidius--76, 131, 136, 184,
241
256
I53 I54,
187. 258
Augustus Caesar
216
170
152,
Antigone,
I37.
Banquo Baumgarten
Beaumarchais
Benvolio
Berlin
59,
186
Antonio
126
306
306
173 116
Antony
Apollo-Aphrodite
Aristotle,
132, 256,
364 200 60
10
5, 6,
26,
36
,86, 88,
50
221, 237
228, 242
Poetics of
6, loi,
247
198
285
Appiani
210
299, 300
68
292
57, 161,
212, 213
146 136
237. 316
162 341
Burnam Wood
Buttler
-78, 204,207,
146
141
poets
stage
C
Caesar
Julius
59,
77,
95,
153, 158,
360
158 I44 148
Caesura
325,326, 327
341
market
orations
-
Calderon
Camp
Canossa
---39. 293,
209
294, 295
poet
91, 157
tragedy
282
354 Casca 50, 51 Cassandra
-
256
--
77
INDEX.
Cassius--ii9, 121, 124, 186,
224, 254, 256
369
262
303, 314
Catastrophe
act of
35, 114
266
332
201 137
138
defined
difficulties in
206
171
139
169
311
35
134,
minor changes in motive not marvelousmust be good and evil must show one side-must guide action 310, must be true on stage 262,
personality ot
Chance
Character of poet
Characterization
subordinate
unity of
256, 259
366
weakness
250, 251
250, 251
of
65
methods
of
with portraiture
German Romances
in different poets
Charlemagne
Charles V Chief effect
250, 251
_
252
Shakespeare's Characters
action influenced
chief
258
21,
246
by
42,
306
106
249 Christianity
of
23, 231
prominence
defining
dramatic female
life
of
247 22
Chorus Chrysomethis
Clara
139
*__-
262 310
162
Claudia
199
humorous
in
in
.^schylus Euripides
223
in
Goethe
252 262
190, 192, 193
Clavigo
314
Cleopatra
239
199 128
m Hamlet
\n Iliad
in in
Climax
actof
defined
290
Lessing
Nibelungen
Odyssey
scene
199
161
in
in
Sophocles
Shakespeare
Sophocles
in Schiller
jn
impelling force of
258
Colloquy scenes
145
370
INDEX.
_
Color
a creation
340 Daja
118
Comparisons
Complication Concert speech Conradin ^Construction of drama of scenes in Sophocles Contest on Attic stage- 143,
339 Danger in hero's leading-- 109 323 Davison 213 336 Deed concealed ']'] 298 Deianeira loi, 153,
121
166, 176
Desdemona
Devil 55, Dialogue scenes-- 170, 221,
121
210 Deveroux
140
147 120
__- 316
57
Conti
223, 225
Contrast
in character in scenes necessary Sophocles Cordelia Coriolanus Coriolanus
163, 164 171
Dionysu s Dionysian
-_--._ .-. ^
81
44,
Director's help
362, 365
223
161
Director Scenes
Distributed voices
212
244
223, 306, 348
314 258
195
Attic
Costume, changes of
214
147
Greek
historical
beginning of
construction of
25 104
337
104, 122,
Counterplay --45,
in introduction
double
five parts of
206
114
Counterplayers
220
105 195
Craftsman's rules 3 Creation and after-creation 249 Creon45, 137.JLS2, 158, 165,
170, 171, 172,211, 314
musicand
reading-three crises in
_-
88
344
114
Dramatic
action
art
Crises three
114
9
19
Cromwell
Curtain, effects of
96
193, 215
characters
characterization
246
Custom, national
Cutting out---
69
---356, 357
249
344
composition
INDEX.
effects
371
49, 109,
21
Emilia Galotti
120, 122,
sociable
52
expression
forces or
moments
19
18,
Emilia Galotti
330
43
307
^^6, 120,
115, 211
207 236
18
recitation
Enobarbus
unity
Epicheroes material
narrative
tradition
verse
330
19
21
278-282
what is Dramatis personcs Dramatist and spectator. Double action danger in Double drama Double tragedy
278,279
36
52
279,284
47, 134
-
44 46 206
49
48 48
202
341
in
Shakespeare
Dumas
Duncan
in Schiller
j_n Sophocle s Eschylus, see ^schylus-Euripides, 25, 26, 42, 43, 62,
yj. 119
49 48
89,
143,
Edgar
Edipus, see CEdipus
129
135, 136, 311
157,
284, 296
Edmund
Effect
Alcestis
112 112
26, 116
and cause
311 134
79, 153
Andromache Hecuba
Helena
heightened
in
112
of
yd 90
151
on Attic stage
opera-like
Medea
157
-IZi-
Eger
Egmont --41,
Egmont
Egyptians
Electra
Electra Elizabeth
.-48,
"](>,
73
74, 75
316, 324
Exciting force or
52,
moment
121, 123,
225
54 172
114,
115,
152,
double
205,206
124
21
in,
132,
'
no elaboration
Exposition
372
INDEX.
