Electrical Safety Handbook
Electrical Safety Handbook
Electrical Safety Handbook
DOE-HDBK-1092-2009
DOE HANDBOOK
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
AREA SAFT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
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This chapter provides tools for assessing electrical hazards (Step 2 of ISM), and provides the recommended controls for mitigating those hazards (Step 3 of ISM). The risk of a worker to an exposed electrical hazard is determined by (a) the classification of the electrical hazard due to its potential for injury, (b) the state of the electrical equipment, and (c) the distance of the worker from the exposed electrical hazard. Section 3.2 presents various types of electrical injury, Section 3.3 presents the 4 Modes of Work on electrical equipment, and Section 3.4 presents the boundaries associated with the distance of the worker from the exposed electrical hazard. Section 3.5 presents methods of shock and arc flash analyses for ac facility power and dc R&D power. Section 3.6 presents the types of controls used to protect the worker from exposed electrical hazards. Finally, Section 3.7 classifies electrical hazards as determined by the possible injury, and provides the recommended controls for mitigation of the hazard for the various Modes of Work on Electrical Equipment. This classification in Section 3.7 is not to be confused with the hazard risk categories for personal protective equipment defined in NFPA 70E.
3.1.1
Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to provide qualified workers and others guidance for the Analyze the Hazard step of DOEs Integrated Safety Management (ISM), and to give recommendations for the controls to be implemented in the Develop the Controls step of ISM.
3.1.2
Scope
An assessment of the electrical hazards shall be performed for all work that requires employees to work on or near exposed electrical conductors or circuit parts. The assessment should be done by a qualified worker to determine the required safety-related work practices. When an electrical hazard exists, the exposed circuit parts shall be placed into an electrically safe work condition unless it is infeasible to do so. There are requirements for de-energization and verification for some classes of electrical hazards. If the work must be done with a hazardous circuit energized, safety-related work practices and procedures must be followed to eliminate or control the electrical hazards. Hazard assessments must consider equipment failure modes, possible accidents, documentation inadequacies, procedural failure, and human error. This chapter does not provide an exhaustive list of sources of electrical energy and their associated hazards and controls but provides the framework for categorizing those hazards to provide for enhanced worker safety.
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3.2
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
There are numerous injury mechanisms from exposure of a worker to electrical energy. This section briefly presents the various types of injury.
3.2.1
Electrical Shock
Electricity is one of the most commonly encountered hazards in any facility. Under normal conditions, safety features (engineering controls) built into electrical equipment protect workers from shock. Shock is the flow of electrical current through any portion of the workers body from an external source. Accidents can occur in which contact with electricity results in serious injury or death. Most electrical systems establish a voltage reference point by connecting a portion of the system to an earth ground. Because these systems use conductors that have electrical potential (voltage) with respect to ground, a shock hazard exists for workers who are in contact with the earth and exposed to the conductors. If a person comes in contact with a energized (ungrounded) conductor while also in contact with a grounded object, an alternate path to ground is formed in which current passes through his or her body. The effects of electric current on the human body depend on many variables, including the following: amount of current waveform of the current (e.g., DC, 60 Hz AC, RF, impulse) currents pathway through the body (determined by contact location and internal body chemistry) duration of shock voltage driving the current through the body circuit characteristics (impedance, stored electrical energy) frequency of the current contact resistance and internal resistance of the body environmental conditions affecting the bodys contact resistance
The heart and brain are the parts of the body most vulnerable to electric shock. Fatal ventricular fibrillation (disruption of the hearts rhythmic pumping action) can be initiated by a current flow of as little as 40 milliamperes. Without immediate emergency resuscitation, electrical shock can cause fatality from direct paralysis of the respiratory system, disruption of rhythmic pumping action, or immediate heart stoppage. Severe injuries, such as deep internal burns, can occur, even if the current does not pass through vital organs or the central nervous system. Specific values for hazardous voltages and for hazardous current flow through the body are not completely reliable because of physiological differences between people. There are four principal electrical waveforms of interest that cause various responses to electrical shock; 1. 2. 3. 4. AC power frequencies DC radio frequencies (RF) impulse shock (such as from a capacitor circuit) Page 5 of 139
The most dangerous are AC power frequencies, 50 or 60 Hz. Exposure to current at these frequencies causes ventricular fibrillation at the lowest thresholds and causes severe contraction of the muscles with a possible no-let-go response. Exposure to DC electric currents can also cause a muscle response at first contact and when releasing, as well as heart fatigue and failure at high enough current levels. Radio frequencies (3 kHz to 100 MHz) have decreasing neurological effects with increasing frequency, but energy deposited results in tissue burning. The resistance of the body is much less if the skin is punctured by a shock above the skin breakdown threshold (400 to 500 V). This allows higher current flow through the body, resulting in more damage. The amount and duration of current flow will determine the severity of the reflex action, the amount of damage to the heart, and neurological and other tissue. Reflex action occurs when electric current causes a violent contraction of the muscles. Such contraction can result in violent recoil, resulting in falling from heights, recoiling into a nearby hazard, or violent muscle contractions resulting in broken bones, torn ligaments, or dislocated joints. Reflex action is enhanced by high voltage shock as the energy can be delivered more quickly from higher instantaneous currents. A no-let-go response occurs when continuous shock current keeps the muscles violently contracting such that the victim is clutching the conductor without any ability to release. Because of the effects of the waveform on the bodys response, the thresholds for acceptable shock vary depending on the form of the electricity. Acceptable means that below these thresholds there is no injury, and above these thresholds there could be injury. The thresholds are listed in Table 3-1 and are found imbedded in the Hazard Classification Charts in Section 3-6. Add explanatory note on classes
Includes 50 and 60 Hz, subRF 1 Hz to 3 kHz all all all 3 kHz to 100 MHz
Hazard Classes 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 2.2b, 2.2c, 2.2d, 2.3, 2.4 2.2c, 2.2d, 2.3, 2.4 3.2b, 3.3b, 3.3c, 3.3d, 3.3e, 3.4b, 3.4c, 3.4d Could be in any Class, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 5.2a, 5.2b
3. Injuries may result from startle reactions due to contact with energized components,
even though the source energy is too low to do physical damage, such as high voltage/low current circuits (e.g., Classes 2.1d and 3.1d). 4. Shock and burn hazards from induced and contact RF currents become negligible above 100 MHz (but radiated hazards still exist).
3.2.2
Electrical Burn
Burns suffered in electrical accidents are of three basic types: electrical burns, arc burns, and thermal contact burns. The cause of each type of burn is different, and prevention requires different controls. 3.2.2.1 Electrical Burns
In electrical burns, tissue damage ( whether skin-level or internal) occurs because the body is unable to dissipate the heat from the current flo w. Typically, electrical burns are slo w to heal. Such electrical burns result from shock currents, and thus adhering to the shock current thresholds in Table 3-1 will prevent electrical burns. 3.2.2.2 Arc Flash Burns
Arc flash burns are caused by electric arcs and are similar to heat burns from hightemperature sources. Temperatures generated by electric arcs can melt nearby material, vaporize metal in close vicinity, and burn flesh and ignite clothing at distances of several meters, depending on the energy deposited into the arc. The arc can be a stable lowvoltage arc, such as in an arc welder, or a short-circuit arc at higher voltage, resulting in an arc flash and/or arc blast. Such an expanding arc can ignite clothing and/or cause severe burns at a distance from centimeters (cm) to meters (m). The Flash Protection Boundary is defined to characterize the distance at which this injury mechanism is severe. Hazard Classes that include arc flash hazards are given in Table 3-2. The current values are the short circuit available currents, or fault currents.
A rapid delivery of electrical energy into an arc can cause additional hazards not covered by arc flash hazards. The acoustical shock wave, or arc blast pressure wave, can burst Page 7 of 139
eardrums at lower levels and can cause cardiac arrest at high enough levels. In addition, high currents (> 100 kA) can cause strong magnetic forces on current carrying conductors, which can lead to equipment destruction, or the whipping of conductors. Such arc blast hazards are of particular concern in high-energy facility power circuits (Classes 1.3d, 1.4, and 1.5) and large capacitor banks (Class 3.4d). 3.2.2.4 Thermal Contact Burns
Thermal contact burns are those that occur when skin comes into contact with the hot surfaces of overheated electrical conductors, including conductive tools and jewelry. This injury requires close proximity to a high-current source with a conductive object. Thermal burns can occur from low-voltage/high-current systems that do not present shock or arc flash hazards, and controls should be considered. The controls to prevent injury from shock and arc flash will also protect against thermal contact burn. High-current hazard classes with thermal burn hazards are given in Table 3-3.
Table 3-3. Thermal contact burn hazards, not included in shock and arc flash hazards.
Source AC, R&D DC Capacitors Batteries RF Includes 1 Hz3 kHz all all all NA Thresholds < 50 V and ! 1000 W < 100 V and ! 1000 W < 100 V and ! 100 J < 100 V and ! 1000 W NA Hazard Classes 2.2b 2.2a, 2.2b 3.2a, 3.4a 4.2, 4.3 3.3a,
3.2.3
Delayed Effects
Damage to the internal tissues may not be apparent immediately after contact with electrical current. Delayed swelling and irritation of internal tissues are possible. In addition, imperceptible heart arrhythmia can progress to ventricular fibrillation. In some cases, workers have died two to four hours after what appeared to be a mild electrical shock. Immediate medical attention may prevent death or minimize permanent injury. All electrical shocks shall be reported immediately.
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3.2.4
Battery Hazards
During maintenance or other work on batteries and battery banks, there are electrical and physical hazards that shall be considered. In addition, when working near or on flooded lead-acid storage batteries additional chemical and explosion hazards shall be considered. The hazards associated with various types of batteries and battery banks include the following: electric shock burns and shrapnel-related injuries from a short circuit chemical burns from electrolyte spills or from battery surface contamination fire or explosion due to hydrogen physical injury from lifting or handling the cells fire from overheated electrical components.
3.2.5
Other Hazards
Low-voltage circuits, which are not hazardous themselves, are frequently used adjacent to hazardous circuits. A minor shock can cause a worker to rebound into the hazardous circuit. Such an involuntary reaction may also result in bruises, bone fractures, and even death from collisions or falls. The hazard is due to the secondary effects of the reflex action. An arc may form when a short circuit occurs between two conductors of differing potential, or when two conductors carrying current are separated, such as a safety switch attempting to interrupt the current. If the current involved is high enough, the arc can cause injury, ignite flammable materials or initiate an explosion in combustible or explosive atmospheres. Injury to personnel can result from the arc flash, or arc blast, resulting in severe burns to exposed skin, or ignition of clothing. Equipment or conductors overheat due to overload may ignite flammable materials. Extremely high-energy arcs can cause an arc blast that sends shrapnel flying in all directions. R&D equipment is often unique. An uncommon or unique design can be difficult to analyze for hazard identification. The hazard analysis should include shock, potential arc or thermal sources. Acoustic shock wave, pressure shock wave and shrapnel are potential hazards. Once the hazards have been identified, a risk mitigation plan should be developed. Personnel working on unique R&D equipment must be specifically qualified through training specific to the work to be done. The scope of such additional training depends on the hazards associated with the equipment.
3.3
Under normal operation of listed or approved electrical equipment the user/operator is protected by engineering controls, including insulation, enclosures, barriers, grounds and other methods to prevent injury. When engineering controls are not yet in place, not approved, or removed for diagnostics, maintenance, or repair, the activity will fall into one of the following categories:
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Mode 0 Electrically Safe Work Condition Mode 1 Establishing an Electrically Safe Work Condition Mode 3 Energized Diagnostics and Testing Mode 4 Energized Work
3.3.1
An Electrically Safe Work Condition is a state in which the conductor (s) or circuit part (s) to be worked on or near have been (1) disconnected and isolated from a hazardous energized source or parts; (2) locked/tagged out (or equivalent) in accordance with established standards; (3) tested to ensure the absence of voltage; and (4) grounded if determined necessary. All work on hazardous electrical systems shall be done in a electrically safe work condition unless there is a compelling reason as defined in this chapter.
3.3.2
To achieve Mode 0, an electrically safe work condition, a worker conducts Mode 1 work. If the Mode 1 process exposes the worker to any hazard, the activity must be covered by work control procedures, and a hazard analysis must be performed. The work is energized electrical work, as covered by Mode 1, until an electrically safe work condition is achieved (Mode 0). This Mode does NOT require an Energized Electrical Work Permit (EEWP). To establish an electrically safe work condition, a qualified person uses the following procedure: 1. Determine all sources of electrical supply to the specific equipment. 2. Check applicable drawings, diagrams, and identification tags, including equipment specific LOTO procedures. 3. Turn off equipment. 4. Don correct PPE and establish barricades as necessary for access control. 5. Open the disconnecting means (e.g., plug, breaker, or disconnect device). 6. If it is possible, visually verify that the plug is fully removed, all blades of the disconnecting devices are fully open, or that draw-out type circuit breakers are withdrawn to the fully disconnected position. 7. If applicable, test the controls and attempt to restart the equipment. 8. Apply lockout/tagout devices, assure that the plug is in total control of the worker, or use other engineering controls that are approved by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (such as capture key control systems that have been approved). 9. If grounds have not been applied, use a correctly rated voltmeter to test each normally energized conductor or circuit part to verify they are de-energized, Note: for high voltage or large capacitive systems using a correctly rated voltmeter may not be a safe procedure, skip this step for such systems and go to step 11. 10. If the possibility of induced voltages exists, apply grounds to the normally energized conductors or circuit parts before touching them. 11. If stored electrical energy exists (e.g., capacitors), discharge or remove the stored energy and apply grounds to the normally energized conductors.
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3.3.3
In Mode 2 measurements, diagnostics, testing, and observation of equipment functions are conducted with the equipment energized and with some or all of the normal protective barriers removed and interlocks bypassed. Verification of a safe condition with a voltage rated instrument is covered by the Mode 1 process and is not considered Mode 2. Work is considered Mode 2 if proper voltage rated instruments are used to contact the energized conductors. If any portion of the workers body passes the Restricted Approach Boundary then appropriate shock PPE must be worn. If any portion of the workers body passes the Prohibited Approach Boundary then this is considered Mode 3, Energized Work, and the appropriate controls must be in place (see Section 2.4). If any portion of the workers body passes the Arc Flash Boundary then the appropriate arc flash PPE must be worn. An approved work control document may be required (see individual tables in Section 3.6). Authorization by the workers safety-responsible line manager is required. The use of appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) may be required. Some examples of Mode 2 operations are: making voltage measurements with a multimeter on energized components performing tests while working in close proximity to exposed energized components following manufacturers instructions for diagnostics and troubleshooting of energized circuits working on experimental facilities that operate in this mode. Performing Mode 2 work does not require an EEWP.
3.3.4
Mode 3 operations involve physically moving energized conductors and parts, or moving parts that are near energized conductors (within the Prohibited Boundary), and are conducted with the equipment fully energized and with some or all of the normal protective barriers removed. Mode 3 work in Hazard Classification categories above X.0 and X.1 shall be treated as an electrical hazard that shall be permitted only when justified by a compelling reason. Tasks performed in this mode shall be conducted under close supervision and control. Work control with an approved EEWP is required, with exceptions as indicated in the hazard classification tables. Energized Work is permitted only if: 1. Additional or increased hazards would exist due to establishing an electrically safe work condition; 2. Equipment design or operational limitations make it infeasible to perform the work in a deenergized state; or 3. If all exposed energized conductors and parts operate at 50 V or less with respect to ground. An Energized Electrical Work Permit shall include, but not be limited to: Page 11 of 139
1. A description of the circuit and equipment to be worked on and their location; 2. Justification for why the work must be performed in an energized condition; 3. A description of the safe work practices to be employed; 4. Results of the shock hazard analysis; 5. Determination of shock protection boundaries; 6. Results of the arc hazard analysis; 7. The arc flash protection boundary; 8. The necessary Personnel Protective Equipment to safely perform the assigned task; 9. Means employed to restrict the access of unqualified persons from the work area; 10. Evidence of completion of a job briefing, including a discussion of any job-specific hazards; and 11. Energized work approval (authorizing or responsible management, safety officer, owner, etc.)
3.4
APPROACH BOUNDARIES
The risk to a worker from an exposed electrical source of energy is determined by the proximity of the worker to the hazard. Electrical shock is a function of voltage, as air breakdown distances increase with higher voltages. Arc flash injury is determined by the distance that the arc flash energy, including ionized gas and metal, can injure the worker. Burn injury from contact with hot conductors has no boundary, as contact, or near contact is required for injury. There are three approach boundaries for shock protection: 1. the Limited Approach Boundary 2. the Restricted Approach Boundary 3. the Prohibited Approach Boundary. As shown in Figure 3-1, and as defined in the 5efinitions (Appendix B), these three boundaries are encountered as a worker approaches an exposed, energized electrical conductor.
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Fig. 3-2. Arc flash boundary outside of the limited approach boundary.
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Fig. 3-3. Arc flash boundary inside of the prohibited approach boundary.
Shock and arc flash boundary analysis shall be done by a qualified person. For facilities, the principal reference for shock and arc flash boundary analysis is NFPA 70E, which covers facility shock and arc flash hazards. In addition, IEEE 1584, Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations, provides tools for calculating the arc flash boundary. Specialized system knowledge and methods may be necessary to calculate the shock and arc flash boundaries for R&D equipment, such as DC or capacitor systems, as methods are not available in existing codes and standards.
3.5
3.5.1
Approach boundary analysis (including the determination of the Limited, Restricted, and Prohibited Shock Boundaries) is based on the voltage of the exposed conductor relative to ground. Approach boundary tables are found in NFPA 70E for 60 Hz AC. Table 3-4 is taken from NFPA 70E, Table 130.2(C).
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Table 3-4. Approach boundaries to energized electrical conductors or circuit parts for shock protection, 50/60 Hz AC.
(2)
(3)
Limited Approach Boundary Exposed Movable Conductor1 Not specified 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.25 m (108) 3.36 m (110) 3.56 m (118) 3.97 m (130) 4.68 m (154) 5.8 m (190) 7.24 m (239) Exposed Fixed Circuit Part2 Not specified 1.07 m (36) 1.07 m (36) 1.53 m (50) 1.83 m (60) 2.44 m (80) 2.44 m (80) 2.44 m (80) 3.05 m (100) 3.56 m (118) 3.97 m (130) 4.68 m (154) 5.8 m (190) 7.24 m (239)
< 50 50 300 V 301 750 V 751 V 15 kV 15.1 36 kV 36.1 46 kV 46.1 72.5 kV 72.6 121 kV3 138 145 kV 161 169 kV 230 242 kV 345 362 kV 500 - 550 kV 765 800 kV NOTES:
1
Not specified Avoid contact 304 mm (10) 660 mm (22) 787 mm (27) 838 mm (29) 1.0 m (33) 1.02 m (34) 1.15 m (310) 1.29 m (43) 1.71 m (58) 2.77 m (92) 3.61 m (1110) 4.84 m (1511)
Not specified Avoid contact 25 mm (01) 178 mm (07) 254 mm (010) 432 mm (15) 660 mm (22) 838 mm (29) 1.02 m (34) 1.14 m (39) 1.57 m (52) 2.79 m (88) 3.54 m (114) 4.7 m (155)
Exposed Movable Conductor means that the bare conductor can move (e.g., an overhead transmission line conductor). This is unlikely indoors.
2
Exposed Fixed Circuit Part means that the bare conductor or other circuit part is stationary and will not move. This is the most common Limited Approach Boundary value used.
3
It is unlikely that a worker will work near exposed conductors over 100 kV. Page 16 of 139
3.5.2
Approach Boundary values for DC are not found in NFPA 70E, but can be inferred because the principles of air breakdown distance are similar. Differences in the physics of air gap break-down from 60 Hz AC to DC are small compared to the conservative values chosen for the boundaries. To determine a similar value for DC, the AC phase to phase voltage was converted to peak of a phase to ground. This would give a value that is 0.82 x value of the phase to phase voltage used in NFPA 70E. The higher voltage values from NFPA 70E were used and are more conservative. Table 3-5 gives approach boundaries to energized electrical conductors or circuit parts for DC, which are applicable to DC circuits, batteries, and capacitors. Notes help to explain the content and use of the table.
