MechanicalMetallurgy

INME6016 PabloG.CaceresValencia ProfessorinMaterialsScience, B.Sc.,Ph.D.(UK)

GENERALINFORMATION
CourseNumber CourseTitle CreditHours Instructor Office Phone OfficeHours email INME6016 MechanicalMetallurgy 3(Lecture:3hours) Dr.PabloG.CaceresValencia Luchetti BuildingL212 Extension2358 MoandWed1:00pmto5:00pm [email protected] [email protected] Website http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres

Assessment
Thecoursewillbeassessedinthefollowingmanner: PartialExam 30% FinalExam 30% Quizzes(3)* 33% AttendanceandClassParticipation 7%
(*)Atotalofthreequizzeswillbeperformed. (**)ClassAttendance(afterthesecondabsence 1pointwillbedeductedforeachnon authorizedabsence).Theparticipationinclasswillbetakenintoaccount.

Attendance
Attendanceandparticipationinthelecturesaremandatory andwill beconsideredinthegrading.Studentsshouldbringcalculators, rulers,penandpencilstobeusedduringthelectures.Studentsare expectedtokeepupwiththeassignedreadingandbepreparedfor thepopquizzesortoanswerquestionsonthesereadingsduring lecture.

Texbooks
G.E.Dieter;MechanicalMetallurgy;McGraw Hill M.A.MeyersandK.K.Chawla;MechanicalMetallurgy:Principlesand Applications;PrenticeHall
Iwillalsopostmylecturenotesintheweb:http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres

TENTATIVESDATES
Jan/911 BasicPrinciples Jan/28Feb/01 BasicElasticity Feb/1822 DislocationTheory1stExam March/1014 StrengtheningMechanisms April/14 Fracture April/2225 Mechanical Properties Jan/1418 StressStrain Feb/0408 SingleCrystals Feb/2529Strengthening Mechanisms Mar/1721 NoClass HolyWeek April/711Mechanical PropertiesExam2 Apr/28May02 Mechanical Properties Jan/2125 BasicElasticity Feb/1115 DislocationTheory March/37 StrengtheningMechanisms Mar/2428 Fracture April/1418Mechanical Properties

Content
StressandStrainRelationshipsforElasticBehavior ElementsoftheTheoryofElasticity PlasticDeformationofSingleCrystals DislocationTheory StrengtheningMechanisms Fracture MechanicalProperties

The Concept of Stress Uniaxial tensile stress: A force F is applied perpendicular to the area (A). Before the application of the force, the cross section area was AO Engineering stress or nominal stress: Force divided by the original area. True stress: Force divided by the instantaneous area

F = A0 F T = A
l l0 l = = l0 l0

Engineering Strain or Nominal Strain: Change of length divided by the original length True Strain: The rate of instantaneous increase in T = the instantaneous gauge length.

i d = ln o

Relationship between engineering and true stress and strain We will assume that the volume remains constant.

Ao o = Ai i
Ao Ao F F F = = * = * Ai Ai Ao Ao Ai

T
Ao i l + o l = = = + 1 = (1 + ) Ai o o o

F T = (1+ ) Ao

T = T

i d = ln o

T = (1 + )
T = ln(1 + )

o + = ln o

o ln + o o

Primary Types of Loading (a) Tension (b) Compression (c) Shear (d) Torsion (e) Flexion

Hookes Law
When strains are small, most of materials are linear elastic.
Youngs modulus

Normal: =
F lo l = Ao E
Springs: the spring rate

F Ao E k= = lo l

Torsion
,Z

Loading resulting from the twist of a shaft. Shear strain

r = r z l

,z = G ,z

G r = Gr z l

G = Shear Modulus of Elasticity Twist Moment or Torque

G T = r , z A = A l

r2, z A

Area Polar Moment J = r 2 A A of Inertia Thus:

G J T= l

or

T l = GJ

,z

T ro T r Max J J

Angular spring rate:

J G ka = = l T

Normal Stresses x, y, z Shear Stresses xy , yx , xz , zx , zy , yz From equilibrium principles: xy = yx , xz = zx , zy = yz

Stress Components

Normal stress () : the subscript identifies the face on which the stress acts. Tension is positive and compression is negative. Shear stress () : it has two subscripts. The first subscript denotes the face on which the stress acts. The second subscript denotes the direction on that face. A shear stress is positive if it acts on a positive face and positive direction or if it acts in a negative face and negative direction.