77, 80, 84,
no,
114, 120,
Fall of action
115
False unity
Falstaff
38 46
116, 122, 189, 241, 263
Faust- S7>^^,
308, 360
Germany- -96,
Ghost-
Ferdinand
Field of poet
100,111, 127
186
45
Gloucester Figures of Sop hocles--- 1 66 Goethe-- 1, 2, 8, 43, 49, 61, 153, 227, 228, 240, 259, Final suspense 135 262, 263, 278, 306, 329, First player- -1 49, I54, 158, 178
now
342
192, 196
343. 359
233
98
--
Egmont-^\,
Faust--
139, 240,308,
tragic
95
316, 324
-57, 61, 116, 122, 189, 246, 263
Formula
Francis
12, 13
267
275
Franconian
Frederick the Great
273
43.49. 120
French
Friedland
28, 196,326,
-
329 -- 204
Natural Daughter
43, 49, 112, 118,
324
40,
240, 314
German
actor
10,
222
134
hero
life
method
poets. -1
10, 200, 226, 259,
265
^actors
75
7, 18, 45.
155,
drama- --3,
334
Germans
costume
heroes- 102,
75
158, 290, 29i,.3i6_
42,43,45,48,54,57.75.
INDEX.
subjects
143
373
double-
128,305,
306
128
.development- 14 1,
142,
143
end
of
Gretchen
122,
123,226,
227, 262, 278
268
304
317
71
talked about
Hades
Haemon--45,
JS3
152, 158, 170, 171
Heroic accounts
Hesse-.....__-r----'269 Hexameter Halle Hindoos Hamburgische Dramaturgic 6 Heightened Hippolytus Hamlet- - 1 18, 1 19, 186, 188,
190, 191, 192,
267
326, 327, 342
54
effects
116,
79
157
258
193
Historic idea
37
-
analysis of
16, 39,
Hamlet
Historical material-
15, 37,
347
heroes in
273,347, 3^4
275, 337, 347
295, 347
Hohenstaufen Hohenzollern
Hapsburg-Hebrews
Hecuba... Helena
Hellenes
26,
347
54 116
Holy One
70 292
284
188
Homer
--
344
129
Humor
basis of
in chief character
Henry IV Henry IV
Hejiry
-39.
45
310
310
loi, 176
293-5 26
27
Hyllos
273
154, 176, I79. 181
83, 121,253, 368 Hero abasement oTTr-rrCT y'i lago hexameter 326, 327 Iambic 308 and audience -- 33^ Iambic pentameter - - -324, and color-
character
chief
62
328, 329 in
--
306
325
374
INDEX.
Julius Caesar
59,
'j'j,
Iambus
in in
95,
Goethe
Lessing
329 330
in Schiller
105
205
K
127
116
Iffland
Kennedy
Kleist
Iliad
290 Keynote
325
341
Immermann
Inheritance of poet
Intensification of soul
280 280
10
Kriemhild
Kritz
24
123, 196
Introduction- -1
structure of
14,
115,118,
120
11
Lady Macbeth
Laertes
_--
135, 188
Invention
^^.JJ^
339 338
115
Inventor as hero
Involution
68
121
Ion
Ion Iphigenia Iphigenia
112
103
-43, 49, 120
45, 49, 50, 62,
color
24, 114,250,
279
Ismene
J
45, 48,
Lear.-rj, 45, 129, 135, 136, 103, 283 186, 187, 188,258, 311. 62, 283 199,202, 212 112 Leicester Length of play 360, 361 98 Leipsic 364 165, 170
Leonora
Lessing-2,
54
6, 8,
Emilia
Galotti--\<^, 107,
187,306,311, 314
lulius Ccesar
Hamburgische Drania256
turgie
INDEX.
Minna Von Barnhclm
49, 261
375
Mary
Stuart-
- -
13, 99,
1 1 1,
Nathan The
lVise-.-/ig,
118, 261
199, 200,
260, 261
Mary
Stuart-
95, 119
236
173
154
51
126,
Material
14
from epic
historical
15,
43 296,344-49
157
modern
novel old
Laurence
Louise
127, 136.