Table 3-5. Approach boundaries to energized electrical conductors or circuit parts for shock protection, DC.
(1) Nominal Voltage Conductor to Ground < 100 V 100 300 V 301 V 1 kV 1 kV 5 kV 5 kV 15 kV 15 kV 45 kV 45 kV 75 kV 75 kV 150 kV3 150 kV 250 kV3 250 kV 500 kV3 500 kV 800 kV3 NOTES:
1
(2)
(3)
(4) Restricted Approach Boundary Not specified Avoid contact 304 mm (10) 450 mm (17) 660 mm (22) 0.8 m (29) 1 m (32) 1.2 m (40) 1.6 m (53) 3.5 m (116) 5 m (165)
(5) Prohibited Approach Boundary Not specified Avoid contact 25 mm (01) 100 mm (04) 178 mm (07) 0.44 m (15) 0.65 m (21) 1 m (32) 1.5 m (50) 3.3 m (1010) 5 m (165)
Not specified 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.05 m (100) 3.4 m (108) 4 m (118) 6 m (200) 8 m (260)
Not specified 1.07 m (36) 1.07 m (36) 1.53 m (50) 1.53 m (50) 2.5 m (80) 2.5 m (80) 3 m (100) 4 m (118) 6 m (200) 8 m (260)
Exposed Movable Conductor means that the bare conductor can move (e.g., an overhead transmission line conductor). This is unlikely indoors. 2 Exposed Fixed Circuit Part means that the bare conductor or other circuit part is stationary and will not move. This is the most common Limited Approach Boundary value used. 3 It is unlikely that a worker will work near exposed conductors over 100 kV.
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3.5.3
For Classes 1.2a, 1.2b, 1.2c, 1.3a, 1.3b, 1.3c and 1.4 (facility power systems) determine the Flash Protection Boundary as follows: A. Preferred method: Calculate the Flash Protection Boundary using an appropriate method described in IEEE Std 1584a; include the clearing time considerations in 9.10.4. IEEE Std 1584a arc flash calculations related to facility power systems B. Alternate method: Use 48 inches as the Flash Protection Boundary provided that the product of fault current and overcurrent protective device clearing time does not exceed 100 kA cycles (1,667 ampere seconds). NOTE 1: is a symbol for referring to a specific code section. NOTE 2: An arc flash hazard need not be considered where all of the following conditions exist: (1) the circuit is rated 240 volts or less, (2) the circuit is supplied by one transformer, and (3) the transformer supplying the circuit is rated less than 125 kVA. Refer to 130.3, Exception 1, NFPA 70E, 2009. NOTE 3: At locations immediately downstream of service entrance main circuit breakers and main circuit breakers in panel boards served by dry-type transformers, it is possible that the arc fault current will be in the circuit breaker long-time trip band instead of the instantaneous trip region. (This is because the arc fault current is significantly less than the bolted fault current in low-voltage systems.) Such a condition will result in a great increase in the Flash Protection Boundary because of the long time delay before the circuit breaker trips (e.g., 30 seconds (s) instead of 0.015 s). Refer to 9.14 in IEEE Std 1584a.
3.5.4
Engineering supervision should be used to determine the DC arc flash boundary. For R&D, capacitor, and battery systems, consider that an arc flash hazard potentially exists and perform a flash hazard analysis in accordance with either NFPA 70E or IEEE 1584a where any of the following conditions can exist on exposed parts: NOTE: If the available energy is less than that listed below, an arc flash hazard analysis does not need to be performed. A. alternating current (AC) systems up to 3 kHz: Available short-circuit energy exceeds: 1) 0.85 megavolt-ampere-seconds (MVA-seconds), 0.85 Megajoules (MJ) for an arc in open air 2) 0.53 MVA-seconds (0.53 MJ) for an arc in a cubic box. NOTE 1: Systems such as this are placed in Hazard Class 2.4. NOTE 2: 0.85 MVA-seconds will deposit approximately 5 J/cm2 (1.2 cal/cm2) on skin located 457.2 mm (18 in) from a 60Hz AC arc, assuming that the arc current equals the bolted-fault current. NFPA 70E uses a power factor of 0.5 in Page 18 of 139
calculating the arc power. NOTE 3: There is approximately 1.6 times the deposited energy from an arc in a cubic box than from an arc in open air due to reflecting and focusing effects of the box. NOTE 4: Time of exposure is usually determined by the clearing time of the upstream overcurrent protection at the arc current. The arc current may be substantially less than the bolted fault current; hence, the clearing time may be substantially longer than that for the prospective bolted fault current. B. direct current (DC) systems: available short-circuit energy exceeds: 1) 0.425 megawatt-seconds (MJ) for an arc in open air 2) 0.266 MJ for an arc in a cubic box. NOTE 1: 0.425 MJ for a DC arc is extrapolated from the equations in NFPA 70E for a 60 Hz arc and assumes that the DC arc current equals the DC bolted-fault current. NOTE 2: Analysis must be performed to determine the short circuit energy deposited in an arc. Such systems fall into hazard Classes 2.3 and 2.4. C. Capacitor systems: stored energy exceeds: add Table ref 1) 131 kilojoules for an arc in open air 2) 80 kilojoules for an arc in a cubic box. NOTE 1: 131 kJ is based on converting 100% of capacitor stored energy into radiant heat to deposit 5 J/cm2 18 in from the arc. NOTE 2: Large capacitor banks operating at high voltages (e.g., 1600 "F at 10 kV) would be required to approach these energy levels. Noise, pressure wave, and shrapnel hazards from an uncontrolled discharge will be the governing hazards with capacitors having stored energy less than the above values. NOTE 3: A worker should never approach a charged capacitor or capacitor bank in excess of 10 kJ. The energy must be removed remotely before personnel access. Such systems fall into hazard Classes 3.4a, 3.4b, and 3.4d. D. Battery systems: available short-circuit energy of battery string exceeds: 1) 0.425 MJ for an arc in open air 2) 0.266 MJ for an arc in a cubic box. NOTE 1: 0.425 MJ for a DC arc is extrapolated from the equations in NFPA 70E for a 60 Hz arc and assumes that the DC arc current equals the DC bolted-fault current. Page 19 of 139
NOTE 2: Battery short-circuit current is determined by internal resistance and is often given in the battery manufacturers product data. There are also rules of thumb used in the industry to compute short-circuit current: IEEE 946 uses 10 times the 1-min discharge current to 1.75 V per cell for a lead-acid cell. NOTE 3: Time of exposure is usually determined by the clearing time of the upstream overcurrent protection at the arc current; with batteries there may be no upstream overcurrent protective device. NOTE 4: Battery system arc flash hazards are present in relatively small UPS systems: A 480 V, 20 kW, 20 min UPS will have a 480 V battery bank consisting of about 240 50-A-hr cells capable of a short-circuit current of about 1500 A; the resulting arc power would be about 0.7 MW and the arc would persist for perhaps several seconds as the battery discharges. NOTE 5: Hazards from contact with hot surfaces, molten metal, and corrosive chemicals will exist for battery short-circuit events even where energy levels are much lower than required to present an arc flash hazard. NOTE 6: The short-circuit energy of a battery is in Joules. That is the energy produced in each second. This is not the same as the total energy stored in a battery. For example, the short-circuit energy of a car battery is about 10 kJ, but the battery stores a total of about 1 MJ.
3.6
Administrative controls to mitigate electrical hazards can be divided into four basic categories: 1. worker rules: working alone rule two-person rule safety watch rule 2. qualification and training 3. work control (including EEWP) 4. personal protective equipment (PPE). Each will be discussed briefly.
3.6.1
Many sites use two-person and safety watch rules to provide a second person in case of emergency, or to provide a second set of eyes. Each electrical safety task should be analyzed to determine if risk of injury to a worker, while working alone, warrants a second person to be present. If the risk of injury from accidental contact with an electrical conductor is minimal, then a person may work alone. If contact with an electrical conductor could result in ventricular fibrillation, serious burn, a no-let-go response, or other injury, the two-person practice should be followed. The second person should be a worker qualified to work on energized circuits, and should understand
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the work activities and the hazards present. The second person should know what to do in case of an electrical accident involving the other worker. A safety watch is a more stringent hazard control measure than the two-person practice and should be implemented when there are grave consequences from a failure to follow safe work procedures. The safety watch should be a worker qualified to work on energized circuits who accepts responsibility for monitoring qualified worker(s) performing high-hazard electrical work. Recommended working alone, two-person, and safety watch practices are provided for each of the four Modes of Work on electrical equipment for each of the 54 Electrical Hazard Classes.
3.6.2
Electrical safety training can be divided into three primary categories: (a) general classroom training, (b) specific classroom training, and (c) On-the-Job training (OJT). General electrical safety classroom training can be broken into three basic types: (1) general awareness training, (2) non-Energized electrical worker, and (3) Energized electrical worker. Recommended general training requirements are given for each of the three Modes of Work on energized electrical equipment (Mode 1, 2, and 3) for each of the 54 Electrical Hazard Classes. Specific classroom training can include courses such as Pulsed Power Safety, RF and Microwave Safety, Computer Safety, Battery and Battery Bank Safety, etc., and depends on the electrical hazard present. For certain electrical hazards specific classes are recommended. As appropriate, portions of the training may be provided using alternative methods such as self-study or computer-based training. On-the-Job Training (OJT) may be important for certain classes of electrical hazards, or more specifically, for certain tasks with electrical hazards. Examples of relevant OJT include: how to use a personal safety ground (ground hook) to discharge a capacitor, how to use certain PPE, how to use a multimeter to diagnose a circuit while energized, etc.
3.6.3
Work Control
All hazardous electrical work shall follow documented work control procedures. The Electrical Hazard Classification control tables specify when an Energized Electrical Work Permit (EEWP) is required.
3.6.4
Shock protection PPE is required whenever any portion of the workers body passes the Restricted Approach Boundary. Arc flash PPE is required whenever any portion of the workers body passes the Arc Flash Boundary. Recommended use of shock and arc flash PPE are given for each of the four Modes of Work on electrical equipment for each of the Electrical Hazard Classes. In many cases the shock and arc flash boundaries must be
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determined or obtained by the worker. In a few special cases additional PPE may be required, e.g., for capacitor discharging, or for working on lead acid batteries.
3.7
The hazard classification charts cover five broad areas, ranging from R&D, to capacitors, to batteries. These charts represent most of the electrical hazards found in electrical equipment. All charts and classes should be considered when identifying the hazards associated with any given piece of electrical equipment. A single piece of equipment may have multiple electrical hazard classifications, and the combination of hazards must be addressed by appropriate safety-related work practices. In order to aid hazard identification, each table has cross-reference notes in the upper right hand corner. For example, the R&D table has cross-reference notes to capacitance, battery, and facility hazard tables. Workers should have a thorough understanding of the equipment they are analyzing for hazards. Consulting manuals and schematics and speaking with factory service representatives and Electrical Safety Subject Matter Experts are ways to ensure that all of the hazards are fully understood and that all the pertinent charts and classes are taken into account. Some guidelines on use of the hazard classification charts are given. They are general, and there may be exceptions to each one:
1) If you do not understand these guidelines and your equipment, consult an electrical
SME.
2) All equipment gets its power from the facility (Classes 1.x) or batteries (Classes 4.x).
Class 1.2. In general, if you can carry it, most likely it uses 120 to 240 V.
4) Larger facility and laboratory equipment may use up to 600 V (Class 1.3). 5) All electronic equipment and much other R&D equipment converts facility power into
DC. All DC power supplies have some capacitance. Thus, DC power supplies have hazards in Classes 2.x and 3.x. Both must be evaluated.
6) All UPSs have hazards in Classes 4.x as well as 1.x, since they usually are tied into
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The colors used in each hazard Class box are organized in increasing hazard: blue, green, yellow, red, and maroon. Some general statements can be made about each color. There may be exceptions. renumber
7) A blue Class (X.0) indicates no hazard, no engineering or administrative controls are
needed.
8) A green Class (X.1) indicates little to no hazards, few or no engineering or
contact; often the hazard is shock or contact burn; engineering controls are necessary for operation (e.g., listing or equipment approval), and administrative controls are necessary for electrical work in this Class.
10) A red Class (X.3) indicates injury or death could occur by proximity or contact; often
the hazard is shock, contact burn, or arc-flash burn; engineering controls are necessary for operation (e.g., listing or equipment approval), and administrative controls are necessary for electrical work in this Class.
11) A maroon Class (X.4 and X.5) is the highest level of risk; significant engineering and
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R&D
2.x Generic
3.x Capacitor
4.x Batteries
5.x RF 3 kHz - 100 MHz 4.1 3 kHz 100 kHz 5.1a 5.2a 5.1b 100 kHz 100 MHz 5.2b
50 - 250 V
250 - 600 V AC DC 3.0 < 50 V 50 - 250 V < 15 V ESD 2.0 2.2a 100 - 250 V 2.1d 2.3 2.2d 2.4 2.1c 2.2c 2.1d 2.3 DC Facility 2.2d 2.4 3.4c 3.4d > 250 V 3.1b 3.3b 3.1d 3.2b 2.1a 2.1b 15 - 100 V 3.3a 2.1b 2.2b > 250 V 2.1c 2.2c 2.2b 100 - 400 V > 400 V 3.4a Human ESD 3.1c 3.1a < 100 V 4.0
1.2a
1.2b
1.3a
1.3b
3.2a
4.2
4.3
1.2c
1.3c
1.3d
3.3c
3.4b
3.3d
3.3e
60 Hz Facility
ac
dc
Capacitors
Batteries
Radiofrequency
~
Classes 1.x see Fig. 3-5
!
Classes 2.x see Fig. 3-6
!
Classes 3.x see Fig. 3-8 and 3-9 Classes 4.x see Fig. 3-10 Classes 5.x see Fig. 3-11 see Fig. 3-7
Fig. 3-4. Complete electrical hazard classification system showing 5 major groups and 54 classes.
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Blue: (Class X.0) indicates no hazard; no engineering or administrative controls are needed Green: (Class X.1) indicates little or no hazards; few or no engineering or administrative controls are needed Yellow: (Class X.2) indicates injury or death due to shock or contact burn could occur by close proximity or contact. Recognized Testing Laboratory (RTL) listing or approval by local inspection processes are required. Administrative controls are also required. Red: (Class X.3) indicates injury or death due to shock, contact burn, or arc flash burn could occur by proximity or contact. Recognized Testing Laboratory (RTL) listing or approval by local inspection processes are required. Administrative controls are also required. Maroon: (Classes X.4 and X.5) indicates the highest level of risk. Significant Engineering and Administrative controls are required to manage hazards.
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RF
Class 1.1 15 - 50 V
50 - 250 V
250 - 600 V
> 600 V
Class 1.2b 10 - 25 kA
Class 1.3b 10 - 25 kA
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Qualified Worker(s) Alone Alone Alone Alone Alone Two person Alone Alone Alone Two person Alone Alone Alone Two person Alone Two person Two person Two person Alone 2nd 2nd Safety Watch
Training None Non-Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized
Work Control None None None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None None None
PPE
1.2b
0 1 2 32
Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1
1.2c
0 1 2 32
1.3a
0 1 2 32
1.3b
0 1 2 32
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Class 1.3c 0 1 2
Mode
Qualified Worker(s) Alone 2nd Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch
Training Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Lineman Lineman Lineman
Work Control None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP YES YES YES YES None
PPE
Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis1 Refer to 29CFR1910.269 Refer to 29CFR1910.269 Refer to 29CFR1910.269 Refer to 29CFR1910.269
Perform a shock and arc flash analysis or see NFPA 70E tables (70E, pp. 2934). This mode of work should be avoided.
Notes on use of hazard Classes and control Table 1.x: (a) The voltage is the root mean square (rms) voltage for 60 Hz power. (b) The current is the available fault current. (c) The primary difference between subclasses a, b, c, and d in Classes 1.2 and 1.3 is the arc-flash hazard, since the arc fault current increases to the right. (d) Class 1.4 is work on facility circuits above 600 V. (e) Class 1.5 is work on utility circuits above 600 V. (f) For R&D (AC or DC, not 60 Hz), use hazard Classes 2.x. (g) For capacitors, use hazard Classes 3.x. (h) For batteries, use hazard Classes 4.x. (i) For ac frequencies above 3 kHz (rf) use hazard Classes 5.x.
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60 Hz
Determine the Waveform
Capacitors Battery
AC
RF
< 50 V
50 - 250 V
> 250 V
Class 2.2d 5 - 75 mA
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60 Hz Capacitors
Determine the Waveform
Battery RF
DC
< 15 V
15 - 100 V
100 - 250 V
> 250 V
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Qualified Worker(s) Alone Alone Alone Alone Two person Safety Watch Alone Alone Two person Safety Watch Alone Alone Two person Safety Watch Alone Alone Two person Safety Watch Alone Two person Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch
Training None Non-Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized and LOTO Energized Energized Energized
Work Control None None None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None None None
PPE
2.2b
Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis None Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis None Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis None Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis None Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis None Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis Shock Hazard Analysis and Flash Hazard Analysis
2.2c
2.2d
2.3
2.41
1 2 3
For AC, refer to Table 1.x: Facility. This mode of work should be avoided. DO NOT move probes while energized.
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Notes on use of hazard Classes and control Table 2.x: (a) This control Table is NOT to be used for 60 Hz power. (b) The primary difference between Class 1.x and 2.x is the lack of available fault current in Class 2.x to create an arc-flash hazard. If significant fault current exists, Class 2.4, the worker must perform an arc-flash analysis, for ac or dc. (c) AC R&D includes ac frequencies from 1 Hz to 3 kHz (sub RF AC), that is not 60 Hz power. (d) Voltage is rms for AC, or DC voltage. (e) Power is available short-circuit power. (f) Current is available short-circuit current. (g) For 60 Hz facility power use hazard Classes 1.x. (h) For capacitors use hazard Classes 3.x. (i) For batteries use hazard Classes 4.x. (j) For AC frequencies above 3 kHz (RF) use hazard Classes 5.x.
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60 Hz R&D Battery
RF
< 100 V
100 - 400 V
Class 3.3a 1 - 10 kJ
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60 Hz R&D
Determine the Voltage
Battery RF
> 400 V
ESD
Capacitor
Class 3.3d 1 - 10 J
Class 3.4c 1 - 10 kJ
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Qualified Worker(s) Alone Alone Alone Alone Two person Two person Alone Alone Two person Two person Alone Two person Two person Safety Watch Alone Two person Two person Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Two person Two person Two person Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch
Training None Non-Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized
Work Control None None None YES YES YES None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES
PPE None None None Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry None
1
Energy Removal
3.2b
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
1 1
3.3a
3.3b
0 1 2 34
None Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry None Eye,1 Eye,1 Eye,1 None Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2 None Eye,1 Eye,1 Eye,1 None Eye, Ear,1 Eye, Ear,1
3.3c
0 1 25 34
3.3d
0 1 2 34 0 1 25 37
3.3e
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Class 3.4a
Mode 0 1 25 34
3.4b
0 1 25 34
3.4c
0 1 26 37 0 1 26 37
Qualified Worker(s) Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch Alone Safety Watch Safety Watch
Training Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized Energized Non-Energized Energized Energized
Work Control None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES YES, EEWP None YES YES
PPE None Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry None Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2 None Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2 None Eye, Ear,1,2 Eye, Ear,1,2
Remotely
3.4d
Remotely
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Determine by a shock hazard analysis. Determine by a flash hazard analysis. For Class 3.1c refer to explosive safety. This mode of work should be avoided. This mode of work should be avoided or done remotely. Do this mode of work remotely. DO NOT do this mode of work.
