Six Sigma
Six Sigma
Six Sigma
at edge along the circumference of the diode casing, or the shorter of two leads.
Figure 1.5 shows a typical LED package.
Integrated Circuits Integrated circuits, or ICs, come in a variety of package
styles.
Two common types, both of which are used in the 6.270 board design, are called the
DIP (for dual-inline package), and the PLCC (for plastic leaded chip carrier).
In both types, a marking on the component package signi
es \pin 1" of the com-
ponent's circuit. This marking may be a small dot, notch, or ridge in the package.
1.1. ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUE 7
Pin 1 Pin 7
Pin 14 Pin 8
Notch marking
Figure 1.6: Top View of 14-pin DIP
M
Motorola 68HC11A0
Pin 1 Marking
Figure 1.7: Top View of 52-pin PLCC
After pin 1 is identi
ed, pin numbering proceeds sequentially in a counter-clockwise
fashion around the chip package.
Figure 1.6 shows the typical marking on a DIP package. Figure 1.7 is a drawing
of the PLCC package.
DIP Sockets Most of the integrated circuits (ICs) are socketed. This means that
they are not permanently soldered to the 6.270 board. Components that are socketed
can be easily removed from the board if they are damaged or defective.
Do not place the components into the sockets before you mount the sockets onto
the board! Sockets are also used to avoid the need to solder directly to ICs,
reducing
the likelihood of heat damage.
DIP sockets also have a similar marking to those found on the components they
will be holding. DIP sockets are not mechanically polarized, but the marking
indicates
how the chip should be mounted into the socket after the socket has been soldered
into the board.
PLCC Sockets PLCC sockets are polarized, however: a PLCC chip can only be
inserted into the its socket the \correct" way. Of course, this way is only
correct if
the socket is mounted right in the
rst place.
8 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
When assembling the 6.270 board, a marking printed onto the board indicates the
correct orientation of the PLCC socket.
Capacitors Quite a few di#erent kinds of capacitors are made, each having di#erent
properties. There are three di#erent types of capacitors in the 6.270 kit:
# Monolithic. These are very small-sized capacitors that are about the size and
shape of the head of a match from a matchbook. They are excellent for use when
small values are needed (0.1 #F and less). They are inexpensive and a fairly
new capacitor technology. Monolithic capacitors are always non-polarized.
# Electrolytic. These capacitors look like miniature tin cans with a plastic
wrapper. They are good for large values (1.0 #F or greater). They become bulky
as the values increase, but they are the most inexpensive for large capacitances.
Electrolytics can have extremely large values (1000 #F and up). They are
usually polarized except for special cases; all the electrolytics in the 6.270 kit
are polarized.
# Tantalum. These capacitors are compact, bulb-shaped units. They are excel-
lent for larger values (1.0 #F or greater), as they are smaller and more reliable
than electrolytic. Unfortunately they are decidedly more expensive. Tantalum
capacitors are always polarized.
As indicated, some capacitors are non-polarized while other types are polarized.
It's important to mount polarized capacitors correctly.
On the 6.270 boards, all polarized capacitor placements are marked with a plus
symbol (+) and a minus symbol ( ). The capacitors themselves are sometimes are
obviously marked and sometimes are not. One or both of the positive or negative
leads may bemarked, using (+) and ( ) symbols. In this case, install the lead
marked
(+) in the hole marked (+).
Some capacitors may not be marked with (+) and ( ) symbols. In this case, one
lead will be marked with a dot or with a vertical bar. This lead will be the
positive
(+) lead.
Polarized capacitors that are mounted backwards won't work. In fact, they often
overheat and explode. Please take care to mount them correctly.
Inductors The inductor used in the 6.270 kit looks like a miniature coil of wire
wound about a thin plastic core. It is about the size of a resistor.
Some inductors are coated with epoxy and look quite like resistors. Others are
big bulky coils with iron cores.
Inductors are not polarized.
1.1. ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUE 9
Transistors The transistors used in the 6.270 kit are small, three-wire devices.
They are distinctive because they are the only three-wire devices used.
Transistors are polarized devices.
The table shown in Figure 1.8 summarizes this discussion with regard to polarity
issues.
Device Polarized? E#ect of Mounting Incorrectly
Resistor no
Isolated R-Pack no
Common R-Pack yes circuit doesn't work
Diode yes circuit doesn't work
LED yes device doesn't work
Monolithic capacitor no
Tantalum capacitor yes explodes
Electrolytic capacitor yes explodes
DIP socket yes user confusion
PLCC socket yes 52-pin severe frustration
Integrated circuit yes overheating; permanent damage
Inductor no
Transistor yes circuit doesn't work
Figure 1.8: Summary of Polarization E#ects
1.1.4 Component Mounting
Good Bad Ugly
Figure 1.9: Flat Component Mounting
When mounting components, the general rule is to try to mount them as close to
the board as possible. The main exception are components that must be folded over
before being soldered; some capacitors fall into this category.
10 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
Good Bad Ugly
Figure 1.10: Upright Component Mounting
Most resistors and diodes must be mounted upright while others may lay
at. If
space has been provided to mount the component
at, then do so, and try to keep it
as close to the board as possible. If not, then just bend one lead over parallel
to the
component, and mount the component tightly.
See Figures 1.9 and 1.10 for clari
cation.
1.1.5 Component Value Markings
Various electronic components have their values marked on them in di#erent ways.
For the same type of component, say, a resistor, there could be several di#erent
ways
that its value would be marked.
This section explains how to read the markings on resistors and capacitors. Other
devices, such as transistors and integrated circuits, have their part number
printed
clearly on the device package.
Resistors
The largest resistors|in terms of wattage, not resistive value|simply have their
value printed on them. For example, there are two large, rectangular 7.5
resistors in
the 6.270 kit that are marked in this fashion.
Other resistors are labelled using a standard color code. This color code consists
of three value bands plus a tolerance band. The
rst two of the three value bands
form the value mantissa. The
nal value band is an exponent.
It's easiest to locate the tolerance band
rst. This is a metallic silver- or gold-
colored band. If it is silver, the resistor has a tolerance of 10%; if it is gold,
the
resistor has a tolerance of 5%. If the tolerance band is missing, the tolerance is
20%.
The more signi
cant mantissa band begins opposite the tolerance band. If there
is no tolerance band, the more signi
cant mantissa band is the one nearer to an end
of the resistor.
Figure 1.11 shows the meaning of the colors used in reading resistors.
A few examples should make this clear.
# brown, black, red: 1,000
, or 1k
.
1.2. THE MICROPROCESSOR BOARD 11
Color Mantissa Multiplier
Value Value
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 100
Orange 3 1000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000
Blue 6 1,000,000
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Figure 1.11: Resistor Color Code Table
# yellow, violet, orange: 47,000
, or 47k
.
# brown, black, orange: 10,000
, or 10k
.
Capacitors
Reading capacitor values can be confusing because there often are numbers printed
on
the capacitor that have nothing to do with its value. So the
rst task is to determine
which are the relevant numbers and which are the irrelevant ones.
For large capacitors (values of 1#F and greater), the value is often printed
plainly
on the package; for example, \4.7#F". Sometime the \#" symbol acts as a decimal
point; e.g., \4#7" for a 4.7#F value.
Capacitors smaller than 1#F have their values printed in picofarads (pF). There
are 1,000,000 pF in one #F.
Capacitor values are similar to resistor values in that there are two digits of
man-
tissa followed by one digit of exponent. Hence the value \472" indicates 47 # 102
picofarads, which is 4700 picofarads or 0.0047 #F.
1.2 The Microprocessor Board
The 6.270 Microprocessor Board is the brains and brawn of the 6.270 Robot
Controller
system. It uses a Motorola 6811 microprocessor equipped with 32K of non-volatile
memory. It has outputs to drive four motors, inputs for a variety of sensors, a
serial
communications port for downloading programs and user interaction, and a host of
other features.
12 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
1.2.1 Assembling the Microprocessor Board
Before beginning assembly, make sure to have awell-lighted, well-
ventilatedworkspace.
Make sure that all of the electronic assembly tools are available.
All of the 6.270 boards have component placements silkscreened directly onto the
board. In addition, diagrams in these instructions will provide copies of the
diagrams
printed on the boards, often at better resolution. Refer to the printed diagrams
as
often as necessary to be sure that components are being placed correctly.
Figure 1.12 illustrates the component placement on the microprocessor board.
The instruction checklist may be marked o# as each step is completed.
The component numbering for parts on the microprocessor board increments in
a counter-clockwise fashion around the board for resistors, capacitors, and
resistor
packs.
1{2 Get the 6.270 Microprocessor Board, and determine which is the
\component side." The Microprocessor Board is the largest of the 6.270
boards.
The side of the board that has been printed with component markings is the
\component side." This means that components are mounted by inserting them
down from the printed side; then they are soldered on the obverse, the unprinted
side.
Please make sure that the components are mounted on the proper side of the
board! It would be a terrible mistake to mount everything upside down.
2{2 Resistor Packs.
Begin by installing the resistor packs. Most of the resistor packs are polarized:
the common terminal end is marked with a dot or band. On the 6.270 board,
nd a square metal pad at one end of the area that each resistor pack will
mount. Insert the resistor pack such that the marked end mounts in the square
hole. (The square hole is more easily discernable on the unprinted solder side
of the board.)
The \caddy-cornering" technique of soldering the two end terminals
rst is
helpful here.
RP1{47k
#9, 10 pins, polarized, marked \E47K
."
RP2{47k
#4, 5 pins, polarized, marked \E47K
."
RP3{1k
#3, 6 pins, non-polarized, marked \V1K
."
RP4{1k
#5, 6 pins, polarized, marked \E1K
."
RP5{22k
#3, 6 pins, non-polarized, marked \B223GA."
1.2. THE MICROPROCESSOR BOARD 13
Figure 1.12: 6.270 Microprocessor Board Component Placement
14 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
3{2 Non-polarized Capacitors.