10, 100,
313
43 344
44
204, 205, 206, 207,
no, 128
28,
onesidedness in
Max
Medea
Melfort
82
43,76,100,107,127,264, 305
228, 22g,
157
260, 262
198,
Melchthal
96,273, 348
Menas
Menelaus
338 236
M
Macbeth -27,
60, 77, 83, 118,
119, 186, 258,
Mercha?it of Ve7iice 83 Mercutio 32 33, 48, 96, 126 Mephistopheles-57, 58, 122, 227 276 Merovingians 286
Macbeth -59,
123,
127,
136,
Messenger scenes-72,
Middle ages-285,
Middle class
Milford
life
116,
145, 170,
220
Macbeth, Lady
135, 188
Macdonald Macduff
216
Maid of Orleans
Manager's help
188,
49, 60,
244
113
47, 128
Minnavon
Minna
Minor
Barnhelm--/^o, 261
259
303 342 250
196
115
Manuel
Margaret Maria Theresa Marie
365 265
rules
229
348 130 227
:
Modern
Moliere
theater
Martha Marvelous
219, 220
53
Mary
70
121
267
. -
376
INDEX.
122, 123, 197,
1
Mortimer
Motive, broad
Old material-212
350, 351
One hero
Opera
like effects
304
117
repeated
283
189
107
Movement
of action
66 Ophelia
132
Murder scenes
Mysteries on stage
225
133
I73> 174
N
Narrative remodeled
Nathan
Nathan
Orsina
49, 201
National custom
314
285, 337
loi
^2
82
-314
187
200
279, 284, 290, 327
135
Number of
persons
216
Parody, GreekParricida
Parts of
49, 81,
-^ 202
114
Octavianus
71
140
184
Odoardo
Odysseus-42,
165, 177, 178, 179,
201, 307
103, 161, 162,
180,
210
TIF
214
Pauses Odyssey 281, 290 Penelope Qi.di'piis at Coionos- - ^, 48^. People and poets Percy 12, 150, 156, 160, iJ
181, 280
280
246
lOI 141
P^eripctcia
155,
171..17-8
Persians
Personality of poet
Personification
17
248
42
34S'
_-.-
172,. 175
Old
Fritz
348
INDEX.
Philoctetes---\Q\, 112, 138,
153, 174, 178
377
plan resources
stage
task
tra gedy-
351
340
343, 362, 363
.
31
86
"work
Poetic energy
truth
341,
Piccolomini
Pilsen
203
114 169
182
155
Play and counter play order of parts Shakespeare's Sophocles' and Teutonic
spectacle
Poetics, Aristotle's
6, 101
Poetics, Greek.
Political history.
247
66
116
in
of
Polydorus Polymnestor
26
170,
symmetry
182
167, 360, 361
time of acting--
Po lynices PompeyPosa
Premises,
r
306
Player, first-- 149, 154, 158, 178 second 150, 154, 158, 178
third-,- 150, 154, 180, 228, 229
monstrous ^S ophocles
Players,
number
of Shakespeare's time--
Presuppositions
in
117
168,
159
70,
176
112, 139,
.
324
Antig07te
170
III'l--
49 359
Electra
_ CEdipus
K^ing-^ - -
172
1
71
Prologue
115, 168
57, 166
CEJipus at Colonos
/ 'hiloctctes
-
174
177
Prometheus
Properties
338
323, 328
Trachhiian
Women
176
351
and poet
154
309
87,
books
character
field
351
86,
134
93 76
114,
342
350, 351
hero
Qualities of action
27
material
346, 347
Queen Mab
Questenberg,
118, 203, 207,
48
people
246
269
378
INDEX.
Raumer
in poet's
145,
Romans
275
99
344
169
Roman
stage
195, 343
30,
Reaction
Reading drama
Recognition scenes- --101,
Romeo- --32,
100, 123,
136, 165,
Recha
Reflex action---
259
74
127, 135,
183, 187,
Reformation
Religious changes
288
Romulus
Rosalind
338
32
200, 306
Repetition of motive
292 82
Rudenz
Rules, craftsmen's
Return action
jRevolution
115, 133,
200
1
minor
Riitli
198,
303
199
69
49
Riccault
118,
Sapieha
240
1
256, 276
Sa ra Sampson - - Sara
20, 260, 26
Richard
III
259, 260
.
316
37
115
Saxon
Scenes balcony
347
210, 211
.-.
Richmond
Rise of action scenes of Rising movementrules for
69,
227 224
241
128
125,
changed
dialogue
director
relation
126
125
devices for
221,223, 225
212 212
Roderigo
Roles, celebrated
chief
collective
83,
121
223
306
double ensemble
battle
229-245
244
244
241
camp
devices
galley
great, limited
304
143
148
320
133
mass
pageant parliament populace
rules for
235 242
241
239, 240 240, 241
-231, 232
number
of
of Euripides
283
subordinate
256
INDEX.