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Notes on use of hazard Classes and control Table 3.x: (a) (b) (c) (d) Voltage is AC rms or DC maximum charge voltage on the capacitor. Energy is maximum energy stored in the capacitor as determined by ! CV2. PPE eye is proper eye protection, either goggles or a face shield, for higher energies. PPE no jewelry for low-voltage capacitors, means no jewelry on the hands (e.g., rings, watches) and no dangling jewelry or other objects (e.g., badge). (e) Column Energy Removal is the method used to discharge lower-energy capacitors, or apply a safety ground on higher-energy capacitors. See definitions in Chapter 13 for definitions of hard and soft ground hooks. (f) Performing Energy Removal remotely means using engineering methods to discharge and verify the capacitors without worker presence (e.g., a capacitor dump system). (g) Performing Mode 2 remotely means using sensors and instruments that are placed during a Mode 0 condition, then observed from a safe location during Mode 2 work. (h) The hazards for less than 100 V, Classes 3.2a, 3.3a, and 3.4a, are high current through a short circuit, such as tools and jewelry. (i) The hazards for 100 400 V, Classes 3.3b, 3.3c, and 3.4b, are high current through a short circuit, and a shock hazard. (j) The hazards for greater than 400 V, Classes 3.2b, 3.3d, 3.3e, 3.4c, and 3.4d, are high current through a short circuit, and a shock hazard with a strong reflex action for Class 3.2d, and serious tissue injury and/or death for 3.3d and above. (k) Classes 3.4b, 3.4c, and 3.4d have the added hazards of mechanical damage due to high currents and strong pulse magnetic forces during a short circuit. (l) For 60 Hz facility power, use hazard Classes 1.x. (m) For R&D (not 60 Hz), use hazard Classes 2.x. (n) For Batteries use, hazard Classes 4.x. (o) For AC frequencies above 3 kHz (RF), use hazard Classes 5.x.
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60 Hz R&D Capacitors RF
Class 4.2 1 - 30 kW
Note: > 100 V also refer to Table 2.x: R&D DC to classify the shock hazard.
Fig. 3-10. Hazard Classes 4.x, batteries and battery banks.
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Electrical Safety
4.3
Qualified Worker(s) Alone Alone Two person Safety Watch Safety Watch Safety Watch
Work Control None None YES YES, EEWP3 YES YES, EEWP3
PPE None No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry Eye, No Jewelry, Special Battery Tools
1 2 3
Terminal voltage is less than 100 V. Break up bank for work. An EEWP is required if the terminals are exposed, or if the terminal voltage exceeds 100 V.
Notes on use of hazard Classes and control Table 4.x: (a) Power is the short circuit available power from the battery. This can be obtained by multiplying the short circuit available current by the battery terminal voltage. The short circuit available current can be obtained from the manufacturers specifications. (b) There can be no Mode 0 or 1 for batteries, as they are always energized. (c) Additional PPE is necessary for vented lead-acid batteries, depending on the work activity (e.g., chemical PPE). (d) Although all work on Class 4.2 (e.g., automotive batteries) is Energized Work, some of this work (e.g., jump starting cars) is commonly done by the public. Caution should be used, however, and appropriate training and controls in place. (e) Class 4.1 batteries (e.g., desktop UPS batteries) may have adequate engineering controls, such as recessed terminals, to reduce the need for controls. (f) Energized Worker training requires LOTO and CPR. Neither is necessary for low voltage battery work, unless the facility power source for a large UPS must be locked out and verified. (g) For 60 Hz facility power, use hazard Classes 1.x. (h) For R&D (not 60 Hz), use hazard Classes 2.x. (i) For capacitors, use hazard Classes 3x. (j) For ac frequencies above 3 kHz (RF), use hazard Classes 5.x.
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60 Hz R&D
~ see 1.x
!
see 2.x see 3.x see 4.x
Capacitors Battery
Fig. 3-11. Hazard Classes 5.x, RF circuits 3 kHz to 100 MHz (f is in MHz).
Page 40 of 139
Mode ALL 0 14 23 31 0 14 23 31
Training Non-Energized & RFMW Non-Energized & RFMW Energized & RFMW Energized & RFMW Non-Energized & RFMW Energized & RFMW Energized & RFMW
5.2b
None
2 2
1 2 3 4
DO NOT do this mode of work. No PPE is available for high current shock. Must avoid proximity. DO NOT move probes while energized. Must verify zero energy remotely.
Notes on use of Control Table 4.x: (a) f in the Chart is frequency in MHz. (b) Classes 5.x and control Table ONLY addresses the RF shock hazard. It does NOT address the exposure to electromagnetic fields. (c) The allowable shock currents are much higher than 60 Hz (e.g., 100 mA is allowed for 100 kHz). (d) There is no shock PPE for RF, thus Modes 1, 2, and 3 must NOT expose the worker to a shock hazard in Class 5.2.. (a) For 60 Hz facility power use hazard Classes 1.x. (b) For R&D (not 60 Hz) use hazard Classes 2.x. (c) For capacitors use hazard Classes 3x. (d) For batteries use hazard Classes 4.x.
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5.0 GROUNDING
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11.2 SCOPE
This section addresses enclosed electrical/electronic equipment electrical safety guidelines which are not specifically addressed elsewhere in the Electrical Safety Handbook. These types of equipment include: instrumentation and test consoles; enclosed electrical/electronic equipment; other laboratory diagnostic electrical/electronic equipment (stationary or mobile) mounted in or on an enclosure, rack or chassis; and special electrical/electronic equipment facility requirements.
11.3.1
Enclosed electrical/electronic equipment may have both power and signal conductors entering and leaving these enclosures. Objectionable currents and noise may be the result of the design or installation of conductors and equipment and their grounding locations. NEC 250.6 addresses these objectionable currents and noise (See Section 13.8.2.1). NEC 250.6 must be used with care because it seems to give blanket authority to do whatever is necessary to stop objectionable currents from flowing in the grounding system. This is not the intent. NEC 250.6D specifically indicates that the introduction of noise or data errors in electronic equipment shall not be considered objectionable currents, as addressed therein. Therefore, such objectionable currents must be handled in other ways. NEC Section 250.6 principally deals with objectionable currents that can flow over grounding conductors due to severely unbalanced loads or improper installation practices. NEC 250.96(B) provides requirements for isolation of grounding circuits to reduce electrical noise (EMI). Because of the complexity and number of interconnections of most grounding systems, the NEC allows
Page 49 of 139
modifications of the grounding system and connections in order to address such problems. Those permitted: 1) Arrangement to prevent objectionable current. Grounding of electrical systems, circuit conductors, surge arresters, and conductive noncurrent-carrying materials and equipment shall be installed and arranged in a manner that will prevent an objectionable current over the grounding conductors or grounding paths. Use of a single-point grounding system, as well as meeting the other requirements of NEC Article 250, will usually overcome problems. 2) Alterations to stop objectionable current. If the use of multiple grounding connections results in an objectionable current, one or more of the following alterations are permitted to be made, provided that the requirements of NEC 250.4(A)(5)(B)(4), are met. Such permitted alterations are: 1. Discontinue one or more, but not all, of the grounding connections; 2. Change the locations of the grounding connections; 3. Interrupt the continuity of the conductor or conductive path interconnecting the grounding connections; and/or 4. Take other suitable remedial action satisfactory to the authority having jurisdiction. 3) Temporary currents not classified as objectionable currents. Temporary currents resulting from accidental conditions, such as ground-fault currents, that occur only while the grounding conductors are performing their intended protective functions shall not be classified as objectionable. This does not prohibit changes in the system to correct excessive current during a fault condition. 4) Limitations to permissible alterations. The intent of NEC 250.6 is not to permit electronic equipment to be operated on AC systems or branch circuits that are not grounded as required by NEC Article 250. Currents that introduce noise or data errors in electronic equipment are not considered to be the objectionable currents addressed in this Section. Voltage differences and thus objectionable currents may exist because impedances to ground are not equal throughout a grounding system due to variations of the resistance of the earth, improper connections, or other problems. Even though voltage differences allow unwanted currents to flow in the grounding conductors, and induced noise may travel over this path, it is not to be used as a reason to disconnect all grounding connections to any system component. At least one grounding connection must remain.
11.3.2
The equipment grounding conductor of a power-supply cord or interconnecting cable shall be sized in accordance with NEC 250.122 and the associated NEC Table 250.122. The minimum size equipment grounding conductor is based on the total rating of the enclosed equipments in amperes. Note that the minimum size equipment grounding conductor may be smaller than the size for the current-carrying conductors; i.e., the grounded (neutral) and ungrounded conductors, which are sized per NEC Article 310.15 usually following NEC Table 310.16.
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11.3.3
Enclosure grounding and bonding should comply with the following requirements: (See Figs. 111 thru 11-3) 1) Have a common grounding or bonding bus (normally a cabinet rail). 2) When the enclosure contains more than one bay, bond all grounding or bonding busses together. 3) All mounted chassis within rack cabinets shall have a grounding or bonding conductor attached to the common grounding or bonding bus when the chassis is not grounded or bonded through the power cord. 4) The grounding or bonding conductor shall be permanent and continuous. 5) Subassemblies mounted in other types of enclosures should be bonded by adequate preparation of the mounting surfaces or by the use of a bonding conductor. 6) To provide protection against grounding or bonding conductor breakage, conductors between the common grounding or bonding bus and moveable chassis should be braided cable or stranded wire.
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All grounding or bonding points should be tight for good continuity, identified by green color, permanently labeled, and properly prepared by cleaning metal surfaces to bare metal or by the use of serrated bushings. Anodized aluminum must be cleaned to bare metal. The resistance across the bonding point should be very low, so that heating stress effects due to power loss across the bonding point are minimized. If a measurement is required, the method of measurement is to be determined by the user. The user may determine a maximum resistance, e.g., 0.1 ohm.
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Metal chassis shall be effectively bonded to a main grounding point in the rack cabinet where necessary to assure electrical continuity and shall have the capacity to conduct safely any fault current likely to be imposed on it. (NEC 250.96) In a chassis with AC service connected to it, the grounding terminal of its receptacle shall be internally bonded to the chassis frame. (NEC 250.146) If solder is used, the connection of the equipment grounding conductor shall not depend on solder alone. (NEC 250.8) The leakage current of cord connected equipment should be very low.
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11.3.4
Special Considerations
Systems feeding power isolation transformers must continue the equipment grounding conductor to the equipment or the ungrounded equipment must be guarded and labeled. For two-wire cord connected equipment, an equipment grounding connector should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions.
11.4.1
11.4.1.1
General Requirements Applying to All AC Power Equipment Within or Attached To Instrument Racks
Loads
Knowledge of the loads that will be connected within a rack cabinet is necessary and needs to be documented before starting design of a rack power distribution system. All components must be sized correctly for the loads and should provide for expansion. Equipment enclosures may or may not contain a power distribution unit. A rack power distribution unit contains a main overcurrent protection device and multiple branch circuits that are individually protected against overcurrent. Without a power distribution unit, the power wiring is considered part of one branch circuit. Branch circuit loading shall meet the requirements of NEC Article 210. (See NEC 210.21 through 210.23). External convenience outlets should be connected to a separate circuit breaker. Where three-phase, four-wire service is utilized, the loads should be evenly distributed on all phases and there should be consideration of sizing the neutral conductor for certain loads (such as computer equipment) due to the presence of harmonic currents. (See NEC 210.4 and 310.10) 11.4.1.2 Other General Equipment Requirements
Rack power distribution components or assemblies must be listed by an NRTL, or have AHJ approval (See Chapter 12) and UL 508 section 6, construction rack (enclosure)
11.4.2
Each type of internal or external wiring for equipment or an accessory shall be acceptable for the particular application when considered with respect to (1) the current, ambient temperature, voltage, and other conditions of service to which the wiring can be subjected, and (2) exposure to oil or grease.
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The term "cables" refers to groupings of wires typically used for control signals, data, or DC or AC power. The term "cords" refers to AC power cords that are attached to devices or extension cords. The basic insulation on each wire shall be rated for at least the maximum voltage to which the wire is connected, and for at least the temperature it attains. Additionally, the insulation should be rated for the maximum voltage of nearby conductors and wire to which each wire may be exposed. Insulating tubing, sleeving, and tape shall be rated for at least the maximum voltage against which it insulates, and for at least the temperature it attains. Power and signal wires should be routed separately within a chassis. Wires shall be routed away from sharp edges, screw threads, burrs, moving parts, etc. Holes through which wires are routed shall have smooth, well-rounded surfaces, or shall have a bushing. Clamps for guides used for routing or wiring shall have smooth, well-rounded edges. Pressures exerted by such clamps should not cause cold-flow or otherwise deform the basic insulation. 11.4.2.1 Flexible Cables
Flexible cables may be used: 1. Where flexible cables and attachment plugs are furnished by the manufacturer as part of the equipment to be mounted in the rack. 2. For connection of stationary equipment to facilitate their frequent interchange. 3. To prevent the transmission of mechanical vibration. 4. Where the fastening means and mechanical connections are specifically designed to permit ready removal for maintenance and repair. 5. For data processing cables approved as part of the data processing system. 6. For temporary wiring. Where breaking or loosening of a circuit connection would render an electric shock or could result in a fire, such connection shall be made mechanically secure. Mechanical security of connections may be provided by crimped, closed ring or flanged lug, or a wrapping that forms at least an open U or by cable clamps, or by cable lacing, insulating tubing, or similar means. 11.4.2.2 Strain Relief
Wiring, cords, or cables shall be provided with strain relief as required to prevent damage. Additional insulation may be required when the construction of the strain relief may damage the insulation. The use of type NM (Romex) cable clamps on flexible cords and cables is not permitted. Use listed or labeled clamps. The use of any metal clamp or other means that may cause undue stress on the cables within or external to instrument racks is not allowed. Cord and cable support for AC power cable or other heavy duty or large diameter cables must distribute the load over a large area of the outer covering of the cable. 11.4.2.3 Separation of Voltages
Insulated conductors of different circuits shall be separated or segregated from uninsulated energized parts connected to different circuits unless provided with insulation suitable for the highest voltage involved. Page 56 of 139
Segregation of insulated conductors may be accomplished by clamping, routing, or equivalent means that provide permanent separation from insulated or uninsulated energized parts of a different circuit. Loose strands of stranded internal wiring, connected to a wire-binding screw, shall be prevented from contacting other uninsulated energized parts not always of the same potential and from contacting noncurrent-carrying metal parts. This may be accomplished by use of pressure terminal connectors, soldering lugs, crimped eyelets, or soldering all strands of the wire together. 11.4.2.4 Other Concerns
Conductors shall not be bundled together in such a way that the temperature rating of the conductors is exceeded. Bundled conductors may require derating of their ampacities. For example, see NEC 310.15(B)(2) and Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) Flexible cord should be listed or labeled and used only in continuous lengths without splice or tap when initially installed. Repairs are permitted if the completed splice retains the insulation, outer sheath properties, and usage characteristics of the cord being spliced. In most instances, the entire length of flexible cord should be replaced, in order to assure integrity of the insulation and usage characteristics. In addition:
1. Conductors and cables shall be suitable for the conditions of use and location, 2. Provide mechanical protection where needed, 3. Consider the environment when choosing jacket for cord/cable, and 4. Recommend using yellow, orange or other bright cord where there exists potential for physical damage.
11.4.3
For all electrical/electronic enclosures utilizing power switches or interlocks, the following should apply: 1. Interlocks should be utilized where exposed voltages (50 volts or greater) are present in equipment and access to the exposed energized parts is not controlled (See Section 11.6.4). 2. Ensure all line-side unprotected contacts are guarded on interlocking contactors or other switching equipment. 3. Be suitable for the conditions, use, and location. 4. Circuit breakers used for the equipment power switch shall be rated for switching under load. 5. Provide provisions for lockout/tagout requirements.
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11.5.1
11.5.1.2
AC Power Distribution
Connections, Connectors, and Couplings
Input/output AC power connections to the chassis shall comply with NEC requirements. The exposed, noncurrent-carrying, metal parts of panel mount connectors operating at 50 volts or greater shall be bonded to the chassis. Plugs and sockets for connecting any AC power source shall be NRTL-listed for the application. (Ref. ISA-S82.01-1992, Section 6.10.3.a) AC power plugs and sockets shall not be used for purposes other than the connection of AC power. Connectors operating at 50 V or greater shall be listed, rated or recommended for their intended use. Any connector used to provide power at 50 V or greater shall not allow personnel to make inadvertent contact with the power source. If plug pins of cord-connected equipment receive a charge from an internal capacitor, the pins shall not be capable of rendering an electric shock or electric burn in the normal or the single fault condition 5 seconds after disconnection of the supply. Plug-in type connectors intended to be connected and disconnected by hand shall be designed so that the grounding conductor connection makes first and breaks last with respect to the other connections. The following applies for all AC power connectors within or external to electrical/electronic enclosures: 1. There shall be no exposed current-carrying parts except the prongs, blades, or pins. 2. The connector shall prohibit mating of different voltage or current rating than that for the device intended. 3. All connectors must be protected against overcurrent in accordance with their rated ampacity. (NEC 240.5) 4. Connectors must be NRTL-listed for the application. 5. Use of MS, PT, or other non-approved connectors is not permitted except when justified to and approved by the AHJ. If conditions require the use of a non-NRTL listed or labeled connector, such as an "MS" (military standard pin and socket type) or "PT" (similar to "MS" but smaller) type, for input/output AC power, a warning label should be affixed next to the connector stating: "WARNING POWER MUST BE REMOVED BEFORE CONNECTING/DISCONNECTING."
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11.5.1.3
Terminals/Energized Parts
All terminals/energized parts with a potential of 50 volts or greater shall be guarded to protect from accidental contact or bringing conductive objects in contact with them (NEC 110.27). Consult ANSI/ISA-S82.01-1988, Table 9-1 for spacing information regarding energized parts. All energized switching and control parts shall be enclosed in effectively grounded metal enclosures and shall be secured so that only authorized and qualified persons can have access.
11.5.2
DC Power Distribution
Guidelines for DC power distribution include: 1. The metal chassis or cabinet shal not be used as a return path. 2. High-current analog or switching DC power supplies should use separate return paths from digital circuits. 3. All of the guidelines pertaining to AC power such as grounding, proper wire size, high voltage, etc. should apply to DC circuits as well. An accessible terminal charged by an internal capacitor should be below 50 volts within 5 seconds after interruption of the supply. As with AC power, avoid contacting DC parts when working on a energized chassis. The use of the appropriate class gloves should be considered when performing this type of work.
11.6.1
Surge Arresters
The more common types of surge arresters used with electronic equipment are metal oxide varistors (MOV), avalanche diodes, and spark gap arresters. The type and electrical rating of the surge arrester is generally determined by the requirements of the circuit being protected, and by the amplitude and duration of the expected surge. (See ANSI/IEEE C62.11-1987.) Metal oxide varistors and avalanche diodes are voltage-dependent devices whose impedance changes from a near-open circuit to a highly conductive level when subjected to transient voltages above their rated voltages. An MOV is considered "sacrificial" in that a portion of its material is literally burned off each time such a surge is encountered. The response time of an MOV is limited to approximately 500 picoseconds while avalanche diodes can respond in approximately 50 picoseconds. Lead lengths can greatly increase the response times of these devices. The normal failure mode of both devices is a short circuit although sustained voltages well beyond the rating of the MOV can cause the device to rupture and result in an open circuit. A surge arrester should be connected between each ungrounded conductor and ground. For power line applications, MOV manufacturers recommend a varistor be used with a fuse that limits the current below the level that MOV package damage could occur. In general, circuit
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breakers are not recommended for this application since circuit breaker tripping is too slow to prevent excessive fault energy. Consult the manufacturer's application data sheets for more information.
11.6.2
Fuses
Fuses are temperature-sensitive, current-sensing elements that are generally used as short circuit protective devices in individual electrical chassis. The fusing characteristic, or opening time versus current, must be within the safe time/temperature characteristic of the device being protected. Designers must carefully consider the load requirements in the fuse selection process, particularly when high surge currents may be encountered during initial turn-on. Operating time/current characteristics of the various types available can usually be found in fuse manufacturers catalogs. A fuse's interrupting current capacity must also be considered when connected to a power distribution system having a significant fault current capacity. The voltage rating on a fuse shall be equal to or greater than the device's operating voltage. In general, cartridge fuses should have a disconnecting means on the supply side, (NEC 240.40), and shall not be connected in parallel unless factory assembled and listed as a unit (NEC 240.8).
11.6.3
Circuit Breakers
A chassis or cabinet shall not employ circuit breakers as on/off switches unless rated for the application by the manufacturer.