These capacitors are not polarized. After installing, solder and clip leads close
to the board.
DIP4{16 pins
DIP5{20 pins
DIP6{20 pins
DIP7{14 pins
DIP8{16 pins
DIP9{14 pins
DIP10{16 pins
DIP11{8 pins
DIP12{14 pins
U3{74HC373.
6{2 Remaining Sockets.
With the orange utility knife, cut center support from DIP2, a 28-pin
socket. Install on top of U3, with the notch marking as indicated. Solder.
Install PLCC1, 52-pin square socket for the 6811. The Pin 1 marking
is indicated by the numeral \1" and an arrow in the socket; this marking
mounts nearest to U2, the 32K RAM chip. There should be a beveled
notch in the upper-left corner of the chip and the outline printed on the
board, with respect to the pin 1 marking. Be absolutely sure to mount this
socket correctly; the socket is polarized and will only let you mount the chip
into it one way. Solder.
7{2 Female Socket Headers.
To cut socket headers to length, repeatedly score between two pins using the
orange knife. Score on both sides of one division and then snap the strip in
two. Do not try to snap header pieces before they have been su#ciently scored,
or they will break, destroying one or both of the end pieces in question.
When mounting the sockets, pay attention to how well they are lining up verti-
cally. Sometimes reversing the way a strip is mounted will help its connections
to line up better with the others. It may be helpful to insert a strip of male
header into the socket to hold them at proper horizontal and vertical placement
before soldering.
Refer to Figure 1.13 for placement of these parts.
Cut three 8-long strips, or use six 4-long strips. Install the Digital Input
connector block. Solder.
Cut three 5-long strips. Install the Port D I/O connector block. Solder.
Use three 4-long strips. Install the Analog Input connector block. Solder.
Cut one 12-long strip. Install the Motor Output connectors. Solder.
16 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
Expansion Bus Connector
Connector
Port D I/O
Connector
Digital Input Analog Input
Connector
Connector
Power
Motor
Connector
Output
Motor
Connector
IR Out
Figure 1.13: 6.270 Microprocessor Board Header Placement
1.2. THE MICROPROCESSOR BOARD 17
Cut one 8-long and one 14-long strip. Install the Expansion Bus con-
nector. Solder.
Cut two 3-long strips. Install the Motor Power connector. Solder.
LED1{red
LED2{red
LED3{red
LED4{red
LED5{red
LED6{red
LED7{green
LED8{green
LED9{green
LED10{green
LED11{green
LED12{yellow
9{2 Resistors.
Most resistors mount vertically: try to mount them perfectly upright, with one
end very close to the board, and the wire lead bent around tightly.
Others mount
at on the board: try to get the body of the resistor very close
to the board.
If you have trouble discerning colors, you may wish to have your teammates
handle this task. It is fairly di#cult to read the color bands from 1
8 watt
resistors, even to the trained eye.
R1{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
R2{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
18 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
R3{100k
, brown, black, yellow
R4{10k
, brown, black, orange
R5{3.3k
, orange, orange, red
R6{2.2k
, red, red, red
R7{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
R8{10k
, brown, black, orange
R9{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
R10{10k
, brown, black, orange
R11{2.2M
, red, red, green
R12{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
R13{47k
, yellow, violet, orange
R14{1k
, brown, black, red
R15{1k
, brown, black, red
10{2 Large Capacitors.
All of these capacitors are polarized. Make sure that the lead marked (+) on
the capacitor goes into the hole that is marked (+). If the capacitor leads are
not marked (+) or ( ), the lead marked with a dot or bar is the (+) lead.
C1{10 #F
C2{10 #F
C6{2.2 #F
C9{4.7 #F
C11{4.7 #F
C14{1 #F
11{2 Diodes.
Diodes are polarized. Mount them such that the lead nearer the banded end
goes into the square hole on the circuit board.
D1{1N4001. This diode has a black epoxy body and fairly thick leads.
D3{1N4148
D4{1N4148
D5{1N4148
D6{1N4148
12{2 Ceramic Resonator.
Install XTAL1, 8 Mhz. ceramic resonator.
13{2 Inductor.
Install L1, 1 uH.
14{2 Switches.
From bottom of board, insert leads for battery pack. Note polarization:
black lead goes in hole marked ( ), red lead in hole marked (+). Solder
from top of board and clip leads.
1.2.2 Testing the Microprocessor Board
This section explains a few simple tests to be performed before installing the ICs
in
the sockets.
Full board testing and debugging will be handled in the laboratory.
1{2 Check the solder side of the board for proper solder connections. Speci
cally:
look for solder bridges and cold solder joints.
Solder bridging is when a piece of solder \bridges" across to adjacent terminals
that should not be connected.
1.2. THE MICROPROCESSOR BOARD 21
Cold solder joints are recognized by their dull luster. A cold solder joint
typically
makes a
aky electrical connection. Make sure that all of the solder joints are
shiny with a silver color.
Make sure that joints do not have too much solder.
2{2 Check continuity (resistance) between power and ground of your board. Power
may be obtained from the cathode of D1 and ground from the black lead of the
battery pack.
Resistance should increase as the board capacitor charges. The board resistance
should measure between 1k
and 10k
. If a reading of zero ohms is observed,
the board probably has a power to ground short. Do not proceed with testing
until this is corrected.
3{2 Insert 4 AA batteries into battery holder.
4{2 Turn on board power switch.
5{2 Examine the yellow LED: it should be glowing slighly. If not, turn o# board
power immediately. Check for power short.
6{2 Measure board voltage (as above with continuity check). You should have
approximately 5.5 volts.
7{2 Install ICs in the board. Be careful not to damage the component leads when
installing the chips into their sockets! Make sure to get the orientation correct|
refer to Figure 1.12 if necessary.
U1{68HC11A0 microprocessor
U4{74HC138
U5{74HC374
U6{74HC244
U7{74HC132
U8{74HC4053
U9{74HC10
U10{74HC390
U11{LM386
U12{74HC04
22 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
DIP17{20 pins
DIP18{16 pins
DIP19{16 pins
DIP20{16 pins
LED13{red
LED14{green
LED15{red
LED16{green
LED17{red
LED18{red
5{2 Trimpot.
Install VR2, 100k
.
6{2 Resistors.
R16, 2.2k
, red, red, red. Value of \4.7K" printed on board is incorrect.
R17, 2.2k
, red, red, red. Value of \4.7K" printed on board is incorrect.
7{2 Capacitors.
C15{220#F, polarized. Be sure to mount with correct polarity.
C16{0.1#F, non-polarized
C17{0.1#F, non-polarized
C18{0.1#F, non-polarized
C19{0.1#F, non-polarized
1.3. THE EXPANSION BOARD 25
8{2 Transistors.
Install transistors Q1 and Q2 (type MPS2222A) where indicated on the Ex-
pansion Board. The transistors mount so that their
at edge is above the
at
edge of the placement marking.
9{2 Female socket headers.
LCD Connector
Analog
Input
Port
Motor Connectors
Connectors
LED Driver
Figure 1.16: Expansion Board Female Header Mounting
Refer to Figure 1.16 to be sure of placement of these parts.
Cut three 16-long strips. Install the Analog Input Port. Solder.
Cut one 14-long strip. Install the LCD Connector. Note: The correct
position for this header is not the location marked LCD CONNECTOR
on the board. The correct position is indicated properly in Figure 1.16, at
the top edge of the board.
Cut six 2-long strips. Install Motor Connectors and LED Driver Con-
nectors.
10{2 DIP Switches.
Install SW5, 4-position DIP switch. Install so that switch handles face outward
over edge of board and are easy to manipulate.
26 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
11{2 Male Header Pins.
TOP OF BOARD (Component Side)
Insert male header pins
from underside of board;
SOLDER from top of board.
Figure 1.17: Mounting Method for Male Header Pins
The following steps deal with the interface pins that protrude from the Expan-
sion Board to the Microprocessor Board.
When mounting these pins, insert upward from the underside of the board so
that the maximal pin lengths protrude downward (see Figure 1.17). These pins
are then soldered from the top, component side of the board.
Be careful to make sure the pins are mounted perfectly normal to the surface of
the Expansion Board, as there are quite a few pins that must all mate properly
with the Microprocessor Board.
For the following instructions, refer to Figure 1.18 for pin placement.
U17{74HC374
U18{74HC4051
U19{74HC4051
U20{74HC4051
U21{L293D. Slide gold heat sink onto chip before installing in socket.
4{2 See a lab TA for
nal board checkout.
28 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
1.3.3 After Board Testing
After both the Microprocessor Board and the Expansion Board have been tested and
are working, the two boards may be bolted together at three points with the 6-32 #
1
2" nylon stando#s and screws.
The stando# that is installed near the piezo beeper will need to be whittled a bit
in order to mount properly.
1.4 The LCD Display
TOP OF LCD (Display Side)
Insert male header pins from
underside of LCD board;
SOLDER from top of LCD.
Figure 1.19: LCD Connector Mounting
The LCD display provided in this year's 6.270 kit can display two rows of 16 char-
acters. The system software makes it easy to write code that prints messages to
this
display, for status, debugging, or entertainment purposes.
The display needs to have a 14-pin male header soldered to its interface. Fig-
ure 1.19 shows how these pins should be installed, in a similar fashion to the
pins
protruding from the Expansion Board.
Cut a 14-long male header strip and mount and solder to the LCD as indicated
in the
gure.
1.5 The Battery System
The 6.270 Robot Controller system has two battery power supplies. The
rst is the
four AA alkaline cells that snap into the Microprocessor Board. These are used to
run the microprocessor and sensors. They are also used to keep the program in the
RAM when the board is switched o#.
These batteries should power the microprocessor board for about
fty hours of
operation before needing to be replaced. The board should not be left on
inadvertently
because the batteries will be drained.
1.5. THE BATTERY SYSTEM 29
The second power supply plugs into the motor power jack. The reason for having
a separate battery for the motors is to provide isolation between the two
supplies.