Rutli
379
100,
--
238, 239
120,
197,
signature
time of
five parts of
in
Mary
Shiaj-t--
Piccolomini,
jumble in.love
danger in monologue
Robbers
263, 306
number
parallel
poets'
of persons
219 216
213 82
212
225
133,
228, 238
order of parts
107,
n6, n9,
3n, 316
209
206, 217
Camp
Death
Scribe
technique
third person in
341
Scenery
shifting
337
133
drama
8, 25, 27,
ni
206
81
.-_
14, 17,
Sesina
282
40,
Shakespeare-- -7,
48, 58,
59,62,69,71,81,
107,
no,
132,
195,
82,
\i6,
83,
no, n3,
120,
183, 189, 123, 184, 193,
n8, n9,
237, 241, 244, 245, 252, 255, 256, 258, 259, 273, 298, 306, 310, 314, 330,
341, 349, 354, 356, 360
Do7i Carlos
100,
43,46, 348
13,
306
258 258
45
no,
60,
Maid
of Orleans -\c),
107,
Hanilet
188, 190,
n8, n9,
191, 192,
186,
193,
n6, 241
43, 46,
Henry IV....
---
38o
INDEX.
V.
26
_
no,
112,
i:i32.-I4Q^
148^149.
VI.
27
VIII.
80, 82,
186,
273
132,
50, 15 3, 2.55.
Julius Ccesar-2'j,
119, 120, 126,
244, 256
Ajax-\\2,
AntigoneElectra
Lear-2j,
177
137, I53,._
Macbeth- -I"],
iift>155^Ji8^J7o^3n
276
83
1^4^77671527172'
7,
Merchant of Venice
Othello ---\\, 27, 83, 100,
107, 121, 122, 123,
(Edipits at Colonos-
174
130,
258
Richa7-d
121, 122,
256, 276
178
Trach in ian
episodes in Soul processes
Women -
oi
176
153. .154,
Timon of A
actors
47
39,
104
Shakespeare's
184
183
29, 222
222, 229
iii
on modern stage tragedyand 185 2^ Spectator and dramatist- 186 Spirits not dramatic
187
112
113
32
56
57
drama
heroes and action--185,
189
252, 258
in in
comedy
Shakespeare
58
197,238, 239
Stauffacher
Stenzel
method
spirits
275
58
181
Stimulation
Structure of
of scenes
97
stage
drama
io4i|
184-193 184-194
50,
210"
85
159 159
55
55
42,
Struggle, tragic
of
253
364
Greek hero
of Teutonic hero
Superhuman-Supernatural
91,
92,
98,
Suppliants
141
INDEX.
Suspense
force of
final
135,
381
133 137
influence of
87
iii
7, is
kind of second
Tragic, what
Swedes
Swiss
84
306
94 97
132
Tableaux
Tasso.. i2,i9> 113. 118, 197,
198, 199, 201,
317
jn
G reejj;- ,dja.ma
100
Tasso
in real life
narrower sense
place of
94
100
Tecmessa Technique
not absolute
not enough
of versification
177 8
i
scene of
two meanings
Trilogy 147, Tristan Trochaic tetrameter
157,
99 86
173
322
329
285
325
105
7>//
Tell
Two Two
arrangements
heroes
34, 76, 98, 99.
126, 127,
128
265, 306
Tybalt--33,
Tellheim
260, 262
136
Tcmpler Terzky
Testing
260
228,237, 273
U
213
9,27,
Tcucros Teutonic
Theatre,
359 Unit, logical 153, 162, 177 Unity of action 91,94,226, 254 place
36 29 29
modern
103, 171,
342
time
--
Theb es
38
54
Unusual, Urians -
the--,
-_
238
Thoas
_"
50 360 62
171
Tone
color
328
30
323 324
Trachinia7i
Women- -
53,
and drama
176
154,
dramatic
recital
Tragedy--Athenian double
81,
87
140
Vienna
56, 60,
330 364
61
Greek
244
']6,
185
382
INDEX.
W
IVallenstem-^o, 43,
107, 116, 119,
72, 78,
120, 165,
Walter FiJrst 195 Weislingen 262 Will and deed i8g Witches in Macbeth --.60, 188
228,308,311, 316
Women's
parts
his-
184
Camp
Death
five acts of
209
206, 207
341
.__ 344
206, 207,223,
203
-16, 17, 40, 45,
Worms.
Wrangel-204,
267
Wallenstein
Wuoton
271,272,306, 316
Wurm
NOTES.