11.6.4
Cabinets and equipment having potentially dangerous currents and/or voltages present should have a means of controlling access, or a power interlock device designed to interrupt the power to the cabinet. Provisions should also be made to discharge any stored energy from capacitors or inductors to less than 50 volts within 5 seconds when the safety interlock is opened. Interlocks may not be used as a substitute for lockout/tagout. [29 CFR 1910.333(c)].
11.7.1
General
Interlock systems are not a recommended disconnecting means for cabinets and equipment having potentially dangerous currents and/or voltages present. Permanently connected equipment and multi-phase equipment should employ a listed switch or circuit breaker as means for disconnection.
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All cord-connected equipment should have one of the following as a disconnecting device: 1. A switch or circuit breaker, 2. Plug that can be disconnected without the use of a tool, or 3. A separable plug, without a locking device, to mate with a socket-outlet in the building Where equipment is connected to the source of supply by flexible cords having either an attachment or appliance plug, the attachment or appliance plug receptacle may serve as the disconnect (NEC 422.33). Where a switch is not part of a motor, motor circuit or controller, the disconnecting means shall be within 50 feet and in sight of the operator and marked as the disconnection device for the equipment. Where a disconnecting means is not part of the equipment, the disconnecting means should be near the equipment, within easy reach of the operator during normal operation of the equipment, and marked as the disconnection device for the equipment. If a disconnecting device is part of the equipment, it should be located as close as practical to the input power source.
11.7.2
Emergency Shutdown
The emergency shutdown switch should be within arm's reach of the operator, be easily identifiable, deenergize all power to all equipment associated with the system, be separate from the routine on/ off switch, and be located to protect the employee from moving parts. However, the emergency shutdown switch should not disconnect auxiliary circuits necessary for safety (such as cooling).
11.7.3
Special Considerations
The disconnecting means shall interrupt the source voltage for secondary or remote controlled equipment, such as that using thyristor controls. NOTE: Disconnecting the control voltage shall NOT be considered sufficient.
For all chassis and rack cabinets (electrical, computer, power distribution, etc.), the manufacturer's name, trademark, or other descriptive marking of the organization responsible for the product should be identified.
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Other markings for power requirements are: 1. Voltage 2. Maximum rated current in amperes 3. Wattage 4. Frequency 5. Duration 6. Duty cycle 7. Other ratings as specified in the NEC (NEC 110.21)
11.8.2
All enclosures containing exposed energized circuits over 600 volts nominal should be marked "Danger High Voltage Keep Out" with a label that is permanent. These areas shall be accessible to authorized personnel only. The label shall be placed in a noticeable location on the access panel to the enclosure. Mark all other hazards that are associated with the equipment.
11.8.3
Other Requirements
All equipment markings shall be of sufficient durability to withstand the environment involved and should be large enough to read. To obtain the correct chassis load requirements for marking and labeling, monitor individual chassis while under load. Many chassis have components that are not energized except under certain conditions. A normal current draw may be a few amperes, but when the chassis is sourcing current to a load, the current draw may be much higher. Individual loads, internal and external, may be tabulated and added to determine the chassis current labeling requirements. For rack cabinets with internal power distribution units, the outside of the rack cabinet should be labeled with the input parameters of the internal power distribution system. For rack cabinets without internal power distribution units, the outside of the rack cabinet should be labeled with the total current of the installed equipment.
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g. Cable trays should not be utilized for storage of excessive lengths of installed cables. Cables should be dressed to suitable lengths upon installation. h. It is recognized that in many locations, due to limited space, the cable tray system offers the best means of bringing services to support experimental devices. In all cases, neither the mechanical loading nor the ventilating capability of the installed cable tray system shall be significantly compromised by addition of such services. i. j. Flammable gas lines are not permitted to be located in cable trays. Utilization equipment shall not be located in cable tray.
k. For instances of where premise wiring is to be installed in a utility cable tray, such wiring shall be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code. The installation of premise wiring shall be segregated through the use of tray dividers. l. For installations of signal cable into a power cable tray, the responsible engineer shall consider the cable for thermal and electrical properties in consideration of the specific installation and the cable tray for structural integrity. All installations in power cable tray shall follow the NEC guidelines for cable tray fill.
m. For installations of cable into a utility cable tray, the responsible engineer shall take into account the structural load capability of the cable tray system and the durability of the existing cables. 100% cable fill of the tray is permitted. The nature of signal circuits is such that the energy carried by the cables is relatively low. Accordingly, the resultant losses in signal cables are of a sufficiently low level that heat dissipation is not a problem. n. Non-flammable gas lines which are neatly bundled and secured may be installed in utility cable tray or attached to the utility cable tray supports (not attached to the tray itself). o. Cable trays should be made of corrosion-resistant material or adequately protected from corrosion that may be encountered in use. Refer to manufacturers literature. p. Verify that the building structure has adequate capacity to support the fully loaded cable tray(s). An appropriate safety factor should be applied to account for stresses during installation of cables, stresses during seismic events, and uncertainties about the building structure. q. Provide protection for cables from deteriorating agents. (See NEC 392.5(C)) 2. The following requirements and recommendations relate to installation and use of Cable Tray systems in pulsed power applications. a. Cable tray systems shall be grounded in a way such that inductive effects are minimized during a fault condition so that voltage rise along the ground path is also minimized. b. The cable tray should be designed and installed to minimize inductive effects during a fault condition. An assessment of any hazards identified with the equipment and the operation with which it is involved should be performed to assure safe operation of components in the cable/utility management system. Where any cable/utility runs include hazardous fluids or pressurized gases, the utilization of these utilities with the cables involved must be determined to be safe.
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Metallic cable/utility management systems that support electrical conductors shall be grounded or bonded to the equipment. Grounding integrity should be checked by inspection by a qualified worker for all components with exposed metal parts. This inspection should be documented. Where cable/utility management systems are installed exclusively for electrical/electronic equipment usage and where these trays are metallic and not grounded or bonded, approved documentation shall exist stating the reason for not grounding or bonding the system (See Section 11.3). Equipment cable/utility runs installed in cable/utility management systems should be visually inspected periodically. These inspections should be performed at the time of installation and any interval specified in the equipment documentation. Any inspection should, as a minimum, consist of: 1. A visual check for the integrity of cable jackets and visible shields; 2. A check for the integrity of all utility hoses by looking and listening for leaks; 3. A visual check on all securing devices used to hold the bundle on the tray to assure the bundle is positioned properly and no damage has occurred; 4. A visual inspection on all bends for signs of pinching, cutting, exceeding minimum cable bending radius, or other damage; and 5. Documentation of all results of any inspection. Supports shall be provided to prevent stress and physical damage to cables where they enter or exit cable/utility management systems.
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11.12.1 Enclosures
Power electronics equipment should be constructed in all-metal enclosures for containment of fire, high energy, and electromagnetic radiation hazards. The enclosures should support the housed equipment, provide strength to brace conductors against short circuit forces, and protect housed equipment against physical damage. It is usually easier to provide barriers to protect the electronics enclosure from collision and missile hazards rather than to strengthen the enclosure itself.
All power electronics enclosures shall provide adequate room for access to parts and subsystems for expected maintenance and modification. Consideration should be given to handling provisions for heavy parts and subsystems, access to test points and calibration adjustments, and work clearances for safe access to enclosure interiors. Safe work on high-voltage equipment requires installation of manual grounding devices on exposed high-voltage conductors. Enclosure size shall provide adequate room to safely apply and remove grounding devices, and permit grounding devices to remain in place without interfering with expected work. (See Section 13.10.1.2) Enclosures shall be sized to allow cables to be installed and routed without infringing on required clearances from high-voltage conductors. Subassemblies, circuits, and related equipment should be segregated to the extent possible to minimize the possibility of a fault in one device damaging another.
11.12.3 Instrumentation
Power electronics systems can involve fast pulses, high frequencies and high currents and it is common for the voltage difference between ground in one circuit and ground in another circuit to differ substantially. This difference can be hundreds or thousands of volts. Wire and cable shall be insulated to withstand these potentials. Surge arrester and capacitor protection may be used to control these potentials. DC circuits connected to coils, solenoid valves and other inductive components should be tested for induced voltages and appropriate protection for circuits should be provided.
11.12.4 General
Test points needed for adjustment and diagnosis should be installed on the front panel or other appropriate location of power electronic systems to facilitate their use without exposure hazard to employees in the area.
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Currents generated only during fault conditions or those introducing noise or data errors shall not be considered objectionable currents. However, bonding and grounding may be altered to reduce the noise or data errors, in accordance with provisions of NEC 250.96(B). Conductors, bus bars, and internal wiring should be insulated in the event objects are dropped into the equipment. Automatic discharge devices are not a substitute for grounding devices used for personnel protection. Grounding points shall be located in the system and physically arranged to permit the attachment of adequate grounding devices for the protection of personnel working on the system. These grounding points shall be capable of carrying the short-circuit current to which they may be subjected and applied using methods appropriate for the voltages or currents involved.
5. Type of emission modulation Possible measures to mitigate the threat of EMR emissions include: 1. Enclosure and signal line shielding and grounding to prevent leakage of EMR from the equipment. 2. Designed-in physical separation or barrier that would ensure that the power density of the electromagnetic field is inadequate to cause detonation of an EED at the closest possible distance to the emission source within the equipment. 3. Filter, or provide ferrite beads for, signal lines from the equipment which may conduct EMR emissions into EED circuitry or secondarily radiate EMR in the proximity of an. 4. Ensure that the minimal power necessary is used to operate circuitry capable of producing EMR. 5. Label the equipment capable of emitting EMR to indicate the minimum separation distance to be maintained between the equipment and an EED or EEDs. 6. Use a safety factor in design for EMR reduction; e.g., only 1/10 of the energy that would initiate an EED is allowed.
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As appropriate, refer also to the tables in NEC Article 310 and Overcurrent Protection in NEC 240.4. Cable manufacturers will provide different current carrying numbers based on the insulation used for the wire. Table 11-1 below lists copper wire with a Teflon [TFE] insulation. Teflon insulation has a higher operating temperature range then other insulators such as PVC. The table below is based on data derived from MIL-STD-975, using 700C as the operating temperature. To derate based on number of wires in a bundle: IBW = ISW x (29 - #wire) / 28 @ [1 to 15 Bundled wires] IBW = ISW x (0.5) @ [more then 15 Bundled wires] ISW = Single wire IBW = Bundled wires To derate by temperature use; derate by 80% at 1500C, 70% at 1350C, or 50% at 1050C
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Colors for chassis and interconnecting wiring system by function Function Grounds, elements Grounded Base Color Green Brown Red Orange Yellow Black Blue Violet Identification # 5 1 2 3 4 0 6 7 Alternate code Green White/brown White/red White/orange White/yellow White/black White/blue White/violet color Identification # 5 91 92 93 94 90 96 97
Heaters or filaments Power Supply B+ Screen Grids Clock Transistor Emitters Transistor Bases Transistor Collectors Power Supply, minus
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+151 to +500 Red +61 to +150 White/Red +26 to +60 +7 to +25 +2 to +6 -26 to -60 -11 to -25 -2 to -10 Ground White/Brown/Red
White/Violet/Yellow 47 Green 5
Table 11-4 specifies optical fiber cable color coding according to EIA Standard 598-A. EIA Standard 598 specifies color codes of the cables when they are grouped into bundles.
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6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
White Red Black Yellow Violet Rose Aqua Blue with Black Tracer Orange with Black Tracer Green with Black Tracer Brown with Black Tracer Slate with Black Tracer White with Black Tracer Red with Black Tracer Black with Yellow Tracer Yellow with Black Tracer Violet with Black Tracer Rose with Black Tracer Aqua with Black Tracer
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Table 11-5 specifies optical fiber cable color coding when there is more than one type of cable in the jacket.
Table 11-6 below specifies the Military standard for AC wiring Color Coding
Orange or Blue White Orange or Blue --Orange or Blue --Orange or Blue White
230v 60Hz 3 ! Delta Black 115v 400Hz 3 ! Delta Black 208v 60Hz 3 ! "Y" Black
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Table 11-7 below specifies color coding standards for commercial AC wiring including flexible power cords.
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This chapter provides an example program for examining and approving unlisted electrical equipment at DOE sites, that would be acceptable for an AHJ to use to evaluate unlisted, inhouse built, or modified listed equipment.
12.1.1
Scope
Field Evaluation and approval of unlisted electrical equipment applies to electrical equipment used by employees and employees of subcontractors or organizations. All unlisted or modified NRTL- listed electrical equipment requires Field Evaluation and approval prior to use. These requirements apply as follows: New equipment must be approved by an equipment inspector before use following the provisions of this document. Equipment previously accepted as approved without field examination must be approved following the provisions of this document. Re-approvals of equipment previously approved under a previous program that did not meet the requirements within this document should follow the provisions of this document. Re-approvals may include previously approved equipment that has been modified or is used outside of its original intent. Equipment that was previously evaluated, labeled and documented under a previous program that did not meet the requirements of this document does not need to be approved again to meet these requirements. Exception: Unlisted equipment in use when a site first adopts its field examination program may be used for a period of up to 60 months (5 years) after the program is adopted with the following restrictions: o The existing equipment at the site must be examined with proportional progress towards completion within the 5 year time period, and o Existing equipment that exhibits any observed external serious defects (e.g. frayed power cord, ungrounded metal chassis) that would result in a failure to pass examination or that is involved in an electrical incident must be removed from service and subsequently discarded or repaired and approved before further use. Page 78 of 139
The following types of electrical equipment do not require field evaluation and approval: Equipment that is not being used (e.g., in storage, staged for salvage/excess, etc.) Equipment that is not being used should be located or labeled so it is clear it is not in use. Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) listed as defined in this document and used in accordance with such NRTL listing. Salvaged equipment is an exception and must be field evaluated (see section 12.4.4). Low Hazard (Classes X.0 and X.1) equipment as defined in this document (see Chapter 3). Prototype equipment (e.g., test chassis, bench top experiment) built to test the validity of a design that is under the exclusive control of the designer if used for less than three months. An Equipment Inspector should be consulted at the beginning of the development stage and as necessary to ensure that all appropriate electrical safety requirements are being met (e.g., guarding, work control [EEWP], etc.). Equipment being developed that exceeds a three-month period may be acceptable as long as a Equipment Inspector is informed of the equipment and the status of the design/development and safety continues to be covered by adequate work control.
The following equipment does not need to be disassembled/opened for approval. However, no hazard should be present to the worker, as can best be determined by external Field Evaluation. Other evaluations must be substituted for the inability to visual inspection e.g. review of schematics, assembly drawings etc. Equipment that will be rendered inoperative as a result of Field Evaluation. Equipment that will void the manufacturers warranty upon opening. Equipment manufactured by a reputable manufacturer as defined in this document. Equipment that could present additional hazards to the EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR upon opening, e.g., radiological hazards. Equipment containing classified components requiring a need to know.
12.1.2
Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide standard criteria for: evaluation, labeling, and documentation of unlisted electrical equipment. The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) requires explicit approval of all electrical equipment in the workplace so it is free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees. To improve and maintain electrical safety at DOE Facilities, only electrical equipment that has been approved as safe for the intended use must be utilized. Unlisted electrical equipment must be examined for safety before use as required by OSHA 29 CFR 1910.303(b).
12.1.3
NRTL-Listed Equipment
NRTL-listed equipment must be purchased and utilized if available. For new or replacement equipment, an NRTL-listed product must be purchased instead of an unlisted product if both exist. All NRTL-listed equipment must be used for its intended purpose in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Otherwise the equipment must be treated as unlisted and approved per the requirements in this document.
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12.1.4
Definitions
Approved Equipment Equipment acceptable to the AHJ consisting of:(1) NRTL-listed equipment being used in accordance with its listing or labeling for the manufacturers intended purpose; or (2) equipment that is inspected and approved by an Equipment Inspector as safe for its intended purpose. Electrical Equipment Equipment that uses electrical energy for electronic, electromechanical, or chemical operations; heating; lighting; or similar purposes. Electrical equipment includes equipment used in laboratory research and development (R&D) as well as utility, facility, and shop equipment. Equipment Inspector A qualified electrical worker who has been determined by his/her AHJ or designee to have the skill, knowledge, and abilities to safely perform the work to which they are assigned. In addition they must have knowledge of the applicable electrical safety requirements as well as demonstrated field experience in the design, installation, and/or operation of facility or R&D electrical systems. Performs field evaluations, approves, labels and documents electrical equipment installations and work. Facility Electrical Equipment Electrical equipment that is considered an integral part of a facility or building and is generally not under direct control by research and development or office personnel. Examples include building pumps, compressors, HVAC equipment, fixed general lighting fixtures permanently attached to the building structure, and facility power distribution equipment such as transformers. Field Evaluation The process used for one-of-a-kind, limited production, used, or modified products that are not listed or labeled under a full listing and certification program. The process is completed at the point of manufacturing, interim points of distribution, in the evaluating company's facilities or at the final installation site or a combination of the above. In-House-Built Equipment Electrical equipment designed and/or fabricated by employees of a DOE facility, including employees of subcontractors, other research organizations, including universities, other labs, and other research institutions. Low Hazard Equipment Class X.0, X.1 equipment that contains only negligible or low hazards as defined in Chapter 3 of this document. Modified Equipment NRTL-listed or Approved electrical equipment that has been modified or is being used for a purpose other than intended by the manufacturer/builder. Modification means that a change has been made that affects the safety of the equipment or is not in accordance with the manufacturers/builders installation, use, or maintenance instructions. Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) An organization (e.g., UL, CSA): That is recognized by OSHA in accordance with Appendix A of 29 CFR 1910.7; That tests for safety; That lists, labels, or accepts equipment or materials that meet all of the criteria in 29 CFR 1910.7(b)(1)-(b)(4); That is concerned with the evaluation of products or services; Page 80 of 139
That maintains periodic inspection of production of listed equipment or materials or periodic evaluation of services; and Whose listing states that the equipment, material, or services either meet appropriate designated standards or have been tested and found suitable for a specified purpose.
Other than Reputable Manufacturer A manufacturer that does not meet the criteria for Reputable Manufacturer as defined in this document. NRTL-Listed Equipment Equipment, included in a list published by an NRTL and used in accordance with any instructions included in the listing/labeling for its intended purpose by the manufacturer. Reputable Manufacturer Manufacturers that meet the following criteria: At least two pieces of unlisted electrical equipment from the manufacturer have been examined and approved by an EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. Field Evaluation should be done according to the requirements for in-house built/modified equipment as required in this document. The manufacturer has a North American office/distributor (e.g., Thomas Register) The manufacturer services their products and can provide technical support. The manufacturer provides adequate documentation in English (acceptable to the approving EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR), and The site AHJ or designate decides to approve the manufacturer as reputable.
Each site or group of sites should maintain a list of reputable manufacturers as a reference for its equipment inspectors. Note: Manufacturers originally meeting this criteria should no longer be considered reputable when the manufacturer no longer exists. The age of equipment should be considered when determining the level of field examination with equipment made by a reputable manufacturer. System A combination of components integrated into a unit to perform a specific task that is unlikely to change. Unlisted Equipment Equipment that has not been listed by an NRTL.