When a motor turns on or reverses direction, it draws a huge surge of current.
This
causes
uctuations in the battery voltage. For motors, this is not a problem, but a
microprocessor circuit could fail. For this reason, separate batteries are used
for the
motors and the microprocessor.
The motor battery is a bank of three Gates 2 volt lead-acid cells wired in series,
yielding a 6 volt supply. Each cell is rated for 2.5 ampere-hours of operation.
These lead-acid cells are extremely powerful devices. Car batteries are
constructed
of similar lead-acid technology. When handling the batteries, be extremely careful
not
to short the (+) an ( ) terminals of the battery together. A huge surge of current
will
ow, melting the wire and causing burns. In extreme cases, batteries can explode
and cause serious injury.
The Gates cells were donated to 6.270 by Gates Energy Products, Inc.
The following instructions explain how to build the battery recharger and how
to wire the Gates cells into power-packs. Note that contest rules prohibit using
the
Gates cells in any con
guration other than what is presented here.
1.5.1 The Battery Charger
The battery charger can charge two 6 volt battery packs simultaneously. Each pack
can be charged at either of two rates:
# Normal charge. Marked Slow on the charger board, this is the normal charge
position. A battery pack will recharge completely in about ten to fourteen hours.
When the batteries become slightly warm they are fully charged.
When operating in normal mode, a green LED will be lit to indicate proper
charging. In this mode, it is safe to leave batteries on charge for periods of up
to 24 hours without causing damage.
# Fast charge. Marked Fast on the charger board, this position will recharge a
battery pack in
ve to seven hours.
Batteries being charged in fast mode should be monitored closely; as soon as
the pack becomes warm to the touch, the batteries are completely charged and
should be removed from the charger.
Permanent damage to the battery pack can occur if left on fast charge for more
than ten hours. Needless to say, this mode should be used with care.
30 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
Figure 1.20: Battery Charger Component Placement
Assembly Instructions
Figure 1.20 shows component placement on the battery charger board.
1{2 Get the battery charger board and determine which is the component
side. The component side is marked with the placement guidelines.
2{2 Resistor Pack.
Install RP7, 1.2k
#4, 8 pins, marked \B122GA." The board is labelled for 1k
;
this marking is incorrect. This resistor pack consists of four isolated resistors
so orientation is not signi
cant.
3{2 LEDs.
Mount LEDs so that the short lead is inserted in the shaded half of the place-
ment marking.
LED19{red
LED20{red
LED21{green
LED22{green
4{2 DC Power Jacks.
Install J3 and J4, DC power jacks. When soldering, use ample amounts of
solder to
ll the mounting holes completely.
5{2 Power Resistors.
R18{7.5
, 5 watts
1.5. THE BATTERY SYSTEM 31
R19{7.5
, 5 watts
R20{15
, 2 watts, brown, green, black
R21{15
, 2 watts, brown, green, black
6{2 Slide Switches.
Cut a 12" to 16" length of the black/red twisted pair cable for use in making
the battery cable. Strip and tin the wire ends.
32 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
Rectangular Configuration Triangular Configuration
Figure 1.21: Two Battery Pack Con
gurations
Barrel is positive (+)
Tip is negative (-)
Heat-shrink
tubing
RED WIRE
BLACK WIRE
DC Power Plug Plug Cover
‘‘Use 12 to 16 inches of wire’’
Figure 1.22: Battery Plug and Cable Wiring Diagram
1.6. THE INFRARED TRANSMITTER 33
Heat shrink tubing is used on the shorter terminal of the DC power plug. The
tubing acts as an insulator to minimize the likelihood of an electrical short at
the plug terminals. It is essential that this wiring be performed carefully
because
a short in the power plug will short out the battery terminals and create a
serious
hazard.
Proper polarity is important. The use of red wire to signify the (+) terminal
and black wire to signify the ( ) terminal is an international standard. Mount
the black wire to the short terminal and the red wire to the long terminal.
After soldering, slide the heat shrink tubing down over the short terminal and
shrink it. Also, crimp the prongs of long terminal onto the red wire as a stress
relief.
Before installing the cable onto a battery pack, use an ohmmeter to make abso-
lutely sure that the cable is not shorted. The cable should measure open circuit
or in
nite resistance. If a short is placed across the terminals of lead-acid bat-
teries (like the Gates cells), a huge surge of current will
ow, melting the wire
causing the short and possibly causing the battery to explode.
Constructing the Battery Pack
Wire the 3-cell pack to the battery cable as indicated in Figure 1.23. Use the red
and
black wire to make the two jumpers between the cells (color of these jumpers does
not matter). Make sure to get polarities correct.
After the battery pack is wired, an overall con
guration (as suggested in Fig-
ure 1.21 can be selected. The battery pack may be held in the desired con
guration
using a variety of materials, including rubber bands, cable ties, glue, and/or
electrical
tape.
1.6 The Infrared Transmitter
The infrared (IR) transmitter board emits modulated infrared light that can be de-
tected by the Sharp IR sensors (of type GP1U52). The board has infrared transmit-
ting LEDs that are driven by an oscillator circuit (the 74HC390 chip) and a power
op-amp (LM386) on the Microprocessor Board.
Each infrared LED is wired in series with a visible LED, so that if current is
owing
through the infrared LED, it must also
ow through the corresponding visible LED.
It should therefore be easy to determine if the IR LEDs are emitting light.
34 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
+ - + - + -
Gates ‘‘Cyclon’’ D cell
Gates ‘‘Cyclon’’ D cell
Gates ‘‘Cyclon’’ D cell
RED WIRE
BLACK WIRE
Figure 1.23: Battery Pack Wiring Diagram
1.6.1 Assembly Instructions
Figure 1.24 illustrates component placement on the infrared transmitter board.
Note
that the LED numbering that was printed on the actual boards is incorrect. The
numbering shown in the
gure is correct.
1{2 Resistor Packs.
Both of the resistor packs are polarized. Mount so that the marked end of the
resistor pack is placed into the square pad on circuit board.
RP8{47
#4, 5 pins, marked \E47
."
RP9{47
#4, 5 pins, marked \E47
."
2{2 Visible LEDs.
The visible LEDs used on the infrared transmitter board have clear lenses. That
is, they should look either clear or milky-white when they are unlit. Be sure to
use this variety of LED here. These LEDs can handle more current than the
LEDs that have been used in other circuitry. The LEDs will glow red when
powered.
1.6. THE INFRARED TRANSMITTER 35
Figure 1.24: Infrared Transmitter Component Placement
Mount LEDs so that the short lead is inserted in the shaded half of the place-
ment marking.
LED31{MLED71 IR LED
LED32{MLED71 IR LED
LED33{MLED71 IR LED
36 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
LED34{MLED71 IR LED
LED35{MLED71 IR LED
LED36{MLED71 IR LED
LED37{MLED71 IR LED
LED38{MLED71 IR LED
4{2 Cable and Connector.
From underside of IR board, insert red wire into hole marked (+) and
black wire into hole marked ( ). Solder from top of board.
Mount other end of wire to outside pins of a three-pin male connector. Use
guideline shown in Section 1.8.
The infrared transmitter plugs into the connector labelled ir out on the Micro-
processor Board (see Figure 1.13), with the red lead inserted into the end marked
(+)
on the board.
1.7 The Motor Switch Board
The Motor Switch Board allows manual control of up to four motors. This is useful
when testing and debugging mechanisms because the motors can be switched on
forward, backward, and o# easily.
It is important to realize that the amount of power delivered to the motors by
the Motor Switch Board will be di#erent than the amount delivered when the motors
are driven by the electronics on the Microprocessor Board. The Motor Switch Board
has diode circuitry to simulate the power loss of the Microprocessor Board's
control
electronics, but there will still be a di#erence.
Motors driven from the Expansion Board will operate at even less power than
those driven by the Microprocessor Board.
The careful designer will test mechanisms both from the Switch Board and from
the Microprocessor Board before committing to them.
1.7.1 Assembly Instructions
Figure 1.25 provides a reference to parts mounting on the Motor Switch Board.
1{2 Get Motor Switch Board, and determine which side is the component
side. The component side is marked with the parts placement layout.
1.8. CABLE AND CONNECTOR WIRING 37
Figure 1.25: Motor Switch Board Component Placement
2{2 Diodes.
These diodes have black epoxy bodies. Polarity matters: Install the diodes with
the banded end as marked on the circuit board.
D7{1N4001
D8{1N4001
D9{1N4001
D10{1N4001
3{2 DC Power Jack
Install J5, a DC power jack. Fill mounting holes completely with solder when
soldering.
4{2 Switches.
Cut a piece of thin plastic tubing to the size of the length of one 8-tooth gear
and place it on the shaft. Make sure that the tubing is not rubbing against the
motor housing when the shaft turns. This could cause a slight decrease in the
performance of the motor. The LEGO gear should be able to
t snuggly over
the shaft and the tubing.
Place a drop of super glue around the outer area of the tubing that is furthest
away from the motor housing as shown in Figure 1.31. Make sure that too much
52 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
glue is not used. If there is too much super glue, it may leak into the motor
housing and jam up the motor. Using a paper napkin, pat o# any of the excess
super glue.
Side View
Motor power contacts
Motor shaft
Motor Mount Tubing
Place glue here,
on outside of tubing
Figure 1.31: Motor Housing with Tubing
Get an 8-tooth LEGO gear. It has two inside surfaces: a beveled surface and
a
at surface. The gear will slide on easier when the beveled side is placed on
rst. Push the gear in all the way. It should
t without slippage. The gear
should not be wobbly.
Using a hot glue gun, glue the outer edge of the tubing to the gear by placing
the glue into the inside of the gear.
After the glue has dried, remove the gear from the shaft. The tubing should
come o# with it and should be inside the gear. Cut o# any excess tubing (tubing
that is longer than the gear) from the side that mounts onto the motor.
