INSITUTE OF QUALITY & TECHNOLOGY

MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB, LAHORE

INSTR UMENT ATION & PR OCESS

CONTR OL
QUIZ SOLUTION

SUBMITTED TO: Sir. A. K

Durrani
SUBMITTED BY: Pakeeza Bukhari
BSIEM-5th
semester
Roll no: 17
1- DESCRIBE THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BASIC RTD INCLUDING:
A. MAJOR COMPONENT ARRANGEMENT
B. MATERIALS USED:

1.1 RTD:
Temperature is one of the most important parameters of a material, many instruments
have been developed to measure it. One type of detector used is the resistance
temperature detector (RTD). The RTD is used at many DOE nuclear facilities to measure
temperatures of the process or materials being monitored.
The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as
temperature increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases.
RTDs act somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature
to voltage signals by the measurement of resistance.

1.2 MATERIALS USED:

The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable
within a given range of temperature, and able to give reproducible resistance-temperature
readings. Only a few metals have the properties necessary for use in
RTD elements. RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or
nickel. These metals are best suited for RTD applications because of their linear
resistance-temperature characteristics (as shown in Figure 1), their high coefficient
of resistance, and their ability to withstand repeated temperature cycles.

Fig 1.1: Electrical resistance-temperature curve

The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature,
usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must be
capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be easily constructed.

1.3 Construction Of Rtd:

RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and
enclosed in a sheath of metal.
 Figure 1.2: The internal construction of an RTD.
This particular design has a platinum element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator.
The insulator prevents a short circuit between the wire and the metal sheath.
Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy, is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath
because of its inherent corrosion resistance. When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the
Inconel sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. The change in
temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool, resulting in a proportional
change in resistance. This change in resistance is then measured by a precision resistance
measuring device that is calibrated to give the proper temperature reading. This device is
normally a bridge circuit.

2- EXPLAIN HOW RTD RESISTANCE VARIES FOR THE FOLLOWING:

A. AN INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE
B. A DECREASE IN TEMPERATURE

The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as
temperature increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases.

3-EXPLAIN HOW AN RTD PROVIDES AN OUTPUT REPRESENTATIVE OF THE MEASURED

TEMPERATURE.

The change in temperatures causes the metal wire in RTD to heat or cool, resulting in a
proportional change in resistance. This change in resistance is then measured by a
precision resistance measuring device that is calibrated to give the proper temperature
reading. This device is normally a bridge circuit.

4- DESCRIBE THE BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF A THERMOCOUPLE INCLUDING:

A. MAJOR COMPONENT ARRANGEMENT
B. MATERIALS USED

4.1 THERMOCOUPLE:
A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. When one
end of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument, the thermocouple becomes a
sensitive and highly accurate measuring device. Thermocouples may be constructed of
several different combinations of materials. The performance of a thermocouple material
is generally determined by using that material with platinum. The most important factor
to be considered when selecting a pair of materials is the "thermoelectric difference"
between the two materials. A significant difference between the two materials will result
in better thermocouple performance. The two materials will result in better thermocouple
performance. Figure 4 illustrates the characteristics of the more commonly used materials
when used with platinum.

Other materials may be used in addition to those shown in Figure 4. For example:
Chromel- Constantan is excellent for temperatures up to 2000°F; Nickel/Nickel-
Molybdenum sometimes replaces Chromel-Alumel; and Tungsten-Rhenium is used for
temperatures up to 5000°F. Some combinations used for specialized applications are
Chromel-White Gold, Molybdenum-Tungsten, Tungsten-Iridium, and Iridium/Iridium-
Rhodium.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A TYPICAL THERMOCOUPLE:

Figure 4.2: The internal construction of a typical thermocouple.