12.2.1
Documentation (See Example in Section 12.6,1) must include as appropriate: Equipment Owner name (optional), Badge # (optional), group/organization Page 81 of 139
Equipment Name Equipment Manufacturer Equipment model number Equipment serial number and property number if applicable Equipment location (optional) Equipment status: new, modified, not previously approved, in-use, etc. Equipment Type(optional): o Stand-alone custom built, or non reputable o System o Powered rack o Appliances and electrical tools o Powered Workbench o Extension cords and relocatable power taps o Other Function Usage: o Operating Environment Conditions of Usage/comments EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR tracking number if equipment is approved. Date examined and approved/rejected Name of EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR who examined and approved/rejected the equipment
Other than reputable non-NRTL or modified NRTL-listed electrical equipment must be examined at a minimum, checking for the following items as appropriate: External Inspection: o Enclosure ! Operator not exposed to any hazard ! Not damaged ! Appropriate material ! Protects contents from operating environment ! Will contain any arcs, sparks, electrical explosion o Power Source ! Cords and Plugs Proper voltage and ampacity rating for plug and cord Grounding conductor included if required Not frayed or damaged Proper wiring of plug Strain relief on cord ! Direct wired into facility power Proper voltage and ampacity rating for wiring method Installation according to NEC Proper loading and overcurrent protection in branch circuit o Grounding ! Ground from cord or other is properly terminated ! All non-current-carrying exposed metal is properly bonded ! All non-current-carrying internal subsystems are properly bonded ! Equipment ground is run with circuit conductors ! Auxiliary ground permitted Check termination o Foreign Power Supplies and Equipment Page 82 of 139
! Connected to facility power with appropriate NRTL listed adapters ! Correct voltage, frequency, and phasing ! Correct wire ampacity for U.S. use o Overcurrent Protection ! Adequate overcurrent protection? in equipment, or branch circuit o Marking Requirements ! Hazards, including stored energy ! Power requirements (Voltage, current or power, frequency) ! Make/model/drawing number ! Restrictions and limitations of use o Other Requirements ! Documentation adequate ! Procedures to use o Secondary Hazards ! RF hazards ! DC electric or magnetic fields ! IR, visible, or UV ! X-rays ! Fire, electrical explosion Internal inspection: o Internal Wiring ! Polarity ! Phasing ! Landing of ground ! Separation of line voltage and high voltage from low voltage ! Wiring terminals and leads ! Wire size ! Proper dielectric ! Clearance/creepage distances for high voltage ! Listed conductors, if applicable o Other Internal Issues ! Neat workmanship ! Listed components used, if applicable ! Free of sharp edges ! Proper cooling ! Automatic discharge of high voltage capacitor Tests performed as deemed appropriate by Equipment Inspector o Ground continuity (less than an ohm) o Polarization of cord and plug o Auto discharge of high voltage capacitor o Functional Tests (e.g. GFCI, emergency shut-off etc.) Failure Analysis o Effect of ground fault o Effect of short circuit o Effect of interlock failure o Effect of overload o Effect of incorrect setting Maintenance o Any safety issues with access and maintenance
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12.2.2
Note: It is recommended that unlisted facility equipment be examined by an equipment inspector who has background and experience working with and/or on facility equipment or who is a registered professional engineer. Documentation (See Example in Section 12.6.2) must include at a minimum: Equipment Owner name (optional), Badge etc.#(optional), group/organization Equipment name Equipment manufacturer Equipment model number Equipment serial number and property number if applicable Equipment location (optional) Equipment function The 8 items checked Conditions of use/comments EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR tracking number if equipment is approved. Date examined and approved/rejected Name of EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR who examined and approved/rejected the equipment
Facility unlisted electrical equipment must be examined (See Appendix C, Part 2), at a minimum, checking for the following items: Suitability for installation and use in conformity with 29 CFR 1910 Subpart S and/or NEC Mechanical strength and durability, including for parts designed to enclose and protect other equipment, the adequacy of the protection thus provided Wire bending and connection space Electrical connections and insulation Heating effects under normal condition of use and also under abnormal conditions likely to arise in service Arcing effects Classification by type, size, voltage, current capacity, and specific use Other factors that contribute to the practical safeguarding of persons using or likely to come in contact with the equipment
12.2.3
Documentation (See Example in Section 12.6.3) must include at a minimum: Equipment Owner name (optional), Badge etc.#(optional), group/organization Equipment name Equipment manufacturer Equipment model number Equipment serial number and property number if applicable Equipment location (optional) Equipment function The 6 items checked (itemized below) Conditions of use/comments Equipment Inspector tracking number if equipment is approved. Date examined and approved/rejected Page 84 of 139
Electrical Equipment manufactured by a reputable manufacturer must be examined, at a minimum, checking for the following items: The case is grounded through the power cord to the grounding pin on the plug, if applicable (less than one Ohm resistance). The plug is polarized, if applicable. The equipment input voltage and frequency match those of the power source (e.g., buildings electrical system, etc.). The equipment construction is suitable for the intended operating environment. The equipment is in its original, unmodified, and undamaged condition. The equipment has externally accessible overcurrent protection (e.g., fuses) that are properly sized, if appropriate. (Equipment not having externally accessible overcurrent protection needs further evaluation to determine if the equipment is safe for use.)
12.2.4
System
To examine a group of components as a system, the EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR must first confirm that it meets the definition of a system as defined in this document. If not, each component must be examined and approved separately but the inspector should consider the interactions and connections among the components in performing the evaluation. Documentation (See Example in Section 12.6.4) for the system should include at a minimum: The items required to be evaluated for system Field Evaluation in this section Conditions of use/comments System description Subsystems System name Manufacturer Date built Date last modified Number of pieces of equipment (e.g., 3 power supplies, 2 modulator racks) System status System Owner name (optional), Badge etc.#(optional), group/organization Equipment location (optional) Specific tests performed for approval Immediate improvements, required modifications (with a due date) and compensatory measures taken in the meantime. Name of Division and Group EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR(S) who examined and approved/rejected the system. EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR tracking number if equipment is approved. Site organizations may approve unlisted electrical equipment as systems. Systems must be examined at a minimum as follows: Hazard Assessment to include: o Electrical hazard classification (see Chapter 3 of this document) o Stored electrical energy in capacitors (E and V) o Batteries, including UPSs o Electromagnetic fields produced (dc to 300 GHz, pulsed) o Infrared, optical, and UV
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X-rays Heat and sparks Acoustic energy Other (e.g., chemical high pressure, cryogen, etc. This may require other SME review) Evaluation For Operation to include: o Enclosure, isolation. No exposed hazardous energized conductors, no unused openings. o Grounding. All conductive enclosures exposed to personnel that may become energized must be properly grounded. o Overcurrent protection. Overload protection, ground fault, and short circuit protection. o Failure analysis. Adequate electrical and fire protection systems for failure modes. (e.g. wiring, component failures etc.) o Operation safety analysis and controls documented. o System is labeled appropriately. Evaluation For Working on System to include: o Method(s) of energy isolation (e.g., plug control, LOTO, Kirk key) o Automatic methods of stored energy removal o Proper design for the manual removal and/or verification of capacitively stored energy o Documentation for entry and work on system o o o o
12.2.5
For approving multiple units of identical model units the following may be done: At least two units must be Field Evaluated and documented in accordance with the appropriate sections of this chapter as follows: o For Non-NRTL/modified NRTL-listed electrical equipment, follow in-house built/modified NRTL-listed electrical equipment requirements (Section 12.2.1). o For reputable manufactured electrical equipment, follow reputable manufacturer requirements (Section 12.2.3). The remaining units may be assumed to be built identically and approval granted after visual Field Evaluation of the outside of each unit has been complete to ensure it is the same make and model and has not been damaged or modified. This Field Evaluation must be performed by an EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. Each identical unit approved must be recorded in the original approval documentation. For Systems, see Section 12.2.4.
12.3.1
Multiple units from a manufacturer with identical models may have the Field Evaluation document file number assigned as follows:
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The same approving assignment number, bar code etc. may be used for multiple identical make and model units/systems, or The serial number (if available) or other unique identifier of each identical model unit/system identified as approved is documented on the same approval form used to document the approval of the representative sample as specified in Section 1.4.
12.4.1
A label that indicates the equipment is NRTL listed should be applied to NRTL-listed electrical equipment under the following conditions: The NRTL symbol (See http://www.osha.gov/dts/otpca/nrtl/nrtlmrk.html) is not in a conspicuous location (e.g., you cannot readily view it because the item is inaccessible in a rack or you need to open/disassemble the equipment enclosure to view the NRTL symbol, etc.), or The NRTL symbol(s) is difficult to read.
12.4.2
All multiple identical model units documented, tracked, and approved following the provisions of Section 12.2.5 must be labeled.
12.4.3
Systems
A system must be labeled or documented in such a manner that it is obvious to workers who use, work on, or work around the system that the system has been approved for use.
12.4.4
Equipment that is Low Hazard Equipment (as defined in this document) may be labeled as such e.g. Unlisted Approval Not Required, Low Hazard or Class X.0 X.1 to indicate it is equipment that does not require field evaluation and approval.
12.4.5
It is acceptable to label equipment that has been field evaluated and not found acceptable as Rejected or Not Approved, etc. If a piece of equipment is found to have a serious defect resulting in it being taken out of service immediately, use of the key word DANGER on a label containing red color is recommended until the equipment is repaired, re-examined, and approved.
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The following applies to approved electrical equipment that is salvaged, excessed, or removed from site property: For equipment that is salvaged or excessed, the approval is no longer valid and is void.
Note: the label should be removed and the approval documentation updated to reflect removed equipment.
For equipment going off site for use, the approval is no longer valid and is void unless the site the equipment will be used at accepts the approval of the site the equipment came from. Note: Acceptance of equipment that has been labeled by another sites AHJ without
further examination is allowed provided that the receiving AHJ reviews and accepts the equipment approval procedures followed by the other site.
12.5.2
Appropriate management must ensure that all subcontractor unlisted electrical equipment used at a DOE site is approved. Subcontractors working on site property are responsible for assuring that all unlisted electrical equipment they use is listed or approved by an Equipment Inspector.
12.5.3
Electrical equipment that is acquired from excess/salvage must be reviewed and approved following the Field Evaluation and documentation criteria for reputable manufacturer electrical equipment in Section 12.2.3, if applicable. Otherwise, follow the criteria listed in Section 12.2.1. If the equipment in storage is listed or previously approved, and is new and/or in good condition, requirements for Field Evaluation are at the discretion of the EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR.
12.5.4
Rental Equipment
All rental electrical equipment must be evaluated and accepted by an EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR prior to use according to the Field Evaluation and documentation criteria for reputable manufacturer electrical equipment listed in Section 12.2.3 regardless of its NRTL listing status.
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12.6.1
In-House-Built/Other Than Reputable Manufacturer Non-NRTL/Modified NRTL-Listed Electrical Equipment Approval Form
Responsible Person: (optional) employee#: (optional)
SECTION 1 - Information
Group: Equipment Name: Multiple Single Manufacturer: Model Number: Serial number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional serial numbers of identical equipment): Property number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional property numbers of identical equipment): Location Site: Bld: Room: Identify Equipment Status: New Modified Not Previously Approved In Use Equipment Type: Stand-alone custom built or other System Powered rack Appliance/electrical tools Powered workbench Extension cord/relocatable power taps Other Function and Use (duty cycle): Operating Environment: power/solid Enclosure:
Operator not exposed to any hazard: Not damaged: Appropriate Material: Protects contents from operating environment: Will contain any arcs, sparks, electrical explosions:
Indoor/dry
Outdoor/wet/damp
Flammable vapor/dust/flyings
Explosives
Overcurrent Protection:
Overcurrent protection: Equipment NA: Branch Circuit:
Marking Requirements:
Hazards, including stored energy: Yes NA: Power requirements (voltage, current, frequency) Restriction and limitations of use: Yes NA: Make/Model/Drawing number:
Other Requirements:
Documentation adequate: Procedures to use : Yes No No
Secondary Hazards:
rf hazards: Yes No dc electric or magnetic fields: Yes IR, visible, or UV: Yes X-rays: Yes No No No No
Grounding:
Ground from cord or other is properly terminated: NA: All non-current carrying exposed metal is properly bonded: NA: All non-current carrying internal subsystems are properly bonded: NA: Equipment ground is run with circuit conductors: NA: Auxiliary ground permitted: Check Termination: NA:
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Tests Performed
Ground continuity (less than 1 ohm): Polarization of cord and plug: Auto discharge of high voltage capacitor: NA: Functional test (e.g., GFCI, emergency shut-off): Others:
NA:
Failure Analysis:
Effect of ground fault: Effect of short circuit: Effect of interlock failure: Effect of overload: Effect of incorrect setting: Others:
NA: NA:
Maintenance:
Any safety issues with access and maintenance: Yes NA: Explain No
Equipment Inspector Tracking Number of Piece of Equipment Actually Evaluated (See next page for additional Tracking numbers of identical equipment if individual numbers were assigned:
NOTE: APPROVED EQUIPMENT WILL BE INSTALLED AND USED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS PROVIDED BY THE DESIGNER/BUILDER AND EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. Condition of Usage/comments: (Include all designer/builder instructions, drawings, or information that is relevant to the safe installation and use of this equipment. Attach additional sheets as necessary.):
This equipment is APPROVED for installation and use at YOUR INSTITUTION. IF THIS EQUIPMENT IS MODIFIED, DAMAGED, OR UTILIZED FOR OTHER THAN THE INTENDED USE STATED ABOVE, THIS APPROVAL IS VOID, PENDING REEXAMINATION. DATE: Equipment Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
This equipment is REJECTED for use at YOUR INSTITUTION (see comments above). DATE: Equipment Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
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12.6.2
Group:
SECTION 1 - Information
Equipment Name: Multiple Single Manufacturer: Model Number: Serial number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional serial numbers of identical equipment): Property number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional property numbers of identical equipment): Location Site: Bld: Room: Identify Equipment Status: New Modified Not Previously Approved In Use Equipment Type: Stand-alone custom built or other System Powered rack Appliance/electrical tools Powered workbench Extension cord/relocatable power taps Other Function:
APPROVE
REJECT
Equipment Inspector Tracking Number of Piece of Equipment Actually Evaluated (See next page for additional Equipment Inspector Tracking numbers of identical equipment if individual numbers were assigned): NOTE: APPROVED EQUIPMENT WILL BE INSTALLED AND USED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS PROVIDED BY THE DESIGNER/BUILDER AND EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. Condition of Usage/comments: (Include all designer/builder instructions, drawings, or information that is relevant to the safe installation and use of this equipment. Attach additional sheets as necessary.):
This equipment is APPROVED for installation and use at YOUR INSTITUTION. IF THIS EQUIPMENT IS MODIFIED, DAMAGED, OR UTILIZED FOR OTHER THAN THE INTENDED USE STATED ABOVE, THIS APPROVAL IS VOID, PENDING REEXAMINATION. DATE: Equip. Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
This equipment is REJECTED for use at YOUR INSTITUTION (see comments above). DATE: Equip. Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
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12.6.3
Group:
SECTION 1 - Information
Equipment Name: Multiple Single Manufacturer: Model Number: Serial number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional serial numbers of identical equipment): Property number of piece of equipment actually evaluated (see attached form for additional property numbers of identical equipment): Location Site: Bld: Room: Identify Equipment Status: New Modified Not Previously Approved In Use Function:
SECTION 2 Inspection
1. The case is grounded through the power cord to the grounding pin on the plug. 2. The plug is polarized, if necessary. 3. The equipment input voltage and frequency match those of the buildings electrical system. 4. The equipment construction is suitable for the intended operating environment. 5. The equipment is in its original, unmodified and undamaged condition. 6. The equipment has externally accessible supplementary over-current protection (e.g., fuses) that are properly sized. (Equipment not having this, needs evaluation to determine if the equipment is safe for use)
APPROVE
REJECT
Equipment Inspector Tracking Number of Piece of Equipment Actually Evaluated (See next page for additional Equipment Inspector Tracking numbers of identical equipment if individual numbers were assigned): NOTE: APPROVED EQUIPMENT WILL BE INSTALLED AND USED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS PROVIDED BY THE DESIGNER/BUILDER AND EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. Conditions of Usage: Indoor Only Damp/Wet Locations Hazardous Classified Locations (Flammable/Explosive) Comments: (Include all designer/builder instructions, drawings, or information that is relevant to the safe installation and use of this equipment. Attach additional sheets as necessary.):
This equipment is APPROVED for installation and use at YOUR INSTITUTION. IF THIS EQUIPMENT IS MODIFIED, DAMAGED, OR UTILIZED FOR OTHER THAN THE INTENDED USE STATED ABOVE, THIS APPROVAL IS VOID PENDING REEXAMINATION. DATE: Equip. Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
This equipment is REJECTED for use at YOUR INSTITUTION (see comments above). DATE: Equip. Inspector Printed Name: Equipment Inspector Signature
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12.6.4
SECTION 1 Information Approval is for intended use within the approving organization only
Group: System Name: Responsible Person: (optional) Employee#: (optional)
System Description:
Manufacturer, if any: # of pieces of equipment in system: Model Number, if any: Serial Number of System Actually Evaluated (see attached for additional serial numbers of identical equipment): Date built: Location Site: Bld: Identify Equipment Status: New Modified Function and List of Subsystems: Date Last Modified: Room: Not Previously Approved
In Use
SECTION 2 Hazard Assessment Determine all electrical and non-electrical hazards that could injure an employee, including operation and maintenance workers.
1 Electrical hazard classifications
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Stored electrical energy in capacitors (E and V) Batteries, including UPSs Electromagnetic fields produced (dc to 300 GHz, pulsed) IR, optical, or UV produced X-rays (give voltage value in vacuum) Heat and sparks Acoustic energy Other (chemical, high pressure, cryogen, etc.) Page 93 of 139
System Approval Form (page 2/3) SECTION 3 Evaluation for Operation: Determine that engineering controls adequately protect the operators and users during system operation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Enclosure, isolation. No exposed hazardous energized conductors, no unused openings. Grounding. All conductive enclosures exposed to personnel properly grounded. Overcurrent protection. Provision for overload, ground fault, and short circuit Failure analysis. Adequate electrical and fire protection systems for failure modes. Operation safety analysis and controls documented where? System is labeled as approved, how? Other, explain.
Approve
Reject
SECTION 4 Evaluation for Working on System: Determine that engineering controls are implemented, in conjunction with work control to safely enter into and work on the system.
1 2 3 4 Method(s) of energy isolation (e.g., plug control, LOTO, Kirk key) Automatic methods of stored energy removal, if necessary Proper design for the manual removal and/or verification of capacitively stored energy Documentation for entry and work on system where?
Approve
Reject
NOTE: System will be installed and used in accordance with the instructions provided by the designer/builder and/or Equipment Inspector
Comments/conditions of use: (Include all designer/builder instructions, restrictions on use, drawings or information that is relevant to the safe installation and use of this equipment. Attach additional sheets as necessary)
This system and its associated electrical equipment is APPROVED for installation and use at YOUR INSTITUTION. IF THIS SYSTEM IS MODIFIED, DAMAGED, OR REPAIRED IN A MANNER THAT AFFECTS SAFETY, THIS APPROVAL IS VOID, PENDING REEXAMINATION BY AN EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR. This system is REJECTED for use at YOUR INSTITUTION (See comments Above)
Note: the following signatures indicate that these Equipment Inspector(s) have reviewed some or all parts of this system for safety. In some cases an Equipment Inspector inspects only sections of the system for which their group is responsible. The Head Equipment Inspector (if any) ensures that all components have been reviewed by one or more group Equipment Inspectors.
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Division/Group
Date:
Division/Group
Date:
Division/Group
Date:
Division/Group
Date:
SECTION 6 Specific Tests Performed for Approval List tests performed relevant to safety. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SECTION 7 Immediate Improvements List required modifications (with a due date) and compensatory measures taken to ensure safety if system is operated before modifications. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Date
Who
Date
Who
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12.7.1
Instructions for the In-House Built/Other Than Reputable Manufacture Non-NRTL/Modified NRTL Listed Electrical Equipment Approval Form
These instructions provide assistance, clarification, and additional details to EQUIPMENT INSPECTORS while performing examinations using the In-House Built/Other Than Reputable Manufacture Non-NRTL/Modified NRTL Listed Electrical Equipment Approval Form. 1. Enclosure: Operator not exposed to any hazard o o o o Check to make sure the enclosure contains or covers all conductors and energized terminals, to prevent inadvertent contact with energized conductors Make sure any knockouts are plugged. Look for unusually sharp edges, or pinch hazards Ensure that the enclosure is free from defects/dents, securely fastened, and that all components are intact. Ensure that the enclosure material can withstand normal use and that it can protect the contents and user adequately. Make sure that the enclosure is rated for the environment such as outdoor, corrosive, wet or humid environments, or classified locations (NEC Article 500 type locations.). Ensure adequate enclosure, insulation, etc. to prevent incidental exposure to energized electrical conductors or parts. Ensure that the enclosure is rated or suitable for the bolted fault energy of the input source. Refer to NEMA Enclosure Types as appropriate
Not Damaged
2. Power source cord and plug: Proper Voltage and ampacity rating for plug and cord o See Ampacity Information in Section 11.14 Grounding conductor included (if required)
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Make sure the ground conductor has good continuity (< 1 Ohm) to the enclosure and any exposed metal surfaces. Inspect the cord and plug for cracks or cuts in the insulation. Refer to: NEMA Straight Blade Chart If the power cord is hardwired to the enclosure a proper strain relief/insulator must be used to prevent damage to the cord.