Assemble the jig as shown in Figure 1.32. A second 2#4 plate will mounted to
the motor.
Mix some epoxy and place it on the top connectors of the base plate. Put
enough to hold the motor.
54 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
One face of the motor has two notched openings. Place the motor on the 2#4
plate such that the notches are facing up. This is to prevent the epoxy from
getting into the motor.
Position the motor on its plate so that the 8-tooth gear is meshed between the
two 24-tooth gears, and the center line of the motor shaft is parallel with the
axles of the 24-tooth gears.
Wait
ve to
fteen minutes for the epoxy to harden.
Wiring a Cable and Plug to the Polaroid Motor
Motor cables may be constructed with either two strands of ribbon cable wire or
the twisted pair red/black cable. Cut an 8 inch to 12 inch length of whichever
wire is preferable.
On the side of the motor there should be two metal lead/pads. Solder one wire
lead to each pad. After proper soldering, hot glue may be used to hold the wire
to the side of the motor for a stress relief.
Using the connector plug wiring technique shown in Figure 1.27 through Fig-
ure 1.30, wire the motor plug. Polarity does not matter since the plug may be
inserted into a motor power jack in either orientation.
1.10.2 Servo Motor
Figure 1.33 illustrates a typical servo motor similar to the one provided in the
6.270
kit. The servo motor has a short cable that terminates in a three-lead connector,
as
illustrated. The functions of these lead are power, ground, and the control
signal.
Figure 1.34 illustrates the cable that should be built to interface the servo
motor
to the 6.270 board. As indicated in the diagram, the servo cable plugs into the
pwr
out port located on the Microprocessor Board, and the port d2 signal located on
either the Microprocessor Board or the Expansion Board.
The adapter cable should be made as long as needed.
1.10. MOTOR WIRING 55
Control (white or orange)
Power (red)
Ground (black or brown)
Figure 1.33: Servo Motor and Integral Connector Plug
Signal
Power
Ground
Plugs into Servo Motor
Plugs into 6.270 Board
Port D2
PWR OUT+
PWR OUTUse
12 inches wire.
Polarizing diode
(1N4001 or equiv.)
Figure 1.34: Servo Motor Cable Wiring Diagram
56 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
1.11 Computer Cable Wiring
The double-headed modular plug cable supplied in the 6.270 kit is used to connect
the board with VAXstation 3100 and DECstation 3100 computers. This cable has a
normal modular plug on one end (this end plugs into the board) and a o#-center-
keyed
plug on the other end (this end plugs into the computer).
This section provides directions for building a cable to interface the 6.270 board
with a VAXstation 2000 computer. The following parts are used:
# length of modular cord with plug attached to one end
# DB-9 female computer connector
# DB-9 connector housing
When building the cable adapter, be careful to follow the wiring directions pre-
cisely. Refer to Figure 1.35 as needed.
Begin by cutting the spade lug connectors from the modular plug cable. Strip
a bit of insulation from the ends of the four wires and tin the wire ends.
The cable provided in the kit is about 15 feet long. It may be cut to a shorter
length if desired.
Thread the wire ends through the metal housing as indicated in Figure 1.35.
Tie a knot in the end of the cable about one to two inches from the free wire
ends. This knot will act as a stress relief when the cable is pulled.
Connect the wire leads to the three terminals of the DB-9 connector as indicated
in the diagram.
Note: Make sure that the wiring of the modular cable you are using matches
the diagram; e.g., that the black wire is on the left when looking down on the
modular plug as in the diagram. If the black wire is on the right, reverse the
wiring of the black and yellow connections.
Install the connector assembly in the plastic plug housing (this is not pictured
in the diagram). The two screw handles must be installed before the housing is
snapped together.
Snap the housing together and the job is done. The one-inch long aluminum
tube may be discarded; it may not be used as a kit part.
1.11. COMPUTER CABLE WIRING 57
Modular Plug
with exposed contacts
facing upward
Cable Sheath
DB-9 Pin 2
(VAX TxD)
Metal
Housing
Knot in cable
as stress-relief
DB-9
female
connector
DB-9 Pin 3
(VAX RxD) DB-9 Pin 7
(VAX gnd)
BLACK YELLOW
RED
GREEN
BLACK
RED
GREEN
YELLOW
Figure 1.35: VAXstation 2000 Computer Cable Wiring Diagram
58 CHAPTER 1. ASSEMBLY MANUAL
Chapter 2
Motors
This chapter introduces several types of motors commonly used in robotic and
related
applications.
DC motors are inexpensive, small, and powerful motors that are used widely.
Geartrain reductions are typically needed to reduce the speed and increase the
torque
output of the motor.
Stepper motors are not part of the 6.270 kit but commonly used in robotics,
particular in mechanisms that perform linear positioning, such as
oppy and hard
disk drive head motors and X-Y tables.
Servo motors are used in radio control airplanes to control the position of wing
aps and similar devices. A servo motor includes a built-in geartrain and is
capable
of delivering high torques directly. The output shaft of a servo does not rotate
freely
as do the shafts of DC motors and stepper motors, but rather is made to seek a
particular angular position under electronic control.
2.1 DC Motors
DC motors are widely used in robotics for their small size and high energy output.
They are excellent for powering the drive wheels of a mobile robot as well as
powering
other mechanical assemblies.
2.1.1 Ratings and Speci
cations
Several characteristics are important in selecting a DC motor. The
rst two are its
input ratings that specify the electrical requirements of the motor.
59
60 CHAPTER 2. MOTORS
Operating Voltage. If batteries are the source of power for the motor, low
operating
voltages are desirable because fewer cells would be needed to obtain the speci
ed
voltage. However, the electronics to drive motors are typically more e#cient at
higher voltages.
Typical DC motors may operate on as few as 1.5 volts on up to 100 volts.
Roboticists often use motors that operate on 6, 12, or 24 volts.
Operating Current. Ideally one would like a motor that produces a great deal of
power while requiring a minimum of current. Typically however the current
rating (in conjunction with the voltage rating) is a good indication of the power
output capacity of a motor.
Motors that draw more current will deliver more power. Also, a given motor
draws more current as it delivers more output torque. Thus current ratings are
often given when the motor is stalled. At this point it is drawing the maximal
amount of current.
A low voltage (e.g., 12 volt or less) DC motor may draw from 100 milliamps to
several amps at stall, depending on its design.
The next three ratings describe the motor's output characteristics:
Speed. Usually this is speci
ed as the speed in rotations per minute (RPM) of the
motor when it is unloaded, or running freely, at its speci
ed operating voltage.
Typical DC motors run at speeds from several thousand to ten thousand RPM.
Torque. The torque of a motor is the rotary force produced on its output shaft.
When a motor is stalled it is producing the maximum amount of torque that
it can produce. Hence the torque rating is usually taken when the motor has
stalled and is called the stall torque.
The motor torque is measured in ounce-inches (in the English system). A
rating of one ounce-inch means that the motor is exerting a tangential force of
one ounch at a radius of one inch from the center of its shaft.
Torque ratings may vary from less than one ounce-inch to several dozen ounce-
inches for large motors.
Power. The power of a motor is the product of its speed and torque. The power
output is greatest somewhere between the unloaded speed (maximum speed, no
torque) and the stalled state (maximum torque, no speed).
Figure 2.1 lists some speci
cations of the Polaroid motor provided in the 6.270
kit (the speed and torque ratings were subjectively determined through comparisons
with similar sized DC motors and could stand closer measurement).
2.1. DC MOTORS 61
Speci
cation Rating Comment
Voltage 5 volts normal low voltage
Current up to 4 amps high current capacity
Speed 4000-6000 RPM slightly slow (?)
Torque unknown unusually high
Figure 2.1: Polaroid Motor Speci
cations
The motor is used to eject
lm in Polaroid instant cameras. For this application,
the fact that it is low voltage (5 volts) is very important so that only a few
cells are
needed to run the motor. The motor is used with a several stage geartrain to
reduce
its speed and generate the torque need to eject the
lm. The fact that it is high
torque is very desirable.
For an application in powering a mobile robot, the motor is very suitable. Again
the low voltage is desirable, as is the high torque output. Probably the only
undesir-
able characteristic is the high current draw; however, this is the only way to
achieve
the high torque at low voltages.
2.1.2 Measuring Motor Torque
Edge of table
Motor
Mass
String
Motor shaft
Figure 2.2: Experiment to Measure Motor Torque
A simple experiment can be performed to accurately determine the torque rating of
a motor. All that is needed is a motor to be measured, a power supply for the
motor,
a piece of thread, a mass of known weight, a table, and a ruler.
The mass is attached to one end of the thread. The other end of the thread is
attached to the motor shaft so that when the motor turns the thread will be wound
62 CHAPTER 2. MOTORS
around the motor shaft. The motor shaft must be long enough to wind the thread
like a bobbin.
The motor is put near the edge of a table with the mass hanging over the edge, as
illustrated in Figure 2.2. When the motor is powered on, it will begin winding up
the
thread and lifting the mass. At
rst this will be an easy task because the moment
arm required to lift the mass is small|the radius of the motor shaft.
But soon, the thread will wind around the shaft, increasing the radius at which
the force is applied to lift the mass. Eventually, the motor will stall. At this
point,
the radius of the thread bobbin should be measured. The torque rating of the motor
is this radius per amount of mass that was caused the stall.
2.1.3 Speed, Torque, and Gear Reduction
It was mentioned earlier that the power delivered by a motor is the product of its
speed and the torque at which the speed is applied. If one measures this power
over
the full range of operating speeds|from unloaded full throttle to stall|one gets a
bell-shaped curve of motor power output.
When unloaded, the motor is running at full speed, but at zero torque, thus
producing zero power. Conversely, when stalled, the motor is producing its maximum
torque output, but at zero speed|also producing zero power! Hence the maximum
power output must lie somewhere in between.
A typical DC motor operates at speeds that are far too high to be useful, and
torques that are far too low. Gear reduction is the standard method by which a
motor
is made useful.