Note i, page i8. Even Aristotle comprehended most thoroughly this first part of the poet's work, the fashioning and developing of the poetic idea. If, in comparison v^ath history, he makes poetry the more significant and philosophical, because poetry represents what is common to all men, while history gives an account of the incidental, or special detail and because history presents what has happened, while poetry shows how it could have happened, yet we moderns, impressed with the weight and grandeur of historical ideas, must reject his comparative estimate of the two fundamentally different kinds of composition we shall, however, concede
;
He
indicates, in a sen-
tence immediately
He
says, IX., 4
is
"
That which
in
poetry
is
common
to humanity,
produced
in this w^ay,
the
made
to appear
and that which is humanly universal poetry works out from the raw material and then gives to the characters appropriate names," whether using those already at hand in the raw material or inventing new ones. (Buckley's translation is as follows But universal consists indeed in relating or performing certain things which happen to a man
probable and necessary
;
of a
probably or necessarily, to Aristoo, that a poet would do well at the beginning of his work to place before himself the material which had attracted him, in a formula stripped of all incidencertain
description,
either
is
and he develops this idea more fully in or non-essentials another place, XVII., 6,7: " The Iphigenia and the Orestes of the drama are not at all the same as those in the material
tals,
;
which came
to the poet.
384
it is
NOTES.
almost an accident that they bear these names.
Only when
in
the poet has raised his actions and his characters above the
incidental, the real, that
only then
This
is
Note 2, page 22. The few technical terms used in this book must be received by the reader without prejudice and
without confusion. In their common use for the last century several of them have passed through many changes of meaning. What is here called ac tion, the m aterial alre ady arranged ioLrLihLdraina.j;in Aristotle, myth; in the Latin writers, fable), Lessing sometimes
praxis or the
still
calls fable,
pragma
it
word
action
more
correctly, giving
it
has here.
Note 3, page 28. As is well known, unity of place is not demanded by Aristotle and concerning the uninterrupted con;
possible to limit
its
Among
was only Sophocles and his school who, in the practice of their art, adhered to what we call the unity of place and of time. And with good reason. The
the Greeks, as
may
be shown,
it
condensed action of Sophocles, with its regular strucneeded so very short a part of the story or tradition that the events underlying it could frequently occur in the same brief space of a few hours which the representation on the stage required. If Sophocles avoided such a change of scene, as, for example, occurs in ^Esehylus's Eumenides, he had a We know that he thought much of scenic peculiar reason.
rapid,
ture,
decoration
artistic decoration of
day he positively needed for the four pieces four great curtains, which with the
the background;
and for
his
theatrical
NOTES.
an immense outlay.
the representation
385
A change of the entire background during was not allowable and the mere transposition of the periakte, if these had been introduced at all in the time of Sophocles, would be to the taste of an ancient stage director as imperfect an arrangement as the change of side curtains, without the change of background, would be to us. It
;
may
not be so well
known
that Shakespeare,
who
treats time
and space with so much freedom, because the fixed architecture of his stage spared him from indicating, or made it easy for him to indicate the change of scenes, presented his pieces on a stage which was the unornamented successor of the Attic pros,cenium. This proscenium had been gradually transformed by
slight
Roman
Hans
Sachs.
On
the
which so rigidly and anxiously sought to revive the Greek trabequeathed us the deep, camera-like structure of our stage, which had its origin in the needs of the ballet and
ditions, has
the opera.
Note 4, page 31. The details of the novel, and what Shakespeare changed in it, may be here passed over.
Note
5,
page
46.
It is
weakest of these
as
much
all
as possible,
committing them to weak actors. The injury is the more striking. This play of Schiller's should either be so presented as to produce most completely the effects intended by the author, in which case the three barren roles, Freiherr, Rudenz, Bertha, must be endowed with sufficient force, our actors can thus express their gratitude to the poet who has done so much for them or else, the Tell action only should be presented as it may be most easily made effective on our stage, and the three roles should be entirely stricken out, a thing that is possible with very slight changes.
Note 6, page 47. Even in the time of the Greeks the word, episode, had a little history. In the earliest period of the drama it denoted the transition from one choral song to the
386
following:
short
then,
NOTES.
after the introduction
of actors,
first,
the
speeches,
messenger-scenes,
dialogues,
and so
forth,
moods
word remained,
were generally in the our second, and fourth act. Because with this meaning it denoted little portions of the action, which might indeed have originated in the most vital necessities of the drama, but which were and not indispensable for the connection of the events because since Euripides, poets have sought more and more frequently for effect-scenes which stood in very loose connection there came to be attached to with the idea and the action, the word this secondary meaning of an unmotived and arbibut as a rule
it
was
shorter.