3. Power source direct wired: Proper voltage and ampacity rating for wiring method o See Ampacity Information in Section 11.14
4. Foreign power supplies and equipment: Connected to facility power with appropriate adapters o o Adapter rating matches used voltages and is NRTL listed Insure the equipment will operate properly on 60 Hz line voltage Make sure the line, neutral and ground connections are correct on the input and output of any transformers. This is especially important for autotransformers when stepping 120 VAC up to 220 VAC. Correct voltage, frequency and phasing
Correct wire ampacity for US use See Ampacity Information in Section 11.14
5. Grounding Ground is properly terminated o The green grounding conductor from the power source should be used as a single point ground inside the enclosure.
All non-current carrying exposed metal is properly bonded o The exposed metal of the enclosure should be bonded to the ground conductor with clean unpainted connections.
All non-current carrying internal subsystems are properly bonded o Internal components which require a ground should be bonded to the single point ground or through the enclosure using clean unpainted connections.
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Auxiliary ground is permitted o An extra ground connection in addition to the power source ground is acceptable.
6. Internal wiring: Polarity correct o Make sure the neutral and line are properly connected internally. Phasing correct o For three phase power try and determine if the phasing is correctly connected. Some devices have phase detection LEDs, or other means to determine correct phase. Refer to the manual if available. Landing of ground correct The green grounding conductor from the power source should be connected to the metal enclosure.
Separate line/high voltage from low voltage o Make sure the low voltage (<50 volts) and high voltage (!50 volts) conductors are not run in the same wire bundles. Wiring terminals and leads ok (no tension on terminals) o Inspect the terminals and wire to be sure the connectors are tight and that there is no physical stress on the conductors (such as wires pulled taut). Proper wire size and color code o Make sure the wire is rated for the correct operating voltage and current (see Ampacity Information in Section 11.14). o Wire insulation should conform to color code standards Refer to proper table or reference in Color Coding Guidelines at the end of this appendix. No loose parts (mechanical bracing) o All parts should be secured internally and not rely on gravity to maintain position. Proper overcurrent protection o Appropriate fuses and or circuit protectors should be used on the input source and on the input to any power components in the enclosure. These overcurrent devices should be labeled with the correct ratings. Overcurrent devices must be installed on the line (not neutral) side of the input power feed. Proper dielectric o Where insulation is required between components, make sure the dielectric can withstand the operating voltages. Clearance/creepage distances for high voltage o Ensure sufficient clearance for high voltage to prevent arcing or dielectric breakdown.
7. Marking requirements: Power requirements (voltage, current, frequency) The source power (voltage, frequency, and either current or wattage) should be labeled on the enclosure at the point of entry for the power cable. Ex. 120VAC 2A 60 Hz, or 208 VAC 500 watt 60 Hz Restrictions and limitations of use o Page 99 of 139
Any limitations of use should be clearly labeled to prevent the device from being used inappropriately. Make, model and drawing number o For a manufactured device the manufacturer, model number, serial number should be listed on the enclosure. An in-house built device usually will not have a model or serial number. In this case the approval sticker can become the serial number. Hazards, including stored energy o Hazards such as hazardous stored energy, high voltage, high current, RF etc. should be labeled on the enclosure. Requirements for access (LOTO, stored energy, PPE) o If the equipment requires LOTO, or special procedures for access during maintenance or troubleshooting, labeling should be used to direct personnel to the appropriate documents for servicing the equipment. The documentation should have a work procedure and should list the PPE requirements. o Ground continuity less than 1 ohm o This test ensures that the ground wire from the source is securely connected to the equipment ground point. Use a quality DVM with a resolution of 0.1 ohm or better to make this measurement. Short the leads to determine the lead resistance and subtract this reading from the ground test reading. Polarization of cord and plug o Use a DVM to confirm that the neutral and line are properly connected to the plug and to the internal circuitry. Functional test (GFCI, Emergency Shut OFF) o If the equipment has a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter or Emergency Shut OFF, test that these devices are operational. Automatic discharge of high voltage capacitor o For equipment with high voltage capacitors or large capacitor banks, make sure a method is used to automatically discharge the capacitors. Bleeder resistors are typically used to discharge capacitors. For large energy capacitor banks there must be engineered controls and procedures in place to make sure the capacitors have fully discharged before access can be made to the terminals. Neat Workmanship Proper management of conductors o This refers to proper lead dress and keeping high voltage leads separated from low voltage leads. Use of barrier strips and terminals should be used rather that wire nuts and tape. Wire bundles should be secured to prevent them from moving. Free from sharp edges o The enclosure feedthroughs should be deburred and have appropriate grommets or strain reliefs for and wires or cables. The enclosure should also be free from sharp edges which could cause the user to be cut or which could pierce any conductor insulation. Proper cooling o Equipment which dissipates enough power to cause excessive heat buildup in the enclosure should have a fan or proper ventilation to keep the temperature Page 100 of 139
8. Tests performed:
9. Other Issues:
below the rating of the wire or internal devices. A rule of thumb is to keep the temperature below 50C Switches and controls readily accessible o The controls should be conveniently located for the user to operate without difficulty. Good design practices will ensure a logical placement for the equipment controls. Any safety issues with access and maintenance o Equipment which requires maintenance by personnel should have appropriate engineered controls to prevent exposing the workers to hazardous conditions. o Examples of engineered controls include: interlocks, bleeder resistors across capacitors, covers over exposed terminals, and LOTO capability. o Look for controls and or procedures which are used for maintenance operations. Effect of ground fault o Analyze the effects of a ground fault and the resulting condition. Does the equipment pose a hazard should a ground fault occur? Effect of short circuit o Ensure that the circuit protection devices i.e. fuses, circuit breakers etc. are adequate to protect the equipment and personnel in the event of a short circuit in the device or load. Effect of interlock failure o Would an interlock failure create a hazardous condition? What controls are in place to prevent injury? Effect of overload o Ensure that the circuit protection devices i.e. fuses, circuit breakers etc. are adequate to protect the equipment and personnel in the event of an overload. An overload could occur from the user applying too much power to the load, or using an inappropriate load. Effect of incorrect setting o This basically refers to the consequences of the operator inadvertently placing the controls in a wrong position or using the controls inappropriately. The system should be designed to minimize hazards due to accidental inputs or controls. These include interlock; fail-safe systems and inability to allow the system to be operated in a hazardous manner.
10. Maintenance
12. Secondary hazards Note: For all non-ionizing radiation safety refer to the appropriate sites ESH manual chapter. RF hazards o Does this equipment produce harmful RF? If so proper RF shielding should be in place and leakage fields should be measured. DC electric or magnetic fields o If the equipment produces strong magnetic fields safeguards should be in place to prevent injury by accidental contact with ferromagnetic material such as tools. Placards should be in place to warn people of the presence of high magnetic fields. This is very important for people with pacemakers. IR, visible or UV Page 101 of 139
Safeguards should be in place to prevent exposure to high levels of electromagnetic radiation. Laser systems are especially dangerous for IR or UV radiation. Refer to sites ESH manual chapter on laser safety.
X-Rays o Refer to sites ESH manual chapter pertaining to X-ray safety. To ensure all interlocks and safety measures are covered in the system design. Fire or electrical explosion o The system should be designed to minimize the risk from an explosion or fire due to a system fault. The enclosure should be robust enough to contain the available energy due to a fault. Documentation adequate o The user should have the owners manual for purchased equipment. Homebrew equipment should have at least a schematic diagram. Operating procedures o The operating procedures should be readily available to the users. Training and qualifications to use o If use of the equipment warrants training, sufficient instructions or training are provided prior to use.
13. Documentation
12.7.2
PART 1 Equipment Identification Enter as much information as necessary to be able to track adequately. Equipment Status refers to equipment operation. If equipment is new or modified, it must be examined and approved using Section 2 of this document checklist. If equipment has not been previously approved, the equipment must be examined and approved before use. The function should be stated to give a short description of the use of the equipment.
PART 2 Example Guidelines for Equipment Approval I. Some potential considerations of suitability for installation and use are as follows: Operation, considering environmental conditions Temperature, humidity, air pressure, non-ionizing radiation (RF and EMI), ionizing radiation, outdoor/indoor, etc. Normal and abnormal use, considering duty cycle, average and peak power, etc. Properly sized and installed equipment grounding (chassis grounding) Equipment design that includes consideration of the available short circuit and ground fault current Properly sized and installed over-current protection (fuses or circuit breakers) Separation of high- and low-voltage components, especially where high voltage could escape along a hidden fault path
(See 2005 NEC 250.110 & 110.9.) II. Mechanical strength and durability considerations include the following: Enclosure of parts to: Page 102 of 139
Prevent damage to internal components during use and transportation Contain arcing, heating, and explosion o Prevent injury to personnel from hazardous energized parts o Prevent damage to internal components from environmental conditions Workmanshipunused openings effectively closed Integrity of electrical equipment and connections Any item that would adversely affect the safe operation or mechanical strength of the equipment, such as damaged, corroded, or overheated parts
o o
(See 2005 NEC 110.12.) III. Wire bending and connection space includes the consideration of assembly and potential repair based on the following: The protection of conductors and their insulation against damage by over-bending, over crowding, location near moving parts in equipment, and at termination points.
(See 2005 NEC 312.6 and Tables 312.6(a) & (b).) IV. The integrity of insulation ensures that the system or component does the following: Prevents the escape/transfer of electrical energy to other conductors and to personnel; Is free from short circuits or potential short circuits; Uses listed conductors where possible; and Is free from grounds other than those required or permitted by Article 250 of the National Electrical Code.
(See 2005 NEC 110.7.) V. Verify that conductors are installed and used in such a manner that normal listed or approved temperature ratings are not exceeded. If the condition of use in the R&D environment is substantially different from that anticipated in the product listing, have a subject matter expert determine that an appropriate level of safety is maintained. Also determine that exposed parts will not burn personnel or initiate fires. (See 2005 NEC 310.10, including the Fine Print Note.) VI. Appropriate requirements for arcing effects include the following: If the equipments ordinary operation produces arcs, sparks, flames, or molten metal, verify that it is enclosed or separated and isolated from all combustible material. Verify that potential arc blast/electrical explosions are prevented from injuring personnel and damaging other equipment
(See 2005 NEC 110.18.) VII. Require that a permanent label be attached to the equipment that includes the following: The manufacturers (or local builders) name or other descriptive marking by which the organization responsible for the equipment can be identified Other markings will include the equipment voltage, current, wattage, and any additional wording that the EQUIPMENT INSPECTOR deems necessary for the safe operation of
the equipment (e.g., type, size, power, stored energy, secondary hazards, specific use, and specific users) (See 2005 NEC 110.21.) VIII. Other factors contributing to the practical safeguarding of personnel include the following: Reviewing non-electrical hazards by appropriate subject matter experts. Preventing electric shock, burn, or reflex hazards by eliminating personnel contact, Ensuring that energized parts of equipment operating at 50 volts or more are protected against accidental contact by approved enclosures or by any of the following means: o By location in a box, enclosure, room, or vault that is accessible only to Equipment Inspectors o By suitable permanent, substantial partitions or screens arranged so that only Equipment Inspectors will have access to the space within reach of the energized parts o By location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or platform elevated and arranged so as to exclude unqualified people from entering the limited approach boundary o By elevation of 8 ft or more above the floor or other working surface A procedure of safeing and energy removal, e.g., disconnection, LOTO, removal of stored energy, for both normal/emergency shutdown has been established Damage to eyes, skin or other equipment from UV and IR Personnel injury or equipment interference from RF fields Preventing personnel exposure to excessive noise Preventing personnel exposure to X-rays for equipment >15 kV operating, especially in a vacuum Standard designs, including fail-safe design: o Use listed or recognized components where possible o Use accepted color coding of wires, especially grounded (white or gray) and grounding conductors (bare or green) Consider the loss of electrical power, pneumatic, etc. Consider the automatic removal of stored energy Consider the use of interlocks on enclosures and other systems (See 2005 NEC 110.27 and 110.31.)
13.1 PURPOSE
Requirements of existing electrical codes, recognized industry standards, and DOE Orders do not specifically address these types of apparatus. Even with these specialized R&D needs, the workplace must be maintained free of known hazards that cause, or are likely to cause, death or serious injury. Special efforts must therefore be made to ensure adequate electrical safety beginning with design and continuing through development, fabrication and construction, modification, installation, inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of R&D electrical apparatus and facilities. This section provides guidelines to complement existing electrical codes and recognized industry standards in conformance with DOE Orders and OSHA requirements. Because of the differences in R&D program requirements in the DOE complex and the unpredictability of R&D activities, it is impractical to establish a single set of electrical safety requirements to be applied uniformly. General electrical safety guidelines, however, apply across the DOE complex. This section contains safety criteria for the DOE complex in the design, development, fabrication and construction, modification, installation, inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of R&D electrical apparatus and facilities. Personnel safety shall be the primary consideration. When conflicts between electrical codes, recognized industry standards, DOE Orders, or regulations arise, the requirement that addresses the particular hazard and provides the greater personnel safety protection shall govern.
13.2 SCOPE
This section addresses R&D electrical systems which are not specifically addressed elsewhere in the Electrical Safety Handbook. The electrical environment of the DOE complex is extremely varied, ranging from low-voltage electronic circuits to common office and industrial electrical systems to large, high-voltage power distribution systems to high-voltage/low-current and lowvoltage/high current systems associated with R&D programs. Electrical systems of all types are an integral part of R&D operations and associated support work.
1 2 3 4 5
29 CFR 1910.137 29 CFR 1910.147 29 CFR 1910.269 29 CFR 1910.301-399 29 CFR 1926.401-449.
13.6.1
Hazards
The hazards associated with R&D equipment are sometimes unique because the equipment itself is unique. These hazards are sometimes made worse because of an uncommon design or the fact that it may be one of a kind. Special efforts are thus necessary to identify all the potential hazards that may be present in a specific unique design. These hazards should be identified and a plan developed to mitigate the associated risk. Personnel working on R&D equipment shall be qualified to work on this equipment, depending on its unique safety problems. See Chapter 3 for more information on the identification and control of R&D electrical hazards.
13.6.2
Additional Qualifications
Personnel assigned to tasks involving R&D equipment shall be apprised of the hazards identified in Chapter 3. It is suggested that they participate in developing mitigation plans to reduce the risks associated with the hazards. A list of additional experience qualifications should be developed by the appropriate personnel including the workers. This list should identify specific training requirements necessary for unusual equipment or tasks.
13.7.1
Power Sources
13.7.1.1 Hazards 1. Internal component failure can cause excessive voltages. Internal component open-circuit failure in capacitor banks and Marx generators can result in full voltages across components that may not be appropriately discharged in the usual manner. 2. Internal component shorts in capacitor banks and Marx generators can result in excessive fault current, causing extreme heat, over pressurization of capacitor enclosures, and rupture. 3. Overloading or improper cooling of power supplies can cause excessive temperature rise. 4. Output circuits and components can remain energized after input power is interrupted. 5. Auxiliary and control power circuits can remain energized after the main power circuit is interrupted. 6. When power supplies serve more than one experiment, errors made when switching between experiments may create hazards to personnel. 7. R&D electrical apparatus may contain large amounts of stored energy, requiring fault analysis. 8. Liquid coolant leaking from R&D electrical equipment may pose an electrical hazard to personnel. 13.7.1.2 Design and Construction
In design and construction of R&D equipment, it is important to remember the following cautions: 1. Install only components essential to the power supply within the power-supply enclosure. 2. Provide appropriate separation between high-voltage components and low-voltage supply and/or control circuits. 3. Provide to personnel a visible indicator that the power supply is energized. 4. Minimize the number of control stations and provide an emergency shutdown switch where needed. 5. Where possible, avoid multiple-input power sources. 6. Apply a label containing emergency shutdown instructions to equipment that is remotely controlled or unattended while energized. 13.7.1.3 Operation and Maintenance
Before working in a power-supply enclosure or an associated equipment enclosure, see Sections 2.8 and 13.6 for qualification requirements. Personnel should take the following precautions:
1. Implement lockout/tagout. 2. Check for auxiliary power circuits that could still be energized. 3. Inspect automatic shorting devices to verify proper operation. 4. Short the power supply from terminal to terminal and terminal to ground with grounding hooks.
13.7.2
13.7.2.1
It is usual for R&D facilities to have equipment that operates at less than 50 V AC or less than 100 V DC. Although this equipment is generally regarded as nonhazardous, it is considered hazardous when high currents are involved. Examples of such equipment are a power supply rated 3 kA at 25 V, a magnet power supply with rated output of 200 A at 40 V, and a bus bar carrying 1 kA at 5 V. Though there is a low probability of electric shock at voltages less than 50 V AC or 100 V DC (see Chapter 3, Table 3-1), there is a hazard due to arcing and heating in case of an accidental fault. For example, a tool could drop onto the terminals and initiate an arc, causing severe burns (see Section 3.2.2.4). 13.7.2.2 Design and Construction
A circuit operating at 50 V or less AC and 100 V or less DC shall be treated as a hazardous circuit if the power in it can create electrical shocks, burns, or an explosion due to electric arcs. Observe all of the following rules for such circuits: 1. Provide protective covers and/or barriers over terminals and other energized parts to protect personnel. 2. Apply suitable marking to identify the hazard at the power source and at appropriate places. 3. Consider magnetic forces in both normal-operation and short-circuit conditions. Use conductors that have appropriate physical strength and are adequately braced and supported to prevent hazardous movement. 4. Inductive circuits may create high-voltage hazards when interrupted. Careful circuit design will include a method to bleed off power safely should an interruption occur. 13.7.2.3 Operation and Maintenance
Follow these guidelines for working on circuits operating at 50 V AC or less or at 100 V DC or less that are treated as hazardous: 1. Work on such circuits when they are de-energized. 2. If it is essential to work on or near energized low-voltage, high-current circuits, observe the safety rules as if the circuits were operating at higher voltages. Refer to Section 2.1.2, "Considerations for Working on Energized Systems and Equipment" and 2.13.4, "Safe Energized Work (Hot Work)."
13.7.3
13.7.3.1
When the output current of high-voltage supplies is below 5 mA, the shock hazard to personnel is low. Where combustible atmospheres or mixtures exists, the hazard of ignition from a spark may exist. High-voltage supplies (ac or dc) can present the following hazards: 1. Faults, lightning, or switching transients can cause voltage surges in excess of the normal ratings. 2. Internal component failure can cause excessive voltages on external metering circuits and low-voltage auxiliary control circuits. 3. Overcurrent protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers for conventional applications may not adequately limit or interrupt the total inductive energy and fault currents in highly inductive dc systems. 4. Stored energy in long cable runs can be an unexpected hazard. Safety instructions should be in place to ensure proper discharge of this energy. 5. Secondary hazards such as startle or involuntary reactions from contact with high-voltage low-current systems may result in a fall or entanglement with equipment. 13.7.3.2 Design Considerations
Personnel in R&D labs may encounter energized parts in a variety of configurations, locations, and under environmental conditions that are not usual for most electrical power personnel. Sometimes the equipment can be designed to incorporate mitigation of the hazards associated with working on such equipment. If not, then safe operating procedures must be developed and used. 13.7.3.3 Safety Practices
An analysis of high-voltage circuits should be performed by a qualified person before work begins unless all exposed energized parts are guarded as required for high-voltage work. The analysis must include fault conditions where circuit current could rise above the nominal rated value. Depending on the results of the analysis, any of the following may apply: 1. If the analysis concludes that the current is above 5 mA or stored high-voltage capacitive energy is above 1 joule for voltages between 100 and 400 V DC, or above 0.25 joule for voltages equal to or greater than 400 V, then the work is considered to be energized work and should be performed in accordance with Chapter 2, "General Requirements" and/or Chapter 3, "Hazard Analysis." See Chapter 3 for details on electrical hazard classification. 2. If the analysis concludes that the current is between 0.5 mA and 5 mA and between 0.25 and 1 joules, then the worker may be exposed to a secondary hazard (e.g., startle reaction) that must be mitigated. 3. If the analysis concludes that the current is below 0.5 mA and below 0.25 joules, then the worker exposure is minimal and no special precautions are required, even for high voltage circuits. High-voltage supplies that use rated connectors and cables where there are no exposed energized parts are not considered hazards. Connections shall not be made or broken with the Page 110 of 139
power supply energized unless they are designed and rated for this type of duty (e.g., loadbreak elbows). Inspect cables and connectors for damage and do not use if they are damaged. Exposed high-voltage parts must be guarded to avoid accidental contact.