Sign Conventions for Shear Stress and Strain

The Shear Stress will be considered positive when a pair of shear stress acting on opposite sides of the element produce a counterclockwise (ccw) torque (couple).

A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.

For static equilibrium xy = yx , xz = zx , zy = yz resulting in Six independent scalar quantities. These six scalars can be arranged in a 3x3 matrix, giving us a stress tensor.

x yx zx = ij = xy y zy xz yz z
The sign convention for the stress elements is that a positive force on a positive face or a negative force on a negative face is positive. All others are negative. The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity associated with two directions (two subscripts direction of the surface normal and direction of the stress).

F2

Cube with a Face area Ao

F3

F1

F1 A o F3 = ij = Ao 0

F3 Ao F2 Ao 0

0 0 0

A property of a symmetric tensor is that there exists an orthogonal set of axes 1, 2 and 3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the tensor elements are all zero except for those in the diagonal.

x yx zx = ij = xy y zy xz yz z

1 0 0 ' ' = ij = 0 2 0 0 0 3

Plane Stress or Biaxial Stress : When the material is in plane stress in the plane xy, only the x and y faces of the element are subject to stresses, and all the stresses act parallel to the x and y axes.

xx yx xy yy 0 0

0 0 0

Stresses on Inclined Sections Knowing the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the xy axis, we will calculate the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the axis x1y1.

y1

x1 x

Ao x xy yx

AO/Cos x1 Equilibrium of forces: Acting in x1 x1y1

AOSin/Cos

X1

AO Sin Sin = X cos AO + XY sin AO + Y Sin AO + YX cos AO Cos Cos cos

Eliminating Ao , sec = 1/cos and xy=yx

X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 + 2 XY sin cos

Y 1 = X sin 2 + Y cos 2 2 XY sin cos

Acting in y1

x1y1Aosec = xAosin + xyAocos + yAotancos yxAotansin Eliminating Ao , sec = 1/cos

x1 y1 = x sin cos + y sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 )

and xy=yx

Transformation Equations for Plane Stress

Using the following trigonometric identities:
Cos2 = (1+ cos 2) Sin2 = (1- cos 2) Sin cos = sin 2

x1 =

x + y
2

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

x1 y1 =

x y
2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

These equations are known as the transformation equations for plane stress.

Special Cases
Case 1: Uniaxial stress

x1 =

x + y
2

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

y = 0 xy = yx = 0

x1 y1 =

x y
2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

1 + Cos 2 x1 = x 2 Sin 2 x1, y1 = x 2

Case 2 : Pure Shear

x =y = 0 x1 = xy Sin 2 x1, y1 = xy Cos 2

Case 3: Biaxial stress

xy = 0 x1 = x + y
2 +

x y
2 Sin 2

Cos 2

x1, y1 =

x y
2

Example: An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses x=16000psi, y=6000psi, and xy=yx= 4000psi (as shown in figure below). Determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle =45o (counterclockwise - ccw). Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:

x1 =

x +
2

+
y

x
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

x1 y 1 =

x
2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

Numerical substitution (x + y) = (16000 + 6000) = 11000psi (x - y) = (16000 6000) = 5000psi xy = 4000psi sin 2 = sin 90o = 1 cos 2 = cos 90o = 0 Then x1 = 11000psi + 5000psi (0) + 4000psi (1) = 15000psi x1y1 = - (5000psi) (1) + (4000psi) (0) = - 5000psi x1 + y1 = x + y then y1 = 16000 + 6000 15000 = 7000psi

1 = 17,403 psi 2 = 4,597 psi Max = 6,403 psi

Example: A plane stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a loaded structure such as shown below. Determine the stresses acting on an element that is oriented at a clockwise (cw) angle of 15o with respect to the original element. Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:
x1 = x +
2
y