Its places
In
is
used
in all of the
;
in XII., 5,
is
a stage-manager's term
in
XVII., 8-10, it is a technical expression of the poet; it has its secondary significance.
in X., 3,
Note
by
7,
page
72.
is
disturbed
ordering of the action, which appears like a relapse into the old customs of the English popular theathis irregularity in the
ter.
action offered in the material and the idea was as Act I. Antony at Cleopatra's, and his separation from her. Act II. Reconciliation with Caesar, and restoration Return to the Egyptian woman, with clito power. Act III. max. Act IV. Sacrifice of principle, flight, and last struggle. Act V. Catastrophe of Antony and of Cleopatra. But the deviation of Shakespeare's play from the regular structure is
The
:
follows
NOTES.
387
for a more profound reason. The inner life of the debauched Antony possessed no great wealth, and in its new infatuation offered the poet little that was attractive. But his darling
dramatic figure, Cleopatra, in the development of which he had evinced his consummate, masterly art, was not a character adapted to great dramatic emotion and excitement the various scenes in which she appears full of passionate demeanor with;
out passion, resemble brilliant variations of the same theme. In her relations with Antony she is portrayed just often
to present a
The
return of
Antony
On
the other
under the fear of death, was a fascinating subject for him, and to a certain extent rightly so for herein was an opportunity for a most peculiar, gradual intensification. Shakespeare, then, sacrificed to these scenes a part of the action. He threw together the climax and the return action, indicating them in little scenes, and accorded to the catastrophe two acts. For the aggregate effect of the play, this is a disadvantage. We are indebted to him, however, for the scene of Cleopatra's death
;
in the monument, of all that is extraordinary in Shakespeare, perhaps the most astonishing. That the accessory persons, Octavianus and his sister, just at the summit of the action, were more important to the poet than his chief person, is per-
haps due to the fact that to the poet in advanced life, any single person with his joy and his sorrow must seem small and insignificant, while the poet was contemplating, prophetically and reverentially, the historical and established order of things.
however, by no means to Moreover, an abbreviation must make prominent the contrast with the first, the imperial hardness of the tyrant, the lurking hostility of the mother, and Richard's deception by a woman whom he despises. If our stage directors would not endure more, they might tolerate the following: Of the lines in the passage beginning. Stay, madam, I must speak a word with you,
8,
Note
page
83.
be omitted,
as
The
scene
is,
indeed happens.
and extending
to the
Bear her
388
NOTES.
to 436,
;
203-206; 251-256; 257; 293-298; 300; 301; 310, 311; 320-325; 328; 330; 340-357; 407198-201
Note
are
still
9,
page
loi.
occasionally misunderstood.
last part of the action
from the climax downward, which in Aristotle is called Katabasis; but it is only what is here called "tragic force," a single scene-eflfect, sometimes only a part of a scene. The chapter on the Anagnorisis, however, one of the most instructive in the Poetics, because it affords a glimpse into the craftsman's method of poetic work,
denote the
Note
rush
in
10,
page
147.
That the
and
off again,
choruses did not, as a rule, but claimed a good share of the time,
may
fills up the time which the player needs to go behind the scenes to change his costume, or to pass from his door to the side-entrance, through which he must enter in a new role. Thirteen lines and two strophes of a little chorus
brief chorus
made through
upon the stage as shepherd from the field side. of the Acropolis this was no little distance.
Upon
the stage
Note ii, page 147. That a favorite order of presentation was from the gloomy, the horrible, to the brighter and more cheerful, we may infer from the circumstance that Antigone and Electra were first pieces of the day. This is known from
^strophe of which
Antigone not only by the first choral-song, the first beautiful is a morning song, but also from the character of the action which gives to the great role of the pathos actor only the first half of the piece, and thus lays the center of gravity toward the beginning. In the most beautiful poem it would not have been advisable to entrust to the so-littleesteemed third actor (who, nevertheless, is sometimes shown a preference by Sophocles) the closing effects of the last piece,
so important in securing the decision of the judges.
In the
prologue of Electra,
NOTES.
389
costume are mentioned. The beautiful, broadly elaborated situation in the prologue of King CEdipus and the structure of Ajax, the center of gravity of which lies in the first half, and which distinctly reveals the early morning, seem to point
to these as
first
pieces.
CEdipus at Colonos, with its magnificent conclusion, and Philoctetes with its splendid pathos role and reconciling conclusion, as closing pieces. The conjectures which are based upon the technical character of the pieces, have at least more probability than conjectures which are drawn from a comparison or collation of dramas which have been preserved, with such as have not been.
entered the contest as a middle piece
Note 12, page 148. Six pieces of Sophocles contain an average of about 1,118 verses, exclusive of the speeches and songs of the chorus. Only CEdipus at Colonos is longer. If,
again, the
number
is
on
a burlesque of the length of The Cyclops (about 500 verses for three players) would give to each player a total of about 1,300 verses. But the task of the first player was already, on account
of the affecting pathos scenes and on account of the songs, dis-
proportionately greater.