13.7.4
The DOE complex conducts R&D programs that involve sources of radio-frequency/microwave (RFMW) nonionizing electromagnetic radiation. Devices that may produce RFMW radiation include telecommunications and radar equipment, industrial equipment such as radio-frequency heaters, and scientific and medical equipment such as magnetic resonance imagers and klystron tubes. The nationally recognized consensus standard for personnel exposure to radiofrequency radiation is ANSI/IEEE C95.1(2005), Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz . 13.7.4.1 Hazards 1. RF amplifiers frequently use DC high-voltage power sources. 2. There may be x-ray hazards (when supply voltage exceeds 10 kV and there are evacuated components). Currents maybe induced in conductive objects or metal structures that are not part of the RF structure. 3. RF currents can cause severe burns. 4. Falls from towers may result from RF burns from antennas. 5. Electromagnetic interference may cause equipment to malfunction. 6. Electromagnetic fields may cause unintended ignition of explosives, fuel, and ordnance. 7. Grounding and bonding conductors that are adequate for dc and power frequencies may develop substantial voltage when fast pulses and radio frequency currents are present, due to inductance and skin effect. 13.7.4.2 Design and Construction
Engineering control in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C95.1 (2005) should be the primary method used to restrict exposure whenever practical. If engineering controls are not practical, work-time limits, based on the averaging intervals and other work-practice and administrative controls, must be used. 1. Warning Signs - Signs commensurate with the RFMW level must be used to warn personnel of RFMW hazards. These signs must be posted on access panels of RFMW enclosures and at entrances to and inside regulated areas. 2. Access Limitation - Access can be limited by controls such as barriers, interlocks, administrative controls or other means. The operation supervisor controls access to regulated areas and must approve non routine entry of personnel into these places. When practical, sources of RFMW radiation should be switched off when not in use. 3. Shielding - Shielding that encloses the radiating equipment or provides a barrier between the equipment and the worker may be used to protect personnel; the shielding design must account for the frequency and strength of the field. 4. Interlocks - Chamber or oven-type equipment that uses microwave radiation must have interlocks designed to (1) prevent generation of the radiation unless the chamber is sealed and (2) shut off such equipment if the door is opened.
5. Lockout/Tagout - The design shall incorporate features that allow the equipment to be locked out and tagged out for servicing. 6. PPE - PPE such as eyewear is not readily available and is generally not a useful option as protection against RFMW radiation and fields. Protection must therefore be achieved by other means. 13.7.4.3 Exemptions from RFMW Exposure Limits
The following items are exempt from the RFMW exposure limits; however, their manufacture is subject to Federal RFMW emission standards: 1. Cellular phones and two-way pagers and PDAs 2. Two-way, hand-held radios and walkie-talkies that broadcast between 10 kHz and 1 GHz and emit less than 7 W 3. Microwave ovens used for heating food. 4. Video display terminals. 13.7.4.4 Exposure Criteria for Pulsed RFMW Radiation
The basic considerations for peak-power exposure limits are consistent with ANSI/IEEE C95.1 (2005) as follows: 1. For more than five pulses in the averaging time and for pulse durations exceeding 100 milliseconds, normal time averaging applies and the time-averaged power densities should not exceed the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) found in IEEE/ANSI C95.1 (2005). 2. For intermittent pulse sources with no more than five pulses during the averaging time, the peak power density for any of the pulses should not exceed the limit given by the following equation.
This limits the specific absorption (SA) of each pulse to SA=28.8 joules/kg (wholebody or spatial average), or SA=144 joules/kg for 5 pulses. For intermittent pulse sources with no more than five pulses during the averaging time, the single-pulse SA of < 28.8 joules/kg, though higher than the threshold for auditory effect (clicking), is three orders of magnitude lower than the SAs that produce RF-induced unconsciousness. 3. Maximum E field for any of the pulses should be no more than 100 kV/m. This peak E-field limit is prescribed to eliminate the possibility of air breakdown or spark Page 112 of 139
discharges, which occur at 2,900 V/m. A large safety factor is applied to account for local field enhancements where nominally lower fields may result in arcing discharges.
a. The exposure values in terms of electric and magnetic field strength are the values obtained by spatially averaging values over an area equivalent to the vertical cross section of the human body (projected area). b. These plane-wave equivalent power density values, although not appropriate for nearfield conditions, are commonly used as a convenient comparison with MPEs at higher frequencies and are displayed on some instruments in use. c. The = frequency in MHz. d. It should be noted that the current limits given in this table may not adequately protect against startle reactions and burns caused by transient discharges when contacting an energized object.
13.8 METHODS
13.8.1
13.8.1.1
Wiring Methods
Hazards
Unsafe wiring methods can cause electrical injury or fire hazards. R&D work may require the use of wiring methods that are not anticipated in the NEC. These methods may not be consistent with normal commercial and industrial wiring methods, and should be reviewed by the AHJ for approval. 13.8.1.2
13.8.1.2.1
If the AHJ determines that wiring is an integral part of an apparatus (e.g., instrumentation interconnections), then the wiring methods used should be evaluated by the AHJ as providing safe operating conditions. This evaluation may be based on a combination of standards and engineering documentation where appropriate. Such an evaluation should consist of an analysis of all stresses imposed on any electrical conductive elements, including, but not limited to electrical, magnetic, heating, and physical damage potential. The wiring methods selected must mitigate to the greatest practical extent any undesired effects of a failure sequence. If cable trays are used as mechanical support for experimental circuits, they should be solely dedicated to this use and appropriately labeled. Any such use must be analyzed for detrimental heating effects of the proposed configuration.
13.8.1.2.2 Power Supply Interface Between Utility Systems and R&D Equipment
Utility supply voltages should be brought as near to the utilization equipment as possible using NEC-compliant wiring methods. Page 113 of 139
Any temporary wiring methods used (e.g., extension cords) should be approved by the AHJ for a specified limited time. Flexible cords and cables should be routed in a manner to minimize tripping hazards. The conventional use of cable trays is defined in NEC Article 392. If power cables are placed in a cable tray used for control and signal cables, separation is advised but not always required. According to NEC Article 392.6(E), multiconductor cables rated at 600 volts or less are permitted to be installed in the same cable tray. This presumes the cables are listed, having a minimum rating of 300 volts. However, cables rated over 600 volts require separation from those rated at 600 volts or less, per Article 392.6(F). Communications cables are required to be separated from light or power conductors by at least 2 inches, in accordance with NEC Article 800.52(A)(2). Certain experimental configurations or physical constraints may require the unconventional application of cable trays. Only the AHJ may approve these unconventional applications. If deemed necessary, enhanced fire protection or other safety measures shall be used to ensure safety to personnel and equipment. For coaxial, heliax, and specialty cables used for experimental R&D equipment, where NEC tray-rated cable types are not available which meet the technical requirements of the installation, the non-tray-rated cables shall be permitted with the approval of the AHJ. If deemed necessary, enhanced fire protection or other safety measures shall be used to ensure safety to personnel and equipment. When metallic cable tray is being used, it shall be bonded to the equipment grounding system, but should not be relied upon to provide the equipment ground. The experimental equipment must be appropriately grounded by some other method. 13.8.1.3 Operation and Maintenance
The operation and maintenance of R&D systems which use wiring methods that are not anticipated by the NEC require special considerations from all personnel. The AHJ evaluation for safe operating conditions must include a review of unique features in the engineering documentation.
13.8.2
Unconventional Practices
R&D performed by DOE contractors often incorporates the design of specialized equipment resulting in the need for specialized grounding and the use of materials and components in an unconventional manner. Even with these experimental needs and special design considerations, the maximum safety of personnel and equipment still needs to be ensured. The practice of using materials or components for purposes other than originally designed needs special consideration in their use, identification, personnel protection, and equipment protection. 13.8.2.1
13.8.2.1.1
Grounding
Hazards
The lack of proper grounding can cause electrical shock and/or burns to personnel. The NEC and NESC define legally-required grounding. To mitigate potential hazards, grounding shall be provided in accordance with the NEC and NESC.
13.8.2.1.2
NEC, Article 250, "Grounding" notes that grounds also provide: 1. Voltage limitation in case of lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines 2. Stability of voltage to ground under normal operation 3. Facilitated overcurrent device operation in case of ground faults 4. A path to conductive objects that will limit the voltage to ground. In R&D work there is one additional function for grounds: a common reference plane or system ground return for electronic devices, circuits, and systems. (See Section 11.3) It is recognized that such grounds are essential in some cases to control: 1. Noise associated with the primary power system: a. Incoming on the line b. Outgoing from local equipment 2. Ground wire noise 3. Circuit coupling a. Ground loop (shared circuit return) b. Magnetic, capacitive, or electro-magnetic. If system return impedances are low enough, then simple radio-frequency chokes can be used to limit this noise with no effect on the safety function. A 50-microhenry choke will add 1/50 of an ohm impedance at 60 Hz, 2 ohms impedance at 7.5 kHz and 30 ohms impedance at 100 kHz. Such an RF choke will serve to discriminate against noise on the ground circuit. An inexpensive RF choke may be installed in the safety ground by: 1. Pulling the green ground wire 20 feet longer than required. 2. Coiling the extra length into a 6-inch diameter coil (about 12 turns). 3. Securing it tightly wound with cable ties. 4. Connecting it into the circuit. These actions satisfy the NEC requirement for a continuous ground and noise isolation is also enhanced. Whatever scheme is used, the ground of experimental equipment shall be connected to the same ground as the facilities' electrical system to ensure equal potential. For practices involving hazardous materials, such as explosives, the grounding shall also comply with the requirements of Chapter 6, Special Occupancies.
13.8.2.1.3
Grounding can reduce the interference in the five types of coupling mechanisms listed here. 1. Conductive Coupling. (Source and load wired together) - It is sometimes practical to provide a separate return path for both the source and the load. If the system layout allows this, then conductive coupling cannot occur between these two, as is shown in Figures 13-1 and 13-2. 2. Capacitive Coupling. (High-impedance proximity coupling) - The technique for increasing resistance to capacitive coupling among cables is to ground one end of the shield to produce the shortest, most direct shunt path back to the source of the coupled current as is shown in Fig. 13-3. Caution: It is possible to inadvertently increase coupling between source and load if the shield ground does not properly shunt the current coupled onto the shield.
3. Inductive Coupling. (Near-field, low-impedance loop-to-loop coupling) - The technique for increasing resistance to magnetic coupling in shielded cables is to ground both ends of the shield to an effective signal return ground as is shown in Figures 13-4.
5. Instrumentation Grounding . - Equipment that is used to implement a control instrumentation strategy (see Fig. 13-5) makes use of a common signal ground as a reference for analog signals. Any additional grounds that are introduced into the control circuit will almost certainly cause ground loops to occur. A typical process instrumentation loop is shown in Figure 13-5. It is a DC system that operates at a specific voltage (24 volts in this case) to a master ground reference called a signal ground. The instrumentation signal varies within the range of 4-20 mA, depending upon the value of the variable (pressure, temperature, etc.) seen by the sensor. A precisely calibrated circuit takes this mA signal and converts it into a form that can be used by a process-control computer, PLC, dedicated instrument, or whatever controller that supervises the system. In this example, the mA signal is converted to a 1-5 V signal for a chart recorder. At 4 mA, the voltage measured by the recorder is 250 x.004 = 1 V. At 20 mA, the measured voltage is 5 V. Normally, the recorder scale is calibrated so the voltage reads directly in F, psi, etc.
The cabinet ground is a safety ground that protects equipment and personnel from accidental shock hazards while providing a direct drain line for any static charges or electromagnetic interference (EMI) that may affect the cabinets. The cabinet ground remains separate from the dc signal ground until it terminates at the master ground bus. Eliminating grounds is not feasible for some instruments, such as thermocouples and some analyzers, because they require a ground to obtain accurate measurements. Also, some instruments must be grounded to ensure personnel safety. When grounds cannot be eliminated, the solution to instrumentation ground loops lies in signal isolators. These devices break the galvanic path (dc continuity) between all grounds while allowing the analog signal to continue throughout the loop. An isolator also eliminates the noise of ac continuity (common-mode voltage) .
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Much of the information above came from the article entitled Causes and Cures of Instrumentation Ground Loops, by Pat Power, Moore Industries, Houston, TX.
13.8.2.1.4
Before starting each operation (experiment, test, etc.) the exposed portions of the grounding system should be visually checked for any damage and to determine that all necessary connections have been made. If more than one operation is conducted every day visual checks should be performed only at the beginning of each shift during which the grounding system will be needed. The adequacy of the grounding system should be verified annually. It is recommended that the grounding impedance within the equipment be maintained at 0.25 ohms or less. (See IEEE 1100). 13.8.2.2 Materials Used in an Unconventional Manner
The practice of using materials or components for purposes other than originally designed needs special safety considerations in use, identification, personnel protection, and equipment protection.
13.8.2.2.1 Hazards
The use of materials for something other than their original design criteria has the potential for providing an additional hazard, especially to personnel unfamiliar with the research apparatus. Personnel may assume that the material is used as originally designed and can unknowingly expose themselves to hazards unless special precautions are followed. Some examples of items used in an unconventional manner are: 1. Copper pipe used as an electrical conductor 2. Insulated flexible copper pipe used as an electrical conductor 3. Specially designed high-voltage or high-current connectors 4. Specially designed high-voltage or high-current switches 5. Water column used as a high-voltage resistor 6. Standard coax cable used in special high-voltage pulsed circuits 7. Water column used as a charged-particle beam attenuator 8. Commercial cable tray used as a mechanical support for experimental apparatus.
13.8.2.2.2 Design and Construction
During design, special consideration should be given to installing interlocks and protective barriers. Signs warning of the hazards should be posted to help prevent unsuspecting personnel from being injured.
13.8.2.2.3 Operation and Maintenance
Appropriate safety procedures and training should be part of the process to qualify personnel. The procedures should describe the methods used to promote safe work practices relating to work on energized circuits in accordance with Section 2.1.2, Considerations for Working on Energized Systems and Equipment, Section 2.13, Work Practices, and 29 CFR 1910.331-335.
13.8.3
Unless explicitly stated otherwise in this section, all work on energized/de-energized equipment will conform to Section 2.0, "General Requirements."
13.9.1
Capacitors
This section covers capacitors that are used in the following typical R&D applications: 1. Energy storage 2. Voltage multipliers 3. Filters 4. Isolators 13.9.1.1 Hazards
Examples of capacitor hazards include: 1. Capacitors may store and accumulate a dangerous residual charge after the equipment has been de-energized. Grounding capacitors in series may transfer rather than discharge the stored energy. 2. A hazard exists when a capacitor is subjected to high currents that may cause heating and explosion. 3. When capacitors are used to store large amounts of energy, internal failure of one capacitor in a bank frequently results in explosion when all other capacitors in the bank discharge into the fault. Approximately 10 joules is the threshold energy for explosive failure of metal cans.
4
4. High-voltage cables should be treated as capacitors since they have the capability to store energy. 5. The liquid dielectric and combustion products of liquid dielectric in capacitors may be toxic. 6. Because of the phenomenon of "dielectric absorption," not all the charge in a capacitor is dissipated when it is short-circuited for a short time. 7. A dangerously high voltage can exist across the impedance of a few feet of grounding cable at the moment of contact with a charged capacitor. 8. Discharging a capacitor by means of a grounding hook can cause an electric arc at the point of contact. (See 11.19.1.2.3). 9. Internal faults may rupture capacitor containers. Rupture of a capacitor can create a fire hazard. Dielectric fluids may release toxic gases when decomposed by fire or the heat of an electric arc. 10. Fuses are generally used to preclude the discharge of energy from a capacitor bank into a faulted individual capacitor. Improperly sized fuses for this application may explode. 13.9.1.2 Design and Construction
The following cautions in design and construction should be considered: 1. Isolate capacitor banks by elevation, barriers, or enclosures to preclude accidental contact with charged terminals, conductors, cases, or support structures. 2. Interlock the circuit breakers or switches used to connect power to capacitors. 3. Provide capacitors with current-limiting devices. 4. Design safety devices to withstand the mechanical forces caused by the large currents. 5. Provide bleeder resistors on all capacitors not having discharge devices. 6. Design the discharge-time-constant of current-limited shorting and grounding devices to be as small as practicable. 7. Provide suitable grounding.
13.9.1.2.1 Automatic Discharge Devices
1. Use permanently connected bleeder resistors when practical. 2. Have separate bleeders when capacitors are in series. 3. Use automatic shorting devices that operate when the equipment is de-energized or when the enclosure is opened, which discharges the capacitor to safe voltage (50 V or less) in less time than is needed for personnel to gain access to the voltage terminals. It must never be longer than 5 minutes. 4. For equipment with stored energy greater than 10 J, provide an automatic, mechanical discharging device that functions when normal access ports are opened. 5. Ensure that discharge devices are contained locally within protective barriers to ensure wiring integrity. They should be in plain view of the person entering the protective barrier so that the individual can verify proper functioning of the devices. 6. Provide protection against the hazard of the discharge itself.
13.9.1.2.2
Safety Grounding
1. Fully visible, manual grounding devices should be provided to render capacitors safe while work is being performed. 2. Grounding points must be clearly marked. 3. Prevent transferring charges to other capacitors.
13.9.1.2.3 Ground Hooks
1. Conductor terminations should be soldered or terminated in an approved crimped lug. All conductor terminations must be strain-relieved within 15 cm. 2. Ground hooks must be grounded and impedance should be less than 0.1 ohms to ground. 3. The cable conductor must be clearly visible through its insulation. 4. A cable conductor size of at least #2 AWG should be used, and the conductor shall be capable of carrying the available fault current of the system. 5. Ground hooks shall be used in sufficient number to adequately ground all designated points. 6. Permanently installed ground hooks must be permanently grounded and stored in a manner to ensure that they are used.
13.9.1.2.4 Discharge Equipment with Stored Energy in Excess of 10 Joules
1. A discharge point with an impedance capable of limiting the current to 500A or less should be provided. 2. The discharge point must be identified with a unique marker (example: yellow circular marker with a red slash), and should be labeled "HI Z PT" in large legible letters. 3. A properly installed grounding hook should first be connected to the current-limiting discharge point and then to a low-impedance discharge point (< 0.1 ohm) that is identified by a unique marker (example: yellow circular marker). 4. The grounding hooks should be left on all of these low-impedance points during the time of safe access. 5. The low-impedance points shall be provided whether or not the HI-Z current-limiting points are needed. 6. Voltage indicators that are visible from all normal entry points should be provided.