The leads of the thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath. The measuring
junction is normally formed at the bottom of the thermocouple housing. Magnesium
oxide surrounds the thermocouple wires to prevent vibration that could damage the fine
wires and to enhance heat transfer between the measuring junction and the medium
surrounding the thermocouple.
5- EXPLAIN HOW A THERMOCOUPLE PROVIDES AN OUTPUT REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
MEASURED TEMPERATURE.

Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit when
subjected to changes in temperature. The amount of current that will be produced is
dependent on the temperature difference between the measurement and reference
junction; the characteristics of the two metals used; and the characteristics of the attached
circuit.

Figure 5.1:A simple thermocouple circuit.

Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage which is greater
than the voltage across the reference junction. The difference between the two voltages is
proportional to the difference in temperature and can be measured on the voltmeter (in
millivolts). For ease of operator use, some voltmeters are set up to read out directly in
temperature through use of
electronic circuity. Other applications provide only the millivolt readout. In order to
convert the millivolt reading to its corresponding temperature, you must refer to tables
that can be obtained from the thermocouple manufacturer, and they list the specific
temperature corresponding to a series of millivolt readings.

6- FROM THE GRAPH BELOW, HOW YOU WOULD SUGGEST SELECTION OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES, WITH REGARD TO SENSITIVITY, RANGE OF MEASUREMENT
a) When constantan is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about
-200˚C to 1000˚ C & sensitivity is -25mV
b) When Alumel is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about -200˚C to 1400˚ C
& sensitivity is -10mV
c) When constantan is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about
-200˚C to 1400˚C & sensitivity is -1mV
d) When Rohdium is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about
-200˚C to 100˚ C & sensitivity is 1mV
e) When Copper is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about
-100˚C to 900˚C & sensitivity is 0mV
f) when Chromel is used with platinum, then its range is nearly about
-100˚C to 1300˚ C& sensitivity is 20mV

7- DESCRIBE THE TWO ALTERNATE METHODS OF DETERMINING TEMPERATURE WHEN THE

NORMAL TEMPERATURE SENSING DEVICES ARE INOPERABLE.

7.1 DETECTOR PROBLEMS:

In the event that key temperature sensing instruments become inoperative, there are
several alternate methods that may be used. Some applications utilize installed spare
temperature detectors or dual-element RTDs. The dual-element RTD has two sensing
elements of which only one is normally connected. If the operating element becomes
faulty, the second element may be used to provide temperature indication. If an installed
spare is not utilized, a contact pyrometer (portable thermocouple) may be used to obtain
temperature readings on those pieces of equipment or systems that are accessible.
If the malfunction is in the circuitry and the detector itself is still functional, it may be
possible to obtain temperatures by connecting an external bridge circuit to the detector.
Resistance readings may then be taken and a corresponding temperature obtained from
the detector calibration curves.

8- EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF FOLLOWING TYPES OF TEMPERATURE

SENSORS,
1- THERMISTERS
2- OPTIC FIBER SENSORS
3- ULTRASONIC SENSORS

8.1 THERMISTER CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, is a temperature-sensitive
resistor fabricated from semiconducting materials. The resistance of thermistors
decreases proportionally with increases in temperature. (opposite from RTD)Thermistors
are made from combinations of metal oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron,
and titanium. A mixture of milled semiconductor oxide powders and a binder are first
shaped into the desired geometry. Next, the mixture is dried and sintered (under pressure)
at an elevated temperature. Lastly, the wire leads are attached, and the combination is
coated with glass or epoxy. This coating provides mechanical strength and electrical
resistance. Because the electrical resistance of the epoxy/glass shell is high, the only
noise pickup occurs through capacitive coupling. By varying the mixture of oxides, a
range of resistance values from 30 ohms to 20 megaohms (at 25ýC) is possible. Spherical
thermistor beads come in diameters ranging from 0.3 to 2 mm The speed of a temperature
transducer is related to its surface area, so you can design a system with a fast response
time by using a small thermistor.