Using gear reduction, the motor shaft is
tted with a gear of small radius that
meshes with a gear of large radius. The motor's gear must revolve several times
into
order to cause the large gear to revolve once (see Figure 4.7). It is evident that
the
speed of rotation is decreased, but, overall power is preserved (excepting losses
due
to friction) and therefore the torque must increase.
By ganging together several stages of this gear reduction, an immensely strong
torque can be produced at the
nal stage.
The challenge when designing a high-performance gear reduction for a competitive
robot is to determine the amount of reduction that will allow the motor to operate
at highest e#ciency.
If the normal operating point of a motor/geartrain assembly is faster than the
peak e#ciency point, the geartrain will be able to accelerate quickly, but will
not be
operating at peak e#ciency once it has reached the maximum velocity.
Depending on the mass of the robot and the performance desired, di#erent gear
ratios might be appropriate. Experimentation is probably the best way to choose
the
best geartrain.
2.1. DC MOTORS 63
1/125 sec.
Motor on
Motor off
75% Duty Cycle
50% Duty Cycle
25% Duty Cycle
Figure 2.3: Example of Several Pulse Width Modulation Waveforms
2.1.4 Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse width modulation is a technique for reducing the amount of power delivered
to
a DC motor. This is typically used in mechanical systems that will not need to be
operated at full power all of the time. For a 6.270 robot, this would often be a
system
other than the main drivetrain.
Instead of reducing the voltage operating the motor (which would reduce its
power), the motor's power supply is rapidly switched on and o#. The percentage
of time that the power is on determines the percentage of full operating power
that
is accomplished.
Figure 2.3 illustrates this concept, showing pulse width modulation signals to
operate a motor at 75%, 50%, and 25% of the full power potential.
A wide range of frequencies can be used for the pulse width modulation signal.
6.270 system software used to control the motors operates at 1000 Hertz.
A PWM waveform consisting of eight bits, each of which may be on or o#, is
repetitiously used to control the motor. Every 1
1000 of a second, a control bit deter-
mines whether the motor is enabled or disabled. Every 1
125 of second the waveform is
repeated.
Because one to eight bits may be set in the PMW waveform, the motors may be
adjusted to eight power levels between o# and full on.
64 CHAPTER 2. MOTORS
2.2 Stepper Motors
Stepper motors have several electromagnetic coils that must be powered
sequentially
to make the motor turn. By reversing the order that the coils are powered, a
stepper
motor can be made to reverse direction. The rate at which the coils are
respectively
energized determines the velocity of the motor up to a physical limit.
Typical stepper motors have two or four coils. The shaft of a stepper motor moves
between discrete rotary positions that correspond to the particular coil that was
last
energized. Because of this precise position controllability, stepper motors are
excellent
for applications that require high positioning accuracy.
Stepper motors are used in X-Y scanners, plotters, and machine tools,
oppy and
hard disk drive head positioning, computer printer head positioning, and numerous
other applications.
Unfortunately, the 1992 6.270 kit does not include a servo motor.
2.3 Servo Motors
Servo motors incorporate several components into one device package:
# a small DC motor;
# a gear reduction drive for torque increase;
# an electronic shaft position sensing and control circuit.
The output shaft of a servo motor does not rotate freely, but rather is com-
manded to move to a particular angular position. The electronic sensing and
control
circuitry|the servo feedback control loop|drives the motor to move the shaft to
the
commanded position. If the position is outside the range of movement of the shaft,
or if the resisting torque on the shaft is too great, the motor will continue
trying to
attain the commanded position.
Servo motors are used in model radio control airplanes and helicopters to control
the position of wing
aps and other
ight control mechanisms. They also have been
used to drive the legs of Genghis, the MIT A.I. Laboratory's walking robot.
The gear reduction unit incorporated into most servo motors is quite powerful.
The servo motor provided in the 6.270 kit delivers approximately 50 ounce-inches
of
torque.
2.3.1 Control
A servo motor has three wires: power, ground, and control. The power and ground
wires are simply connected to a power supply. Most servo motors operate from
ve
volts.
2.3. SERVO MOTORS 65
The control signal consists of a series of pulses that indicate the desired
position
of the shaft. Each pulse represents one position command. The length of a pulse in
time corresponds to the angular position.
Typical pulse times range from 0.7 to 2.0 milliseconds for the full range of
travel
of a servo shaft. Most servo shafts have a 180 degree range of rotation. The
control
pulse must repeat every 20 milliseconds.
2.3.2 Application
For 6.270 purposes, servo motors would be excellent for operating a rotating
sensor
platform. A 1:2 gear-up from the servo motor to the platform could be used to
yield a
full 360 degrees of rotation. Because the servo includes position sensing
circuitry, an
external sensor to measure the position of the sensor platform would not be
needed.
Servo motors would also be excellent for meshing with a gear rack, accomplishing
highly controllable rectilinear motion.
66 CHAPTER 2. MOTORS
Chapter 3
Batteries
Robots may be powered by a variety of methods. Some large robots use internal
combustion engines to generate electricity or power hydraulic or pneumatic
actuators.
For a small robot, however, battery power o#ers a number of advantages over
any other method. Batteries are cheap, relatively safe, small, and easy to use.
Also,
motors convert electrical power into mechanical power with relative e#ciency.
There are many di#erent types of batteries, each with its own tradeo#s. This
chapter introduces a variety of batteries, explains standard ways of rating
batteries,
and discusses the design of the 6.270 battery charger.
3.1 Cell Characteristics
Two terms that are often used interchangeably, but actually have a di#erent
meaning,
are the words battery and cell. Technically, a cell is the unit that houses a
single
chemical reaction to produce electricity. A battery is a bank of cells.
3.1.1 Voltage
Cells use chemical reactions to produce electricity. Depending on what materials
are
used to create the reaction, a di#erent voltage will be produced. This voltage is
called
the nominal cell voltage and is di#erent for di#erent battery technologies.
For example, a standard
ashlight cell uses a carbon-zinc reaction and has a cell
voltage of 1.5 volts. Car batteries have six lead-acid cells, each with a cell
voltage of
2.0 volts (yielding the 12 volt battery).
3.1.2 Capacity
In general, the larger a cell is, the more electricity it can supply. This cell
capacity is
measured in ampere-hours, which are the number of hours that the cell can supply a
67
68 CHAPTER 3. BATTERIES
certain amount of current before its voltage drops below a predetermined threshold
value.
For example, 9 volt alkaline batteries (which consist internally of six 1.5 volt
alkaline cells) are generally rated at about 1 ampere hour. This means that the
battery can continuously supply one ampere of current for one hour before \dying."
In the capacity measurement, the 9 volt alkaline battery \dies" when the battery
voltage drops below 5.4 volts.
However, the amp-hour measurement is usually taken to assume a twenty hour
discharge time. Then the 9 volt battery would need to be tested by having it
supply
1=20th of its rated capacity|this would be 50 milliamps|for twenty hours. If it
were
drained more quickly, as in the one-hour test, the capacity would turn out to be
quite
a bit less.
3.1.3 Power Density
There are large di#erences in capacity per unit weight|the cell's power density|
across battery types. This is a of the cell's most important rating.
Inexpensive carbon-zinc cells have the lowest power density of all cell types.
Alka-
line cells have about ten times the power density of carbon-zinc cells. Nickel-
cadmium
cells have less power density than alkalines, but they are rechargeable.
3.1.4 Discharge Curve
When a cell discharges, its voltage lessens over the course of the cell life. The
char-
acteristic discharge curve varies considerably over di#erent types of cell.
For example, alkaline cells have a fairly linear drop from full cell voltage to
zero
volts. This makes it easy to tell when the cell is weakening.
Nickel cadmium cells have a linear voltage drop region that then drops o# sharply
at some point. For this reason, when consumer products use nickel cadmium cells,
the device will suddenly \die" with no warning from the cells. One minute, they
are
ne, the next, they are dead. For a ni-cad cell, this is normal, but it can be
annoying.
3.1.5 Internal Resistance
A cell can be modelled as a perfect voltage source in series with a resistor. When
current is drawn out of the cell, its output voltage drops as voltage is lost
across the
resistor.
This cell characteristic, called the internal resistance, is important because it
determines the maximum rate at which power can be drawn out of the cell.
3.1. CELL CHARACTERISTICS 69
For example, lead acid cells have very low internal resistance. This makes them
well suited for the application of being a car battery, because huge amounts of
current
can be draw from the cells to operate the car's starter motor.
Another example comes from a consumer photography
ash. During the recycle
time of a standard
ash unit, the
ash's cells are supplying charge as quickly as they
can. The rate is limited largely by the cells' internal resistance. Alkaline cells
have
higher internal resistance than nickel-cadmium cells. Thus, the
ash unit takes longer
to recycle when alkaline cells are used.
Cells that have low internal resistance, in particular, lead acid and nickel
cadmium
cells, can be dangerous to work with, because if the cell is shorted, huge
currents can
ow. These currents will heat the metal wire they are
owing through to very high
temperatures, easily melting the insulation from them. The cells will also become
very hot and potentially may explode.
For this reason it is very important not to short a lead acid or nickel cadmium
cell. Alkaline cells and carbon zinc cells, with their high internal resistances,
will still
deliver quite a bit of current when shorted, but nowhere near the amounts of the
other two types of cells.
3.1.6 Rechargeability
Another important characteristic of a cell is whether or not it is rechargeable,
and
if so, how many times. Because cells are quite toxic to the environment, use of
rechargeable cells is an important issue.
Unfortunately, the cells with the highest power densities|alkaline and lithium|
are not rechargeable. But advances in rechargeable technologies are catching up.
The Memory E#ect
The term \memory e#ect" refers to a phenomenon observed in rechargeable nickel
cadmium cells in which cells that are only partially discharged before being
recharged
have a tendency to \remember" the level of discharge, and, over time, only become
usable to that discharge level.