13.9.1.2.5 Fusing
1. Capacitors connected in parallel should be individually fused, when possible. 2. Caution must be used in the placement of automatic discharge safety devices with respect to fuses. If the discharge will flow through the fuses, a prominent warning sign should be placed at each entry indicating that each capacitor must be manually grounded before work can begin. 3. Special knowledge is required for high-voltage and high-energy fusing. 13.9.1.3 Operation and Maintenance 1. The protective devices (interlocks) shall not be bypassed unless by qualified electrical personnel when inspecting, adjusting, or working on the equipment. Proper procedures need to be followed when bypassing interlocks. Page 124 of 139
2. Procedures should be established for tagging the interlock and logging its location and the time when bypassed and restored. Written approval shall be obtained from an appropriate authority before bypassing an interlock. 3. Only qualified electrical personnel (those trained in the proper handling and storage of power capacitors and hazard recognition) shall be assigned the task of servicing/installing such units. 4. Proper PPE shall be used when working with capacitors. 5. Access to capacitor areas shall be restricted until all capacitors have been discharged, shorted, and grounded. 6. Any residual charge from capacitors shall be removed by grounding the terminals before servicing or removal. 7. Automatic discharge and grounding devices should not be relied upon. 8. Grounding hooks shall be inspected before each use. 9. Capacitor cases should be considered "charged." 10. Protective devices should be tested periodically. 11. All uninstalled capacitors capable of storing 5 joules or greater shall be short-circuited with a conductor no smaller than #14 AWG. 12. A capacitor that develops an internal open circuit may retain substantial charge internally even though the terminals are short-circuited. Such a capacitor can be hazardous to transport, because the damaged internal wiring may reconnect and discharge the capacitor through the short-circuiting wires. Any capacitor that shows a significant change in capacitance after a fault may have this problem. Action should be taken to minimize this hazard when it is discovered.
13.9.2
Inductors
This section covers inductors as well as electromagnets and coils that are used in the following typical applications: 1. Energy storage 2. Inductors used as impedance devices in a pulsed system with capacitors 3. Electromagnets and coils that produce magnetic fields to guide or confine charged particles 4. Inductors used in dc power supplies 5. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), and Magnetic Susceptibility Systems. 13.9.2.1 Hazards
Examples of Inductor hazards include: 1. Overheating due to overloads, insufficient cooling, or failure of the cooling system could cause damage to the inductor and possible rupture of the cooling system. 2. Electromagnets and superconductive magnets may produce large external force fields that may affect the proper operation of the protective instrumentation and controls.
3. Magnetic fields could attract nearby magnetic material, including tools and surgical implants, causing injury or damage by impact. 4. Whenever a magnet is suddenly de-energized, production of large eddy currents in adjacent conductive material can cause excessive heating and hazardous voltages. This state may cause the release or ejection of magnetic objects. 5. The worker should be cognizant of potential health hazards. 6. Interruption of current in a magnet can cause uncontrolled release of stored energy. Engineered safety systems may be required to safely dissipate stored energy. Large amounts of stored energy can be released in the event of a "quench" in a superconducting magnet. 13.9.2.2 Design and Construction
The following should be considered: 1. Provide sensing devices (temperature, coolant-flow) that are interlocked with the power source. 2. Fabricate protective enclosures from materials not adversely affected by external electromagnetic fields. Researchers should consider building a nonferrous barrier designed to prevent accidental attraction of iron objects and prevent damage to the cryostat. This is especially important for superconducting magnet systems. 3. Provide equipment supports and bracing adequate to withstand the forces generated during fault conditions. 4. Appropriately ground electrical supply circuits and magnetic cores and provide adequate fault protection. 5. Provide means for safely dissipating stored energy when excitation is interrupted or a fault occurs. 6. Provide appropriate warning signs to prevent persons with pacemakers or similar devices from entering areas with fields of greater than 0.001 Tesla. 7. Personnel exposure to magnetic fields of greater than 0.1 Tesla should be restricted. 8. When a magnet circuit includes switching devices that may not be able to interrupt the magnet current and safely dissipate the stored energy, provide a dump resistor connected directly across the magnet terminals that is sized to limit the voltage to a safe level during the discharge and safely dissipate the stored energy. 13.9.2.3 Operation and Maintenance
Verify that any inductor is de-energized before disconnecting the leads or checking continuity or resistance.
13.9.3
The conductors and connectors covered here are only those used in unconventional applications.
13.9.3.1
Hazards
Examples of hazards are as follows: 1. Metallic cooling-water pipes that are also used as electrical conductors present shock hazards (i.e., they may not be readily recognizable as electrical conductors). 2. Improper application or installation of connectors can result in overheating, arcing, and shock hazards. 3. Hazardous induced voltages and arcing can result from inadequate separation between high- and low-voltage cables. 4. Use of an improper cable for a given type of installation (routing) can result in a fire hazard. 13.9.3.2 Design and Construction
When working with special conductors and connectors for R&D applications, the following guidelines shall be implemented for design and construction: 1. Select cables that are listed by an NRTL for a given type of installation (such as in conduits, trays, underground, or in an enclosure) whenever possible. Since cables used for R&D are sometimes unique (such as some coaxial cables), they may not be available as NRTL listed. In that case, obtain AHJ approval in accordance with Chapter 12. 2. Where liquid- or gas-cooled conductors are used, sensing devices (temperature or coolantflow) shall be provided for alarm purposes or equipment shutdown if the cooling system malfunctions. 3. Provide adequate labeling, insulation, or other protection for metallic cooling-water piping used as electrical conductors. 4. Provide engineering calculations to support overrating of conductors for any application. 5. Avoid conductor loops (wide spacing) between high-current supply and return conductors to prevent voltage and current induction in adjacent circuits or structural members. 6. Ground coaxial cable shielding when possible. If test conditions require an ungrounded shield, provide barriers and warning signs to notify personnel that the shield is ungrounded and should be assumed to be energized. 7. Provide suitable routing and additional protection for coaxial cables used in pulsed-power applications where the braid of the coaxial cable rises to high voltage levels. 13.9.3.3 Operation and Maintenance
Cable connectors and connections should be checked after installation, periodically, and should be tightened as necessary. Special attention should be given to aluminum cable connections. Ensure that charges are not built up on equipment that has been disconnected, such as vacuum feed through systems.
13.9.4
This section describes electrical hazards associated with induction heating, RF equipment, and microwave equipment used in research. The hazards are mainly associated with highPage 127 of 139
power/high-frequency RF generators, waveguides and conductors, and the working coils producing high temperatures.
13.9.4.1 Hazards 1. RF power as high as 50 kW and frequency in the tens of kHz range to hundreds of MHz is supplied from the RF and microwave generators. Being close to or making contact with an unprotected coil, conductors or waveguide opening may result in severe body burns. 2. Dangerous voltages are present inside the power generators. 3. Dangerous levels of RF energy may be present in the laboratory. 13.9.4.2 Design and Construction 1. The heating coils, sources of high-frequency energy, and other energized parts outside the generator cabinet must be shielded or guarded to prevent access or contact. 2. The heating coil should have its cold (outside) lead properly grounded. 3. A coaxial cable of correct impedance and adequate construction may be desirable to deliver the RF power to the coil in order to prevent the leakage of the RF energy in the laboratory. 13.9.4.3 Operation and Maintenance 1. Shielding must be maintained to minimize RFMW radiation. 2. Wearing metallic objects when operating or maintaining the induction heating system is prohibited 3. Posting suitable warnings to indicate equipment hazards.
13.9.5
Batteries
Batteries are used in multiple applications. Specialized types exist that are suitable for different applications. Lead-acid storage battery types are the lead-antimony and the lead-calcium. The lead-antimony battery is low cost, high efficiency, small size and long life. The lead-calcium is typically chosen for use in UPS systems due to the similar characteristics of lead-antimony coupled with lower maintenance requirements. Both types use dilute sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. Alkali storage battery types are the nickel cadmium and the nickel metal hydride. These batteries use compounds of nickel peroxide and iron oxide for the plate materials, and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. Storage batteries of this type perform well in extremes of temperature. Other Batteries Specialized batteries for applications include silver zinc, silver cadmium and mercury. Manufacturers data sheets will provide guidelines for safety for these and other battery types.
13.9.5.1
13.9.5.1.1
Hazards
Chemical Hazards
For each battery type considered for use, obtain MSDS information and understand the specific hazards involved before use. Chemicals associated with battery systems may include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. cadmium (Cd) lead (Pb) lead peroxide (PbO2) lithium hydroxide (LiOH) potassium hydroxide (KOH) sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Many of these chemicals (and other battery components not listed here) are corrosive, poisonous and/or flammable. Possible consequences of a ruptured container or spilled electrolyte include: fire explosion chemical burns reactions to toxic fumes, solids or liquids
Electrical Hazards
13.9.5.1.2
Electrical safety during battery operations is primarily concerned with prevention of a direct short circuit across one or more cells. Due to the large amount of stored energy in the battery cells and the low internal resistance of the cells, a short circuit could have catastrophic results including an explosion of the cells involved. Suitable clothing has been discussed above. Personnel conducting electrical work on battery systems must follow the following guidelines: 1. tools must be fully insulated or must be half-lap and double-wrapped with vinyl electrical tape 2. only instruments having a non-conductive case (e.g., the yellow rubber holster provided with Fluke multimeters) are permitted in the vicinity of battery systems 3. storage battery systems may present terminal voltages of 48, 125 or 250 Vdc. If the physical construction of the battery system permits, inter-cell or inter-tier cables should be disconnected when performing work on the battery system 4. if one terminal of the battery system is bonded to ground, an additional hazard exists. Single-point contact between an exposed battery terminal and surrounding structures could result in very large short-circuit currents and possibly lead to fires or personal injury.
13.9.5.1.3 Physical / Mechanical Hazards
individual cell containers: may weigh in excess of 70 lbs are not typically provided with handles may be slippery and difficult to hold, especially when wearing gloves
Removal and replacement of these containers requires work in positions which are:
awkward uncomfortable possibly unstable. muscle strains, falls, or dropped containers dropped containers which rupture and spill electrolyte.
13.9.5.2 Design and Construction 1. isolate battery systems by elevation, barriers, or enclosures to preclude accidental contact with energized terminals, conductors, cases, or support structures 2. provide battery systems with overcurrent protection devices 3. provide means of partitioning or sectionalizing battery systems to allow multiple or single batteries to be disconnected (refer to Figure 13-7) 4. design safety devices to withstand the mechanical forces caused by the large currents 5. provide suitable grounding 6. provision should be made to contain possible spills of electrolyte.
13.9.5.3
Workers must handle the equipment carefully. The battery manufacturers installation, operating and maintenance instructions give guidance about appropriate handling. Personnel attempting physical movement of battery containers must plan their work accordingly. Safety during electrolyte-handling operations (measurement of cell specific gravities, addition of distilled water, addition or removal of electrolyte) requires the use of certain personal protective equipment and other materials. The following protective equipment must be available to personnel performing battery maintenance tasks: face shield and chemical splash goggles acid-tolerant gloves and apron, and shoe covers if the work warrants emergency shower / eye wash equipment capable of delivering 450 gallons of water within a 15-minute interval sodium bicarbonate solution (neutralizing agent for cleaning cell containers and neutralizing acid spills) Class C fire extinguisher adequately insulated tools of appropriate-length. If the cell container is tipped over, electrolyte may spill from the flash arrestor assembly. The flow of electrolyte will not be rapid, but is still a safety hazard. When lifting or moving electrolyte-filled containers, ensure they always remain in an upright position. In the event of an electrolyte spill:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) minimize contact with the electrolyte by leaving the spill area rinse contaminated protective equipment with water and sodium bicarbonate remove contaminated clothing in case of skin contact, immediately flush with water followed by washing with soap and water do not attempt to neutralize with sodium bicarbonate any acid spilled on the skin in case of eye contact, flush eyes for a minimum of 15 minutes, then provide transport for the individual to medical facilities. This must be done regardless of the apparent severity of the injury (g) electrolyte-contaminated material or equipment is considered hazardous material and is to be treated and disposed of as such in accordance with current guidance
Appropriate gloves and other PPE must be worn to minimize the hazard due to toxic material exposure. Workers must wash their hands with soap and water after completion of the work. There must be no eating or drinking in the vicinity of the battery system. 13.9.6 Lasers and X-Ray Equipment This section is applicable to laser systems and x-ray equipment used in research. Both fixed and portable equipment are covered regardless of input voltage. Only electrical hazards are addressed in this subsection. Refer to ANSI Z136.1 for laser hazards and 29 CFR 1910.306 (f) for x-ray hazards. 13.9.6.1 Hazards 1. Dangerous voltages are present inside the equipment. 2. Implosion hazards may exist with the covers removed.
3. Energy storage devices may present a hazard due to a residual charge even when the system is de-energized 4. Dangerous voltages can exist across the impedance of the grounding conductor during operation. 5. Failure of interlocks and safety devices may allow access to energized parts.
14.0 REFERENCES
Note: Since all reference materials are periodically revised, the attached references may include dated editions. Refer to the most current edition of each document when using the reference. American National Standards Institute ANSI C50.13-1989, Rotating Electrical Machinery. ANSI Z41-1991, Personal Protection-Protective Footwear. ANSI Z87.1-1979, Practice for Protection Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection. ANSI Z89.1-1986, Protective Headwear for Industrial Workers-Requirements. ANSI/LIA Z136.1-1993, Safe Use of Lasers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, 1984. ASME A17.2.1, Inspectors Manual for Electric Elevators, 1993. ASME A17.2.2, Inspectors Manual for Hydraulic Elevators, 1994. ASME A17.2.3, Inspectors Manual for Escalators and Moving Walks, 1994. ASME A17.3, Safety Code for Existing Elevators and Escalators, 1986. ASME B30.2, Overhead and Gantry Cranes, 2001. ASME B30.11, Monorail Systems and Underhung Cranes, 1998. ASME B30.16, Overhead Hoists (Underhung), 1998. American Society for Testing and Materials ANSI/ASTM D120-1987, Specifications for Rubber Insulating Gloves. ASTM D178-1988, Specifications for Rubber Insulating Matting. ASTM D1048-99, Standard Specification for Rubber Insulating Blankets. ASTM D1049-98, Standard Specification for Rubber Insulating Covers. ASTM D1050-99, Standard Specification for Rubber Insulating Line Hoses. ASTM D1051-02, Standard Specification for Rubber Insulating Sleeves. ASTM F478-02, Standard Specification for In-Service Care of Insulating Line Hose and Covers. Page 134 of 139
ASTM F496-02a, Standard Specification for the In-Service Care of Insulating Gloves and Sleeves. ASTM F696-02, Standard Specification for Leather Protectors for Rubber Insulating Gloves and Mittens. ASTM F711-02, Standard Specification for Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Rod and Tube Used in Live Line Tools. ASTM F855-03, Standard Specification for Temporary Protective Grounds to be Used on Deenergized Electric Power Lines and Equipment. ASTM F887-04, Standard Specification for Personal Climbing Equipment. ASTM F1116-03, Standard Test Method for Determining Dielectric Strength of Overshoe Footwear. ASTM F1117-03, Standard Specification for Dielectric Overshoe Footwear.,, ASTM F1505-01, Standard Specification for Insulated and Insulating Hand Tools. ASTM F1506-02ae1, Standard Performance Specification for Flame Retardant Textile Materials for Wearing Apparel for Use by Electrical Workers Exposed to Momentary Electric Arc and Related Thermal Hazards. ASTM F1742-03, Standard Specification for PVC Insulating Sheeting. ASTM PS-57, Test Method for Determining the Ignitibility of Clothing by the Electrical Arc Exposure Method Using a Mannequin. ASTM PS-58, Test Method for Determining the Arc Thermal Performance (Value) of Textile Materials for Clothing by Electric Arc Exposure Method Using Instrumented Sensor Panels. Crane Manufacturers Association of America CMAA-70, Specifications for Top Running Bridge and Gantry Type Multiple Girder Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes. CMAA-74, Specifications for Top Running and Under Running Single Girder Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes. CMAA Crane Operators' Manual. CMAA Overhead Crane Inspection and Maintenance Checklist. Department of Energy Orders, Manuals, and Guides O 433.1, Maintenance Management Program for DOE Nuclear Facilities, 2001. O 4330.4B, Maintenance Management Program, 1994 (Archived). O 440.1A, Worker Protection Management for DOE Federal and Contractor Employees, 1998. Page 135 of 139
M 440.1-1, DOE Explosives Safety Manual, 1995. Department of Defense Standards DOD 6055.9-STD, DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, Department of Defense, 1986. DOD FIPS-PUB-94, Guidelines on Electrical Power for ADP Installations. DOD MIL-HDBK-419A (Volumes 1 and 2), Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipment and Facilities (Basic Theory, Applications). Department of Labor-OSHA 29 CFR 1910, Occupational Safety and Health Standards. 29 CFR 1926, Safety and Health Regulations for Construction. 30 CFR 57, Safety and Health Standards-Underground Metal and Nonmetal Mines. 30 CFR 75, Mandatory Safety Standards-Underground Coal Mines. 30 CFR 77, Mandatory Safety Standards, Surface Coal Mines and Surface Work Areas of Underground Coal Mines. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers IEEE 80-2000, Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, 1986. IEEE 141-1993, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants, (IEEE Red Book). IEEE 142-1991, IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, (IEEE Green Book). IEEE 484-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications. IEEE 450-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented Large Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications. IEEE 516-2003, IEEE Guide for Maintenance Methods on Energized Power-Lines. IEEE 524-2003, IEEE Guide to the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line Conductors. IEEE 524A-1998, IEEE Guide to Grounding During the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line Conductors. IEEE 978-1984, IEEE Guides for In-Service Maintenance and Electrical Testing of Live-Line Tools. IEEE 1048-2003, IEEE Guide for Protective Grounding of Power Lines. Page 136 of 139
IEEE 1100-1999, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment. IEEE/ANSI C-2, National Electrical Safety Code, 2002. IEEE C62.11-1987, IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arrestors for AC Power Circuits. IEEE/ANSI C95.1 (1999) Standard for Safety Levels With Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3KHz to 3000GHz. Instrument Society of America ANSI/ISA RP12.06.01-2003, Wiring Practices Instrumentation Part 1: Intrinsic Safety. for Hazardous (Classified) Locations,
ANSI/ISA - S82.01 - 1994, Safety Standard for Electrical and Electronic Test, Measuring, Controlling, and Related Equipment - General Requirements. ANSI/ISA - S82.02 - 1988, Safety Standard for Electrical and Electronic Test, Measuring, Controlling, and Related Equipment: Electrical and Electronic Test and Measuring Equipment, (Partial Revision and Redesignation of ANSI C39.5-1974). ANSI/ISA - S82.03 - 1988, Safety Standard for Electrical and Electronic Test, Measuring, Controlling, and Related Equipment: Electrical and Electronic Process Measurement and Control Equipment, (Partial Revision and Redesignation of ANSI C39.5-1974). National Electrical Manufacturers Association NEMA 250-1997, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volt Maximum). NEMA 280, Application Guide for Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters, 1990. NEMA MG1, Motors and Generators, 2003. NEMA PB2.2, Application Guide for Ground Fault Protection Devices for Equipment, 2004. National Fire Protection Association NFPA Handbook, Electrical Installations in Hazardous Locations, by P. J. Schram and M. W. Earley, 2003. NFPA 70, National Electrical Code, 2002. NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance, 2002. NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, 2004. NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code, 2002. NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity, 2000. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, 1997. Page 137 of 139
NFPA 325, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile Solids, 1994. NFPA 496, Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment, 2003. NFPA 497M, Classification of Gases, Vapors, and Dusts for Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 1991. NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lighting Protection Systems, 1997. Underwriters Laboratory UL 45, UL Standard for Safety for Portable Electric Tools, 1999. UL 508, UL Standard for Safety for Industrial Control Equipment, 2003. UL 698, UL Standard for Safety for Industrial Control Equipment for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 1999. UL 877, UL Standard for Safety for Circuit Breakers and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 1999. UL 886, UL Standard for Safety for Outlet Boxes and Fittings for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 1999. UL 894, UL Standard for Safety for Switches for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 1999. UL 913, Intrinsically Safe Apparatus and Associated Apparatus for Use in Class I, II, and II, Division I, Hazardous (Classified) Locations, 2004. UL 1244, Electrical and Electronic Measuring and Testing Equipment, 2000. UL, Hazardous Location Equipment Directory, 2004. Other Reference Materials Cooper Crouse Hinds (CCH Digests) EIA/TIA-607-1994, Commercial Building Grounding/Bonding Requirements. IEC (6)1010-1, Safety Requirements for Electrical Equipment for Measurement, Control, and Laboratory Use, 1999. International Association of Electrical Inspectors, Soares Book on Grounding. Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Third Edition, 2002. Uniform Building Code Chapter 51, 1997 Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard, Handicapped Wheelchair Lifts