8.2 OPTIC FIBRE SENSORS CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

As an alternative to using air as the transmission medium, optical sensors can use
fibreoptic
cable instead to transmit light between a source and a detector. The basis of operation of
fibre-optic sensors is the translation of the physical quantity
measured into a change in one or more parameters of a light beam. The light parameters
that can be modulated are one or more of the following: intensity, phase, polarization,
wavelength, transmission time.
Fibre-optic sensors usually incorporate either glass/plastic cables or all plastic cables.
All glass types are rarely used because of their fragility. Plastic cables have particular
advantages for sensor applications because they are cheap and have a relatively
large diameter of 0.5–1.0mm, making connection to the transmitter and receiver ea
There are a wide number of devices that utilize fiber optics to aid in measuring
temperature.Most are actually slight variation of radiation thermometers, but not all.Most
all depend upon a temperature sensing component being placed on the tip of the fiber
optic's "free end". The other end is attached to a measuring system that collects the
desired radiation and processes it into a temperature value.

8.3 ACOUSTIC THERMOMETER CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

Acoustic thermometer relies on the principle that the sound velocity in substances
depends on temperature. In gases, the velocity is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature. In solids and liquids, the velocity decreases as the temperature
increases. Two categories of acoustic sensing systems are used in temperature
measurements:
a) The system measures the acoustic characteristics of the medium whose temperature is
measured.
b) The system measures the acoustic characteristics of the object that is in thermal
equilibrium with the measured medium.
9-FROM THE DIAGRAM BELOW, IF X-AXIS SHOWS THE TEMPERATURE,
EXPLAIN, WHAT WOULD BE ON Y-AXIS

If x-axis shows the temperature, then on y-axis, resistance of a RTD element

is plotted.

10- NAME THE DEVICES SHOWN IN FIG, AND WRITE THEIR WORKING & USES.

fig 1 fig 2

Fig 3 fig 4

Fig 1: It is a bellow-type pressure detector.

10.1.1 WORKING: The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit
that has deep folds formed from very thin-walled tubing.
In a bellows-type detector:
- System pressure is applied to the internal volume of a bellows and mechanical linkage
assembly.
- As pressure changes, the bellows and linkage assembly move to cause an electrical
signal to be produced or to cause a gauge pointer to move

10.1.2 USES: The need for a pressure sensing element that was extremely sensitive
to low pressures and provided power for activating recording and indicating mechanisms
resulted in the development of the metallic bellows pressure sensing element. The
metallic bellows is most accurate when measuring pressures from 0.5 to 75 psig.
However, when used in conjunction with a heavy range
spring, some bellows can be used to measure pressures of over 1000 psig.

Fig 2: It is bourdon tube-type pressure detector.

10.2.1 WORKING: In a bourdon tube-type detector:
- System pressure is applied to the inside of a slightly flattened arcshaped
tube. As pressure increases, the tube tends to restore to its
original round cross-section. This change in cross-section causes
the tube to straighten.
- Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the
tube traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular
position with respect to the center. The tip movement can then
be used to position a pointer or to develop an electrical signal.
10.2.2 USES: The Bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of pressure
transducer. It is relatively
cheap and is commonly used for measuring the gauge pressure of both gaseous and
liquid fluids & for medium to high pressure Up to 100000 psig

Fig 3: It is an inductance-type pressure transducer.

10.3.1 WORKING: The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a
movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element. The element is attached to the
core, and, as pressure varies, the element causes the core to move inside the coil. An AC
voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core moves, the inductance of the coil changes.
The current through the coil will increase as the inductance decreases. For increased
sensitivity, the coil can be separated into two coils by utilizing a center tap. As the core
moves within the coils, the inductance of one coil will increase, while the other will
decrease.
10.3.2 USES: These devices are available for absolute, gauge, and differential-
pressure measurement

Fig 4: Differential Transformer for pressure measurement.