+
y

x
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

x1 y 1 =

x
2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

Numerical substitution (x + y) = (- 46 + 12) = - 17MPa (x - y) = (- 46 12) = - 29MPa xy = - 19MPa sin 2 = sin (- 30o) = - 0.5 cos 2 = cos (- 30o) = 0.866 then x1 = - 17MPa + ( - 29MPa)(0.8660) + (-19MPa)(- 0.5) = - 32.6MPa x1y1 = - (- 29MPa) (- 0.5) + (- 19MPa) (0.8660) = - 31.0MPa x1 + y1 = x + y then y1 = - 46MPa + 12MPa (- 32.6MPa) = - 1.4MPa

Example : A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is formed by welding two triangular plates (see figure). The plate is subjected to a tensile stress of 600psi in the long direction and a compressive stress of 250psi in the short direction. Determine the normal stress w acting perpendicular to the line or the weld and the shear stress w acting parallel to the weld. (Assume w is positive when it acts in tension and w is positive when it acts counterclockwise against the weld).

Solution y = -250psi xy = 0 Biaxial stress weld joint x = 600psi From the figure tan = 3 / 5 = arctan(3/5) = arctan(0.6) = 30.96o x + y x y We will use the following x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2 2 2 transformation equations: x y x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2 Numerical substitution 2 (x + y) = 175psi (x - y) = 425psi xy = 0psi sin 2 = sin 61.92o cos 2 = cos 61.92o y 25psi Then x1 = 375psi x1y1 = - 375psi x1 + y1 = x + y then y1 = 600 + (- 250) 375 = -25psi -375psi 375psi = 30.96o x

Stresses acting on the weld

w
w 375psi

25psi

= 30.96o

w = -25psi and w = 375psi

Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stresses The sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of plane stress elements is constant and independent of the angle .

x1 =

x + y
2

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

As we change the angle there will be maximum and minimum normal and shear stresses that are needed for design purposes. The maximum and minimum normal stresses are known as the principal stresses. These stresses are found by taking the derivative of x1 with respect to and setting equal to zero.
x1 = ( x y ) sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0 xy tan 2 P = x y
2

X 1 + Y1 = X + Y

The subscript p indicates that the angle p defines the orientation of the principal planes. The angle p has two values that differ by 90o. They are known as the principal angles. For one of these angles x1 is a maximum principal stress and for the other a minimum. The principal stresses occur in mutually perpendicular planes.

tan 2 P =

x y 2
cos2 P = ( x y ) 2R

xy

sin 2 P =

xy
R

x1 =

x + y

2 2 for the maximum stress = P

x y

cos 2 + xy sin 2

1 = 1 =

x + y
2

x y x y
2 2R

R = + xy

xy x + y 2

x y 1
2

2 1 ( ) + xy R R

x + y
2

2 1 x 2 y + + ( xy ) 2 R

But

R=

x y 2

2 ( ) + xy

1 =

x + y
2

x y 2

2 ( ) + xy

Principal stresses:

1 =

x + y 2

x y 2 x y 2

2 ( ) + xy

x + y 2 = 2

2 ( ) + xy

The plus sign gives the algebraically larger principal stress and the minus sign the algebraically smaller principal stress.

Maximum Shear Stress The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained by taking the derivative of x1y1 with respect to and setting it equal to zero. x y x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
Therefore, 2s-2p=-90o or s= p +/- 45o The planes for maximum shear stress occurs at 45o to the principal planes. The plane of the maximum positive shear stress max is defined by the angle S1 for which the following equations apply:

2 x1 y1 = ( x y ) cos 2 2 xy sin 2 = 0 x y
tan 2 S =

xy
( x y ) 2 xy =

tan 2 S =

1 = cot 2 P tan 2 P

sin 2 S cos 2 P sin 90 o 2 P sin 2 P 90 o = = = o cos 2 S sin 2 P cos 90 2 P cos 2 P 90 o

cos 2 s1 =

( (

) )