There is disagreement amongst cell manufacturers as to whether or not this phe-
nomenon actually exists, but most concur that nickel cadmium cells should be dis-
charged fully before being recharged.
Some cell technologies, such as lead acid cells and the new nickel hydride, do not
exhibit this e#ect. Lead acid cells typically last for several hundred cycles of
full
discharge, and a thousand cycles of partial discharge.
70 CHAPTER 3. BATTERIES
3.1.7 Cost
Last but not least is cost. It would be wonderful if the best cells did not cost
sub-
stantially more than the cells with worst performance, but this is not the case.
For consumer purposes, it is generally agreed that nickel cadmium cells, which
cost several times as much as alkaline cells, are much less expensive over the
cells'
lifetimes. Nickel cadmium cells can be recharged several hundred times while
alkaline
cells are disposed of after one use. On the other hand, nickel cadmium cells
exhibit
the \sudden death" property mentioned earlier.
Some new battery technologies, like the very high capacity, rechargeable nickel
hydride cells, are very expensive, but o#er twice the capacity of either lead acid
or
nickel cadmium cells.
Power Internal
Cell Type Voltage Density Resistance Rechargeable Cost
Carbon-Zinc 1.5 volts low high no low
Alkaline 1.5 volts high high no moderate
Lithium 1.5 volts very high low no high
Nickel-Cadmium 1.2 volts moderate low yes moderate
Lead-Acid 2.0 volts moderate low yes moderate
Nickel-Hydride 1.2 volts high low yes very high
Figure 3.1: Table of Cell Characteristics
Figure 3.1 summarizes the characteristics of commonly available cell technologies.
Probably the worst thing one can say about all types of battery is that \it
doesn't
last long enough." Unfortunately this is more or less true, but things in the
battery
technology
eld are improving. The advent of laptop computers and the need for
convenient electric cars have created a real market need for improved batteries.
3.2 Battery Packs
There are two ways that cells may be combined to make batteries: series
connections
and parallel connections.
When cells are connected in series, their voltages add but their amp-hour capacity
does not. Series batteries should be composed of cells of equal capacities.
When cells are connected in parallel, their voltages remain the same, but their
capacities add.
3.3. 6.270 BATTERY CHARGER 71
3.3 6.270 Battery Charger
-
+
12 volt
regulated DC
input
BR1
R19/7.5Ω, 5W
R21/15Ω, 2W
LED19
LED21
RP7/1.2K
SW6
J 3
RP7/1.2K
R18/7.5Ω, 5W
R20/15Ω, 2W
LED20
LED22
RP7/1.2K
SW7
J 4
RP7/1.2K
"FAST"
-
-
+
"SLOW"
+
Figure 3.2: Battery Charger Schematic Diagram
The rule of thumb for charging batteries is to charge them at a rate equal to one-
tenth
of the amp-hour capacity of the battery. For example, if a battery is rated for
2.5
amp-hours (as are the Gates cells included in the 6.270 kit), then it would
normally
be charged at a rate of 250 milliamps.
Figure 3.2 shows the schematic diagram of the battery recharger. The essence of
the charger is simply a resistor in series with the battery hooked up to a
regulated
voltage power supply.
The resistor limits the amount of current that can be delivered to the battery as
a function of the battery voltage. Suppose that the battery is at its nominal 6
volt
level. Then the voltage across the resistor is the voltage supply minus 6 volts.
The
current can be calculated as V=R, where V is the voltage drop and R is the
resistor's
value.
The 6.270 battery charger allows switching between two resistors for each of the
two battery charge circuits. The 15
resistor limits current to about 250 to 300
milliamperes for a six volt battery. This is the normal charge rate. The 7.5
resistor
limits current to about 500 to 600 milliamperes. This is a quick charge rate and
should not be maintained after the battery is fully charged.
The resistors dissipate a fair bit of energy as heat and hence must be physically
large. The amount of power dissipated is measured in watts and is calculated by
the
law W = V #I, where V is voltage across the resistor and I is the current
travelling
through it. Since I = V=R, the power dissipation rate is W = V 2=R.
72 CHAPTER 3. BATTERIES
Assume a 4.8 volt drop across either resistor (12 volt supply minus 6 volt battery
level minus 1.2 volts diode drop). For the 7.5
resistor, the power dissipation is then
4:82=7:5, which is approximately 3 watts. A 5 watt resistor was selected for use
so as
to allow a margin of error and to provide better heat dissipation.
A similar calculation can be made for the 15
resistor, for which a 2 watt rating
was chosen.
The status LEDs are lit by the voltage drop across the resistor in use.
The bridge recti
er acts to polarize the voltage input, so that either an AC or
DC supply can be used. It also drops about 1.2 volts from the supply as per normal
diode characteristics.
Chapter 4
LEGO Design
by Fred G. Martin and Randy Sargent
LEGO Technics are fun to play with and allow the construction of great things, but
they are not always easy to use. In fact, it is often quite challenging to build a
LEGO
device that does not fall apart at the slightest provocation.
A well-designed LEGO device should be reliable, compact, and sturdy. It if makes
extensive use of gears, the geartrain should be able to rotate cleanly and easily.
If it
is a structural element, it should hold together squarely and resist breaking
apart.
This chapter will assist the reader in his or her endeavors to create well-
designed
LEGO devices. It will introduce some properties of the LEGO Technic system that
are not obvious at
rst glance.
4.1 Fundamental LEGO Lengths
Question: how long is the LEGO unit brick?
Answer: One Fundamental LEGO Unit (FLU)!
Actually, the Fundamental LEGO Unit can be expressed in other (more standard)
lengths, such as the millimeter. More interestingly, the ratio between the length
or
width of a brick and its height is not one, but a ratio of two small integers: 6
to 5
(see Figure 4.1).
This ratio, coupled with the existence of one-third height
at pieces, allows the
creation of vertical spacings that perfectly match unit horizontal ones (see
Figure 4.2).
By using these perfect LEGO spacings, vertical stacks of bricks can be reinforced
with
cross-beams, creating sturdy structures that will not fall apart.
73
74 CHAPTER 4. LEGO DESIGN
8.0mm
9.6mm
Note 6:5 ratio of unit height to unit length.
Figure 4.1: The Unit LEGO Brick
1 and 2/3
vertical units 2 horizontal units
Figure 4.2: Perfect 2-Unit Vertical LEGO Spacing
4.1. FUNDAMENTAL LEGO LENGTHS 75
Black or Grey
Connector Peg
Figure 4.3: Clamping Two Beams at Perfect Vertical Spacing
Figure 4.3 shows an example of two 8-long LEGO beams (separated by a two-unit
perfect spacing) braced at the ends by two 4-long LEGO beams. This structure is
extremely sturdy.
Other combinations of perfect vertical spacings can be created thanks to the one-
third height bricks.
A little mathematics helps us compute all of these standard combinations. Sup-
pose a represents the number of full-height vertical units and b the number of
one-third
height vertical units. Then the height of a LEGO assembly (in mm) would be
9:6(a +
1
3
b) (4:1)
since a full vertical unit is 9.6 mm high.
If c represents the number of horizontal units, then 8c is the length of a LEGO
beam in mm. We then need to
nd integral solutions that make these two quantities
equal:
9:6(a +
1
3
b) = 8c (4:2)
which reduces to
2(3a + b) = 5c (4:3)
The following table lists some solutions to this integer equation:
76 CHAPTER 4. LEGO DESIGN
Full Height One-Third Horizontal
Units Units Units
1 2 2
3 1 4
5 0 6
6 2 8
8 1 10
Bracing LEGO structures using the perfect vertical spacings is a key method of
creating a structurally sturdy machine.
4.2 LEGO Gearing
Making a good LEGO geartrain is indeed a
ne art. However, this art can be learned,
and having some simple information can make a big di#erence.
One of the
rst things to notice about LEGO gears is their diameter, which
indicates at what spacings they can be meshed together.
The natural units for the sizes of LEGO gears is the horizontal LEGO spacing
unit. The following table shows the radii of the various LEGO gears:
Gear Teeth Gear Radius
(number) (horizontal units)
8 0.5
16 1
24 1.5
40 2.5
Notice that three of the gears (namely, the 8-tooth, 24-tooth, and 40-tooth) have
radii that, when used together in pairs, an integral spacing is formed. So, for
example,
the 8-tooth gear may be used with the 24-tooth or the 40-tooth, but not the 16-
tooth.
Figure 4.4 shows how an 8-tooth gear would mesh with a 24-tooth gear along a
LEGO beam.
The 16-tooth gears only mesh with each other according to this logic.
Gears may be meshed together at odd diagonals. However, this requires great
care, as it is di#cult to achieve a spacing that is close enough to the optimal
spacing
(which can be computed by adding the gears' radii). If the gears are too close,
they
will bind or operate with high frictional loss; if they are too far, they will
slip.
4.2. LEGO GEARING 77
8 24
Figure 4.4: Meshing of an 8-Tooth Gear and a 24-Tooth Gear
8
16
Figure 4.5: Diagonal Meshing of an 8-Tooth Gear and a 16-Tooth Gear
24
16
Figure 4.6: Diagonal Meshing of a 16-Tooth Gear and a 24-Tooth Gear
78 CHAPTER 4. LEGO DESIGN
Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show examples of diagonal gearing that have been tested to
work well. Other combinations that have good performance may be discovered.
A very high performance geartrain will be necessary in order to drive a robot. For
this type of geartrain, the following rules are suggested:
# Do not use the 14-tooth bevel gear (too
imsy), the worm gear (high friction),
or the right-angle 24-tooth crown gear (slips under high stresses).
# Do not make a pulley drive using the LEGO rubber bands. They are ine#cient
(especially in the later stages of a geartrain), they slip, and the rubber bands
break or fall o# at very inopportune times.
# Do use the 8-tooth and 24-tooth gears. The 40-tooth gears are also good, if
they can be
t in despite their large size.
# Try to space the axles at perfect LEGO spacing, or a close diagonal approxi-
mation. This is easy to do if the axles are mounted horizontally adjacent on a
beam, or vertically using perfect LEGO spacing.