be expected Sophocles in which the hero suffers from a disease inflicted by the gods (Ajax, The Trachinian Women, Philoctetes) the parts of the first player are summed up, (Ajax, Teucros, Heracles, Lichas, Philocand with the burlesque, tetes) there will be about 1,440 verses
Besides,
from him.
there will
be about
1,600
verses
and there
is
the effort
required to carry through six roles and sing about six songs. There is no doubt that, in the composition of his tetralogies,
Sophocles gave attention to the pauses for rest for his three Each last tragedy demanded the most powerful effort; and it must also, as a rule, have demanded most from the first actor. That The Trachinian Women was not a third
players.
piece
may
it
Note 13, page 153. In the extant plays of Sophocles, the assignment of roles among the three actors is as follows, Pro-
390
tagonist,
NOTES.
Deuteragonist, Tritagonist, being indicated by the
numbers i, 2, 3, respectively: King CEdipus: i, (Edipus. 2, Priest, Jocasta, Shepherd, Messenger of the catastrophe. 3, Creon, Tiresias, Messenger. CEdipus at Colonos: i, QEdipiis, Messenger of the catastrophe.
2,
Colonians,
Polynices.
trophe.
3,
Antigone, ^Theseus (in the climax scene). 3, Ismene, Theseus (in the other scenes), Creon,
Antigone: i, Antigone, Tiresias, Messenger of the catas2, Ismene, Watchman, Hsemon, *Eurydice, Servant.
Creon.
cles.
The Trachinian Women: i, *Maid-servant, Lichas, Hera2, Deianeira, Nurse (as messenger of the catastrophe),
3,
Hyllos, Messenger.
3,
Philoctetes:
i,
Philoctetes,
2,
Neoptolemos.
3,
Odysseus,
Merchant, Heracles.
Electra:
3,
i,
Electra.
2,
Orestes, Clytemnestra.
The
roles
marked
:
* are uncertain.
always had several accessory players for dumb-show roles thus in Electra, Pylades in The Trachinian Women, the especially distinguished role of lole in which perhaps Sophocles would present to the public a young actor whom he esteemed. It is probable that these accessory players sometimes relieved the actors of less important subordinate roles, for example, in Antigone, Eurydice, which is treated very briefly and in The Trachinian Women, the maid-servant of the prologue. How else could they test their voices and their powers? Such aid as was rendered by characters disguised from the audience by masks, was not reckoned playing. The accessory actors were also needed ;is representatives of the
;
if
the presence of a
this scene
mask was
at the
must
same time assume another role then the accessory player figured in like costume and the required mask, as a rule without saying any lines but sometimes single lines must be given him. Thus Ismene, in the second half of CEdipus at Colonos,
;
is
NOTES.
the climax, one scene of Theseus
391
represents Theseus and Polynices. This piece has the peculiarity that at least at
is
pre-
remaining scenes of this role are presented by the third actor. If the player had practiced the voice, and so forth, this substitution for a single scene did not offer special difficulty. It is possible, however, that the player of the role of Antigone, also gave the first Theseus scene. Antigone has gone into the grove she may very in the background, in order to watch her father conveniently appear again as Theseus, while a stage-walker goes up and down in her mask. If even in this play, a fourth actor had taken part, in any role of importance, some account would have come to us of what even at that time would have been a striking innovation.
;
first
our stage every play has one not frequently is one of these more ample and of deeper interest than that of the first hero, as, for example, the role of Falstaff in Henry IV.
14,
Note
page
155.
Upon
hero, but
more
chief roles
Note
ian
15,
page
is
156.
The presuppositions
Deianeira
hero,
is
of
The Trachin-
Women
are, so far as
but Heracles
received
the
first
among
the gods
and his preparation for being was the master-stroke of the play.
Note 16, page 156. It is impossible just in Sophocles, from the extant names of lost plays and from scattered verses, to come to any conclusion as to the contents of the plays. What one might think from the tradition to be the contents of
the play, could often prove to be only the contents of the prologue.
Note 17, page 178. Prologue: Neoptolemos, Odysseus. Chorus and Neoptolemos in Antiphone I. Messenger scene with recognition, Philoctetes, Neoptolemos. Ascent of The same, and Merchant. ^ 2. Messenger scene, Action, 3. Recognition scene (of the bow), Philoctetes, Neoptolemos.
''
1^
i.
Double pathos
Dialogue scene,
scene,
Philoctetes, Neoptolemos.
Tragic Force,
2.
392
Chorus and Philoctetes
1.
NOTES.
in Antiphone Dialogue scene, Neoptolemos, Odysseus. Dialogue scene, Philoctetes, Neoptolemos; afterward Odysseus.