( (

) )

xy
R

sin 2 s1 =

( x y ) 2R

and s1 = P1 450

The corresponding maximum shear is given by the equation Another expression for the maximum shear stress The normal stresses associated with the maximum shear stress are equal to

MAX =

x y 2

MAX =

( 1 2 )
2

2 ( ) + xy

AVER =
x y
2

2 ( x + y )

Equations of a Circle
General equation Consider

x1 =

x + y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

x1 AVER =
Equation (1)

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2
2

( x1 AVER )2

x y = cos 2 + xy sin 2 2

 x1 y1 =
Equation (2)

x y
2

sin 2 + xy cos 2
2

( )
x1 y1
2

x y sin 2 + xy cos 2 = 2
2

Equation (1) + Equation (2)

( x1 AVER )

+ ( x1 y1 )

x y x y = cos 2 + xy sin 2 + sin 2 + xy cos 2 2 2

2

x y x y + = cos 2 sin 2 xy 2 2
2

x y 2 2 2 ( ) + + cos 2 sin 2 2 xy 2
2 2

( xy )sin 2 cos 2 ( xy )sin 2 cos 2

x y x y + sin 2 cos 2 = xy 2 2 SUM x y = 2

2

x y 2 2 2 ( ) sin 2 cos 2 2 + xy 2

2 2 ( ) + = R xy

( x1 AVER )

+ ( x1 y1 ) = R 2
2

Mohr Circle
x + y 2

The radius of the Mohr circle is the magnitude R.

C
R =
x

+(

2P
xy

xy

R=

x y 2

2 ( ) + xy

The center of the Mohr circle is the magnitude

AVER =
2

+ y ) 2

( x1 AVER )

+ ( x1 y1 )

x y = 2

2 ( ) + xy

Alternative sign conversion for shear stresses: (a) clockwise shear stress, (b) counterclockwise shear stress, and (c) axes for Mohrs circle. Note that clockwise shear stresses are plotted upward and counterclockwise shear stresses are plotted downward.

Forms of Mohrs Circle

a) We can plot the normal stress x1 positive to the right and the shear stress x1y1 positive downwards, i.e. the angle 2 will be positive when counterclockwise or b) We can plot the normal stress x1 positive to the right and the shear stress x1y1 positive upwards, i.e. the angle 2 will be positive when clockwise. Both forms are mathematically correct. We use (a)

Two forms of Mohrs circle: (a) x1y1 is positive downward and the angle 2 is positive counterclockwise, and (b) x1y1 is positive upward and the angle 2 is positive clockwise. (Note: The first form is used here)

Construction of Mohrs circle for plane stress.

Example: At a point on the surface of a pressurized

cylinder, the material is subjected to biaxial stresses x = 90MPa and y = 20MPa as shown in the element below. Using the Mohr circle, determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle = 30o (Sketch a properly oriented element). Solution (x = 90MPa, y = 20MPa and xy = 0MPa) Because the shear stress is zero, these are the principal stresses. Construction of the Mohrs circle The center of the circle is aver = (x + y) = (90 + 20) = 55MPa The radius of the circle is R = SQR[((x y)/2)2 + (xy)2] R= (90 20)/2 = 35MPa.

Stresses on an element inclined at = 30o By inspection of the circle, the coordinates of point D are x1 = aver + R cos 60o = 55MPa + 35MPa (Cos 60o) = 72.5MPa x1y1 = - R sin 60o = - 35MPa (Sin 60o) = - 30.3MPa In a similar manner we can find the stresses represented by point D, which correspond to an angle = 120o ( 2 = 240o) y1 = aver - R cos 60o = 55MPa - 35MPa (Cos 60o) = 37.5MPa x1y1 = R sin 60o = 35MPa (Sin 60o) = 30.3MPa