# Try to have each axle supported inside at least two girders. It's also nice to
space these support girders from each other. If these two rules are followed, the
axles will stay straight and not bind up inside the girders and create a lot of
friction.
# Where multiple girders support the same axle, make sure that these girders
are
rmly attached to each other. If they are not perfectly aligned, the same
binding problem decribed above may happen, and the geartrain could lose a lot
of power.
# The axles can bend. Try not to have a gear dangling at the end of an un-
supported axle. Either put gears between the girders supporting the axles, or
very close to the girders on the outside of the girders. Both are illustrated on
the example geartrain. If the gear is two or more LEGO units away from the
outside of the girders, problems may arise.
# Don't make the axles
t too tightly. After gears and spacers are put on an axle,
make sure the axle can slide back at forth a little bit. It is very easy to lose a
lot of power if spacers or gears are pressing up against the girders.
4.2.1 Gear Reduction
The purpose of gearing, in addition to transmitting mechnical energy, is to
transform
it. For the purposes of a drivetrain, the gears will change high speed and low
torque
4.2. LEGO GEARING 79
of an electric motor and create the low speed and high torque that is required to
move
a robot.
It is important to experiment with di#erent gear ratios. The gear ratio determines
this important tradeo# between speed and torque.
Figure 4.7 illustrates a sample LEGO geartrain. This geartrain achieves a gear
ratio of 243:1 through the use of
ve ganged pairs of 8-tooth to 24-tooth gear meshings
(this is probably a bit overkill for a robot drive).
It is suggested that a copy of this geartrain be built for evaluation|it is an
e#cient
design that follows many of the rules that have been given.
4.2.2 Chain Drives
Use of chain drives requires a fair bit of patience on the part of the designer. A
fair
bit of trial and error design is necessary to
nd gear spacings that will work for the
chain. If the chain is too loose, it may skip under heavy load. If it is too
tight, it will
lose power.
Experimentation is suggested. The chains tend to work better on the larger gears.
4.2.3 Testing a Geartrain
To test a geardown to see if it is really good, try backdriving it. Take o# the
motor (if
it's on), place a wheel on the slow output shaft, and try to turn the wheel. It
should
be possible to make all the gears spin freely from this slow axle. If the
geartrain is
very good, the gears will continue spinning for a second or two after the output
shaft
is released.
4.2.4 Low-Force Geartrains
When building geartrains that will only transmit small forces, many of the design
rules
don't apply. Some \problems" may turn out to be advantages|it may be desirable
to have a transmission which \slips" when it is stuck (so that the motors do not
stall)
and then a rubber band and pulley drive would be appropriate.
The rubber bands are also useful for mechanisms which need to store energy.
The 24-tooth crown gear (in addition to being perfectly useable as a normal 24-
tooth gear) will function at the intended 90 degree angle, as long as it is only
trans-
mitting small forces.
80 CHAPTER 4. LEGO DESIGN
8-tooth gear
24-tooth gear
full-size
stop bush 2x4 flat LEGO plate
Sample LEGO
Gearbox Design
TOP VIEW
Output Shaft
plug motor to
mesh with this gear
This gearbox uses only the 8-tooth
and 24-tooth gears. There is a series
of five 3:1 reductions, making for an
final gear ratio of 243:1. This means that
the motor shaft must turn 243 times in
order for the "Output Shaft" to turn once.
This gearbox will provide a great deal
of torque at the output shaft at low speed.
The stage before the last reduction would
provide 3 times the speed at one-third
of the torque.
6-long LEGO axle
(2 lengths hidden in gears)
1x16 LEGO beam
Figure 4.7: LEGO Gearbox Example
Chapter 5
Sensor Design
Without sensors, a robot is just a machine. Robots need sensors to deduce what is
happening in their world and to be able to react to changing situations.
This chapter introduces a variety of robotic sensors, explaining electrical use
and
practical application. While many ways to use the various sensors in the 6.270 are
mentioned, please do not be limited by the ideas contained in this chapter! The
sensor
applications presented here are not meant to be exhaustive, but merely to suggest
some of the possibilities.
Assembly instructions for the kit sensors are given in Section 1.9.
5.1 Sensors as Tranducers
The fundamental property of a electronic sensor is to measure some feature of the
world, such as light, sound, or pressure, and convert that measurement into an
elec-
trically represented quantity.
Typical sensors respond to stimulus by changing their resistance (photocells),
changing their current
ow (phototransistors), or changing their voltage output (the
Sharp IR sensor). One electrical output of a given sensor can be easily converted
into
other electrical representations.
5.1.1 Analog and Digital Sensors
A distinction is often made between a sensor that is analog and a sensor that is
digital.
An analog sensor produces a continuously varying change in value over its range
of measurement. For example, a particular photocell might have a resistance of 1k
ip-
ops.
The IR control signal is wired to the clear input of the '390 chip; when this
signal
is true, the counters will reset and will be prevented from counting. By
modulating
this signal, the 6811 can generate the low-frequency square wave that ends up
being
transmitted to the Sharp sensor.
The IR brightness signal can be used to adjust the gain of the output ampli
ed,
thereby changing the amount of light being transmitted by the IR LEDs. For 6.270
purposes, the ampli
er is kept at full brightness, but there may be applications where
this feature is useful.
Timer Output 2
Timer Output 1
U11 pin 6= motor power
pin 4= motor ground
IR output jack
3 9 0
QA
QB
QC
QD
CLR
CLKA
CLKB
QA
QB
QC
QD
CLR
CLKA
CLKB
U10
+5V
U12/74HC04
RP5/22K
U12/74HC04
C14 1μF
U11/LM386
RP5/22K
LED5 (red)
R14/1K
R15/1K
6811 Port A7
6811 E clock
6811 Port A6
10
11
9
15
1
3567
12
6 14 13 9
3
2
8
2
-
5
+
4
5
Figure B.23: Infrared Transmission Circuit
Figure B.23 shows the full circuit schematic for the IR subsystem.
The LM386 chip, a power op-amp, is used to drive the infrared LED's. The output
of the '390 chip is inverted and presented to the input of the op-amp. When this
signal is high, the op-amp will have a large negative di#erential input, and its
output
will be forced to the negative extreme (0 volts), turning o# the IR LEDs.
When the input is low, the op-amp will operate in a linear gain mode (with
a gain of 22, as determined by R14 and one resistor of RP5). The voltage present
on the op-amp's + input determines the strength of the output. This voltage is
controllable from the 6811 pin (Port A7), which can charge C14 to whatever voltage
is desirable. Thus, the gain of the op-amp, and thereby the brightness of the IR
LEDs, is software-controllable.
B.7.1 The IR Beacon
Figure B.24 shows the schematic for the IR beacon. Each infrared LED has a visible
LED in series with it so it should be easy to ascertain that the device is
transmitting
212 APPENDIX B. 6.270 HARDWARE
MLED71 IR LED's
Red LED's
LED31-38
LED23-30
RP8/47Ωx4 RP9/47Ωx4
- +
Figure B.24: Infrared Beacon Circuit
infrared light properly. The resistors act as current-limiters, limiting the
amount of
current that can travel through any branch of the circuit to between 10 to 20 mA.
B.8 The LCD Display
The
rst fourteen pins of the 6.270 Board's Expansion Bus are designed to be com-
patible with a 14-pin standard LCD bus. A variety of character-based LCD devices
with di#erent screen sizes use this standard bus.
The LCD bus standard is fairly simple, consisting of the following signals:
# an 8-bit data bidirectional bus
# two mode select input signals
# a clock line
# a voltage reference for contrast adjustment
# +5 volt logic power
# signal ground
In fact, reading and writing data to an LCD is much like reading and writing data
to latches or to memory. There is one problem, however: LCDs only work at data
transfer rates up to 1 MHz. The 6811 in the 6.270 board operates at 2 MHz|too
fast for most LCDs.
One straight-forward solution to the speed problem would be to use a '374-type
latch between the 6811 and the LCD. The '374 could be written to at the full bus
rate of the 6811; its outputs would drive the data bus of the LCD. A separate
signal
could be used to toggle the LCD's clock line, causing it to latch the data that
had
been written to the '3745.
5This solution assumes that one does not need to read status data back from the
LCD.
B.8. THE LCD DISPLAY 213
An unconventional, zero-additional-hardware solution has been implemented in
the 6.270 system, which takes advantage of an obscure feature of the 6811
micropro-
cessor.
The 6811 has two main operating modes, known as single chip mode and expanded
multiplexed mode. The discussion of memory read and write cycles that has been
presented in this chapter has been based on the expanded multiplexed mode, which
is the 6811 mode that is used when external memory is part of the 6811 circuit.
When the 6811 is operated in single-chip mode, the upper-eight-bit address bus
and multiplexed address/data bus become general purpose inputs and outputs of the
6811, controllable by system software. Thus, in single-chip mode, the 6811 could
communicate with the LCD with a software driver, rather than the too-fast hardware
communication.
There is a problem with this, however: when the 6811 is placed into single-chip
mode, it can no longer execute a program from its external RAM. In fact, as far as
the 6811 is concerned, there is no external memory anymore.
Fortunately, the 6811 has 256 bytes of internal RAM, from which it can exe-
cute a program when in single-chip mode. Thus, a software driver could execute
out of internal RAM, perform a transaction with the LCD, and then switch back
to expanded-multiplexed mode and return control to the main program in external
memory.
The obscure feature mentioned is not the fact that the 6811 has both of these
modes, but the idea of dynamically switching between them. Here is the solution
that has been implemented:
1. Start by copying a software driver from external system memory into the 256
bytes of internal 6811 memory.
2. Begin execution of the driver program located in internal memory:
# Place the 6811 into single-chip mode; external memory disappears.
# Execute a low-speed transaction with the LCD by directly controlling the
data bus via software.