Falling Action
2.
and
Catastrophe,
3.
Announcement and
conclusion,
Philoctetes, Neoptolemos,
Heracles.
The " balcony scene" belongs, on our 18, page 183. stage, at the end of the first act, not in the second but this
Note
;
makes the
first
It is
a disadvan-
(German) division of plays often makes a break where a rapid movement is demanded, or only a
is
allowed.
Let this structure be represented by Note 19, page means of lines. (See page 115.) Idea: A 1. A DRAMA, such as did not lie in Schiller's plan. perfidious general endeavors to make the army desert its commander, but is deserted by his soldiers and put to death.
a.
Exciting force
Rising action
:
inciting to treason.
b.
c.
Climax
apparent success
of the generals.
d.
e.
Return action
:
army
is
awakened.
2.
death of the general. Catastrophe Idea ScHiLLER^s Wallenstein without The Piccolomini. Through excessive power, intrigues of opponents, and his
own proud heart, a general is betrayed into treason seeks to make the army desert its commander, etc.
In this
a, b, c,
he
Questenberg in camp, and separation "h from emperor. b. Testing the generals; banquet scene. the first act of treason for c. Climax example, the treating with Wrangel. cd. Attempts to mislead the army. the conscience of the soldiers d. Return action
a.
:
is
awak-
ened.
e.
NOTES.
3.
393
The
erals
two
a',
exciting
the gen-
forces,
and Questencomaction
;
bined
a-,
The two
c,
climaxes,
of
release
Max
at (Z
ca-
The
Wallenstein and Wrangel, at the same
Piccolomini;
ee.
time the exciting force of Wallenstein's Death. The two concluding catastrophes, e', of the lovers, and
Further, b, the love scene between and Thekla is the climax of The Piccolomini; f and g are the scenes interwoven from Wallenstein's Death: audience of Questenberg, and banquet, the second and fourth acts of The Piccolomini; h, d, and e' are scenes interwoven from The Piccolomini and Wallenstein's Death: Octavio's intrigue, the departure of Max, the announcement of his death, together with Thekla's flight, the second, third, and fourth acts, d, is the scene of the cuirassiers, at the same time the climax of the second drama.
e^,
of Wallenstein.
Max
Note 20, page 212. In printing our plays, it frequently happens that within acts, only those scenes are set off and numbered which demand a shifting of scenery. The correct method, however, would be to count and number the scenes within an act according to their order of succession and where a change of scenery is necessary, and must be indicated, add to the current scene number the word "change," and indi;
new
stage setting.
394
Note
21,
NOTES.
page 237.
The
act
is
in
two
parts.
.
The
first
preparatory part contains three short dramatic components the entrance of Max, the submitting of the forged documents
At
this
The carousing generals must not be seen during the entire act in the middle and back ground the stage presents to better advantage an ante-room of the banquet hall, separated from this by pillars and a rear wall, so that the company, previous to its entrance at the close, is seen only indistinctly and only an occasional convenient call and movement of groups are noticed. In Wallenstein, Schiller was still a careless stage director; but from the date of that play he became more careful in stage arrangement. Among the peculiarities of clear portrayal in this scene, belongs the unfeeling degradation of Max. It is wonderfully repeated by Kleist in The Prince of Hamburg. Shakespeare does not characterize dreamers by their silence, but by their distracted and yet profound speeches.
:
Note
22,
page
308.
demands
another consideration in acting. From the third act, the curtain must not be dropped for pauses between acts; and these should be very short.
Note
23,
page
361.
Don
Carlos
-
5,471
Othello Coriolanus
3.133
-
3,124
-
Romeo and
Juliet
2,975
3,603
3,453
2,84s
2,665
2,60c
C^sar
-
2,59c
3,394
Iphigenia
2,174
3,286
3,255
Macbeth
2,11^
Prince of
Homburg
1,854
These
sages, in
do not pretend to absolute correctness, since and the prose paswhich Shakespeare is especially rich, admit of only a
figures
NOTES.
rough estimate.
395
Emilia Galotti, Clavigo,
The prose
plays,
Egmont, Love and Intrigue, correspond more nearly to the length of the plays of our own time. Of the dramas in verse,
enumerated above, only the last three can be presented entire, without that abbreviation which is necessary on other grounds. It would require six hours to play all of Don Carlos, which in
length exceeds
all
bounds.
Since Wallenstein's
Camp together
;
has 1,105 rapid verses, the three parts of the dramatic poem, Wallenstein, contain 7,639 verses and their representation on
the stage, the
same
day,
would require
Play.
r,bout the
same time as
is
the
Oberammergau Passion
No
so
comprehensive that it would place an excessive burden upon an actor to carry it through in a single day.
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