10.4.1 WORKING: It utilizes two coils wound on a single tube.The primary coil is
wound around the center of the tube. The secondary coil is divided with one half wound
around each end of the tube. Each end is wound in the opposite direction, which causes
the voltages induced to oppose one another. A core, positioned by a pressure element, is
movable within the tube. When the core is in the lower position, the lower half of the
secondary coil provides the output. When the core is in the upper position, the upper half
of the secondary coil provides the output. The magnitude and direction of the output
depends on the amount the core is displaced from its center position. When the core is in
the mid-position, there is no secondary output.
10.4.2 Uses:
LVDT Position sensors have Friction-Free Operation. This is a principal feature
particularly useful in materials testing, vibration displacement measurements, and high
resolution dimensional gaging systems.
LVDT Position Sensors have Unlimited Mechanical Life.It is also highly desirable in
many industrial process control and factory automation systems needing robust sensors

11- DESCRIBE THE THREE ALTERNATE METHODS OF DETERMINING

PRESSURE WHEN THE NORMAL PRESSURE SENSING DEVICES ARE INOPERABLE.
If a pressure instrument fails, spare detector elements may be utilized if installed. If spare
detectors are not installed, the pressure may be read at an independent local mechanical
gauge, if available, or a precision pressure gauge may be installed in the system at a
convenient point. If the detector is functional, it may be possible to obtain pressure
readings by measuring voltage or current values across the detector leads and comparing
this reading with calibration curves.

12- EXPLAIN HOW A STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER PRODUCES AN OUTPUT

SIGNAL INCLUDING:
A. METHOD OF DETECTION
B. METHOD OF SIGNAL GENERATION
12.1 STRAIN GUAGE WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A strain gauge measures the external force (pressure) applied to a fine wire. The fine wire
is usually arranged in the form of a grid. The pressure change causes a resistance change
due to the distortion of the wire. The value of the pressure can be found by measuring the
change in resistance of the wire grid. As the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation,
its length is increased, and its cross-sectional area decreases. These changes cause an
increase in the resistance of the wire of the strain gauge. This change in resistance is used
as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit that provides an electrical signal for
indication of pressure.
12.2 METHOD OF DETECTION:
An increase in pressure at the inlet of the bellows causes the bellows to expand. The
expansion of the bellows moves a flexible beam to which a strain gauge has been
attached. The movement of the beam causes the resistance of the strain gauge to change.
The temperature compensating gauge compensates for the heat produced by current
flowing through the fine wire of the strain
gauge.belw.
 Fig12.1: A strain guage transducer.

12.3 METHOD OF SIGNAL GENERATION:

For this a srain guage is used in a bridge circuit as shown in figure below.

Fig12.2 : Strain guage in a bridge circuit.

Alternating current is provided by an exciter that is used in place of a battery to eliminate
the need for a galvanometer. When a change in resistance in the strain gauge causes an
unbalanced condition, an error signal enters the amplifier and actuates the balancing
motor. The balancing motor moves the slider along the slidewire, restoring the bridge to a
balanced condition. The slider’s position is noted on a scale marked in units of pressure.

13- GIVE A BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL PRESSURE DETECTION DEVICE, STATE THE
PURPOSE OF THE FOLLOWING
A. SENSING ELEMENT
B. TRANSDUCER
C. PRESSURE DETECTION CIRCUITRY
D. PRESSURE INDICATION
Figure shows a block diagram of a typical pressure detection circuit

Fig 13.1: A typical pressure detection circuit

The sensing element senses the pressure of the monitored system and converts the
pressure to a mechanical signal. The sensing element supplies the mechanical signal to a
transducer, as discussed above. The transducer converts the mechanical signal to an
electrical signal that is proportional to system pressure. If the mechanical signal from the
sensing element is used directly, a transducer is not required and therefore not used. The
detector circuitry will amplify and/or transmit this signal to the pressure indicator. The
electrical signal generated by the detection circuitry is proportional to system pressure.
The exact operation of detector circuitry depends upon the type of transducer used. The
pressure indicator provides remote indication of the system pressure being measured.