# Place the 6811 into expanded-multiplexed mode.
# Return to the main program in external memory.
3. Continue normal program execution.
The actual LCD driver routine bu#ers characters to be printed to the LCD; one
thousand times per second, an interrupt routine calls the internal memory driver
as described, writing a single character to the LCD. The whole process operates
transparently to the 6.270 system user.
214 APPENDIX B. 6.270 HARDWARE
B.9 The Low-Battery Indicator
U9b
D6 1N4148
D5 1N4148
D4 1N4148
R5 3.3K
+5V
RP3/1K
LED6 (red)
+5V
+RAM
5
6 4
3
Figure B.25: Low Battery Indicator Circuit
A spare gate on U9 has been used to implement a low-battery indicator. The
schematic is shown in Figure B.25.
The transition point for determining if a digital input is logic one or logic zero
is
normally one-half of the supply voltage. Assuming a 5 volt supply, signals greater
than 2.5 volts will be interpreted as logic ones, and signals less than 2.5 volts
will be
interpreted as logic zeros.
Diodes have the interesting property that they drop exactly 0.6 volts when current
travels through them. Thus the input voltage to the gate U9? will be about 1.8
volts,
over a wide range of system supply voltages.
Assuming a 5 volt supply, this input would to be interpreted as logic zero. U9?
is wired as an inverter, so it will output a logic one. Since the LED is wired
from
supply voltage, it will be o# in this state.
Suppose supply voltage falls to 3.5 volts. Now the transition point is around 1.75
volts. The input to the gate is 1.8 volts, so it becomes a logic one. U9? inverts
this
to obtain a logic zero, and drives zero volts on its output, lighting the LED.
The actual transition point in the circuit is closer to 4 volts, because the
diodes
tend to drop a bit more than 0.6 volts that are usually speci
ed. Surprisingly, nearly
all of the 6.270 electronics, including the 6811 microprocessor, work
ne at voltages as
low as 4 volts. One notably exception is the Sharp GP1U52 sensor: its performance
decreases sharply at supply voltages less than 4.5 volts.
Appendix C
Printed Circuit Layouts
This appendix section has the printed circuit board artwork patterns for the 1992
6.270 boards:
# the Microprocessor Board
# the Expansion Board
# the Battery Charger Board
# the Motor Switch Board
# the Infrared Beacon Board
The board artworks are provided to facilitate debugging; they are not intended to
serve as master artworks for fabricating new printed circuit boards. The layouts
are
reproduced at actual size given the limits of Laserwriter reproduction technology.
215
216 APPENDIX C. PRINTED CIRCUIT LAYOUTS
C.1 Microprocessor Board
Figure C.1: Microprocessor Board, Component Side
Figure C.2: Microprocessor Board, Solder Side
C.2. EXPANSION BOARD 217
C.2 Expansion Board
Figure C.3: Expansion Board, Component Side
Figure C.4: Expansion Board, Solder Side
218 APPENDIX C. PRINTED CIRCUIT LAYOUTS
C.3 Battery Charger Board
Figure C.5: Battery Charger Board, Component and Solder Sides
C.4 Motor Switch Board
Figure C.6: Motor Switch Board, Component and Solder Sides
C.5. INFRARED BEACON BOARD 219
C.5 Infrared Beacon Board
Figure C.7: Infrared Beacon Board, Component and Solder Sides
220 APPENDIX C. PRINTED CIRCUIT LAYOUTS
Appendix D
Electronic Suppliers
Knowing how to
nd and purchase electronic parts is a big part of being a resourceful
robot builder. This appendix section will help you get started on the right track.
D.1 Introduction
When ordering electronic parts, availability is a key issue. Many times, a
rm will list
an item in its catalog, but be \out of stock" when you call them to make an order.
Make sure that you ask the sales person to \check stock" when you order anything.
If an item is not in stock|meaning it's not in the company's own warehouses|the
company must order it from \the factory". The factory is a huge distribution
center
over which your electronics dealer has little control. So, it can take anywhere
from a
couple of weeks to several months for the parts you want to come to your dealer.
Some companies will try to deceive you about how long it will take to receive
parts
from the factory. In general, the rule is: if the company doesn't have it in
stock, order
it from somewhere else.
The company listing that follows is divided into two categories: retail companies
and surplus companies.
D.1.1 Retail Suppliers
Retail companies sell brand-new parts and generally keep a reliable, stable
inventory
of the products that they sell. Most retail suppliers care a lot about their
customers
and try to keep them by giving good service: by keeping most parts in stock in
their own warehouses. By my de
nition, \good service" means that the company
(1) delivers product quickly, and (2) does not try to deceive the customer about
the
availability of an item.
221
222 APPENDIX D. ELECTRONIC SUPPLIERS
In exchange for the reliability of the retailer's line, you pay a price. In
general, new
retail parts cost anywhere from two to ten times the cost of the same part
purchased
from a surplus house. But many times, particularly when designing products for
manufacture, you need the dependability of parts that the retailer o#ers. Also,
many
important parts can't be found in surplus.
D.1.2 Surplus Suppliers
Surplus companies buy bulk lots of discontinued, closed-out, old, used, or
otherwise
\surplus" merchandise. Many a fascinating, useful, and most importantly, cheap!
part can be found in the surplus market.
The catalog of a given surplus company changes from issue to issue, as the com-
pany sells out of some items and has made purchases of another items. Many surplus
companies try to keep some of their product line stable, but the most exciting and
cheap products are usually from a one-time bulk purchase. Sometimes, you see the
same item hitting the catalogs of several di#erent surplus companies at the same
time|a good indication that some manufacturer has just cleared their warehouse of
that item!
Because of this
ux in product line, it's very important to check that a surplus
dealer has a particular item in stock when you order. Many surplus dealers will
tell
you the approximate quantity of an item that they have in stock|useful if you're
going to base a design on the availability of a particular part.
You should be extremely wary if a surplus dealer tries to have an item in your
order put on backorder (meaning that they don't have it in stock). Usually,
they're
just hoping to make another bulk purchase of the item you want. Unless they're
particularly convincing that the item will indeed be available in a short period
of
time, cancel the order and
nd what you need somewhere else.
This said, surplus companies are a great boon to electronics hobbyists of all
types.
They have fascinating stu# at super-low prices. Generally surplus stock is at
least
half the cost of retail, but for many items, you will pay as low as one-tenth of
the retail
cost. For funding-strapped educators and hobbyists, the work involved in tracking
down parts in surplus is well worth it, and can make a huge di#erence in the
nal cost
of a project or class. Also in surplus, you can
nd items that are just too obscure, or
must be ordered in huge quantities if you tried the retail market.
D.1.3 Ordering Catalogs
Most companies, both retail and surplus, are glad to send you their catalog.
In the listings, if you see the phrase \orders only" listed in front of an 800
number,
then you should not call that company on their 800 number unless you are placing
an
D.2. THE SURPLUS COMPANIES 223
order. If the phrase \orders and info" is listed, then the company has not
requested
the 800 number to be used for orders only.
Don't be bashful: go ahead and order catalogs from all of the companies listed
here. You will
nd overlapping stock in both retail and surplus, but you'll be surprised
by the variations in the prices of the retailers, and practically every surplus
catalog
has at least one exciting item you'll
nd nowhere else. So, happy hunting in the
electronics market!
D.2 The Surplus Companies
In the descriptions that follow, the phrase \basic parts" refers to an assortment
of com-
mon digital, linear, and microprocessor ICs, resistors, capacitors, and LEDs. Some
surplus dealers keep a regular stock of these items and others do not.
In most cases, these basic parts are better purchased in retail. With these items,
prices in surplus are often no better than retail. Also, surplus ICs are often
\pullouts,"
meaning they've been removed from junk equipment. Chips are tested before being
sold to you, but a new part beats a used one at the same price.
There are some exceptions when surplus is still better on ICs and other basic
parts
items. Occasionally, surplus can still undercut retail price by a signi
cant margin,
particularly on products such as optoelectronics, or RAM chips, for example.
Also, there may arise situations when all retail dealers may be out of stock of a
particular IC, due to
uctuations in the factory supply. In this sitation, go straight
to your basic parts surplus dealer|they will have chips that have been lying
around
for years. Sure, they're not brand new, but most old chips work just as well as
new
ones.
D.2.1 Surplus Company Listing
All Electronics Corp
P.O. Box 567 # Van Nuys, CA 91408
orders only: (800) 826-5432
information: (818) 904-0524
fax: (818) 781-2653
Good basic parts assortment. Many interesting surplus boards and assemblies,
excellent motor selection, rechargeable batteries, switches, optoelectronics, etc.
Prices very good.
Terms: $10 minimumorder; MC/VISA/Discover accepted;
at shipping/handing
charge of $3.50.
224 APPENDIX D. ELECTRONIC SUPPLIERS
American Design Components
815 Fairview Avenue # POB 220 # Fairview, NJ 07022
orders and info: (800) 776-3700
local: (201) 941-5000
fax: (201) 941-7480
Surplus computer equipment, power supplies, lots of motors and batteries,
switches, MOVIT robot kits. Overpriced basic parts assortment. Some other
stu# very well priced.
Terms: $15 minimumorder; MC/VISA/AMEX/ accepted; annoying shipping/handing
charges of $3.00 plus 10% of cost of merchandise. Mentally add 10% to their
catalog prices as you're going through their catalog and you won't be as annoyed
by this excess \handling" charge.
American Science & Surplus
601 Linden Place # Evanston, Illinois 60202
orders and info: (708) 475-8440
fax: (708) 864-1589
Formerly known as JerryCo Inc., this company produces the most enter-
taining, humorous, and informative catalog in the surplus industry. A diverse
assortment of stu#: tools, toys, stationery, electronics, motors, batteries, gears
and bearings, etc., etc. You never knew you needed it until you saw it in this
catalog. The catalog is fun to read even if you don't buy anything. Prices are
generally good but not great.
Terms: $12.50 minimumorder (including handling charge); MC/VISA accepted;