Example: An element in plane stress at the

surface of a large machine is subjected to stresses x = 15000psi, y = 5000psi and xy = 4000psi, as shown in the figure. Using the Mohrs circle determine the following: a) The stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle = 40o b) The principal stresses and c) The maximum shear stresses. Solution Construction of Mohrs circle: Center of the circle (Point C): aver = (x + y) = (15000 + 5000) = 10000psi Radius of the circle: R = SQR[((x y)/2)2 + (xy)2] R = SQR[((15000 5000)/2)2 + (4000)2] = 6403psi. Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the coordinates x1 = 15000psi and x1y1 = 4000psi Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the coordinates y1 = 5000psi and y1x1 = - 4000psi The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R

Stresses on an element inclined at = 40o These are given by the coordinates of point D which is at an angle 2 = 80o from point A. By inspection the angle ACP1 for the principal stresses (point P1) is tan ACP1 = 4000/5000 = 0.8 or 38.66o. Then, the angle P1CD is 80o 38.66o = 41.34o

Knowing this angle, we can calculate the coordinates of point D (by inspection) x1 = aver + R cos 41.34o = 10000psi + 6403psi (Cos 41.34o) = 14810psi x1y1 = - R sin 41.34o = - 6403psi (Sin 41.34o) = - 4230psi In an analogous manner, we can find the stresses represented by point D, which correspond to a plane inclined at an angle = 40o + 90o = 130o y1 = aver - R cos 41.34o = 10000psi - 6403psi (Cos 41.34o) = 5190psi x1y1 = R sin 41.34o = 6403psi (Sin 41.34o) = 4230psi And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is 14810psi + 5190psi = 15000psi + 5000psi

Principal Stresses The principal stresses are represented by points P1 and P2 on Mohrs circle. 1 = 10000psi + 6400psi = 16400psi 2 = 10000psi 6400psi = 3600psi The angle it was found to be 2 = 38.66o or = 19.3o

Maximum Shear Stresses These are represented by point S1 and S2 in Mohrs circle. The angle ACS1 from point A to point S1 is 2 S1 = 51.34o. This angle is negative because is measured clockwise on the circle. Then the corresponding S1 value is 25.7o.

Example:At a point on the surface of a

generator shaft the stresses are x = -50MPa, y = 10MPa and xy = - 40MPa as shown in the figure. Using Mohrs circle determine the following: (a) Stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle = 45o, (b) The principal stresses and (c) The maximum shear stresses Solution Construction of Mohrs circle: Center of the circle (Point C): aver = (x + y) = ((-50) + 10) = - 20MPa Radius of the circle: R = SQR[((x y)/2)2 + (xy)2] R = SQR[((- 50 10)/2)2 + (- 40)2] = 50MPa. Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the coordinates x1 = -50MPa and x1y1 = - 40MPa Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the coordinates y1 = 10MPa and y1x1 = 40MPa The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R.

Stresses on an element inclined at = 45o These stresses are given by the coordinates of point D (2 = 90o of point A). To calculate its magnitude we need to determine the angles ACP2 and P2CD.

tan ACP2=40/30=4/3 ACP2=53.13o P2CD = 90o ACP2 = 90o 53.13o = 36.87o Then, the coordinates of point D are x1 = aver + R cos 36.87o = - 20MPa 50MPa (Cos 36.87o) = - 60MPa x1y1 = R sin 36.87o = 50MPa (Sin 36.87o) = 30MPa In an analogous manner, the stresses represented by point D, which correspond to a plane inclined at an angle = 135o or 2 = 270o y1 = -20MPa + 50MPa (Cos 36.87o) = 20MPa x1y1 = -30MPa And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is -50MPa+10MPa = -60MPa +20MPa

Principal Stresses They are represented by points P1 and P2 on Mohrs circle. 1 = - 20MPa + 50MPa = 30MPa 2 = -20MPa 50MPa = - 70MPa The angle ACP1 is 2P1 = 180o + 53.13o = 233.13o or P1 = 116.6o The angle ACP2 is 2P2 = 53.13o or P2 = 26.6o

Maximum Shear Stresses These are represented by point S1 and S2 in Mohrs circle. The angle ACS1 is 2S1 = 90o + 53.13o = 143.13o or = 71.6o . The magnitude of the maximum shear stress is 50MPa and the normal stresses corresponding to point S1 is -20MPa.